Vineeth.

117FP0714

Instruments for Measuring Temperature

1) Liquid-in-glass thermometer - The most common and well-known
thermometer is the liquid-in-glass thermometer. As the temperature
rises, the liquid expands, moving up the tube. The scale is calibrated to
read temperature directly. Usually, mercury or some kind of alcohol is
used for the liquid.
2) Bimetallic strip thermometer - Two dissimilar metals are bonded
together into what is called a bimetallic strip as shown below. Suppose
metal A has a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion than does metal
B. As temperature increases, metal B expands more than does metal A,
causing the bimetallic strip to curl upwards as shown below. One
common application of bimetallic strips is in air-conditioning
thermostats, where a bimetallic strip is used as the arm of a switch
between electrical contacts. As the room temperature changes, the
bimetallic strip bends as discussed above. When the bimetalic strip
bends far enough, it makes contact with electrical leads which turn the
heat or air conditioning on or off. Another common application is for use
as oven thermometers or wood burner thermometers. These
thermometers consist of a bimetallic strip wound up in a spiral, attached
to a dial which is calibrated into a temperature scale.
3) Sealed Bellows - The sealed bellows type is filled with a gas, vapor or
liquid, which responds to change in temperature by variation in volume
and pressure causing expansion or contraction.
4) Bulb and Capillary Sensor - Bulb and capillary elements are used where
temperatures are to be measured in ducts, pipes, tanks or similar
locations remote from the controller. The bulb is filled with liquid, gas or
refrigerant depending on the temperature range required. Expansion of
the fluid in the heated bulb exerts a pressure which is transmitted by the
capillary to the diaphragm and there translated into movement.
Working Principles – These elements nearly always require insulated
leads attached. At temperature below about 250° PVC, silicon rubber or
PTFF insulators are used. Above this, glass fiber or ceramic are used. The
measuring point and usually most of the leads, require a housing or
protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy which is chemically inert
to the process being monitored. Selecting and designing protection
 sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath
must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convention
attachment points. Sensors assemblies can be categorized into two
groups by how they are installed or interface with the process

Instruments for Measuring Pressure

1. Fluid Head—Manometers. - The height of a column of liquid, or the difference between
the heights of two liquid columns, is used to measure pressure head in devices called U-tube
manometers. If a fluid is installed in an open U-shaped tube, the fluid level in each side will
be the same. When pressure is applied to one side, that level will go down and the level on
the other side will rise until the difference between the heights is equal to the pressure head.
The height difference is proportional to the pressure and to the density of the fluid. The U-
tube manometer is a primary standard for pressure measurement.Although many
manometers are simply a piece of glass tubing formed into a U shape with a reference scale
for measuring heights, there are many variations in terms of size, shape, and material. If the
left side is connected to the measurement point, and the right is left open to atmosphere, the
manometer will indicate gauge pressure, positive or negative (vacuum). Differential pressure
can bemeasured by connecting each of the legs to one of the measurement points.
Absolute pressure can be measured by evacuating the reference side. A mercury
barometer is such an absolute pressure measuring manometer indicating
atmospheric pressure.

In some versions, the two legs of the U are of different diameters. Some types
incorporate a large-diameter "well" on one side. In others, one tube is inclined in
order to provide better resolution of the reading. But they all operate on the same
principle. Because of the many constraints on geometry of installation and
observation, and their limited range, manometers are not practical or effective for
most pressure measurements.

2. Force-Summing Devices. -  Mechanical pressure gauges and electromechanical

pressure sensors incorporate an elastic element called a force-summing device that
changes shape when pressure is applied to it.

The shape change is then converted to a displacement. Of the wide variety of force-
summing devices, the most common are Bourdon tubes and diaphragms. Bourdon
tubes provide fairly large displacement motion that is useful in mechanical pressure
gauges; the lesser motion of diaphragms is better in electromechanical sensors. The
motion of the force-summing device can be linked to a linear variable differential
transformer, which acts as the electromechanical transduction element. Alternatively,
it can be linked, usually through a motion amplifying mechanism, to the wiper of a
potentiomenter. To reduce acceleration error, a balancing mass may be provided.

