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U.S. D E PA R TM EN T OF HEAL TH AN D HUMAN SE RVI CE S
P u b lic H ealth Service
C en ters fo r Disease C o n tro l
N ation al In stitu te fo r O ccu p a tio n a l S a fe ty and H ealth
Com prehensive S afety

Recom m endations for the
Precast Concrete
Products Industry
COMPREHENSIVE SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
Contract No. 210-80-0040
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Division of Safety Research
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
June 1984
For sale by the Superintendent of D o c u m e n t s , U.S. G o v e r n m e n t

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
DISCLAIMER
Mention of company name or product does not constitute endorsement

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
D H H S (NIOSH) Publication No. 84-103

PREFACE
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-596), states
that the purpose of Congress expressed in the Act is "to assure so far as
possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful
working conditions and to preserve our human resources...by," among other
things, "providing for research in the field of occupational safety and
health...and by developing innovative methods, techniques, and approaches
for dealing with occupational safety and health problems." Later in the
Act, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is
charged with carrying out this policy. One method by which NIOSH responds
to this charge is to publish Technical Guidelines.
Technical Guidelines present the results of comprehensive systematic

analyses of occupational hazards, and suggestions for preventing injury and
disease among workers. They are intended to supplement existing Federal
safety and health standards and may provide background useful in formulating
new standards for development. In the interest of wide dissemination of
this information, NIOSH distributes Technical Guidelines to other
appropriate governmental agencies, organized labor, industry, and public
interest groups. We welcome suggestions concerning the content, style, and
distribution.
This document provides guidance for protecting workers in the precast

concrete products industry. It was prepared by the staff of the Division of
Safety Research in conjunction with the Division of Standards Development
and Technology Transfer, NIOSH. I am pleased to acknowledge the many
contributions made by reviewers selected by the Prestressed Concrete
Institute (PCI), the American Concrete Pipe Association (ACPA), and the
National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA); other reviewers and
consultants; representatives of other Federal agencies; and the staff of the
Institute. However, responsibility for the conclusions and recommendations
belongs solely to the Institute. All comments by reviewers, whether or not
incorporated into the final version, are being sent with this document to
the Occupational Safety and Health ^Administration (OSHA^ for consideration
in standard setting.
Donald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Dond.)

ssistant Surgeon General
Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
Centers for Disease Control
ABSTRACT
Concerned by reports that the precast concrete products industry (SIC 3272)
has an injury incidence rate which is consistently at least twice that of
the national average, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) began developing this document with the intent of providing
recommendations aimed at reducing worker exposure to hazards.
The document characterizes the industry and describes the operations, tasks
and processes required to manufacture precast concrete products. The
magnitude of the occupational safety problem in the precast concrete
products industry is defined through presentation of injury and illness
incidence rates. In support of the document's systematic approach to the
identification of industry hazards, a detailed analysis of 1,319 accident
case histories was performed. This analysis identifies the tasks, tools,
and equipment that are the most hazardous to the worker.
For example, materials handling tasks, both manual and mechanical, accounted
for 28.0% of the total injuries studied. Tasks associated with welding,
burning and cutting accounted for 4.6% of the total injuries. Some of the
specific tools found to be particularly hazardous to precast concrete
workers include: hoists and cranes, which accounted for 4.4% of the total
injuries and 40% of the fatalities; unpowered handtools, which accounted for
5.7% of the total injuries; and powered handtools, which accounted for 5.8%
of total injuries.
The determination of how workers are injured during precasting operations

led to the formulation of comprehensive safety recommendations. The recom
mended engineering controls and/or operational safe work practices offered
are applicable to product manufacture and delivery to a construction site
only, and do not address erection or installation procedures.
To further enhance the document's usability for small to middle-sized pre

casting plants, a chapter addressing safety management principles is
presented.
REVIEW CONSULTANTS
Theodore W. Coons
President
Spillman Company
1701 Moler Road
Columbus, Ohio 43207
Steve Cooper
Consultant
Institute of the Iron Working Industry
1750 New York Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006
George Krepel
Manager, Production Programs
Prestressed Concrete Institute
201 North Wells Street
Chicago, Illinois 60606
James H. Pals
Executive Director
Western Institute
3100 South Sheridan
Denver, Colorado 80227
Rodney Smith
President
Smith Cattleguard Company
Route 28
Midland, Virginia 22728
Paul Zia, Ph.D., P.E.

Consulting Structural Engineer
2227 Wheeler Road
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
v
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE...................................................... iii
ABSTRACT.................................................... iv
REVIEW CONSULTANTS ...................... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................ ix
I. Introduction............................ .................... 1
A. Historical Background .............. 1
B. S c o p e .................................................. 1
II. Description of the Precast Concrete Products
Industry.................................................... 3
A. Plant Census and Worker Population .. ................... 3
B. Process and Task Descriptions .................. 5
III. Identification of the Safety Hazards and
Definition of the P r o b l e m s ................................ 25
A. Injury and Illness Incidence Rates ...................... 25
B. Costs of I n j u r i e s ...................................... 27
C. Identification of the Hazards .................. 28
D. New Employee Injury Rates .............. 55
E. Summary of the Prob l e m .................................. 55
IV. Recommendations for Safe Work Practices
for the Precast Concrete Products Industry ................ 57
A. General Safety Recommendations ........ 57
B. Safe Work Practices for Precasting Processes............ 74
C. Safety Recommendations for Accident
Causal Factor P a t t e r n s .............. 87
V. Safety M a n a g e m e n t ........................ 93
A. Pre-Assessment of Present Program . . . ................. 93
B. Basic Elements of a Safety Program . .................. 94
C. Post-Assessment of Program ............ 105
VI. Recommendations for Research Needs ........ 107
REFERENCES.................................................. 109
APPENDIX A. EXAMPLES OF MANUFACTURED CONCRETE PRODUCTS
WITHIN SIC 3272 ................................ 113
APPENDIX B. REVIEW OF STATE, FEDERAL, AND FOREIGN SAFETY
STANDARDS AND TRADE ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES . . . 117
APPENDIX C. SAMPLE SAFETY AUDIT ............................ 125
APPENDIX D. EXAMPLES OF SAFETY PROGRAM ASSESSMENT FORMS . . . 127
GLOSSARY.................................................... 145
vii
FIGURES
II-l. Prestressed and Reinforced Beam F o r m ....................... 10

II-2. A "Single Tee" Slab with the Strands Held Down
at the Midpoint to "Harp" the Pretensioned Steel ........ 11
II-3. Concrete Batching, Mixing, Discharge, and Transport System . 13
II-4. Vertical Pipe C a s t i n g .................................... 16
II-5. Four Mechanical Methods of Casting Concrete Pipe .......... 17
II-6. Semiautomatic Vertical Packerhead Pipe Casting System . . . 18
II-7. Horizontal Pipe Spin Cast i n g .............................. 19
IV-1. Example of Main Shield Bed End P r o t e c t i o n ................ 79
IV-2. Example of Secondary Barrier Protection .................. 80
V-l. Example of a Plant Safety and Health Policy .............. 96
V-2. Example of a Plant Safety Policy Statement .............. 97
V-3. Accident Investigation Report Form ........................ 104
TABLES
II-l. Number of Plants and Employees Producing

Precast Concrete Products, 1980 (SIC 3272) 4
II-2. Summary of Plant Censuses (SIC 3272) ....................... 4
II-3. Trade Association Estimates of Number of Plants
and Production Employees, 1980 (SIC 3272) ................ 5
III-l. Occupational Injury and Illness Incidence Rates for the
Precast Concrete Products Industry (SIC 3272) ............ 25
III-2. Occupational Injury and Illness Incidence
Rates for All Durable Goods Manufacturing Industries . . . 26
III-3. Examples of Occupational Injury and Illness Incidence
Rates for Selected Manufacturing Industries, 1980 ........ 27
III-4. Summary of Supplementary Data System
Accident/Injury Profile, 1976-79, for the
Precast Concrete Products Industry ...................... 30
III-5. Summary of Cross-Analysis Tabulation of Workers'
Compensation Data, 1976 - 1979, for the Precast
Concrete Products Industry .............................. 31
III-6. Comparison of SDS Accident/Injury Classification
with the Analysis of Accident Causal Factors for
the Precast Concrete Products Industry .................. 39
IV-1. Recommended Personal Protective Equipment ................ 88
V-l. Employee Training ........................................ 102
B-l. OSHA Standards that Impact on the Manufacture
and Delivery of Precast Concrete Products ................ 122
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mr. Ted A. Pettit and Mr. Ronald L. Stanevich, NIOSH/DSR/Standards and

Consultation Branch, served as Project Officer and Document Manager, respec
tively. Herbert Linn, DSR, served as technical editor. Enviro Control
Division of Dynamac Corporation, Rockville, Maryland developed the basic
information for review and consideration by NIOSH staff under contract No.
210-80-0040.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Historical Background
Various forms of cement or cement-lime have been used since ancient times.
The Romans used the product in ashlar work (stone and brick) and as concrete
in building harbors, piers, canals, and water supply and sewerage systems.
The remains of ancient structures reveal that building materials progressed
from relatively simple applications of natural materials to cast concrete,
one of the earliest substitutes for natural stone. Despite the ravages of
time, weather, and warfare, many ancient concrete structures remain to give
testimony to their durability.
Following the Roman period, the use of cement and concrete had a long period
of dormancy until the emergence of studies by the early British civil
engineers in the late 18th century. During the 19th century, after the
successful development of the Erie Canal under Governor DeWitt Clinton of
New York, engineering projects increased the need for cement and concrete.
New sources and techniques were developed, transportation improved,
industrial growth expanded, and concern for public health emerged.
Transportation requirements created a demand for railways, highways, storm
drainage, and bridges; buildings required structural and architectural
elements; and improvements in public health called for sewerage, water
storage, and water distribution systems.
Technological advances, beginning with reinforced concrete and culminating

in contemporary prestressing methods, have made longer, stronger concrete
members possible. Thus, concrete has grown out of a mere supplemental
relationship with steel into direct competition with it in construction of
varying projects.
The widespread use of standardized precast/prestressed concrete products,

such as architectural panels, pipe, etc., has brought about the prevalence
of fixed, permanent plants for manufacturing concrete products. The
improvement of transportational methods and systems has contributed to the
evolution of the precast concrete plant, in that it has become cost
efficient to mass produce concrete products and transport them to the
various construction sites rather than cast members on-site. Such plants
capably produce job-specific, one-of-a-kind product as well, offering an
alternative to poured-in-place operations, or casting operations adjacent to
actual construction sites.
B. Scope
This document concerns occupational exposure in the manufacturing of precast

*
concrete products (SIC 3272). Examples of products manufactured within SIC

3272 are contained in Appendix A. Contractors engaged in concrete
construction work including on-site precasting of concrete products are
classified in the construction industries and are not considered in this
document. Other industries concerned with manufacture of concrete products
which are excluded from the scope of this document are:
o Concrete Block and Brick (SIC 3271)

o Ready-Mixed Concrete (SIC 3273)
o Lime (SIC 3274)
o Gypsum Products (SIC 3275).
2
CHAPTER II
DESCRIPTION OF THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
In this chapter the precast concrete products industry is described, its

structure is examined, the number of plants and the size of the work force
are defined, and the labor and trade organizations associated with the
industry are identified. An operations approach that follows the production
flow is used to give a description of specific manufacturing techniques or
processes, the tasks performed by workers within each operation, and the
tools and equipment associated with such operations.
Concrete is a building material made by thoroughly mixing cement; sand;

aggregate, such as gravel or crushed stone; and water in desired
proportions. The cementitious material usually is a hydraulic cement that
sets and hardens in water. Initially, the concrete mix is a plastic
material that assumes the shape of the mold into which it is cast. The
mixture is poured into a cavity, an excavation in the ground, or a form
designed for a specific purpose. After hardening, concrete has the
appearance and structure of stone. In fact, it may be thought of as
"moldable stone." When the mixture is deposited in its final position, it
is known as cast-in-place concrete. When a concrete product or element is
cast elsewhere (whether in a plant or on a field site) and then brought to
its final position, it is termed precast concrete.
Precasting is a manufacturing procedure, whereas casting-in-place is a

construction procedure. Being a manufacturing operation, precasting can
have certain advantages:
o Work can be performed at a fixed site with accelerated curing

facilities.
o A single location for batching and mixing concrete can be provided,
o A convenient source of water and other raw materials can be used,
o A location convenient to transportation facilities can be selected,
o Mass production techniques can be employed.
o Opportunities for storing product and working under shelter reduce
the impacts of cyclical demand and weather conditions.
A. Plant Census and Worker Population
The precast concrete products industry is entrepreneurial, highly diversi

fied, and geographically dispersed, with nearly 4,000 disparate plants manu
facturing more than 600 different products. The NIOSH Industrial Profile
data for 1980 (Table II—1) show that 3,930 precast concrete manufacturing
plants employ about 82,049 workers [1]. These figures compare well with
information derived from the 1979 Pennsylvania Industrial Directory [2], and
the U.S. Department of Commerce 1977 Census of Manufacturers [3](Table II-2).
3
TABLE II-l
NUMBER OF PLANTS AND EMPLOYEES PRODUCING
PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS, 1980
(SIC 3272)
Range by Number of Employees
1-7 8-19 20-49 50-99 100-249 250-499 500+ Total
Number of
Plants 2,004 951 610 236 106 17 6 3,930*
% of Plants 51.0 24.2 15.5 6.0 2.7 0.4 0.2 100.0
Number of
Employees 7,548 11,113 17,924 14,910 14,341 5,088 11,125 82,049
% of
Employees 9.2 13.5 21.8 18.2 17.5 6.2 13.6 100.0
*Thirty-three additional plants did not report the number of their employees;
the actual total number of plants, therefore, is 3,963.
Compiled from Summary of Dun & Bradstreet Data in NIOSH Industrial Profile,
1980 [1].
TABLE I1-2
SUMMARY OF PLANT CENSUSES (SIC 3272)
Dept. of Commerce NIOSH Industrial Pa. Industrial

Census of Mfg., 1977 Profile, 1980 Directory, 1979
Total Number
of Plants 3,916 3,963 —
Number of Plants
with 20 or More
Employees 862 975
Number of Plants
in State of Pa. — 163 165
Number of
Employees in
State of Pa. — 2,400 2,553
Compiled from the Summary of Dun & Bradstreet Data in NIOSH Industrial
Profile, 1980 [1], 1979 Pennsylvania Industrial Directory [2], and 1977
Census of Manufacturers [3],
4
Information supplied by trade associations also verifies the plant census
figures in the NIOSH profile. The American Concrete Pipe Association (ACPA)
[4], the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) [5] and the National Precast
Concrete Association (NPCA) [6] estimations of worker population corroborate
the NIOSH profile figures. Further, the trade associations estimate that
the precast concrete industry is comprised of approximately 62,500
production workers. This equates well with the aforementioned NIOSH profile
total population of 82,049 workers, and the Department of Commerce Census
estimation that approximately 77% (or 63,178) of the total worker population
in the industry are production workers. Table II-3 presents these trade
association estimates.
For the purposes of this study, the NIOSH Industrial Profile data was used
since it was the latest compilation of data on the industry.
TABLE I1-3
TRADE ASSOCIATION ESTIMATES OF NUMBER OF
PLANTS AND PRODUCTION EMPLOYEES, 1980
(SIC 3272)
Industry Product Number of Production

Sector Plants Employees
Precast Concrete Pipe* 425 18,000
Architectural and
Structural Products** 400 18,500
Miscellaneous Precast
Concrete Products*** 3,100 26,000
Total 3,925 62,500
*From Duffy J. J. American Concrete Pipe Association [4].

