INFORMATION PAPER IP 16/11

UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY

An introduction to low-impact building materials
Andy Sutton and Daniel Black, BRE
Pete Walker, University of Bath
This Information Paper provides a broad view of
the benefits and limitations of non-loadbearing
unfired clay brick or block for those considering
its use in construction projects.
Compared with many alternative products,
unfired clay masonry is a low-impact building
material, and has one of the longest histories of
any building material. Its basic properties make
it a relatively robust, fire-resistant material, with
the benefits of thermal mass and the capacity
to moderate internal humidity levels. Unless
stabilised, unfired clay masonry is not resistant
to prolonged water exposure and should normally
be protected from rain.
This is one in a series of five Information
Papers and parallel case studies on low-impact
building materials. The others cover hemp lime, Figure 1: Internal rendered partition walls using unfired clay
straw bale, cross-laminated timber and natural block at Wales Institute for Sustainable Education (WISE),
fibre insulation. Centre for Alternative Technology (CAT), Machynlleth

There are many regional variations of unfired clay

Unfired clay masonry construction can be used for (earth) building throughout Great Britain and around the
both loadbearing and non-loadbearing walls. In the UK, world that reflect available materials, climate and culture.
traditional unfired clay block (‘clay lump’) buildings are Rammed earth is a technique in which solid walls are
commonplace in some areas of East Anglia. The modern formed by compacting soil in layers within temporary
use of unfired clay (green) bricks offers opportunities for formwork. Cob, a vernacular form of construction
much thinner clay block wall construction (approximately relatively common in southwest England, is formed from
105 mm) than traditional practice (150–300 mm). a mixture of clay, straw and aggregate built up in ‘lifts’ of
However, such thin walls of unfired clay are best suited 500 mm at a time. Unfired clay can also be utilised as
to non-loadbearing partition walls within a weatherproof an internal render and/or plaster finish, where it brings
building envelope. Unfired clay blocks are traditionally its hygroscopic benefits to the internal environment
bonded with clay- or lime-based mortar. Recent work to moderate humidity. This in turn can help to reduce
has shown, however, that such traditional mortars are numbers of house-dust mites and associated allergies.
not necessarily suitable for thinner walls, and sodium While it is theoretically possible to form your own
silicate or lignosulfonate-stabilised clay-based mortars blocks in the manner of traditional adobe construction,
will provide higher bond strengths. The construction of unfired clay bricks or blocks are more usually mass
unfired clay brick or block walling can be undertaken by produced. The manufacturing process is largely the same
bricklayers with little or no retraining (Figure 2). as that for fired bricks, extracting appropriate clays from
 2 UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY – IP 16/11

the earth and forming the brick or block shape with

moulds or, more commonly, by extrusion (Figure 3). Some
mainstream brick manufacturers produce unfired clay
(green) bricks, and it is their use of fired brick-extrusion
machines that causes the typical oversizing of unfired clay
bricks: the firing process for standard bricks results in a
slight shrinkage not present in unfired versions. Unfired
clay blocks can also be formed by pressing (compaction).
The moisture content for raw material going into this
machine is much less than for extruded blocks and is
typically kept at around 10–13%.
Once moulded, unfired bricks are left to dry
in controlled conditions, rather than fired, which
Figure 2: Unfired clay bricks can easily be laid by bricklayers
significantly reduces the overall embodied energy of the
with little or no further training
resultant brick. When delivered to site, unfired clay is not
(Courtesy of Ecoterre)
as resistant to damage as fired clay, hence care should be
taken with site storage, most importantly ensuring bricks
are kept dry, including protection from rising moisture
from the ground or very high humidity levels (Figure 4).
Prior to site work, unfired clay does require an
awareness of its unique properties during the detailed
design stage (Figure 5). Most notably, protection from high
humidity and prolonged wetness must be considered.
Usually, unfired clay should be used protected from
excess moisture and sited above the damp-proof course/
damp-proof membrane level. If protected from direct
wetting, unfired clay materials can be used in internal
wet areas such as bathrooms and kitchens, where their
additional vapour permeability is of benefit. They can be
used in exterior walls when protected from weathering
(Figure 6). It is advisable to bed unfired clay bricks or Figure 3: Extrusion of clay bricks using conventional brick-
blocks on plinths formed from a few courses of fired brick making machinery
(or other similar water-resistant material) to avoid damage (Courtesy of University of Bath)
in case of accidental flooding. In other respects, unfired
clay can be detailed comparably to aircrete blockwork.
Unfired clay masonry has a compressive strength
similar to aircrete blockwork, around 2–3 N/mm2,
although this can vary more widely depending on the clay
content and method of block manufacture; individual
product details should be checked. Unfired clay blocks
also provide sufficient strength for normal-duty fixings,
such as plumbing, electrics and shelves. As with aircrete,
it is possible to use oversized self-tapping screws without
wall plugs, aiding installation times. It is advisable to
use casing for any plumbing or electrics going through
an unfired clay brick wall. The material is generally also
workable on site to the same extent as aircrete, using
mechanical hand tools or manual (brick) saws. Due Figure 4: Careful storage of unfired clay bricks is important
to the relatively soft nature of unfired clay bricks, a (Courtesy of University of Bath)
simple skutch tool can be used to score the brick before
breaking, to make a custom fit. Off-cuts from construction when using clay mortars, or by the use of specialist,
can be immersed in water on site, reverting to clay preformulated sodium silicate mortars (sodium silicate,
suitable for use in landscaping or (with additives) as clay clay and sand). These can deliver bond strengths broadly
mortar, thereby minimising waste considerably. comparable with traditional masonry construction and
Unfired clay notably differs from aircrete in its stability. hence allow wall thicknesses of 100 mm, much thinner
This is partly due to the weaker bonding capacity of than traditional uses of earth building.
both the clay in the bricks and the clay or lime mortars A wide variety of methods are used, both traditionally
(over their cement equivalents). Consideration should be and in contemporary builds, to improve the performance
given by the designer and structural engineer to the head of unfired clay (earth) building materials. The simplest
restraint of the wall, together with its overall slenderness. is compaction (densification), which removes air voids
Typically, this issue can be resolved with thicker walls and improves strength and durability. Traditionally, the
 3 UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY – IP 16/11