3. Mechanical Pressure Gauges -  In mechanical gauges, the motion generated by

the force-summing device is converted by mechanical linkage into dial or pointer
movement. The better gauges provide adjustments for zero, span, linearity, and
(sometimes) temperature compensation for mechanical calibration. High-accuracy
mechanical gauges take advantage of special materials, balanced movements,
compensation techniques, mirror scales, knife-edge pointers, and expanded scales
to improve the precision and accuracy of readings. The most accurate mechanical
gauges, test gauges, are used as transfer standards for pressure calibration, but for
applications requiring remote sensing, monitoring, or recording they are impractical.
Their mechanical linkages also limit their frequency response for dynamic pressure
measurements.

4. Electromechanical Pressure Sensors -  Electromechanical pressure sensors, or

pressure transducers, convert motion generated by a force-summing device into an
electrical signal. These sensors are much more useful and adaptable than
mechanical gauges, especially when applied in data acquisition and control systems.
In well-designed transducers, the electrical output is directly proportional to the
applied pressure over a wide pressure range. For rapidly changing—dynamic—
pressure measurement, frequency characteristics of the transducer are an important
consideration.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors are available with a variety of reference pressure options: gauge
(psig), absolute (psia), differential (psid), and sealed (psis). All use a force-summing
device to convert the pressure to a displacement, but that displacement is then
converted to an electrical output by any of several transduction methods. The most
common are strain gauges, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.

Strain Gauge Transducers. Strain gauge transducers are based on metal or silicon

semiconductor strain gauges. The gauges can be discrete units attached to the
surface of the strained element or unbonded gauges. The gauge material can be
sputtered onto a diaphragm or diffused into a silicon diaphragm structure. The most
common force-summing device for strain gauge transducers is the diaphragm, which
may be flat or sculptured. Strain gauges are also used on Bourdon tubes and
bellows assemblies.

Strain gauges are made of materials that exhibit significant resistance change when
strained. This change is the sum of three effects. First, when the length of a
conductor is changed, it undergoes a resistance change approximately proportional
to change in length. Second, in accordance with the Poisson effect a change in the
length of a conductor causes a change in its cross-sectional area and a resistance
change that is approximately proportional to change in area. Third, the piezoresistive
effect, a characteristic of the material, is a change in the bulk resistivity of a material
when it is strained. All strain gauge materials exhibit these three properties, but the
piezoresistive effect varies widely for different materials.

Metal strain gauges are networks of wire or patterns of thin metal foil fabricated onto
or into a backing material and covered with a protective film

Their design permits the use of a large active length (= large R) in a small area. They
are made of specially formulated alloys with relatively large piezoresistive effects.
Silicon strain gauges are doped to resistivity levels that produce the optimum
combination of piezoresistive and thermoresistive effects. Strain gauge materials are
characterized by their strain sensitivity, but when fabricated into strain gauges they
are characterized by their "gauge factor," defined as relative resistance change
divided by strainBonded Strain Gauges. Discrete metal or silicon strain gauges are
usually bonded (glued) to the surface where strain is to be measured, and provide an
output proportional to the average strain in their active area (see Figure 6). The
typical gauge factor is around 2; a strain of 1 µin./in. would produce a resistance
change of 2 µ / . Unstrained resistance ranges from 120   to several hundred
ohms. Because a significant length of wire or foil is necessary to provide high
unstrained resistance, metal strain gauges cannot be made extremely small.

Unbonded Strain Gauges. Unbonded strain gauge transducers use relatively long

strands of strain gauge wire stretched around posts attached to a linkage
mechanism. The linkage is designed such that when pressure increases, half of the
wire is farther stretched and the other half is less so. The primary advantage of
unbonded over bonded is a higher gauge factor, on the order of 3. Because no
adhesives are required, they can also be designed and fabricated for use at higher
temperatures. Unbonded strain gauge transducers tend to be large.