**From Freedman S. Prestressed Concrete Institute [5].
***From Tilford J. E. National Precast Concrete Asso
ciation [6] .
B. Process and Task Descriptions
This section describes the operations, tasks, and equipment required to

manufacture precast concrete products. These descriptions are presented in
organizational groupings that follow the primary production steps necessary
in the precasting process. In many instances, the operations, tasks, and
equipment described under a particular process heading are not unique only
to that specific process; however, it is convenient to present the task
descriptions in the sequence of the production flow. An additional section
on materials handling is presented following the production task
descriptions.
5
1. Forming
Forms or molds used for the casting of precast concrete products us
ually are made of steel or wood. However, they may be constructed of
any material that remains stable during casting and is able to withstand
the abuse of preparation, installation of steel reinforcement, oiling,
curing, stripping, and reuse. Wood is commonly used for the
construction of forms expected to have a limited use; that is, forms
built for the casting of fairly unique concrete products. Concrete is
sometimes used as a form because it can be cast into intricate shapes.
With a dense, smooth surface finish and the application of form release
agents, concrete is an excellent form material for products requiring
smooth or curvilinear surfaces. Styrofoam, fiber glass, rubber matting,
and various paperboards are also occasionally used to make forms or form
liners for special surface effects. Because many of the products
manufactured in the industry are produced repetitively, steel forms are
common. Such forms are usually made to design specification by other
departments or are purchased as standard equipment from other form
manufacturers. Occasionally, it is necessary to modify or customize
steel forms; that is, holes, notches, and sections may be burned out or
fillets, boxouts, and seats may be welded in place as needed. Large
forms may be equipped with access ladders, stairways, work platforms,
conveyor connections for receiving concrete, and external vibrators for
consolidation.
Steel forms are hammered, vibrated, modified, and moved, creating dents,
holes, and misalignments that require periodic repair and mainten
ance. In addition to welding shops, many plants have portable welding
equipment for repair and modification of forms too large and unwieldy to
move. Welds and patches are occasionally required to fill in depressed
spots; chipping and grinding operations are used to smooth rough areas.
The form surface against which the concrete will be cast must be clean
and smooth (unless specifically designed otherwise). Forms are cleaned
for reuse by chipping, wire brushing, scraping, scrubbing with water,
sanding, and/or air blowing.
Form assembly follows repair and cleaning. Large forms are moved to the
casting station by overhead hoists or cranes, or by lift truck. Many
products have interior and exterior forms. Often, the interior form is
placed and fixed to a cleaned steel plate, or pallet ring that forms the
bottom of the product. Exterior forms are then locked into place with
various fittings (makeup bolts, tack welding) that both fix its position
and maintain the required dimension between the interior and exterior
form.
Forms for long or flat products require minimum assembly, except to

position the edges, bulkheads, and boxouts at the desired locations.
Edges and bulkheads usually require appropriate spacers, spreaders,
braces, and stiffeners. These pieces are usually cut from wood to the
proper length, hammered into place, and held by nails. Hammers are used
6
for driving nails and tacking chamfer strips in wood forms. Sledge
hammers, crowbars, and prybars are used in the alignment of forms as
well as during the placement and removal of bulkheads.
The tasks and equipment used during the construction of the forms are
typical to wood, Styrofoam, or fiber glass assembly/manufacturing pro
cesses. Most companies have carpenters' shops or areas equipped with
hand and power tools for form construction. Larger companies usually
have full-time personnel to use this equipment while smaller companies
usually assign workers the task of making the form as part of their
other routine responsibilities (casting, oiling, mixing, etc.).
2. Oiling
The form surface is coated with a release agent to keep the fresh
concrete from bonding to the form. Form release agents usually have a
kerosene or paraffin base and are applied to the form by swabbing or
spraying before the reinforcing steel is placed.
Swabbing is the hand application and spreading of the agent on the

interior surface of the form with the use of brooms, mops, rags, or
brushes. Swabbing operations require a worker to fill a container (buc
ket) with form oil from a drum, transfer it t:o the form, and physically
apply it to the form walls. Usually the worker will swab while standing
and walking in the form. Some forms (vertical walls) may require the
worker to stand on the form structure and mop the walls.
Most spray application of form oil is by hand-pumped, hand-carried

sprayers similar togarden insecticide sprayers. The pump is filled
from a central drum and carried by the worker to the form. Typically,
the worker will walk along the edge of the form and spray the required
surfaces. Some precast plants use a central pressurized air venturi
system instead of hand pumps to spread the form oil.
3. Reinforcing
The reinforcing operation includes the fabrication and placement of

steel reinforcement into the product forms. The tasks associated with
this operation are cutting, bending, tying and welding ofrebar, wire
and wire mesh; and stringing and stressing of steel strand. The
reinforcement, once sized and shaped, may be assembled in the form or
fabricated outside of the form in a separate area or shop. The movement
or placement of the steel may be done mechanically or by manual means.
There are four basic types of steel reinforcement:
o Plant fabricated cages and mats

o Prefabricated wire, loops, bars, rods, and welded wire mats
o Steel plates and rolled sections
o Prestressing steel strand.
7
a. Plant Fabricated Steel
Manual fabrication of reinforcing assemblies is common. Some

times reinforcing bars or welded wire fabric are placed and tied in
the form. For more complex assemblies, a jig is built to position
bars. Transverse and shear steel is manually tied to the longitud
inal steel with wire and pliers or with looped-end wire ties and a
special "pigtail" tool that twists the two ends of the wire tie
together when pulled. To produce reinforcing bars with the bends,
loops, angles, and hooks specified by the design, a rebar bender is
used. A cage or mat can be made to any desired size or shape. The
completed plant fabricated reinforcing steel assembly is then
lifted and placed in the form by manual or mechanical means. With
prestressed concrete products, individual stirrups or welded wire
fabric used for shear reinforcement are hand placed and may be tied
to the prestressing steel.
Circular or elliptical reinforcing cages for concrete pipe are

usually made of welded wire fabric (2- to 4-inch mesh made from
1/8- to 3/o-inch wire) or cold-drawn steel wire. A wire roller
forms rolls or flat mats of welded wire fabric into the desired
circular shape, which is then cut and spot welded to make the
cage. Both cage machines or mandrels can be used to form steel
wire into cages. In a cage machine, the operation is continuous
and the endless cage produced is cut to the required length; in a
mandrel operation, each cage is made individually to the desired
diameter and length. Both techniques require that the wire mesh be
shaped into a cylinder (by rolling or bending), the ends joined (by
welding or using tie wires), and the finished reinforcing cage
placed into the annular space of the pipe form.
b. Prefabricated Steel
Many small precast concrete products are reinforced by prefab

ricated steel manufactured to specification by others. This
prefabricated steel is placed, tied, or secured into the form or
pressed into the freshly cast concrete at the desired locations.
c. Steel Plates and Rolled Sections
For connecting some structural and architectural precast concrete

products, small, rolled, sectioned steel plates with reinforcing
bars or studs welded to them are tied to the cages inserted in the
freshly placed concrete. Wire loops of prestressing strand or
reinforcing bars are tied in place or inserted manually for lifting
and handling the finished product. Connection and handling steel
is called "hardware," and should be designed by the plant
engineering staff or the project engineer. The tasks necessary
when using steel plates are similar to those described in the
preceding sections.
8
d. Prestressing Steel Strand
Prestressing steel is usually seven-wire strand that is manually or

mechanically strung in the form before concrete is cast. Manual
strand stringing is performed by a worker physically pulling the
length of strand down the bed from a reel stationed at one end of
the bed. The strand is then cut by torch or strand saw, and the
process is repeated. Mechanical stringers pull multiple lengths of
strand from separate reels at the same time. Single or multiple
strands may be threaded through cages of reinforcing steel and
through bulkheads used to separate adjacent members.
The steel wire strands are laid in the stressing bed (a long form
up to several hundred feet in length with the cross section of the
desired shape) and fixed at the ends (abutments). The stressing
bed is the mold for several precast units along its length. For
example, if 50-foot-long "double tees" are desired and a
610-foot-long stressing bed is used, 12 such units can be produced
in one bed, each separated by a bulkhead. Some beds are designed
as selfstressing forms, eliminating the need for end abutments.
Once the strands are in place they are then stressed. This
operation is the tensioning (stretching) of wire strands previously
positioned in the form. Stressing includes strand vise placement,
jacking, tensioning, harping, and detensioning. The stressing
operation can be done by single strand jacking or multiple strand
jacking where all the strands are tensioned at the same time. The
strands to be stressed (usually 1/2-inch, seven-wire strand [7],
tensioned to approximately 200,000 pounds per square inch (psi) or
a 30,000 pound load) are anchored at one end of the bed with a
strand vise.
The strand vise barrel has a truncated conical hole along its
longitudinal axis that holds the three jaws of a chuck. The chuck
is serrated on the inside surface and conical in shape outside.
The jaws permit free movement of the strand in one direction. In
the other direction, they grip the strand and wedge themselves into
the conical hole in the barrel of the strand vise. A strand vise
is placed over each length of strand at the anchor end abutment,
which fixes it in place. At the jacking abutment, two strand vises
are placed on the strand in opposing directions. One is seated
against the end abutment and allows the strand to be pulled through
as the jack tensions the strand. This strand vise also holds and
anchors the tensioned steel to the abutment. The other strand vise
provides a grip for the jack. Figure II-l shows a rectangular
prestressed beam form with strands stressed and reinforcement in
place.
The steel strand may run straight through the bed and may be
stressed in this position. Alternatively, the strands may be
depressed within the form for each member along the bed to create
9
an upward force that improves structural efficiency [7]. This
technique is called draping or harping.
The term "draping" describes the profile of the steel strand, which
is "draped" from its high point near the ends of each precast
member to the lowpoint at the midspan of each member. Strands can
either be depressed or pulled up. Tine strands are passed through
and over pin and roller fixtures that minimize friction at the
points of change in the steel strand profile. Figure II-2 shows
the strands depressed at the midpoint of a member, thus creating
the appearance of strings on a harp. Some designs may require
other holddown locations for each member.
After the concrete is cast and has gained the specified strength (us
ually 3,500 psi or more [7]), the strand tension is released, or deten-
sioned. In some cases, strands are individually cut by torch; however,
with hydraulic jacks, the tension is gradually released from the header.
10
FIGURE II-2. A "SINGLE TEE" SLAB WITH THE STRANDS HELD DOWN AT THE MIDPOINT
TO "HARP" THE PRETENSIONED STEEL
Adapted from Bennett W. B. Jr. [7].
Detensioning transfers the stress from the steel to the concrete to

which it has bonded, precompressing the concrete.
4. Concrete Mixing
Concrete may be batched and mixed at the products plant or purchased

from a ready-mix concrete producer. The correctly weighed proportions
of cement, aggregates, and water are charged into a drum mixer, pan
mixer, or a transit mix truck. Small mixers that are used in many
miscellaneous products plants are gas, diesel, or electrically powered.
Cement may be delivered to the plant in bulk cement trucks or railroad

cars and unloaded by a totally enclosed, screw auger pneumatic system
that carries the cement to an elevated hopper or silo. Aggregates for
larger plants are unloaded in much the same way as cement, except that
open conveyors may be used. The material stored at a higher elevation
is weighed and chuted by gravity (charged) into the mixer. The proper
weight of water is added, and the mixer blends the components into a
homogeneous mixture by rotating paddles inside an enclosed vessel at
speeds of 2-15 revolutions per minute (rprn), or approximately 2 linear
feet per second.
The two most common types of mixers used in the industry are drum mixers
and pan mixers. A drum mixer is a rotating cylinder in which sta
tionary paddles, mounted along the cylinder, mix the concrete (truck
11
mixers are of the drum type, inclined from the horizontal). The pan
mixer consists of a shorter cylinder than the drum mixer and is
vertically oriented; paddles are mounted vertically and rotate to mix
the concrete in the stationarycylinder. The mixer is usually
positioned 10-15 feet above the adjacentworking surface to allow
gravity discharge of the mixed concrete into buckets, trucks, or other
means of conveyance to the casting area. Access for cleaning,
maintenance, or concrete quality control is provided by ladder or steps
to a working platform that will partially or totally encircle the
mixer. Figure II-3 depicts a concrete batching, mixing, discharge, and
transport system.
At the end of each shift or after mixing is completed for the day, the
mixers are cleaned. In addition to daily cleaning andflushing of
concrete mixers, it may be necessary to hammer or chip away built-up en
crustations of concrete on a periodic basis. Mixers also require
maintenance, paddle replacement, and repair. All of these tasks may
require workers to enter the mixers.
5. Concrete Delivery and Casting
Casting of small products can be a manual operation; a quantity of mix

is made available to the operator, who trowels or shovels it into a
prepared mold around the reinforcement. The material may be hand tamped
or vibrated to consolidate the mix. Many small products are made with
high production, automated equipment.
For casting larger pieces, the concrete is delivered from a truck, a

concrete bucket, or a concrete buggy moved to the location where the
concrete is to be used. For very large pieces or for long-line
prestressing beds, the concrete may be delivered by a monorail bucket
system, overhead bridge crane, or other mechanical means and deposited
directly in the form, where it is vibrated and consolidated by machinery
or by manually inserted spud vibrators. Usually two to five employees
will be directly involved in these tasks. In addition, concrete may be
extruded through a die to form products such as hollow-core slabs.
Systems used to deliver the mixed concrete to the placement location

vary from simple manual handling to totally automated, enclosed convey
ances. Concrete mixed in small power mixers is delivered by direct
deposit (when the mixer or form is portable), by front-end loader (which
carries concrete from mixer to form), or by wheelbarrow. Ready-mix
trucks frequently are used to deliver concrete because they can carry,
and continuously mix, large volumes (up to 12 cubic yards) directly to
or near the forms for placement. A chute, attached to a lip below the
discharge opening of the truck's drum mixer, is directed by a worker to
deposit the concrete. The chute is moved around during the casting
process to spread the concrete and reduce shoveling or raking.
As parts of the form are filled with concrete, the truck moves along the
form, placing concrete to the desired level. The process continues,
12
FIGURE II-3. CONCRETE BATCHING, MIXING, DISCHARGE, AND
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
13
using additional ready-mix trucks with loads of concrete, to completely
cast the products being made. During casting, workers will be engaged
in a series of continuous tasks directed at filling the form with
concrete. When a ready-mix truck is used, workers will be working
adjacent to and along with the movement of the delivery truck. Access
(steps or ramps) to low forms (1-3 feet high) is usually limited or
nonexistent. Employees will frequently be working and moving among
multiple form tiedowns, spacers, and spreaders as well as walking on the
reinforcing mats while filling and vibrating the forms. When it is not
possible for a truck to deposit concrete directly into the form,
wheelbarrows, hoisted concrete buckets, or concrete delivery vehicles
are used. Workers may push wheelbarrows along walkways, planks, or
ramps to fill the form with concrete.
Another method of delivering concrete is by transporter, which takes

mixed concrete from a central mixer and carries it directly to the
forms. Enclosed transporters have a smaller capacity (up to 6 cubic
yards) and are usually lighter, smaller, and more maneuverable than
ready-mix trucks. This method of depositing concrete is similar to that
for ready-mix trucks except that the chute is tubular in shape, with an
enclosed auger or conveyor belt, allowing concrete to be pushed to
higher elevations instead of depending on gravity. Some transporters
consist of wheeled or tracked carriers that take large buckets or
hoppers of mixed concrete (up to 4 cubic yards) to placing or casting
machines. Transporters may travel on aisleways, rails, or roadways at
speeds of up to 500 feet per minute. Transfer, turnaround, or backing
areas may be provided at the end of the travelway s for moving the
transporters laterally relative to the casting areas or for access to
the concrete mixers. Visibility may be limited because of walls,
corners, other equipment, storage, or layout. Once the concrete buckets
have been delivered to the casting area, an overhead hoist, which may be
an integral part of a casting machine, will be used to hoist and
position the bucket over the form or casting hopper.
Conveyors are frequently used to deliver concrete to the point of

placement, especially in the miscellaneous and pipe sectors of the
industry. The forms can be set up under the discharge end of the
conveyor, or a portable conveyor can be set up with its discharge over
the forms (depending on form mobility). Concrete is deposited onto the
conveyor and moved along the conveyor system (which can be arranged to
move the concrete around corners, to different elevations, or to remote
plant locations) to the point of discharge.
Access to elevated forms during casting is usually provided by plat

forms, stairs, movable scaffolds, or ramps. Large pipe forms and mis
cellaneous products forms will sometimes have walkway platforms built
around the forms or attached for the casting operations. Ramps are a
convenient means of access to forms at elevations different from the
surrounding working surface; otherwise, stairs are used. Access to
lower beds up to 3 feet above the plant or yard surface usually is by
14
stepping up and jumping down; it is uncommon for steps or ramps to be
provided•
In mechanized plants, placement of concrete into lorigbed forms is

accomplished by placing or casting machines, similar to pavers or extru
ders. The concrete is spread,vibrated, compacted, screeded, and
finished as the machine passes over the form, or is extruded as it moves
along the bed. Drive controls are located in a cab on the machine or on
a panel reached by workers from the side of the machine.
One method of casting utilized in the manufacture of pipe and many

miscellaneous circular products requires a concrete mix that is wet com
pared to the mixes used in dry mix processes. Using both inner and
outer forms, a cone is placed on the inner form to direct concrete down
into the annular space between the forms. The concrete is then
consolidated by stick vibrators or external vibrators, and the exposed
top surface shaped and finished as required by hand, using edgers,
trowels, and brushes.
Figure II-4 depicts an automated vertical pipe casting operation.