Box 1: Why specify unfired clay brick and block? Unfired clay brick or block can be left exposed
Advantages internally in appropriate environments, where the
• Familiar form of construction aesthetic impression is similar to standard brickwork
• Hygroscopic environmental regulation (Figure 7). More commonly, it will be rendered and
painted. In this case, vapour-permeable renders or
• Low-carbon form of masonry
plasters, such as lime or clay, should be used to allow
• Low waste and ease of reuse/recycling
the migration of moisture and prevent build-up within
• Thermal mass
the unfired clay. Both lime and clay finishes retain the
• Vapour-permeable wall construction hygroscopic performance of the unfired clay and can
Limitations moderate the humidity of the internal environment.
• Careful detailing needed for exposed areas Importantly, the vapour-permeable performance of the
• Low strength render must be matched by any paint or wall covering
• Natural soil units are prone to water deterioration used; this must be highlighted in the building manual and
• Requires time and shelter during drying on site before building owners appropriately advised. Vapour-permeable
finishes can be applied paints, which include mineral paints, are now widely
• Specialist mortars can be required for thin walls
available and this should not overly restrict end users.
Some of these paints, if exposed to a considerable transfer
• Suitability of rendered external finishes limits
application
of moisture, such as from a leaking roof, may facilitate
mould growth and surface blistering. However, treatment
• Use limited to above damp-proof course or equivalent
level
should focus on fixing the leak rather than constraining
the transfer of vapour.
• Very low U-values will require thicker walls than some
competing materials