Sputtered Strain Gauges. Strain gauge material may be sputtered onto a

nonconductive diaphragm to create the strain gauges (see Figure 8). Location and
orientation are controlled by masking, and the molecular bond created by the
sputtering process eliminates any problems with adhesive bonding. Gauge factors
are similar to those of unbonded gauges. Surface preparation and other process
controls are quite critical. The fabrication process offers some of the advantages of a
silicon diaphragm, such as good linearity and high natural frequency, as well as the
good temperature characteristics of metal gauges.

Semiconductor Strain Gauges. These devices are made of semiconducting silicon.

Their gauge factor is dependent on the doping level—more lightly doped, higher
resistivity material has a higher gauge factor. However, it also has greater thermal
sensitivity, causing both resistance and gauge factor to change significantly with
temperature. Most silicon gauges are doped to provide a gauge factor of 100?200,
which gives acceptable temperature characteristics. Discrete silicon strain gauges
are used just as are metal gauges, glued to the strained surface in the desired
orientation to provide maximum sensitivity for pressure measurement. In addition to
their higher gauge factor (which provides higher sensitivity), they are also smaller,
allowing more miniaturization

Bonded Discrete Silicon Strain Gauges. Early silicon strain gauge transducers

used discrete silicon strain gauges bonded with adhesives to the surface of a
strained element. These devices were similar to bonded metal strain gauges, except
that the silicon types provided much higher output and had greater temperature
errors. Furthermore, the silicon gauges were smaller than metal gauges, so the
sensors could be made smaller.

Diffused Diaphragm Sensors.  Discrete strain gauges, metal or or silicon, require

tedious micro assembly for installation, but diffused diaphragm sensors (see Figure
9) can be fabricated using semiconductor masking and processing techniques. This
approach provides precision location and orientation of the gauges for optimum
linearity and sensitivity, allows extreme miniaturization, and reduces assembly costs.
It also removes the variability of the adhesive and its application
Sculptured-Diaphragm Sensors. Early diffused silicon diaphragm pressure
transducers used a simple, flat silicon diaphragm of uniform thickness. Silicon
microfabrication techniques (MEMS) allow great flexibility in the mechanical design
of the diaphragm. Anisotropic etching provides precise control of etching directions in
the silicon crystal. Extremely small yet complex shapes can be fabricated, permitting
the diaphragms to be shaped for optimum combinations of linearity, sensitivity, and
frequency response characteristics.

Variable Capacitance Transducers. When one plate of a capacitor is displaced

relative to the other, the capacitance between the two plates changes. If one of the
plates is the diaphragm of a pressure sensor, the capacitance can be correlated to
the pressure applied to it (see Figure 10). This change of capacitance is either used
to vary the frequency of an oscillator or is detected by a bridge circuit. If the dielectric
material is maintained constant, this mechanism provides a very repeatable
transducer. The primary advantages are low hysteresis; good linearity, stability, and
repeatability; static pressure measurement capability; and a quasi-digital output.
However, complicated electronics are required.

Piezoelectric Transducers. Piezoelectric (PE) pressure transducers use stacks of

piezoelectric crystal or ceramic elements to convert the motion of the force-summing
device to an electrical output. Quartz, tourmaline, and several other naturally
occurring crystals generate an electrical charge when strained. Specially formulated
ceramics can be artificially polarized to be piezoelectric, and they have higher
sensitivities than natural crystals. Unlike strain gauge transducers, PE devices
require no external excitation. Because their output is very high impedance and their
signal levels low, they require special signal conditioning such as charge amplifiers
and noise-treated coaxial cable.

Some designs of PE transducers (ICP or voltage mode) therefore include an integral

preamplifier within the transducer's case. The output can then be an amplified
(millivolt level) low output impedance signal, greatly reducing cabling problems and
simplifying signal conditioning. The integral amplifier requires external power from a
constant-current supply, using the same two conductors as the signal circuit. The
signal conditioner has a blocking capacitor to block the DC power supply voltage and
to transmit an AC signal.

Because the PE transducers are self-generating, dependent on changes of strain to

generate electrical charge, they are not usable with DC or steady-state conditions.
They have an inherent low-frequency roll off that is dependent on the signal
conditioning's low-frequency time constant.