Employees work from scaffolds that are rolled into place around the
perim eter of the external pipe form. As the concrete discharge chute
rotates around the form, workers using shovels, boards, tampers, and/or
vibrators ensure the proper placement and consolidation of the concrete.
Most concrete pipe is cast with a relatively dry, low-slump mix that is
mechanically placed and consolidated in the form. Two of the four
mechanical methods use both inner and outer forms, which vibrate with
either tampers or vibrators while the dry-mixed concrete is cast into
the annular space between them. In the tamping method, compaction is
performed directly by vertically operated tampers. In the dry cast
method, consolidation is done by external vibration of the inner or
outer form. The other two mechanical methods use only the outer form
and either spin the pipe horizontally while centrifugal forces
distribute the concrete delivered by conveyor, or spin a mandrel-like
packerhead that is drawn up inside the pipe as concrete is cast from
above, compacting as it goes. These four mechanical, dry-type mix
methods of casting pipe are shown in Figure II--5.
Figure II-6 shows one type of vertical packerhead operation used in the
manufacture of pipe. Metal pipe forms are placed by forklift or man
ual or automated cranes onto openings in a circular casting floor. The
floor rotates (at slow speeds) to position the form in the operational
packerhead area. An employee on an elevated platform controls the
packerhead spinning speeds, the up-and-down motion of the packerhead,
and the flow of concrete into the form. When the casting is complete,
the floor rotates an empty form into place and the forklift removes the
cast pipe and mold to a curing area.
Pipes manufactured by spin-casting methods have an inside diameter of

12-60 inches or larger. The form is spun at speeds of 2-4 revolutions
15
CONVEYOR
DRIVE MECHANISM
FOR DISCHARGE CHUTE
ROTATING DISCHARGE
CHUTE
FORM
SCAFFOLD
FIGURE II-4. VERTICAL PIPE CASTING
16
Packerhead
Tamp
Centrifugal
Dry Cast
FIGURE II-5. FOUR MECHANICAL METHODS OF CASTING CONCRETE PIPE [8]
Copyright by the American Concrete Pipe Association.
Reprinted by the Department of Health and Human Services with
permission. Further reproduction without permission of
copyright holder prohibited.
FIGURE II-6. SEMIAUTOMATIC VERTICAL PACKERHEAD PIPE CASTING SYSTEM
per second (rps) while vibrating and depositing concrete, and at speeds
up to 10-12 rps while "throwing" the concrete and compressing it against
the rotating form. In the centrifugal process, excess water is removed,
further lowering the water/cement ratio of the concrete.
Figure II-7 depicts one method of pipe spin-casting. In this method,

the pipe form is assembled by bolting or clamping the halves together.
The form is placed by hoist onto a rotating pipe machine. Horizontal
pipe machines are usually constructed from groupings of auto/truck tires
that serve to cradle and spin the form. In this figure, the rotating
force is applied by overhead tires that spin the pipe form at the
required speeds. Concrete is added by a movable extruder, operated by a
worker who is positioned to visually inspect the centrifugal
consolidation during the placement process. Internal finish work is
usually performed by a hand-held, dowel-mounted trowel. A worker runs
it in and out of the pipe orifice while the form is spinning.
FIGURE II-7. HORIZONTAL PIPE SPIN CASTING

Casting large miscellaneous products is similar to the tamping, dry
cast, or wet cast methods used for pipe manufacture; however, the form
may be square or rectangular as for burial vaults or septic tanks.
6. Finishing
Wet finishing includes tasks such as screeding, floating, troweling,

patching, rubbing, and cleaning surfaces not in contact with the form.
Screeding is the back-and-forth motion of a strike off (a wood 2 by 4 or
steel channel) resting on a screed guide to form the surface of the con
crete to be finished. Workers may have to reach, bend over, and pull to
perform this task. Floating, the smoothing of the surface with a wood,
aluminum, or magnesium float, is manual work requiring bending,
kneeling, and reaching. Troweling smooths and compacts the floated
surface when the surface is hard enough to walk on without leaving
indentations.
Additional treatment of the formed surface may take place after the form
has been removed and the product has cured. This is particularly true
for architectural panels, when the surface texture is important.
Techniques such as grinding, bush hammering, sand blasting, water
washing of retarded surfaces, or acid etching are used to produce a
variety of desired architectural effects. Bush hammering is the
roughening of the hardened concrete surface with a vibrating hammer, the
head of which is serrated with a series of pointed teeth. Sand blasting
is the high-pressure spraying of sand onto the exterior concrete surface
to clean or smooth it. Water washing (up to 300 psi) is the flushing of
cement paste that purposely has been retarded in setting to expose the
surface of the aggregate. Acid etching serves a similar purpose, but
does not expose as much of the aggregate. This procedure involves the
mixing, dilution, and application of muriatic acid, an industrial grade
of hydrochloric acid.
In some instances, precast concrete products are cut to length or have

portions removed by sawing them with a concrete saw. This type of saw
is similar to that of a carpenter's circular skill saw except that the
blade size ranges from 1-3 feet (or more) in diameter. During
repetitive operations, or when using larger blades, saws may be
semiautomated and suspended overhead. The power source for the concrete
saws may be electricity or pressurized air, although some of the
smaller, portable models may be powered by gasoline engines. Most saws
are not provided with a lower (exposed) blade guard.
7. Curing
Three fundamental factors in all methods of curing concrete are time,

temperature, and moisture. Within limits, an increase in temperature
shortens the curing period by accelerating strength gain. The time/-
temperature relationship is not the same for all mixtures, materials,
and conditions and is determined empirically.
ft
(
20
I
The curing of many larger precast products is accelerated by radiant
heat, steam, hot water, or hot oil. In some instances, the cast product
is exposed to live, low-pressure steam within an insulated kiln or steam
shed. Pipe or other products to be steam or heat cured will usually be
transferred from the casting area to the heated shed by conveyor, fork-
lift, hoist, or, in some instances, by rolling. The products remain in
the steam shed for 2-8 hours (frequently overnight) before being removed
and the form stripped. In some instances, the form is stripped before
the product is steam cured. Large pipe is frequently enclosed (in the
place where it was cast) by canvas, plastic, or other material into
which steam or warm, moist air is introduced. Steam and hot water for
accelerated curing procedures are usually generated at the plant by a
low-pressure boiler and piped to designated locations prior to release
into the curing shed. Occasionally, a chemical curing compound is
sprayed on the finished surface of the concrete.
8. Form Stripping
Once a concrete product has cured sufficiently to be handled, it is

necessary to remove it from the forms it was cast in or, conversely, to
remove the forms from the product. The tasks and equipment used in form
stripping operations vary considerably with the nature of the product.
Reusable metal forms, such as those used during the manufacture of pipe,
are usually handled by overhead hoist. The inner form is rigged to the
crane and removed— a task made more difficult because the product fre
quently adheres to the form surface. In some instances, striking the
form with a hard rubber mallet is sufficient to jar the concrete loose.
In others, a hoist is used to shake the form and/or to pull the form
free. Large pipe forms are frequently equipped with a means to collapse
the internal form within the pipe bore. Workers enter the pipe bore to
release retaining clamps. Rigging of the hoist to large form members
requires that employees gain access to elevated areas. This may be done
by ladder, rolling scaffolding, or climbing the form structure itself if
it provides safe access. With low-slump, consolidated pipe, the mold is
removed at the kiln prior to accelerated curing.
Flat products are removed from the mold by means of a vacuum lifter, or
by lifting the product from the mold utilizing "lifting eyes" previous
ly inserted in the product. Girders, beams, or other large, vertical
products may have side forms to be removed before the product is freed
from the forms. Bolts and other connectors are removed, and the side
form panels pulled away or dropped to the ground.
Some concrete products may require dismantling of the forms for re
moval either because the form material will not be used again or because
this is the only practical means of removing the completed product.
Depending on the size and shape of the form, workers may perform the
dismantling from the plant floor, from the elevated casting beds, from
rolling ladder/scaffolds, or from the form itself. Workers will usually
be performing their tasks on and among the equipment and material used
during the form stripping process. Prybars, crowbars, sledge hammers,
21
and wrenches will be used to pull nails and remove the spreaders,
stiffeners, and bulkhead-retaining tie rods. Sledges and prybars will
be used to force the separation of bulkheads from the product and/or
other form structures. This frequently involves workers pushing or
pulling on the bar until the adherence forces release, sometimes
suddenly.
9. Material/Product Storage
Material storage in the precast concrete products industry follows a

usage pattern typical to most manufacturing processes. Raw materials
necessary to produce the product will be shipped and temporarily stored
in a yard. Usually raw materials will consist of the basic ingredients
of the concrete (cement, sand, aggregate), the reinforcing materials
(reinforcing steel, strand, wire mesh, hardware), and a variety of
ancillary materials (blasting sand, equipment maintenance materials,
etching acids, etc.) necessary for the production of a finished concrete
product.
The bulk ingredients for the production of concrete may be hauled in by

truck and dumped in covered bays or, in smaller plants, a convenient
place on the prenises. Larger, more automated plants may yard consider
able volumes of various sized aggregates and cement prior to transfer to
mixers. Cement may be bagged, palletized, and stored in weatherproof
areas or it may be delivered by bulk tankers and stored in silos. These
94-pound bags of cement may be stacked higher than a worker's head,
requiring access to the upper levels. Reinforcing steel bars are
usually received in banded lots of various lengths, ranging up to 40
feet or more. Prior to cutting to required lengths, the rebars will
usually be stored on the ground on cribbing material. Spooled or reeled
material (e.g., wire mesh) is frequently stored in stacked rows. The
end spools are chocked to prevent rolling or shifting; second level
spools are nestled in the spool interface. Since forklifts or mobile
cranes will be used to move these heavy rolls, adequate access space
between rows of stored materials should be considered.
Product storage methods vary considerably with the size and shape of the
product. Small miscellaneous products are frequently produced in a
variety of shapes at the same plant. Yard areas are usually limited,
necessitating multilayered stacking of the pieces. Layers may be
separated by cribbing and/or pallets to both protect the finished
surface and to increase the load-bearing surface stability. Larger and
heavier shapes, such as vaults and manholes, are frequently stacked with
cribbing layers between them to provide access for forklifts or rigging
material. Pipes and cylindrical products arestored in the manner
described for rolls and reels. Pipes of the same size are stored in the
same stack. Again, care must be taken to allow adequate access for
materials handling equipment and to prevent stack shifting. Large pipes
are usually stored vertically.
Discarded products, broken pieces, metal scrap from forms, reinforcement,
22
tie-wire, wood scrap, nails, chamfer strip, rejected hardware, concrete,
forms, and the remainder of unused raw materials can be found in plants
in this industry. Many plants have a "bone yard" in which such
discarded material is kept, pending burial or removal.
10. Materials Handling
Materials handling operations are performed throughout all phases of the

production of precast concrete products. At the simplest (and fre
quently overlooked) level, employees lift, carry, push, or pull
everything from concrete debris to wood form material to smaller,
finished products. In fact, throughout the industry, manual handling is
necessary to perform many of the tasks required in the production
process, including:
o Building and locating form and form material

o Placing and tying reinforcing steel
o Hand batching concrete
o Casting (shoveling concrete)
o Transporting moist concrete by wheelbarrow
o Form stripping
o Housekeeping and general cleanup
o Handling and moving products.
Individual, small miscellaneous products may be loaded or unloaded by

hand. When several small items of the same variety are to be handled,
they usually are strapped and palletized. Larger products and concrete
pipe require the use of lifting and unloading equipment. Architectural
and structural products usually are large, bulky, and heavy, requiring
the use of cranes and special loading and handling techniques such as
"A" frame holders and wood and metal chocking for security, for bolting
to the trailer bed, and for single-product loads.
Since precast concrete products and their components are heavy by their
nature, the industry makes use of a variety of mechanical devices to
assist in handling and movement operations.
a. Hoists and Cranes
For the most part, the types and varieties of hoists and cranes
that are used in precasting operations do not differ significantly
from those used in other industries. However, because of the
weight of the material and products being moved, crane and hoist
usage may be more prevalent.
Smaller plants may use rubber-tired cranes with hydraulic booms to

move material and products around the yard, onto trucks for trans
port, and from the casting bed to the storage yard. These mobile
cranes are prevalent throughout the industry for movement of yarded
material and products. In most instances, the crane operator will
work in tandem with other employees charged with the material
23
rigging responsibilities. Products may be manufactured with
integral picking eyes that facilitate proper rigging and load
balance. In other instances, the rigging and hoisting will be
performed on material necessitating new or single instance handling
procedures. Load weights and balance points must be identified by
the workers as part of the rigging operation.
Larger, more automated plants are likely to have semipermanent work

stations and fairly repetitive product design. These plants are
likely to use a number of overhead hoists. Overhead hoists may run
on tracks and be located to service multiple operations in the
manufacturing process. Larger overhead cranes are controlled by an
operator located in the crane cab. Work stations may be serviced
by smaller, 2- to 10-ton jib cranes. Although a jib crane may be
mounted on an independent vertical column, the horizontal "jib" is
most frequently affixed to a vertical column integral to the
plant's structure. Employees at the work station operate the jib
crane by using a wire-attached pendant control, which allows the
worker to control the up/down and back/forth movements, or other
functions of the crane, from the floor of the plant. In these
instances, the hoist operator is usually the same worker that
performs the rigging. He is also likely to accompany, with hands
on, the load being transported to its destination.
Straddle carriers are large, four-wheeled, wide-spaced, high

legged movers that straddle large products (such as girders,
planks, or other structural elements) pick them out of forms and
move them. This open-framed machine, basically square in
configuration, hoists and carries the load within a large open bay
between the four wheels on which it travels. The operator's cab is
located on the extreme left-hand side between the front and rear
wheels. Loads suspended in the bay often obscure the driver's view
of the right side wheels. The machine ordinarily moves at about 2
miles per hour (mph) and has a maximum speed of about 10 mph.
b. Forklifts
Many of the palletized raw materials and finished products used in

precast plants are moved by forklifts. Fork extenders may be used
to increase the bearing surface of the forklift. In some
instances, a jib may be added to the forklift to convert it to a
small, movable crane. Pipe and other circular products are moved
by forklifts with specially designed long forks or fitted forks
with curved surfaces to cradle the product. Some forklifts are
equipped with clamping forks used for attaching to and moving forms
or other compatible shapes. The power source on forklifts is most
frequently propane or diesel fuel.
24
CHAPTER III
IDENTIFICATION OF THE SAFETY HAZARDS
AND DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEMS
This chapter is divided into two major areas of emphasis: the development
and presentation of data pertaining to injury incidence rates for the
precast concrete products industry (SIC 3272), and the identification of
those tasks performed that are hazardous to the worker. Additionally, an
estimation of the cost of injuries sustained by workers in the precast
concrete products industry is presented.
A. Injury and Illness Incidence Rates
The yearly compilations of occupational injury and illness data, prepared by

the BLS, show that between 1976 and 1980, the precast concrete products
industry had an average incidence rate of about 23 cases per 100 employees
(Table III-l) [9-12]. In comparison, the incidence rate for all private
sector industries averaged about 9.2 during the same interval. Workers in
the precast concrete products industry have been consistently injured at a
rate nearly 2.5 times the national average. Also, between 1976 and 1980 the
average incidence rate for all durable goods manufacturing industries (which
include SIC 3272) was about 14, which is substantially less than the rate
for manufacturers of precast concrete products (Tables III-l and III-2).
TABLE III-l
OCCUPATIONAL INJURY AND ILLNESS INCIDENCE RATES FOR THE
PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY (SIC 3272)
Average Total Case Lost Nonfatal Cases Lost Actual

Annual Incidence No. of Workday Without Lost Workday Lost
Year Employment Rate* Cases** Cases* Workdays* Rate*** Workdays***'
1976 63,100 21.4 13,503 9.1 12.3 144.7 91,306

1977 67,300 24.5 16,488 10.3 14.1 159.5 107,344
1978 72,200 24.2 17,472 11.7 12.5 165.8 119,708
1979 71,900 24.7 17,759 12.1 12.6 180.6 129,851
1980 67,200 22.3 14,986 10.4 11.9 158.3 106,378
*Number of recordable cases/100 employees.