use of straw reduces shrinkage cracking, and the use of FURTHER READING AND SOURCES OF
fibres can also reduce weight and improve both thermal INFORMATION*
resistance and fixing capacity. Since the early twentieth BRE and University of Bath. Low-impact materials: case studies.
century, cement has commonly been used as a soil Unfired clay brick: the WISE building. Available at:
stabiliser in civil works as well as earth building, most www.bre.co.uk/page.jsp?id=2669.
notably in compressed earth blocks and rammed earth Devon Earth Building Association (DEBA). Further reading list.
in Australia. Cement generally improves strength and Available at: www.devonearthbuilding.com/reading_list.htm.
dramatically improves water resilience, but at the cost East Anglian Regional Telluric Houses Association (EARTHA).
of using a high-energy binder. Some earth builders feel Downloads and technical papers. Wymondham, EARTHA, 2011.
that cement-stabilised clay should be regarded as ‘poor Available at: www.eartha.org.uk/downloads.html.
concrete’, rather than earth. Historically, lime has also Jaquin P. How mud bricks work. Proceedings of the EWB-UK
been used, and is particularly successful in soils with a National Research Conference 2010 (‘From small steps to giant
higher clay content. leaps ... putting research into practice’), Cambridge, 19 February
On site, the use of unfired clay block is comparable 2010. Available at: www.hedon.info/docs/EWB_HABITAT_Paul_
with fired block construction; it is usually laid with a Jaquin_How_Mud_Bricks_Work.pdf.
mortar to provide an even distribution of load from each Jaquin P. Humidity regulation in earth buildings. London, Ramboll
brick to those beneath. Traditionally a clay or lime mortar Technical Forum, 2009. Available at: www.historicrammedearth.
was used. However, for thin (105 mm) green brick walls, co.uk/Humidity%20regualation%20in%20earth%20buildings.pdf.
clay mortars with stabilisers are likely to be required to Minke G. Building with earth: design and technology of a
provide sufficient bond strength. Cement-based mortars sustainable architecture. Basel, Birkhäuser, 2006.
are generally not recommended as they have poor vapour Morton T. Earth masonry: design and construction guidelines.
permeability and, while they have high strength, they EP 80. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2008.
form a poor bond to clay blocks. Careful consideration is Trotman P. Earth, clay and chalk walls: inspection and repair
therefore needed on mortar type (and bond performance) methods. BRE GR 35. Bracknell, IHS BRE Press, 2006.
depending on wall thickness; advice should be sought Weismann A and Bryce K. Building with cob: a step-by-step guide.
from brick manufacturers and specialist suppliers. Bricks Totnes, Green Books, 2006.
should be lightly wetted on the surface to be mortared Weismann A and Bryce K. Using natural finishes: lime and clay
(whichever mortar is used) in order to prevent rapid based plasters, renders and paints. Totnes, Green Books, 2008.
dewatering of the mortar, although overwetting the bricks Woolley T, Kimmins S, Harrison P and Harrison R. The green
is to be avoided. Site working speeds should be the same building handbook. London, E & FN Spon, 1997.
as for fired bricks after an initial familiarisation period for
bricklayers. Once laid, unfired clay and any finishes will
require drying time to reach full strength and will have
some shrinkage during this period. This drying need not
preclude occupation in most instances, although it is best
practice not to apply top-coat internal finishes until the * All URLs accessed October 2011. The publisher accepts no
responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs referred to in this
mortar joints from the wall have largely dried out. publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 4 UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY – IP 16/11

Above 2.4 m the wall A head restraint to the

slenderness and stability structural engineer’s design
should be reviewed should be used on a non-
loadbearing wall
Typically a lime or clay mortar
would be used to complement
the natural properties of the
clay block, particularly vapour
permeability (breathability),
though a stabiliser may be
specified on thinner walls
(4–8% depending on the clay).
Expert advice should be sought
from a structural engineer to
determine a mortar type and
bond performance appropriate
to the wall thickness, height
and load.

Fired brick (or other water-

durable material) is used for
the base by way of a plinth
and to raise the non-water-
durable brick up away from
any risk of flooding

Figure 5: Section detailing of an example unfired masonry construction (similar to solid masonry construction)

Figure 6: Unfired clay block construction should be used in Figure 7: Unfired clay brick walling at Neal’s Yard, Dorset
protected situations, including internal leaves of external (Courtesy of Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios)
walls – this wall is protected by wood fibre insulation and
external lime render
(Courtesy of University of Bath)

Box 2: Typical properties of unfired clay brick

As a natural product, performance can vary slightly, but
commercially supplied unfired clay block systems tend
to achieve:
• dry density: 1700–2200 kg/m3
• compressive strength (depends on moisture content):
1–4 N/mm2
• thermal conductivity (depends on density):
0.5–1.0 W/mK
5 UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY – IP 16/11

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 6 UNFIRED CLAY MASONRY – IP 16/11

LOW-IMPACT BUILDING MATERIALS SERIES

• Hemp lime (IP 14/11)
• Straw bale (IP 15/11)
• Unfired clay masonry (IP 16/11)
• Cross-laminated timber (IP 17/11)
• Natural fibre insulation (IP 18/11)
This series of Information Papers provides a comprehensive yet accessible
introduction to various low-impact building materials. The information
has been sourced from extensive research by the University of Bath and
the expertise of industry professionals with commercial experience of the
materials’ application. Detailed sections and construction sequences are
provided where necessary alongside objective descriptions of the advantages,
limitations and typical properties of the various materials. To complement
these Information Papers, a series of five case studies has also been produced
to capture the experience of those that have used the materials in high-profile
projects.
The five titles in the series are available, individually or as a set (AP 289), from:
brepress@ihs.com, +44 (0)1344 328038, www.brebookshop.com.
The case studies can be viewed online at www.bre.co.uk/page.jsp?id=2669.

Acknowledgements

The preparation and publication of this Information Paper

was funded by BRE Trust.

The authors also wish to thank Adam Weismann

(Clayworks) and Pat Borer (CAT) for their expert input in
the production of this Information Paper.

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