Their primary advantage is their ruggedness, and, without integral electronics, their
usefulness at high temperatures. If not properly compensated, though, they are
sensitive to shock and vibration and may exhibit large changes of sensitivity with
temperature variations.

5. Other Electromechanical Sensors -  Virtually every technique for converting motion

to an electrical signal—variable reluctance, variable inductance, force balance,
vibrating wires, vibrating columns and tubes, piezoelectric film, and Hall effect—has
been been tried in pressure transducer design. Several varieties of fiber-optic
sensors have also recently become available. These make use of variable
reflectance, phase coherence, and microbend effects to convert the sensed pressure
into light variations that can be excited and caused to transmit signals via optical
fibers. These sensors may be advantageous in environments of high-amplitude
electromagnetic fields or pulses. Some "hybrid" systems use conventional
transducers, then convert the electrical outputs to optical signals for fiber-optic
transmissions.

Scanners. Multichannel scanning pressure measurement systems are sometimes

the best selection when many measurement points are required. Two types are
available: mechanical and electronic. Mechanical scanners use only one sensor and
mechanically route the pressure sequentially from each measurement point to the
sensor. Electronic scanners use many sensors in a common body, and electrically
time-multiplex the signals to data acquisition equipment. In both types, tubing
transmits the pressure from measurement points to one sensor.

Pressure-Scanning Valves. A pressure-scanning valve is a pneumatic switch

capable of sequentially multiplexing a number of pressures to a single transducer.
The most common design is based on a matched pair of lapped surfaces with one
rotating relative to the other. The transducer is typically flush mounted very close to
the valve in order to minimize the volume of gas subject to the changes in pressure.
The valve rotor is driven by a stepper motor, and the valve position is indicated by a
rotary encoder. A periodic recalibration can be incorporated into the system by
supplying accurately known pressures to one or more ports. The maximum scanning
rate is dependent on the accuracy required. If the dwell time at each measurement
position is long enough for the pressure equilibria to be achieved, the accuracy is
that of the transducer. Equilibrium time is a function of the traveling volume and the
magnitude of the pressure change. The typical scanning rate for aerodynamic or jet
engine pressure measurements is 5-10 measurements/s. Multiple scanners can be
time sequenced to provide faster effective scanning rates.

Instruments For Measuring Humidity

1. Psychrometric Method - The oldest method for measuring relative
humidity is the psychrometric method. Psychrometry is commonly
known as the “wet” and “dry” bulb method. A psychrometric sensor
does not directly sense humidity, but rather it senses temperature to
indirectly find relative humidity. The sensing elements can be
thermometers, RTD’s, or thermistors. The first sensing element, the
dry bulb, measures ambient temperature. The second sensing
element, the wet bulb, is enclosed in a wick saturated with distilled
water. Air forced across the wet bulb creates evaporation, which
cools it below ambient temperature. The amount of evaporation
(cooling) is dependent on the vapor pressure of the air. Using the wet
and dry bulb temperatures, the relative humidity can be looked up on
a psychrometric chart. Looking up the %RH on a chart for every
measurement is time-consuming and cumbersome. With today’s
 technology, psychrometric charts and dew point equations can be
stored in a microprocessor, thus making this a direct sensing method
for RH and dew point. The sling psychrometer dates back to the late
19th century. It used mercury thermometers for temperature
measurement, and swinging the bulb around created air movement
across the wet bulb. Nowadays, the units have built in fans to
ventilate the wet bulb. A psychrometric sensor has good precision
with %RH resolutions of 0.1%, humidity ranges from 10 – 100% at
temperatures from 32oF to 140oF, and accuracy’s of + 2%. The
drawbacks of a psychrometric sensor are a slow response time and
they are substantially more expensive.