**Calculated by multiplying the reported employment figures by the total
case incidence rate and dividing by 100.
***Number of lost workdays/100 employees.
****Calculated by multiplying the average annual employment figure by the
reported lost workday rate; i.e., for 1976, (63,100) x (144.7 divided by
100) = 91,305.7.
Compiled from Bureau of Labor Statistics [9 - 12].
25
TABLE III-2
OCCUPATIONAL INJURY AND ILLNESS INCIDENCE RATES FOR
ALL DURABLE GOODS MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Average
Annual Total Case Lost Nonfatal Cases Lost Actual
Employment Incidence No. of Workday Without Lost Workday Lost
Year (1,000) Rate* Cases** Cases* Workdays* Rate*** Workdays****
1976 11,016 14.1 1,553,256 5.1 9..0 84.1 9,264,456

1977 11,573 14.0 1,620,220 5.4 8..6 86.4 9,999,072
1978 12,246 14.2 1,738,932 5.9 8..3 89.1 10,911,186
1979 12,772 14.2 1,813,624 6.3 7..9 95.1 12,146,172
1980 12,181 12.9 1,571,349 5.6 7.,3 90.9 11,072,529
*Number of recordable cases/100 employees.

**Calculated by multiplying the reported employment figures by the total
case incidence rate and dividing by 100.
***Number of lost workdays/100 employees.
****Calculated by multiplying the average annual employment figure by the
reported lost workday rate; i.e., for 1976, (11,016,000) x (84.1 divided
by 100) = 9,264,456.
Compiled from Bureau of Labor Statistics [9 - 12].
The incidence rates for precast concrete products are among the highest
rates within the manufacturing sector (top 3%). A representative selection
of the manufacturing industries is shown in Table III-3.
Table III-3 demonstrates that the occupational incidence rate per 100
employees in the precast concrete products industry was higher than those
for concrete block and brick manufacturers and ready-mixed concrete, which
exhibited incidence rates of 15.8 and 13.7, respectively. The incidence
rate for concrete products was also substantially higher than for blast
furnaces and steel mills (9.5), which is a heavy industry involving
additional injury potentials attendant to the handling of molten metal.
The severity of injuries sustained by employees of the precast concrete

products industry was also shown to be high. The lost workday cases and
lost workdays incidence rates, represent a general measurement of the
seriousness of occupational injuries and illnesses. The lost workday cases
incidence rate for the precast concrete products industry (SIC 3272) in 1980
was reported by the BLS as 10.4 (Table III-l). This figure ranged from a
reported high of 12.1 in 1979 to a low of 9.1 in 1976, with an average of
about 10.7 for the years between 1976 and 1980 (Table III-l). The lost
workday cases incidence rate for all private sector industries in 1980 was
reported by the BLS as 4.0 [12] and for the durable goods manufacturing
industries as 5.6 (Table III-2). Furthermore, for every 100 employees in
the precast concrete products industry in 1980, a total of about 158 days
were lost due to disabling injuries and illnesses (Table III-l). The
26
TABLE III-3
EXAMPLES OF OCCUPATIONAL INJURY AND ILLNESS INCIDENCE RATES
FOR SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1980
Average Total Case Lost

Annual Incidence Workday Lost
Manufacturing Industry Employment Rate* Cases* Workdays**
(1,000)
Mobile Homes 45.9 27.5 11.4 173.1

Truck & Bus Bodies 38.6 24.8 10.4 129.9
Cold Finishing of Steel Shapes N.A. 23.7 10.9 192.3
Gray Iron Foundries 125.9 23.2 11.0 171.4
Precast Concrete Products 67.2 22.3 10.4 158.3
Steel Wire N.A. 21.4 10.1 169.6
Architectural Metal Work 31.6 19.4 8.9 113.1
Machine Tools, Metal Forming 26.8 17.2 6.8 113.7
Concrete Block & Brick 21.2 15.8 7.6 148.0
Glass Containers 69.6 15.7 9.4 180.7
Screw Machine Products 50.7 15.0 5.6 69.5
Ready-Mixed Concrete 94.7 13.7 6.2 124.0
Upholstered Household Furniture 94.7 13.4 5.1 78.8
Blast Furnaces & Steel Mills 429.3 9.5 3.4 81.6
Small Arms Ammunition N.A. 6.3 2.9 43.4
* Number of recordable cases/100 employees.

** Number of lost workdays/100 employees.
Compiled from Bureau of Labor Statistics [12].
industries comprising the manufacturers of durable goods reported a substan

tially lower rate of about 91 days lost per 100 employees (Table III-2).
About 4 6 of the workers injured in reported accidents in the precast

concrete products industry between 1976 and 1980 lost time from their jobs,
an average of about 15 days per case in 1980.2
B. Costs of Injuries
The total cost of work injuries is difficult to develop due to incomplete

recording and lack of data on both direct and indirect costs. Estimates can
^Average percentage of total recordable cases reported as lost-time cases

by the BLS (Table III-l).
2Lost workdays/lost workday cases = lost workdays rate divided by lost
workday cases; i.e., for 1980 (Table III-l),
158.3 = 15.2 lost
10.4 workdays/lost workday case.
27
be made, however, which reveal the magnitude of the problem. Best available
workers' compensation data from 46 States [13-21] reported a total of 9,335
medical and indemnity compensation cases during 1977 (the most current year
reporting reasonably complete data) with actual paid claims totaling
$30,855,454 or an average of about $3,305 per case. This averages about
$595! per production worker in 1977 dollars. Although the estimates of
direct costs of worker injuries are not precise, they do reflect the
magnitude of the problem.
Estimates derived from National Safety Council [22] data indicate that full
costs of work-related accidents are more than 3.4 times the direct wage loss
and medical expense costs. Since the indemnity payments are normally less
than wage loss, the real accident costs for the precast concrete products
industry are estimated to exceed $105 million per year (3.4 x $30.9
million). In addition to medical and indemnity expenses, estimates of the
real cost of accidents include:
o Cost of wages for lost worktime by injured employee(s), other than

workers' compensation payments
o Cost of wages for supervisor's time required for activities necessi
tated by the injury
o Cost of wages for decreased output of injured employee(s) after return
to work
o Cost of learning period for new employee(s)
o Cost of time spent by higher supervisory and clerical employees on
investigations or in processing compensation application forms
o Net cost to repair, replace, or straighten up material or equipment
damaged in an accident
o Extra cost for overtime work necessitated by an accident
o Cost of wages for lost worktime by employee(s) not injured
o Cost of litigation resulting from OSHA investigations
o Uninsured medical cost borne by company.
C. Identification of the Hazards
The preceding section of this chapter defined the magnitude of the safety
problem in the precast concrete products industry. The next step in a
systematic approach to effectively lowering worker accident/injury exposure
is the identification of how workers are injured while performing the tasks
required to produce precast concrete products.
1. The Supplementary Data System (SDS)
Currently, occupational accident and injury information from participat

ing states, which is taken from employers' first report of injury forms,
■
’■Production workers comprise about 77% of the total work force for this
industry [3]. Seventy-seven percent of the reported 1977 employment figure
of 67,300 (Table III-l) is 51,821 production workers. Compensation losses
of $30,855,454 divided by 51,821 production workers yields about $595 per
production worker.
28
is compiled and reported by the BLS Supplementary Data System (SDS) [23,
24]. The SDS is intended to alert users to patterns and relationships
of injury causal factors. The information is entered into each of four
major groupings:
o Source of injury
o Type of accident
o Nature of injury
o Part of body affected.
The frequency and percentage distribution of the injuries reported to

SDS by the precast concrete products industry for the years 1976 - 1979
are presented in Table III-4 for each of the groupings mentioned above.
The percentages do not indicate that one category represents a greater
hazard than another, since data clarifying worker exposure are not
available.
2. Accident/Injury Analysis
The SDS data are limited when used in the analysis of a specific
industry because the "source of injury" category contains subcategories
which do not apply to the industry under study, and does not contain
subcategories which are related to industry-specific tools and
equipment. Further, the "source of injury" reported is the object most
responsible for causing the injury. Thus, if a worker falls from a
ladder and fractures his leg on the plant floor, the "source of injury"
is the floor, which probably contributed little to the actual cause of
the accident.
Despite the constraints, the SDS data reported by the precast concrete
industry for 1976 - 1979, which included 15,208 injuries, were analyzed
to identify specific industry hazards. The analysis included 37
categories that identified injury sources within precasting operations.
The results of the cross-analysis of the SDS data are summarized in

Table III-5. The total number of accidents/injuries appears in the
"Source of Injury" column. The numbers associated with "Type of Acci
dent," "Nature of Injury" and "Body Part" do not agree with the "Source
of Injury" totals since the figures given are merely the most frequent
subcategories.
3. Analysis of Accident Case Histories
For a more complete understanding of accident/injury causal factors,

full text copies of employers' first report of injury forms filed by SIC
3272 industries were requested from all 50 States. In most instances,
the state agencies were not able to provide information. However, 10
States 1 did provide copies of 2,250 first report of injury forms from
^■California, Hawaii, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Montana, Maryland,

Washington, Wyoming, and Vermont.
29
TABLE III-4
SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY DATA SYSTEM ACCIDENT/INJURY PROFILE, 1976-79,
FOR THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
No. of No. of
Accidents (%) Acc ident s (%)
TYPE OF ACCIDENT NATURE OF INJURY
Struck By or Against 5,187 (34.1) Amputation 115 (0.8)
Falls 2,210 (14.5) Burns (Heat) 297 (1.9)
Caught In or Between 1,523 (10.0) Burns (Chemical) 175 (1.1)
Rubbed/Abraded Against 767 (5.0) Contusions, Bruises 2,403 (15.8)
Bodily Reaction 762 (5.0) Cuts, Lacerations 2,133 (14.0)
Overexertion 3,220 (21.2) Fractures 1,647 (10.9)
Contact w/Temp. Extremes 295 (1.9) Scratches, Abrasions 893 (5.9)
Contact w/Caustics 599 (4.0) Sprains, Strains 4,724 (31.1)
Motor Vehicle Accident 162 (1.1) All Other Occ. Diseases 1,376 (9.0)
All Other Classifiable 118 (0.8) All Other Classifiable 212 (1.4)
Nonelassifiable 365 (2.4) Nonelassifiable 1,233 (8.1)
Total 15,208 (100) Total 15,208 (100)
PART OF BODY INJURED SOURCE OF INJURY

Eyes 1,275 (8.4) Boxes, Barrels, Containers 793 (5.2)
Head, Neck 836 (5.5) Chemicals 307 (2.0)
Fingers 2,083 (13.7) HandtooIs 1,247 (8.2)
Upper Ext., Not Fingers 2,135 (14.0) Machines 845 (5.6)
Back 2,961 (19.5) Metal Items 3,212 (21.1)
Trunk, Not Back 1,478 (9.7) Vehicles 953 (6.3)
Lower Extremities 3,483 (23.0) Wood Items 589 (3.9)
Multiple Body Parts 670 (4.4) Working Surfaces 1,797 (11.8)
Body System 161 (1.0) All Other Classifiable 4,977 (32.7)
Nonelassifiable 126 (0.8) Nonelassifiable 488 (3.2)
Total 15,208 (100) Total 15,208 (100)
Compiled from Bureau of Labor Statistics [24].

TABLE II1-5
SUMMARY OF CROSS-ANALYSIS TABULATION OF SDS ACCIDENT/INJURY PROFILE,
1976-1979, FOR THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
Source of Type of Nature of

Injury Number Accident Number Injury Number Body Part Number
Bodily Motion (no 726 Bodily reaction 689 Sprain, strain 601 Back 283
lifting, pushing, (slips, loss of balance, Ankle 157
pulling) reaching, bending) Knee 99
Chemicals (acids, 307 Contact with caustics 246 Chemical burns 127 Eye 88
alkalis, moist Dermatitis 56 Multiple parts 52
concrete) Systemic poisoning 38 Body System 41
Hand 31
Coal/oil products 89 Contact with caustics 53 Dermatitis 33 Hand 27

(form release agents, Contact temperature 27 Burns 26 Eye 12
lube cutting oil, extremes Chemical burns 14 Multiple parts 9
safety solvents)
Concrete aggregate 842 Overexertion 203 Sprain, strain 225 Eye 178
(sand, cement, Struck by falling obj. 152 Abrasion 136 Back 151
gravel) Rubbed or abraded by 115 Contusion 131
foreign material
Concrete Items 349 Overexertion 129 Sprain, strain 122 Back 83

Struck by falling obj. 68 Contusion 71 Finger 63
Caught in, under, or 61 Fracture 52 Trunk 41
between
Concrete Mixers 125 Caught in, under, or 60 Cut, laceration 28 Finger 44

between Sprain, strain 25 Hand 18
Struck against 16 Fracture 24 Back 13
stationary object Contusion 21
Overexertion 15
Struck by 13
TABLE III-5
1976-1979, FOR THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY (Continued)

Concrete pipe 137 Overexertion 73 Sprain, strain 71 Back 49

Caught in, under, or 19 Contusion 19 Trunk 21
between Fracture 14 Finger 21
Containers (bags, 714 Overexertion 444 Sprain, strain 410 Back 310
boxes, bundles, Contusion 93 Trunk 102
reels, rolls) Finger 72
Conveyors 115 Caught in, under, or 70 Contusion 23 Finger 34

(gravity, powered) between Fracture 22 Hand 14
Overexertion 13 Sprain, strain 19 Back 12
Cut, laceration 17 Foot(not toes) 12
Cranes 99 Struck by 30 Contusion 29 Finger 17

Caught in, under, or 18 Fracture 18 Trunk 16
between Sprain, strain 15 Back 12
Overexertion 12 Cut, laceration 10 Head 11
Struck against 10
stationary object
Crowbars 85 Struck by 30 Contusion 25 Back 24

Overexertion 26 Sprain, strain 24 Finger 12
Struck by falling 10 Cut, laceration 15 Trunk 9
object Fracture 12
Doors, gates 90 Overexertion 27 Sprain, strain 27 Finger 18

Struck by falling obj. 18 Contusion 20 Trunk 16
Caught in, under, or 17 Fracture 16 Back 14
between Cut, laceration 13
Struck by 12
Struck against sta 10
tionary object
TABLE II1-5

Flame/fire 81 Contact temperature 76 Burn 76 Multiple parts 20

extremes Hand 10
Forklifts 296 Caught in, under, or 91 Contusion 80 Finger 59

between Fracture 72 Foot(not toes) 42
Struck by 71 Sprain/strain 51 Back 33
Overexertion 30 Cut/laceration 34
tionary object
Forms 110 Overexertion 35 Sprain, strain 38 Finger 28

Struck by falling ob 27 Contusion 30 Back 27
ject Cut, laceration 14
Caught in, under, or 20
between
Hamme r s, powe red 81 Overexertion 29 Sprain, strain 27 Back 18

Struck by 20 Contusion 16 Finger 18
Struck by falling ob 10 Fracture 13
ject Cut, laceration 11
Hammers 299 Struck by 184 Contusion 133 Finger 95

Overexertion 47 Sprain/strain 44 Hand 48
Fracture 42
Hand Tools, 228 Struck by 77 Cut, laceration 86 Finger 66

powered (drills, Overexertion 42 Sprain, strain 44 Hand 25
grinders, saws and Caught in, under, or 24 Fracture 25
welding tools) between Contusion 23
TABLE III-5
,1976-1979, FOR THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY (Continued)

Hand tools, non- 345 Struck by 126 Cut, laceration 113 Finger 87
powered (blow Overexertion 87 Sprain, strain 91 Back 41
torches, chisels, Contusion 57 Hand 40
ropes and chains,
saws, screwdrivers)
Hoisting apparatus 154 Caught in, under, or 42 Contusion 41 Finger 50

(air hoists, chain between Fracture 32 Back 18
hoists, electric Struck by falling ob 34 Sprain, strain 27
hoists, jacks) ject Cut, laceration 26
Struck by 29
Overexertion 23
Lumber and other 589 Overexertion 221 Sprain, strain 219 Back 154
wood items Struck by falling 125 Contusion 114 Finger 87
object Fracture 92 Trunk 85
Struck by 75
Machinery (cage 720 Caught in, under, or 302 Cut, laceration 197 Finger 287
roller, concrete between Contusion 131 Hand 97
extruding, concrete Overexertion 90 Fracture 117
saw, pipe spinning, Struck against moving 75 Sprain, strain 100
press brake, rebar object
bending, rebar
cutting)
Mechanical power 135 Caught in, under, 51 Cut, laceration 41 Finger 46

transmission or between Sprain, strain 26
apparatus (chains, Struck by 30 Contusion 21
ropes, cables; drums, Overexertion 26 Fracture 15
pulleys)
TABLE II1-5

Nails 146 Struck against sta 113 Puncture 137 Foot(not toes) 106
tionary object Hand 15
Particles (uniden- 323 Rubbed or abraded by 256 Abrasion 271 Eye 314
tified) foreign material
Reinforcement bars 268 Overexertion 68 Sprain, strain 81 Back 52

Struck by falling 60 Cut, laceration 53 Finger 48
object Contusion 51 Trunk 36
Struck by 44 Fracture 37
Struck against 38
stationary object
Reinforcement 2,284 Overexertion 465 Cut, laceration 645 Finger 360

other than bars Struck by falling 440 Sprain, strain 461 Back 336
and steel forming object Contusion 363 Eye 310
(bolts, nuts, plates, Struck by 332 Fracture 266
rods, shapes, wire Struck against 281 Abrasion 230
strand) stationary object
Shovel 109 Overexertion 91 Sprain, strain 90 Back 78

Trunk 11
Steel pipe 404 Overexertion 134 Sprain, strain 145

Struck by 71 Contusion 97 Back 105
Caught in, under, or 63 Fracture 45 Finger 74
between Cut laceration 43
Struck by falling 56
object
TABLE II1-5

Structures (not 129 Overexertion 27 Contusion 35 Back 28

floors, working Caught in, under, or 26 Sprain, strain 33 Finger 22
surfaces, or between Cut, laceration 21 Trunk 13
walkways) Fall on same level 23 Fracture 18
against object
tionary object
Struck by falling 16
object
Tank bins 79 Overexertion 21 Sprain, strain 25 Finger 15

Caught in, under, or 21 Contusion 15 Back 15
between Cut, laceration 14 Trunk 9
Struck by falling 9 Fracture 9
object
tionary object
Vehicles (indus- 110 Caught in, under, or 33 Sprain, strain 29 Trunk 23

trial, tractors and between Contusion 24 Finger 14
other powered Overexertion 15 Fracture 18 Back 12
vehicles) Occupant in motor 14
vehicle accident
Struck by 13
Vehicles (highway) 377 Occupant in motor 140 Sprain, strain 97 Trunk 74

vehicle accident Contusion 95 Multiple parts 53
Struck against 52 Cut, laceration 55 Back 52
stationary object Fracture 47 Finger 40
Caught in, under, or 39
between
TABLE II1-5
1976-1979, FOR THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY (Concluded)

Welding machines 167 Contact with radiation 127 Welder flash 110 Eye 156
(electric) Radiation effects 37
Wheelbarrows and 170 Overexertion 84 Sprain, strain 90 Back 54

handtrucks Caught in, under, or 29 Contusion 34 Trunk 23
between Fracture 18 Finger 20
Struck by 19
Working/walking 1,797 Fall to work surface 540 Sprain, strain 776 Back 329
surfaces Fall to level below 307 Contusion 307 Ankle 284
Fall from vehicles 299 Fracture 273 Trunk 230
w Knee 185
Wrench 100 Overexertion 43 Sprain, strain 40 Finger 23

Struck by 36 Contusion 21 Trunk 22
Struck by falling obj. 10 Cut, laceration 13 Back 15
Fracture 12
Miscellaneous 1,541 Overexertion 514 Sprain, strain 492 Back 378

classifiable Struck by falling 198 Contusion 222 Finger 174
object Cut, laceration 171
None lassifiable 488 Overexertion 96 Sprain, strain 145 Back 145

Trunk 67
Total incidents 15,208 10, 123 11,272 7,987

(%) 100% 67% 74% 53%
Compiledfrom U.S. Department of Labor Supplementary Data System (SDS) unpublished accident andinjury
data for 1976 - 1979 [24].
recent years (1977 to 1981). Of the 2,250 accident/injury reports,
1,319 (about 59%) were included in the analysis. Of these 1,319
injuries, 34 resulted in a fatality. Those reports not included in the
analysis primarily contained injury information, and were found to
contain insufficient data to determine accident causal factors.
A preliminary analysis of these accident case histories was performed to

determine whether the accident data base was indicative of accidents
occurring to workers in precasting operations nationwide. Each report
was categorized by type of accident ("struck by," "caught between,"
"fall"). Numerical and percentage values of the "type of accident"
categories were compared to the national SDS figures (Table III-4). The
comparison (Table III-6) shows markedly similar ratios; e.g., the
percentage of "struck by" and/or "caught between" accident types are
reasonably consistent in both data bases. Because of the similarities
between data from the sources considered, it was concluded that the
accident/injury case histories used in this report are representative of
accidents that occur to workers in the precast concrete products
industry.
The first step in the analysis was the identification of the specific
task, tool, type of material, piece of equipment, or plant area most
closely associated with the accident in each case. This procedure made
possible more precise and industry-specific classification than the
SDS "Source of Injury" category could provide. Then, a causal factor
was identified in each case (e.g. improper tool use, lack of personal
protective equipment, lack of adequate guarding, improper materials
handling procedures). The task/tool/equipment factors and accident
causal factors were then cross-indexed to allow the identification of
problem areas.
The following narrative descriptions of how workers are injured in the

precast concrete products industry are based on analysis of SDS data
(Table III-5) and the accident case histories. The percentage that
follows each category or factor is the percentage of the total number of
accidents (1,319) from the case history analysis.
Section a covers general accident factors; i.e., tasks, tools and items
of equipment that are not specific to the precast industry. Section b
presents factors that are specific to precasting processes. Section c
describes accident causal factor patterns, groups of factors which may
encompass several task/tool/equipment categories. Essentially, the
organization of sections a, b, and £ is followed in the presentation of
the recommendations in Chapter IV.
a. General Accident Factors
The following narrative paragraphs describe the ways workersare

injured due to task/tool/equipment factors which are not
necessarily specific to the precast concrete products industry.
38
TABLE III-6
COMPARISON OF SDS ACCIDENT/INJURY CLASSIFICATION WITH
THE ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENT CAUSAL FACTORS FOR THE
PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
No. of No. of
Type of Accident Accidents (%)* Accidents (%)**
Struck By or Against 5,187 (34.1) 508 (38.5)

Falls 2,210 (14.5) 268 (20.3)
Caught In or Between 1,523 (10.0) 152 (11.5)
Rubbed/Abraded Against 767 (5.0) 11 (0.8)
Overexertion 3,220 (21.2) 258 (19.6)
Contact w/Temp. Extremes 295 (1.9) 22 (1.7)
Contact w/Caustics 599 (4.0) 67 (5.1)
Motor Vehicle Accidents 162 (1.1) 16 (1.2)
All Other Classifications 1,245 (8.2) 17 (1.3)
(including nonclassifiable)
Total 15,208 (100.0) 1,319 (100.0)
*Taken from Table III-4 [Note: The SDS classifications

"Bodily Reaction" and "Nonclassifiable" were not used
in the analysis; however, their totals are included under
"All Other Classifications."]
**Analysis of 1,319 accident case histories from OSHA acci
dent investigations and employers' first report of injury
forms.
Although these general factors are arranged in order from highest

to lowest percentage of occurrence, this grouping does not suggest
that one factor represents a more significant hazard than another,
since no data clarifying worker exposure are available.
(1) Materials Handling (28.0%)
(a) Manual (19.9%)
(i) Lifting (9.6%)
The act of lifting items resulted in nearly 10% of

the injuries in the industry. Approximately 81% of
these incidents involved overexertion to the back
while manually handling materials. Loss of grip
accounted for 9% of the lifting accidents. These
usually resulted in injuries either to the lower
extremities when the load was dropped or to the
39
fingers when the load was set down with inadequate
clearance.
(ii) Mechanical Materials Transport (7.1%)
This category presents a variety of tasks associated

with materials handling as well as a variety of
other accident causal factors. Included in this
activity are interface of manual and mechanical load
handling procedures performed on flatbed trucks and
the manual transfer of materials to forklifts.
Manual materials handling and gripping of materials
accounted for 27% of the injuries in approximately
the same causal/injury breakdown as cited in the
discussion of the lifting category. Improper
stacking and binding of materials was reported to be
the cause of about 27% of these accidents, usually
from the material falling onto the worker. An
additional 12% of the accidents occurred to workers
attempting to climb onto the transport vehicle or
the material itself when access was not provided.
(iii) Carrying and Holding (1.8%)
This category of activity includes the manual tasks,

by one or more workers, of carrying or handling
materials. Many of the injuries were sprains and
strains that usually occurred from overexertion
during the procedure. About 29% of the injuries
were attributed to falls from working/walking
surfaces which were wet and/or slippery and
cluttered with tripping hazards. Inadequate
interworker coordination on multiperson tasks
accounted for 25% of the accidents. These incidents
frequently occurred when a worker would prematurely
drop his portion of the load (See Table III-5,
"Concrete aggregate" and "Containers").
(iv) Wheelbarrows and Handtrucks (1.4%)
About one-third of the accidents that occurred with

hand transport systems were attributed to
working/walking surfaces which were either cluttered
with tripping hazards or were wet and/or slippery.
Wet, slippery surfaces increase the potential hazard
when pushing or pulling items. Most of the
remaining accidents were attributable to manual
materials handling problems, including improper
worker position and improper lifting techniques.
40
(b) Mechanical (8.1%)
(i) Hoists and Cranes, Including

Pendant-Operated (4.4%)
The injury analysis indicated the most serious

accidents and injuries occurred during tasks
involving the use of cranes and hoists. Fourteen
(41%) of the reported fatalities happened during
craning activities. The fatal accidents were most
frequently related to rigging practices and/or
overloading. Workers were struck by dropped loads,
material falling off the loads, as well as falling
hoist components during crane failures. Two
fatalities occurred when workers were struck by
cranes moving a suspended load. Another worker was
fatally injured when struck by a load suspended by a
straddle carrier.
The nonfatal injuries followed a similar pattern of

accident causalfactors. Although a number of
incidents involved fingers being caught between
suspended loads and stationary objects or in the
rigging material (Table III-5, "Cranes" and
"Hoisting apparatus"), most of these accidents were
caused either by inadequate rigging and/or crane
overload or by the movement of the crane or load.
In these instances, although the injuries were less
severe, the potential for fatal accidents was
evident.
(ii) Forklifts (1.9%)
Forklifts are used throughout the industry to move

material as well as finished products. Forklift
operations accounted for about 12% of the
fatalities. These accidents usually occurred to
coworkers that were not seen by the forklift
operator. One fatality resulted from overloading of
the lift's capacity, causing the forklift to tip and
crush the operator. Accidents that occurred during
lift operations that were attributable to improper
stacking, storage, or binding techniques are listed
in other categories (e.g., Mechanical Materials
Transport and Material Storage).
Operating errors (running into or over objects,

tripping, and speeding) were the causal factors
cited in many of the accident reports. Inadequate
visibility in the work area and inadequate
audibleness of the forklift in motion contributed to
41
the accidents occurring to coworkers. Table III-5
indicates that workers suffered injuries to the
fingers and feet by being caught in or struck by the
forklift.
(iii) Hoists, Chain (0.8%)
Rigging practices were again found to be commonly at

fault in accidents involving mechanical chain
hoists. Hand operation of the hoists necessitated
close proximity to the hoisted loads and contributed
to employee exposure to hoist or rig failure.
(iv) Conveyors (0.6%)
Although only 0.6% of the accidents involved con

veyors, they accounted for nearly 9% of the fatal
injuries. These accidents occurred when the
conveyor jammed and the operator/worker attempted to
free the jam without deenergizing and locking out
the system. Workers were caught by or in exposed
moving portions of the conveyors. Lack of guarding
of exposed moving parts and/ or nonlimiting access
to the area were cited as contributing factors to
the accidents. Similarly, the nonfatal incidents
usually involved the upper extremities being caught
in or between the conveyor mechanisms as shown in
Table III-5.
(v) Front-End Loaders (0.4%)
Front-end loaders are normally used in the movement

of bulk materials (aggregate, sand) from the
stockpile to the mixing area. There were two types
of accidents involved: those that occurred to the
operator during the process of getting off the
loader (access), and those that resulted in
coworkers being injured. In the latter accidents,
the injured workers were in the path of travel of
the loaders and were either caught between it and
another object or they were run over by the moving
equipment. Inaudible or nonfunctioning backup
alarms as well as operator inability to see
coworkers were cited as contributing factors.
(2) Handtools (11.5%)
(a) Handtools, Powered (5.8%)
Nearly all of the injuries attributable to the use of

powered handtools resulted from deficiencies in three
42
areas: guarding, tool usage, and lack of eye protection.
The injury analysis revealed that most eye injuries occur

during use of grinders. The remaining grinder-related
accidents were the result of inadequate or non-existent
guards that failed to prevent finger contact or protect
against stone disintegration. In some instances, while
using the grinder, part of an employee's body, usually
the thigh, came into contact with the abrasive stone. In
the SDS accident/injury analysis (Table III-5), eye
injuries occurring during grinding activities were not
listed with grinders; rather, they were tabulated in the
"Particles" category.
Although lack of eye protection contributed to 20% of the

powersaw injuries, the single, consistent accident causal
factor was inadequate or nonexistent saw blade guards
(58%). Included in this category were instances when
anti-kickback devices were not used during ripping
operations. The majority of injuries resulting from lack
of saw guards were lacerations and amputations of
fingers. Two eye injury accidents also occurred while
using concrete saws.
The accident analysis shows that most accidents during