2. Dew Point Method - Another method for measuring humidity is using

a dew point sensor. There are two common types of dew point
sensors, the cooled condensation surface type, or a solution of
saturated lithium chloride. The solution of saturated lithium chloride
does not directly sense relative humidity. Saturating a wick with
resistive electrodes in the solution and an excitation current through
the wick creates joule heating. The heating causes some of the
solution to evaporate, which reduces the resistance and slows
heating. Eventually equilibrium is reached and the temperature of the
solution can then be related to the dew point. The cooled
condensation surface type detects very accurately the temperature at
which condensation begins. The most common device used is a
mirror to detect for condensation. The system is set up so an LED
(light emitting diode) reflects off the mirror at an angle of about 45
degrees. A photo-transistor detects the reflected light. Then, the
temperature of the mirror is electronically controlled. The system
works by cooling the mirror’s surface below the ambient temperature
until condensation forms. The condensation on the surface of the
mirror causes the LED’s light to scatter. The scattered light creates a
sudden drop in the output of the photo-transistor. At this point, the
surface temperature of the mirror is read using a temperature sensor
such as an RTD or thermistor. This temperature is the dew point.
With a feedback loop, the cooling or heating of the mirror
continuously tracks the dew point. There are a few different designs
of condensation surfaces that are also used. The chilled mirror
method is the most stable and accurate method to determine relative
humidity. It is crucial to keep the mirror clean and ensure the
temperature sensor and mirror is of high quality. This method has the
best humidity range (0-100%RH) and can be used for numerous
gases at many pressures. These instruments are bulky and very
expensive.
 3. Hygrometric Method - The hygrometric method of relative humidity
sensing is the most common. The instruments are generally
compact, reliable, and inexpensive. Hygrometric humidity sensors
provide an output that is directly indicative of humidity. The first
humidity sensing elements were mechanical in nature. Physical
dimensions of various materials will change with the adsorption1 of
water. Some examples of these are hair, animal membrane, and
some plastics. To build a sensor from these materials the element is
kept in tension with a spring. A strain gage monitors the displacement
caused by a change in the moisture content of the air. The output of
the strain gage is directly proportional to the relative humidity. A
second method of hygrometry is coating an oscillating crystal (quartz)
with a hygroscopic coating. When the coating adsorbs water the
mass changes which then changes the crystal’s oscillating frequency.
A more obscure method is an electrolytic hygrometer. This method is
complicated and not used frequently enough to warrant explanation.

Recent strides in thin film and micromachining technology make it possible

to produce high quality resistive and capacitive hygrometric sensors. These
sensors have become more accurate, compact, and stable in recent years
making them popular in industry. The materials used to produce these
sensing elements have the ability to change their electrical characteristics
with the adsorption of water. The materials have changed over the years
from electrolytic salts, to ceramics, to the recently popular polymers. The
new designs in sensing material have overcome many problems. The first
major problem with the sensors was narrow bandwidths. Each individual
sensor was only reliable over a span of 10 to 20% relative humidity.
Numerous manufactured sensors with specific spans cover the entire %RH
span. Then there was a problem when adsorbed water left impurities
behind on the surface. These impurities would change the electrical
characteristics of the sensing materials. The polymers used now have
overcome these early problems.

A capacitive sensor is built like a parallel-plate capacitor. The sensing

element serves as the dielectric. As the moisture in the air changes the
water vapor, the sensing polymer changes with adsorption, resulting in a
dielectric constant change. The dielectric constant is directly proportional to
the capacitance, which is inversely proportional to the %RH. New
techniques in producing thin films have made these, accurate, stable, and
easy to manufacture large quantities. The resistive types of hygrometers
are the sensors ACI uses in their products. The sensors consist of placing
a thin film of sensing polymer over a set of comb electrodes. Figure 1 is a
representation of the physical parts of the humidity sensor. The sensor
adsorbs water into the humidity sensing material, which changes the
polymers resistance. Other materials adsorb the water, which changes just
the surface resistivity. Because the water is absorbed the bulk resistance of
the polymer changes making the sensor resistant to surface contamination.
The sensor requires an AC excitation current. So there is no chance
electrolysis or separation of the humidity-sensing polymer can occur. Thin
film technology makes these sensors accurate, stable, and easy to
manufacture. The choice of material assures they have fast response times
with little hysteresis. Another attraction is their small size and low cost.