drilling tasks occurred when large-diameter (1-inch or
larger) holes were drilled through forms. The drill bit
would bind and the drill motor would continue to turn,
catching the workers'hands between the motor and
adjacent items, usually the form. This may be
interpreted as improper tool use or as improper worker
position relative to the task.
Lack of eye protection accounted for one-third of the

reported injuries that occurred while using airhammers.
In some instances, airhammers were used in awkward
positions, resulting in strains and sprains of the back
and/or arms. In three instances, the airhammer was
positioned for use too close to the edge of either a form
or product, and the worker's hands or fingers were
caught. Table III-5 indicates that powered hammers as a
source of injury resulted in injuries to the back because
of worker overexertion and to fingers that were struck by
the hammer.
(b) Handtools, Unpowered (5.7%)
Strains of the back are the most prevalent injury

associated with shoveling activities. The injury reports
indicated that many injuries were associated with over
loading the shovel, twisting the body, and handling the
43
load from too great a distance (see Table III-5, "Shovel"
and "Concrete aggregate").
The activity of "prying" is frequently performed by

workers dismantling forms and separating the product from
the form. Referring back to Table III-5, 47% of the
accidents involving crowbars, a tool routinely used for
prying, were classified by the SDS as "struck by"
accident types resulting in contusions and sprains and
strains. The most frequent areas of the body injured
were the back and finger. The analysis of the accident
cases showed that 65% of the prying accidents were
reported to be caused by improper worker position
relative to the task. When the prying implement slipped,
the tool usually either struck the worker or the worker
slipped and fell. Most of the remaining accidents
involving prying activities resulted from improper tool
use. Shovels were commonly misused by workers attempting
to pry forms loose from cured concrete.
The most common type of accident that occurs during the

use of handtools is the "struck by" variety (Table
III-5), most frequently caused by improper position of
the worker relative to the task. The analysis indicated
that glancing blows are commonly cited as the cause of
the accident. Fingers and hands were struck by hammers
and sledge hammers when part of a worker's body was in
the path of the deflected hammer movement. Use of
improper tools contributed to 25% of the hammering
accidents. Typical cases involved shovels, wrenches, and
boards used to hammer forms, nails, or other materials.
The analysis indicated that fingers were the most

frequent part of the body injured while using a wrench;
usually, the wrench slipped off a nut or bolt. The
injury reports indicated that many accidents associated
with tool slippage were caused by improper tool usage
(size and/or adjustment). The accident probability was
compounded by improper worker position relative to the
task. The information in Table III-5 indicates that
workers suffered sprains and strains from excessive
physical effort while using wrenches. This could
possibly be a result of using wrenches of improper size
for the job.
(3) Worker Proximity to Operations (7.4%)
(a) Walking Through Work Areas (6.3%)
In a numberof instances a specific task or activity

description was not included in the accident report. The
44
worker was "walking" in an unspecified section of the
plant. Almost 29% of these injuries were nail punctures
of the foot. More than 45% were falls to the
working/walking surface caused by slipping on wet,
slippery surfaces or tripping on material, usually pieces
of concrete debris, rebar, welding stubs, or leads.
(b) Working Near Operations (1.1%)
This category includes workers injured by tasks or

operations that were independent from their assigned
tasks. The most prevalent accident/injury in this
grouping was flash burns from nearby welding operations.
In fact, 45% of the reported flash burns occurred to
workers who were not involved in the actual welding
process. Two workers were also injured by particles from
nearby metal grinding operations.
(4) Welding, Cutting, Burning (4.6%)
The data indicated most of the injuries (54%) that occurred in

welding, cutting, and burning activities were typified by
foreign bodies in the eye that were caused by slag or weld
"pop." In these instances, the workers were not wearing eye
protection. An additional 20% of the injuries were flash
burns to the workers performing the welding operations. In
these cases, the worker was usually inadequately protected
because cutting goggles were being used instead of approved
welding hoods during short welding operations. The SDS data
(Table III-5) indicate that welders flash burnsaccount for 1%
of the industry's injuries.
(5) Chemical Handling (4.6%)
More than 44% of the incidents in this category involved

chemical dermatitis caused by direct skin contact with moist
concrete. Concrete burns, most commonly to hands and
forearms, were usually sustained during casting or cleanup
operations. In a few instances, concrete dermatitis developed
during the dry mixing of the concrete. Lack of respiratory
protection accounted for four of the incidents involving
cement dust.
Lack of personal protective equipment, mostly eye protection,

was a contributing factor in 30% of the chemical handling
injuries. Workers received eye injuries during mixing,
casting, and cleanup operations. Lack of eye protection was
also a causal factor in four eye injuries that occurred during
spray application of form release agents. Sprayers were
overpressurized by misapplication of unregulated systems,
resulting in explosions of the canisters in two instances.
45
(6) Materials Storage (4.5%)
Analysis of the accident data indicates that 46% of the

materials storage accidents were the direct result of improper
stacking and/or binding procedures. Product storage (multi
level) stacks were not stable enough to support their height
and weight. Most of the injuries occurred while workers were
in the process of adding additional material to the stack.
The second most frequent cause of injury in materials storage
activities was related to manual materials handling and
improper gripping of the load. Fingers and toes were most at
risk during these activities.
(7) Ladders and Scaffolds (3.9%)
One-fourth (25%) of the ladder/scaffold accidents were

directly attributable to working from makeshift platforms
(improper tools). The accidents that occurred on makeshift
scaffolds were usually falls to the level below. Two scaffold
accidents (one fatal) involved scaffolds with inadequate or
nonexistent guardrails. Slippery (wet, icy) conditions on the
ladders/scaffolds were cited in more than 22% of the
accidents, mostly resulting in falls to the working surface of
the scaffold. Inadequate securing of ladders against slipping
(chocking, blocking, or tying) caused six of the accidents
that were falls to levels below. In two instances, ladders
were placed in the paths of moving vehicles (forklift, crane),
resulting in collisions and serious injuries.
(8) Chipping/Cleaning (2.9%)
The majority of injuries that occurred to workers cleaning

forms, products, or mixers probably would have been prevented
by eye protection. The second largest accident causal factor
in chipping/cleaning tasks was inadequate or nonexistent
access to the area; makeshift worker platforms were common.
b. Process-specific Accident Factors
The following narrative paragraphs describe the ways workers are

injured due to task/tool/equipment factors specific to the
precasting processes. In the absence of data clarifying worker
exposure, the percentage ranking is not intended to imply that any
one factor represents a more significant hazard than another.
(1) Form Work (7.2%)
(a) Form Assembly/Disassembly (4.9%)
Form assembly and dismantling are frequently manual

procedures that involve physical manipulation of form
46
components. Consequently, the accident/causal factors
associated with form assembly primarily fall into the
categories that typify physical procedures; e.g., the
worker's position relative to the task, and gripping and
handling form components. Many of the injuries that
occurred in form assembly tasks were sprains and strains
of the back, and injuries to the fingers. In two
instances, workers were struck by form sections being
turned by overhead hoists. Inadequate chocking and
bracing of form sections during assembly or stripping
contributed to many of the more serious injuries. In the
instances when the form component adhered to the cured
concrete, workers were struck by or caught beneath a
portion of the form that was suddenly released and fell.
Additional information concerning injuries resulting from
form work can be found in Table III-5, "Forms" and
"Lumber".
(b) Form Closing (1.1%)
Included in this activity are the tasks associated with

closing (assembly) of prefabricated multiuse form
components. Binding and unexpected release of the inner
cores or outer forms of pipe molds typified most of the
accidents in this group. "Caught between" accidents
resulting in injuries to the fingers were the most common.
(r.) Form Stripping (1.2%)
The most common cause of accidents in form stripping

activities involved improper tool usage. Most
frequently, these accidents resulted from using shovels
as levers to pry form walls loose from the cured concrete.
The most serious accidents, one of which was fatal,

involved inadequate or nonexistent cribbing or blocking
of form walls. The fatality resulted when a worker
crawled under a portion of form wall no longer integral
to the remainder of the form or the product to determine
where the form was still "hung up." The form wall fell
while the worker was under it.
(2) Reinforcing (4.3%)
(a) Tying Resteel (1.5%)
With the exception of hands and fingers that were

lacerated during the handling of the resteel, most
workers (40%) were injured in accidents involving access
to the forms and/or slippery working surfaces. The
actual placing of strand differed little in accident
47
causal patterns from other forming and casting
operations. Additional injury information is contained
in Table III-5, "Reinforcement".
(b) Stressing (1.5%)
The accidents that most frequently occurred during

stressing operations were similar to accidents which
occurred during other forming and casting operations.
Lack of eye protection accounted for more than 32% of the
incidents— most of these caused by metal particles
(scale) flicking off during the handling of the strand.
The more serious accidents occurred during the actual
stressing procedure and involved inadequate or
nonexistent means for controlling employee access to the
stressing area.
The high tension stretching of the steel strand poses a

somewhat unique hazard to the industry. Since stressing
is used in only about 10% of the precasting plants, the
relatively small number of accident cases (19) may not
reflect the frequency of accidents occurring in the
actual stressing operation. The static forces contained
in stressed strand are potentially hazardous. When these
forces are accidentally released, workers within range of
strand whiplash are exposed to potentially serious injury.
(c) Metalworking Machinery (1.3%)
Metalworking machinery (cage rollers, rebar benders and

cutters, press brakes) are used in the precast concrete
products industry to manufacture the shapes necessary for
reinforcing concrete. More than 1% of the accidents that
occurred to precast concrete workers happened during
metalworking tasks related to the production of the
reinforcing steel shapes. Inadequate and nonexistent
guarding was the major accident causal factor associated
with metalworking tools and operations. Cage rollers
(0.6%) accounted for nearly one-half of these accidents.
Failure to guard in-rolling nip points on the cage
rollers resulted in two of the more serious injuries.
Other accidents occurred while handling the metal items
during bending, cutting, or rolling operations.
Frequently, these were either lacerations of the hands
caused by sharp edges or crushing injuries due to
hands-on manipulation of the metal while the machine was
in operation. Additional information concerning injuries
from machinery can be found in Table III-5.
48
(3) Oiling
Analysis of the accident reports failed to identify accidents

which were specifically ascribed to the oiling process.
Factors which may influence the occurrence of accidents during
oiling procedures include contact with form release agents,
access to forms or product, and working/walking surfaces.
These factors are discussed in the paragraphs on Chemical
Handling in section a, and in the paragraphs on Personal
Protective Equipment, Access, and Working/Walking Surfaces in
section £.
(4) Concrete Mixing and Transport (2.6%)
(a) Concrete Mixing (1.8%)
Failure to lockout or tagout an energy source before

entering or reaching into concrete mixing equipment
accounted for 25% of the accidents involving concrete
mixing and 3 of the 6 lockout/tagout related fatalities.
Twelve percent of these accidents occurred when workers
were attempting to access mixers. Fifteen percent of
these accidents involved workers who were caught in or
struck by chutes or hatches when they were not secured in
place.
(b) Concrete Transport (0.8%)
Ready-mix concrete delivery trucks accounted for most of

the accidents in this category. Usually the worker was
struck by or caught between the delivery chute and the
form. The more serious injuries happened during
cleaning/maintenance operations on the trucks and were
caused by lack of adequate energy control procedures.
(5) Casting Concrete (4.0%)
(a) Casting Concrete (3.1%)
The accidents that occurred during casting operations

were most commonly caused by lack of access to the
casting beds or between forms. Workers must continually
get up onto and down from forms, or move back and forth
between forms. In these instances, access was either not
provided or was located in an area away from the work
activity. Slipping or tripping on working surfaces
caused almost 24% of the casting accidents. Most of the
accidents were falls from or onto the casting bed, or
involuntary recovery from slips or falls resulting in
sprains, fractures, and contusions. Accidents that
49
were more task or tool specific (concrete delivery, pipe
machine, scaffolds), yet still operationally part of the
overall casting procedure, were included in the more
specific category.
(b) Concrete Buckets (0.5%)
The injuries occurring to workers using concrete buckets

were caused by the opening and closing mechanisms on the
bucket's pour hatch. The latch bar frequently caught
fingers and hands between the handle and the bucket.
(c) Pipe Manufacturing Equipment (0.4%)
The serious injuries to workers during mechanical pipe

operations (packerhead and horizontal pipe spinning) were
the result of inadequate machine guarding or isolation of
the operation and the moving mechanical parts. A packer-
head table with a gap between the table and the adjacent
working surface caused a serious leg injury. Inadvertent
entanglement with a horizontal pipe spinner injured
another worker. Workers' eyes are also at risk in these
operations. The rotating speeds used in these casting
operations tend to "throw" cement and aggregate out into
the adjacent work area.
(6) Sandblasting (0.3%)
The accidents that occurred during sandblasting operations

were attributable to misuse of the sandblaster and/or the
pressurized air system. Inadvertent activation of the
sandblaster caused two of the reported accidents.
(7) Curing
Analysis of the accident reports failed to identify accidents

which were specifically ascribed to the curing process.
Factors which may influence the occurrence of accidents during
curing procedures include contact with curing agents and hot
steam, access to form and product, and cluttered or slick
passageways, aisles, or other working/walking surfaces. These
factors are discussed in the paragraphs on Chemical Handling
in section a, and in the paragraphs on Personal Protective
Equipment, Access, and Working/Walking Surfaces in section c.
(8) Product Handling and Transport (5.0%)
(a) Vehicles (3.4%)
This classification of equipment is comprised of various

types of trucks (flatbeds, pickups) that are used to
50
transport products on or off of the plant premises. More
than 82% of these accidents occurred while workers were
attempting to get onto or off of the vehicle bed
(access). The beds of these vehicles are typically 3 or
more feet above the ground. Adequate foot and hand holds
are seldom provided in places which would assist workers
getting onto or offof the vehicles. Slippery or
cluttered surfaces contributed to these accidents,
resulting in all types of injuries (lacerations,
fractures, contusions) to all parts of the body.
Additionally, the SDS data (Table III-5) indicate that 1%
of the injuries were sustained by occupants of motor
vehicles involved in accidents. The SDS data also
indicate that 2% of the injuries were attributed to
workers falling off vehicles (see Table III-5,
"Working/walking Surfaces").
(b) Product Removal (0.8%)
The most serious accident occurred when a crane was used

to lift a product from a form to which the product
remained adherent. When the crane attempted to hoist the
product, the weight of the adhered form, an unknown
force, resulted in crane overload and failure. One
worker was killed.
Inadequate cribbing or blocking of the product during

product removal tasks also resulted in serious injuries
to workers (one was fatal). Workers under the product
attempting to position rigging material or guide the load
were injured when the product shifted, catching them
under the load.
(c) Rolling Stock (Pipe) (0.8%)
Handling and storage of rolling stock (concrete pipe)

resulted in 0.8% of the injuries in the industry. More
than 55% of these accidents were the result of improper
or nonexistent binding or chocking of the pipe.
Although the back, hands and fingers were the most
frequent parts of the body injured, the lower extremities
were more seriously injured. Most of the remaining
accident case histories cited rigging failure during
stacking as the cause of the accident.
c. Accident Causal Factor Patterns
The method used to analyze the accident case histories allowed the
identification of significant accident patterns by the grouping of
related accident causal factors. For example, injuries attributed
to wet, icy, or slippery surfaces; tripping; or puncture; are
51
discussed below under the general heading "Working/Walking
Surfaces." These accident patterns indicate hazardous activities
or conditions that encompass various tasks, industrial processes,
tools, and items of equipment utilized in the precast concrete
products industry. The arrangement of these patterns by
percentage, in order from highest to lowest, is not intended to
suggest that one accident pattern represents greater hazard to
workers than another pattern, since data clarifying worker exposure
are not available.
(1) Manual Materials Handling (17.6%)
There are two major accident types that occur as the result of
improper manual materials handling procedures: overexertion
accidents that cause sprains and strains of the back and
shoulders, and materials movement accidents (dropped load,
load placed on fingers) that usually result in lacerations,
contusions, and fractures of fingers or toes. There is very
little task specificity in manual materials handling
accidents. Workers are required to lift and handle materials
and tools throughout all precasting operations. They appear
to be injured in proportion to the expected amount of manual
materials handling likely to be used in any given task.
(2) Working/Walking Surfaces (12.4%)
The production processes of forming, pouring, stripping, and

cleaning forms produce water, excess concrete, forming
material, and a variety of tools and equipment that clutter
walking and working surfaces. These hazards result in worker
falls to the working surface and/or involuntary recovery
injuries (sprains and strains that happen when a worker
attempts to recover his balance). The SDS data (Table III-5)
indicate that bodily motion (not including lifting, pushing or
pulling) was the source of injury in 5% of the industry's
accidents. Additionally, working surfaces were the source of
injury in 12% of the accidents when workers fell while
performing their duties.
Workers in form stripping operations (most likely responsible

for exposed nails) are not the individuals usually injured by
nails. The pattern of accidents related to nail puncture
indicates that frequently (56%) it is a person walking through
the area who steps on an exposed nail. Table III-5 indicates
that nails were involved in 1% of all injuries, resulting most
frequently in punctures to the foot.
(3) Personal Protective Equipment (10.7%)
The lack of personal protective equipment is not, in itself, a

cause of accidents. However, during activities associated
52
with some tasks or tools, workers are exposed to hazards
likely to result in injuries. For example, cutting torch
tasks cause metal particles to fly through the air, increasing
the probability of eye injuries; or, mixing and placement of
concrete may result in material splashes that cause eye
injuries; or, loads may fall or be dropped onto workers feet
resulting in toe injuries.
In precasting operations, 10.7% of the injuries were likely to

have been prevented by the employee wearing proper personal
protective equipment. In most instances resulting in injury,
the type of protective device found lacking was eye protective
equipment. Concrete splashes, slag from cutting operations,
metal particles from grinding, sawdust, particles falling from
or blowing off forms, curingcompounds, and general airborne
dirt all resulted in eye injuries. Although safety glasses
(eye protection) may not have prevented all of the reported
injuries, their use certainlywould have lowered the incidence
of occupational eye injury.
Two fatal accidents in this category involved employees

working from elevated areas and were directly attributable to
the lack of fall protective devices. In both cases, the
workers were performing tasks, on or from forms, without the
protection of a safety belt and lanyard. The use of an
adequate scaffold, including guardrails, would also have
provided worker protection.
Crushing injuries to toes and feet resulting from the impact

of heavy products and materials are not likely to be entirely
eliminated by the wearing of safety-toed boots. However, such
protective footwear would likely have prevented some of the
injuries and reduced the severity of others in many of the
cited instances.
(4) Access (9.8%)
Inadequate or nonexistent access to work areas was the primary

causal factor in 9.8% of the accidents. As an accident causal
factor, lack of adequate access resulted in workers being
injured while performing most tasks and activities directly
involved in the manufacture of precast concrete products.
Workers attempting to move or work on casting beds and/or
forms accounted for 38% of the "access" accidents. Most of
these accidents were falls to lower levels; that is, off of
the form or casting bed and onto the adjacent working surface
(see Table III-5, "Working/walking surfaces"). Injuries
ranged from simple bruises and lacerations to fractures. Many
of the remaining "access" accidents were related to equipment;
more than half of the vehicle access accidents involved
53
workers climbing onto or down from truck beds. Again, the
injuries usually were caused byfalls to below.
(5) Mechanical Materials Handling (7.6%)
Mechanical materials handling accidents comprised 38% (13) of

the fatalities analyzed; half of these occurred to coworkers
that were struck by a moving vehicle (crane, forklift).
Twenty-three percent of the fatalities in mechanical materials
handling were caused by rigging overloads. There were two
incidents of crane "two-blocking" that resulted in fatal
injury to workers.
The use of hoists, cranes, and forklifts is common throughout

the industry. In many instances, the product is simply too
heavy to move by other means. In some instances, the material
is alsotoo heavy to be moved by the selected mechanical
method. Employees frequently work in closeproximity to
moving equipment. This interface, man and moving equipment,
when compounded by the distractions of ongoing work and
background noise, contributes to fatal accidents in precasting
operations.
(6) Guarding (2.7%)
Inadequate or nonexistent guards were cited in 2.7% of the

accidents. All but 2 of these 36 accidents occurred in con
junction with exposed moving parts of machinery and/or tools.
Unguarded saws injured workers most frequently (31%), and un
guarded grinders (abrasive stone) accounted for 17% of the
injuries related to guarding.
(7) Chocking, Bracing, and Cribbing (2.6%)
The data indicate that most of the accidents that were caused
by inadequate chocking, bracing, or cribbing occurred to
employees engaged in tasks or activities related to partially
assembled or dismantled forms. Form structures may adhere to
concrete surfaces and then release suddenly. In some
instances, employees were working (chipping, cleaning,
welding, rigging) on or from forms that were braced or cribbed
inadequately or not at all. Almost 12% of the fatal accidents
in this industry occurred because of inadequate chocking or
bracing.
(8) Lockout/Tagout (Control of Hazardous Energy) (1.6%)
Approximately 29% of the accidents caused by failure to

control an energy source prior to performing maintenance or
servicing activities were fatal. Inadequate control of
hazardous energy resulted in 18% of the total fatalities.
54
Employees reaching or climbing into concrete mixing equipment
(pan mixers, drum mixers, ready-mix trucks) without
controlling the energy source accounted for three of the six
fatal accidents.
Conveyors may jam during operation. Workers were injured

while attempting to remove the jammed objects without first
controlling the systems' energy sources.
D. New Employee Injury Rates
Analysis of the 1,319 accident case histories shows that 513 (54%) of the
950 reports that included length of employment information involved workers
employed less than 1 year. In fact, 408 (43%) of the injuries were actually
sustained by workers employed for less than 6 months.
Several factors may influence the apparent prevalence of injuries to new

employees. Although some plants experience a relatively high turnover rate,
many smaller plants seem to have a stable work force. These plants will
layoff and rehire the same workers in accordance with seasonal or economic
demands.Therefore, an injured employee reported as "new" on an injury
report form, may actually be an experienced worker. Further, new employees
may perform the more hazardous tasks. Or, new employees may typically
comprise about 50% of the work force. No information which identifies
either the distribution of tasks among workers of varying experience or the
number of relatively new employees that make up the worker population at any
given time is available. However, there is evidence to suggest that new
employees or employees performing new tasks suffer significantly higher
rates of injury than the employed population in general [25,26].
E. Summary of the Problem
Accident and injury statistics for 1980 indicate that the injury and illness
incidence rate for the precast concrete products industry (SIC 3272) was 2.5
times the rate for all private sector industries. Not only does the precast
concrete products industry have the problem of high injury incidence rates
relative to all private sector industries, but within the manufacturing
sector where there are similar tasks and operations, only 8, or 3.4%, of the
235 four-digit SIC code industries had higher incidence rates than this
industry in 1980.
Analysis of 1,319 accident case histories has demonstrated how employees in

the precast concrete products industry are injured while performing those
tasks necessary to manufacture concrete products. Furthermore, patterns of
accident causal factors common throughout the industry have been identified.
It is concluded that the primary safety needs of the precast concrete

products industry are: 1) implementation of the recommendations for safe
work practices presented in Chapter IV; and 2) implementation of a safety
management program, such as the one presented in Chapter V.
55
CHAPTER IV
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SAFE WORK PRACTICES FOR
THE PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
The safe work practices recommended in this chapter are presented as ways to
reduce and control injuries resulting from precasting operations. The
hazardous tasks identified, as well as the patterns of accident causal
factors developed in Chapter III, indicate potential problem areas that have
been given insufficient emphasis by the precasting industry. The solutions
offered in the following safety recommendations may not be entirely suitable
for a specific plant. In some instances, management may even view the
recommendations as counterproductive to their operations. In these
instances, the responsible persons (plant managers, safety managers, and/or
plant owners) should interpret and modify the recommendations to make them
applicable to their specific needs. It is essential that, in any
modification of the recommended safe work practices, a similar quality of
worker protection be provided.
Considerable emphasis has been placed on the safety recommendations directed

at hoist and crane activities. In the cases analyzed, 41% of the fatal
accidents occurred due to misuse of hoists and cranes. Expertise specific
to hoisting equipment may be less developed than supervisory expertise
particular to production; therefore, hoist and crane safety has been
presented in detail.
The goal of this study has been to identify hazards in precasting opera
tions and to recommend applicable and manageable means to alleviate them.
The safety recommendations presented are not meant to be all-inclusive or to
supersede the OSHA General Industry Standards, which offer adequate
regulatory guidelines for many of the tasks, tools, and equipment used in
the precast concrete products industry. Emphasis has been placed on
recommendations for safe work practices which address tasks, activities, and
tools commonly associated with injuries.
The safety recommendations are organized and presented in three major

categories:
A. General Safety Recommendations

B. Safe Work Practices for Precasting Processes
C. Safety Recommendations for Accident Causal Factor Patterns
A. General Safety Recommendations
This preliminary section presents safe work practices for the tasks, acti
vities, and tools that are commonly used throughout precasting operations.
Included in this section are the recommendations for manual and mechanical
57
materials handling, handtools, worker proximity to operations, welding and
cutting, chemical handling, ladders and scaffolding, and chipping/cleaning.
1. Manual Materials Handling
A wide range of manual materials handling activities are inherent to the

precast concrete products industry. Workers may be required to lift,
carry, push and pull raw materials and/or finished products during
loading/unloading, processing, storage and cleanup operations. The
handling and manipulation of loads can markedly increase the stresses
imposed on workers' musculoskeletal systems and increase the likelihood
of injuries to certain body areas (e.g. back, extremities) [27]. The
application of proper handling techniques can minimize these stresses
and help reduce the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries.
A number of factors can directly influence the likelihood of an

individual suffering a musculoskeletal injury during the performance of
manual materials handling activities. These are discussed in NIOSH's
"Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting" [28] and include:
o Using safe handling techniques which emphasize proper body

mechanics in performing materials handling activities
o Selecting and using assistive devices
o Providing adequate work space
o Training workers and reinforcing their activities,
a. Safe Handling Techniques
The proper use of safe handling techniques by workers performing

manual materials handling activities is one of the most important
factors in avoiding injury, since the techniques reduce body
stresses and their application are at the discretion of the
worker. NIOSH's publication "How to Lift Safely" [29] illustrates
several of the important points in materials handling. Key points
include:
o Workers should assess the size, shape and weight of objects

to be lifted or carried. Objects deemed to be beyond the
physical capacity of one worker should be handled by two or
more workers.
o Workers should spread their feet apart to provide a wide base
of support during manual materials handling,
o When lifting objects, workers should bend their knees to a
degree which is comfortable to them and then get a good firm
grip on the item to be lifted. Lifting should be accom
plished through the use of leg muscles in straightening the
knees rather than using the back muscles,
o Workers should handle objects as close to the body's center
of gravity as possible,
o Workers should avoid twisting the trunk when handling ob
jects.
58
b. Assistive Devices
A number of assistive devices can reduce or eliminate the need for

stressful manual materials handling. For example, rebar can be
stored on surfaces which correspond to the height of the bending
and cutting machines so that the worker does not need to lift the
rebar from the floor level to the cutting or bending surface. It
is even better to have the rebar storage surface gently slope
toward the cutting and bending machine. This reduces the stress
required to pull the rebar to the cutting or bending position.
Other assistive devices useful in the precast concrete products
industry include: hooks and handles, prybars or crowbars,
conveyors, dollies and handtrucks, and mechanical or electric chain
hoists. To make effective use of these items:
o Management should provide these items and encourage their

use.
o Workers should understand the importance of their use.
o Workers should select and properly utilize the appropriate
tool.
c. Adequate Work Space
Even with the intention to use proper manual handling techniques

and/or assistive devices, workers may be confronted with an inade
quate work space which restricts the use of recommended
techniques. The physical work environment should have:
o Adequate space to perform manual materials handling activi

ties
o A clear, unobstructed path if transportation of objects is
required
o Clean and dry floor surfaces to allow for a firm base of
support.
d. Training
Training workers in the principles of safe manual materials

handling techniques has been generally accepted as a means of
promoting worker safety. Training methods include booklets,
movies, slide-tape programs, lecture-demonstrations, and
back-school courses [30]. These methods also represent a wide
range of costs to employers under various financial restraints. A
training program should:
o Address the types of manual handling activities inherent to

the activities of the workers participating in the program
o Illustrate the dangers of unsafe techniques
o Emphasize the recommended techniques
o Provide workers with criteria for assessing the stress of
handling various objects.
59
Training programs are means of conveying information to workers. A
goal of training programs is that workers will alter their work
habits by substituting safer work practices for various unsafe
techniques. This form of behavioral modification usually requires
feedback to the workers. Supervisors and employers must take the
time to positively reinforce safe practices and constructively
criticize unsafe practices. Effective training is approached as an
ongoing interaction among all plant employees and not a one time
exposure to the training material [31].
2. Mechanical Materials Handling
a. Powered Hoists and Cranes
Safety in hoisting operations is a function of the interaction of

four major areas:
o Selection, inspection, and integrity of the equipment

o Competent operation
o Rigging of the load
o Handling of the load.
(1) Selection, inspection, and integrity of powered hoisting

equipment
(a) The proper selection of equipment type and capacity

is dependent upon consideration of:
o The weights, dimensions, and lift radii of the

heaviest and largest anticipated loads
o The direction the load is to be moved; i.e.,
whether horizontally, vertically, or both
o The type of lifting and load placement precision
o The ground conditions on which the equipment must
operate.
(b) Cranes should be equipped with the following safety

features and devices:
o Approved boom stops installed to preclude travel

beyond the angle of 85 degrees above the hori
zontal plane [32]
o Boom angle indicators for booms capable of moving
in the vertical plane [33]
o Automatic devices to stop boom drum motion when the
maximum permissible boom angle is reached [33]
o Boom length indicators for telescopic booms [33]
o Automatic "anti-two-blocking" devices for hydraulic
extending booms [33]
o An effective audible warning signal (horn) mounted
60
outside the cab with controls easily within reach
of the operator [33]
o A spirit level at the outrigger controls for level
ing [33]
o Adequate lighting for night operation, including
backup lights for mobile units [33]
o Wheel chocks on mobile units to block movement on
slopes when the equipment is left unattended or is
undergoing maintenance [33]
o A fire extinguisher and a first-aid kit [32]
o Rearview mirrors on both sides of mobile equip
ment [33]
o Self-closing filler caps and flame arresters on fuel
tanks [33]
o Slip-resistant material on crane surfaces subject to
foot traffic [33].
(c) Equipment should be safety inspected frequently

(daily to weekly). Inspectors should [33]:
o Check brakes, clutches, and safety devices for prop

er adjustment and operation (if possible, check load
brakes by lifting a capacity or near capacity load a
few inches off the ground)
o Daily, visually inspect each component of the equip
ment used in lifting, swinging, or lowering the load
and components used to lift and lower the boom, for
any defects that might result in unsafe operation
o Check for freedom of rotation of all swivels
o Check all functional, operating mechanisms such as
sheaves, drums, brakes, locking mechanisms, hooks,
boom, jib, hook roller brackets, outrigger compo
nents, limit switches, safety devices, hydraulic
cylinders, instruments, and lights
o On cranes, daily, visually inspect the boom and jib
for straightness and for any evidence of physical
damage such as cracking, bending, or other deforma
tion of the steel elements or welds (this precau
tion is especially important on lattice and tubular
booms, where every component should be straight and
free from dents)
o Inspect wire ropes (including standing ropes), rig
ging hardware, and attachments
o On cranes, check that the counterweight is secure
and that the weight and capacity are permanently and
legibly stamped on jibs, blocks, equalizer beams,
and all other accessories
o Daily, visually inspect the equipment for fluid or
air leaks
o Ensure that all walking surfaces of the equipment
are clean and free from tackle, grease, and oil.
61
(d) All capacities listed on the load chart for machine
"on outriggers" and "on tires" are based on the crane
being level and on solid support. The importance of
leveling cannot be overemphasized. The
manufacturers' capacity tables should be referred to
for both outriggers and tires, since lifting capacity
is reduced markedly when the crane is not level [33].
(e) If a crane has to make its lifts on rubber, always

use wheel chocks to block the wheels and apply the
airbrakes to hold the crane in position. If the
machine is of two-engine design, keep the carrier
engine running to maintain air pressure. Ensure that
the tires are properly inflated; if they are not,
then the capacity and crane stability will be reduced
[34].
(f) Dunnage under outriggers must be strong enough to

support the imposed load. If more than one layer is
needed, then proper "cross-hatched" stacking must be
used to prevent tipping. Reset outriggers before a
lift if necessary. If floats are allowed to settle
into the ground, they lose their effectiveness,
making continued operation unsafe [34].
(2) Competent operation of equipment
(a) Only thoroughly trained and tested workers are

permitted to operate a crane. When an operator is
assigned to a new crane, competence with that crane
must be demonstrated. Training and testing must be
sufficient to demonstrate that the operator fully
understands and is capable of safely performing all
tasks. The testing should include a performance
evaluation of:
o Hoist control functions and positions, including

all emergency shutdown controls
o Load charts, boom angles, radii, and their relation
ships
o Signals
o Outriggers, leveling, and stability.
(b) During operations, the crane operator should:
o Never allow his attention to be diverted from the

operation of the crane (coworkers should not be per
mitted to talk to the operator while he is working)
o Allow no passengers (excepting an oiler) on a crane
in motion or operating, especially during mobile
yarding operations
62
o Not back up the machine without first making certain
that no one will be endangered (when vision of the
area behind the crane is blocked, use a signalman)
o Sound an audible alarm (horn) before moving a crane
and whenever the crane is approaching other workers
o Sound an audible alarm whenever a suspended load is
approaching employees to give them time to move
o Never operate the crane within 10 feet of energized
high-voltage powerlines.
(c) During operations, management should:
o Prohibit employees from performing any maintenance

work on equipment while it is in service
o Barricade the swing radius of the crane structure to
prevent employees from being trapped and crushed be
tween rotating portions of the crane and adjacent
structures
o Prohibit oilers, helpers, or other workers from
areas within the swing radius of the crane carriage
while the crane is rotating or under load
o See that oilers, helpers, or other workers are not
under any portion of the crane body while a load is
suspended.
(3) Rigging the Load
The proper selection and integrity of rigging material and the

methods used to attach the load to the hoist are vital to safe
hoisting operations [33, 34].
(a) The load should be rigged so that the load is stable

in the saddle of the hook.
(b) The worker should know the safe load limits of

rigging equipment, which must not be exceeded. The
employer can accomplish this by permanently attaching
tags to, or painting a section on, each sling, rope,
and chain that identifies its capacity.
(c) The employer should train all riggers in the safe

operating procedures of rigging, including:
o Keeping hands away from pinch points as the slack is

being taken up
o Examining all hardware, equipment, tackle, and
slings before use and destroying defective compo
nents
o Making sure that all slings are of the same capaci
ty and length when two or more slings are used on a
load
63
o Making sure that the hoist rope or chain is never
wrapped around the load or completely wrapped around
a hook
o Attaching the load to the hook by slings or other
rigging devices that are adequate for the load
being lifted
o Securing the unused legs of a multileg sling before
lifting loads with one leg
o Remembering when a bundled load is picked up that
the material will tend to "nest" and create pinch
points, and when a load is landed, it will tend to
roll or spread out
o Making sure wood blocks or short lengths of steel
are not carried loosely on tops of loads
o Making sure wire rope or chain is never allowed to
lie on the ground for any length of time or on damp
or wet surfaces, rusty steel, or near corrosive
substances
o Avoiding draping rope slings from beneath loads
o Keeping all rope or chain clear of flame cutting
and electric welding operations
o Making sure shackles are not rigged with the run
ning rope against the pin, causing it to "spin out"
and drop the load
o Ensuring proper load/shackle alignment by using
spacers such as washers
o Keeping the load under control with guide ropes or
tag lines.
(d) Workers should be supervised by competent personnel

who:
o Plan the job

o Ensure the care of rigging equipment
o Supervise rigging operations.
(e) Slings, ropes, or chains should not be left on the

floor or ground where they can be subjected to
abrasion or create a tripping hazard. They should be
hung from a rack and looped so that they do not touch
the floor.
(f) All hooks should have safety latches.
(g) Sharp bends, pinching, and crushing of ropes and

slings must be avoided. Sharp edges or corners of
heavy loads should be padded as protection for slings
by the use of large-diameter split pipe sections,
corner saddles, or other, softer material.
64
(4) Handling of the load
(a) Standard hand signals must be used. The load should

not be "picked" until the signal is received from the
signalman. All signals must be clearly understood by
the operator. If there is any doubt, the operator
should stop operations until the signal has been
clarified. The crane operator should receive signals
from only one person; this does not exclude relay
signaling or emergency stop signals. Signalmen may
be supplied with orange gloves for maximum signal
visibility.
(b) Crane/hoist operators should remain at the controls

whenever a load is suspended.
(c) When preparing for new and near-capacity picks, the

operator should make a practice run, going through
all the motions without the load, anticipating the
actions that should be taken to make a safe lift and
a smooth operation.
(d) The crane should never be loaded beyond its rated

capacity.
(e) Handling loads during high winds should be avoided.
(f) Safety precautions for walking a crane while it is

supporting a load should include:
o Tagging the load to the crane body

o Prohibiting employees from walking the load with
"hands-on" guidance
o Keeping the load as close as practical to the ground
o Avoiding ground irregularities that could cause a
loaded crane to pendulum sideways.
(g) Overhead and gantry crane operators must be

instructed to:
o Board or leave the crane only at authorized loca

tions
o Examine and test controllers before each shift, and
keep latches in working condition
o Use limit switches for emergency purposes only
o Never operate the hoist with inoperative limit
switches
o Center the trolley and bridges over the load.
65
b. Straddle Carriers
(1) Straddle carrier operators must be thoroughly trained.
(2) Straddle carriers must be thoroughly inspected before

beginning operation each day. Particular attention should
be given to brakes and hydraulic systems. Visual
inspections of the bridge, rigging, and lifting hardware
should be made to ensure their integrity. All wire ropes
should be inspected and special safety devices should be
in working order. The inspection should be performed and
documented by qualified maintenance personnel.
(3) The rated load of the straddle crane should be posted in a

conspicuous location on the equipment and in the
operator's cab.
(4) When operator visibility is restricted, a signalman must

be provided.
(5) Visible and audible alarms should be in operation during

any moving task.
(6) No one should ride on the carrier unless such a procedure

is approved by the plant manager. Where approval is
granted, a seat or cage, located so that it will not
interfere with operator vision or in itself be a hazard,
should be provided. The rider should be in the seat or
cage before the carrier is moved and should notmove
around on the carrier until it is stopped.
c. Forklifts
(1) Only workers authorized by the employer and trained in the

safe operation of industrial trucks, forklifts, or
industrial tow tractors should be permitted to operate
these types of vehicles.
(2) Forklifts and industrial vehicles should be equipped with

audible backup alarms.
(3) Industrial vehicles must be inspected and tested to ensure

that:
o Brakes are in working order

o Backup alarms are functioning
o Hydraulic systems are working properly
o Horns and lights are in working order.
(4) Employees should not be permitted to place any part of

their bodies outside the cab or protected area of an
66
industrial truck or between mast uprights or other parts
of a truck where shearing or crushing hazards exist.
(5) Passengers are not permitted on industrial vehicles.
(6) Employees should not be allowed to stand, pass, or work

under the elevated portion of any industrial vehicle,
loaded or empty, unless it is effectively blocked to
prevent it from falling.
(7) When loading or unloading trucks or trailers, the brakes

must be set and the rear wheels chocked.
(8) Forklift forks should be carried as low as possible.
(9) Industrial vehicles should not run onto floors, platforms,

or other surfaces that will not safely support the loaded
vehicle.
(10) Vehicle loads must not exceed rated capacities. A loaded

industrial vehicle should not be moved until the load is
secure.
(11) When leaving the vehicle, the worker should shut off the
engine, set the brakes, and lower the lifting forks to the
ground.
(12) All traffic regulations should be observed including plant

speed limits. The operator of an industrial vehicle is
required to slow down and sound the horn at cross aisles
and other locations where vision is obstructed.
(13) No person should operate or be in physical control of a

motorized vehicle or piece of equipment if he is under the
influence of or is using alcohol or drugs.
d. Chain Hoists
(1) Chain hoists or "come-a-longs" should be inspected and

maintained as part of a preventative maintenance program.
Inspection should include:
o Checking the integrity of the chain or wire rope for worn

links, deformations, kinks, rust, or excessive stretch
o Examining the hook for deformity, cracks, or bending
o Ensuring that the clutch and brakes are within the manu
facturers' tolerances.
(2) Employees lifting material with mechanical hoists should:
o Use proper and accepted rigging methods
67
o Use safety latch hooks
o Chock or block loads before working under them
o Not use "cheaters" on the hoist handles. The handle
length is matched to the safe lifting capacity of the
hoist, and while the cheater extension may temporarily
enable a greater load to be lifted, it may tax the hoist
and lead to failure.
e. Conveyors
(1) Conveyors should be adequately guarded to prevent workers

from being caught on moving parts or being injured by
falling materials.
(2) Conveyors should have delay startup warning devices with

controls for emergency stops. All chain drives, gears,
nip or shear points, and revolving shafts should be
guarded.
(3) Personnel working near conveyors should wear close-fitting

clothing that cannot be caught in moving parts.
(4) Employees should be instructed in safe practices for

freeing "jammed" conveyors, including use of special
tools. A lockout system should be mandatory.
(5) Chutes or other devices that depend on gravity for moving

materials should be guarded.
(6) Employees should not climb onto a gravity conveyor unless

the equipment is locked out.
f. Front-end Loaders
(1) Mounting and dismounting accidents can be reduced if

operators utilize the following safe procedures [35]:
o Take adequate time when mounting and dismounting

o Mount and dismount facing the equipment
o Clean boots of excess mud before attempting to get on or
off the machine
o Keep access platforms and steps clean
o Use the access facilities provided on the machine
o Avoid jumping from the machine.
(2) Front-end loaders should be equipped with a backup warning

device. The device should be audible and sufficiently
distinct to be heard under the prevailing conditions. The
device should operate automatically upon commencement of
backward motion and should operate during the entire
backing operation [36].
68
(3) Loader operators should be sure other workers are in the
clear before starting or moving the machine [36].
(A) Operators should not move loads over the heads of other
workmen or over truck cabs [36].
(5) The loader bucket should be carried as low as possible and

tilted back. This provides better operator visibility and
minimizes machine bounce [36].
3. Handtools
a. Powered
Handtools (powered) should be used according to the following

safety recommendations:
(1) Hand-held powered circular saws, chain saws, and

percussion tools without a positive accessory holding
means must be equipped with a constant pressure switch
[32].
(2) Portable, power-driven circular saws must have guards

above and below the base plate or shoe. The upper guard
should cover the saw to the depth of the teeth, except for
the minimum arc required to permit the base to be tilted
for bevel cuts. The lower guard should cover the saw to
the depth of the teeth, except for the minimum arc
required to allow proper retraction and contact with the
work. When the tool is withdrawn from the work, the lower
guard must automatically and instantly return to the
covering position [32].
(3) Abrasive wheels and stones must have a safety guard cover
ing the spindle end, nut, and flange projections. The
safety guard should be mounted to maintain proper
alignment with the wheel; the strength of the fastenings
should exceed the strength of the guard [32].
(a) Prior to use, abrasive stone wheels should be

inspected to ensure that:
o They have not been damaged in transit or handling,

which is checked by means of sounding with a ring
test
o Wheels fit freely on the spindle and remain free
through an entire turn of the wheel, and that the
free clearance between wheel and guard does not ex
ceed one-fourth inch
o A controlled clearance between the wheel hole and the
machine spindle (or wheel sleeves or adaptors) is
69
sufficient to prevent excessive pressure from mount
ing and spindle expansion
o All contact surfaces of wheels, blotters, and flang
es are flat and free of foreign matter'
o When a bushing is used in the wheel hole, it does not
exceed the width of the wheel and does not contact
the flanges.
(b) The safe operating speeds of abrasive grinding stones

should not be exceeded [32].
(4) Hand-held powered drills; tappers; fastener drivers; hori

zontal, vertical, and angle grinders; disk and belt
sanders; reciprocating, saber, scroll, and jig saws; and
similar tools must be equipped with constant pressure
switches. Other handheld powered tools, such as platen
sanders; grinders; disk sanders; routers; planers; and
saber, scroll, and jig saws, should be equipped with
either a positive on-off control or a constant pressure
switch [32].
b. Unpowered
The following safe practices should be observed when unpowered

handtools are being used [37]:
(1) Train employees to select the correct tool for the job,
and ensure that the tools are available.
(2) Keep all hand tools in a safe condition. Handles of tools

shall be kept tight in the tool. Wooden handles shall be
free of splinters or cracks. Wedges, chisels, and other
struck tools should be dressed as soon as the struck
surfaces begin to mushroom. Discard wrenches which are
sprung to the extent that slippage occurs.
(3) Ins truct employees in the correct use of tools.
(a) When using shovels, workers should keep their feet

well separated to maintain balance. The worker should
use the leg muscles to carry the majority of the load,
and should grasp the handle as near the load as
possible.
(b) Hammer blows should always be struck squarely with the

hammer striking face parallel with the surface being
struck. Glancing blows should be avoided. Hammers
should be of suitable size and weight for the job.
Redressing of mushroomed hammer heads is not
recommended; the hammer should be discarded.
70
(c) Crowbars or prybars of proper size and kind should be
selected for the particular prying task. The crowbar
should have a point or toe that will grip the object
to be moved, and a heel to act as a pivot point.
Sometimes it is necessary to use a block of wood under
the heel to prevent the crowbar from slipping and
injuring the hand. Workers should position themselves
so that their bodies will not be in the path of travel
if the prybar slips. Additionally, they should
brace/position themselves so that they will not fall
if the prying forces are released suddenly.
Guardrails may be necessary to prevent workers from
falling to lower levels.
(d) Employees should be aware that when using torsion

tools such as wrenches, there is always a possibility
that the tool may slip. Therefore, the employee
should be in a braced position to maintain bodily
balance should the tool slip. Wrenches should be
inspected for flaws. Wrenches should never be ground
to change their dimensions to make them fit in close
quarters. A wrench of proper size for the job must be
selected.
4. Worker Proximity to Operations
a. Walking Through Work Areas
Work areas should be kept free of litter, trash, gravel, excess

concrete spills, welding rod stubs and other junk. All scrap,
salvageable material, unused forming or reinforcing materials and
equipment should be removed. Protruding nails in wood forming
material should either be removed or benl: over. Aisles around work
areas should be kept clear of such items as reinforcement, welding
hoses or leads, lumber, power cords, and concrete working tools.
b. Working Near Operations
Of particular interest in this category is the need to protect

workers in the vicinity of welding operations from flash burns.
Whenever possible, resistance welding operations should be isolated
to protect workers in the vicinity of the welding operations from
exposure to the direct or reflected light rays. This can be
accomplished either by use of booths for regular welding production
operations or by portable welding screens for welding being
performed intermittently throughout the plant [38].
5. Welding, Cutting, Burning
Welding, cutting, and burning necessary for making precast concrete
71
products should be done in accordance with the following safe work
practices:
a. Workers performing welding and cutting tasks should be trained.
b. Before starting welding or cutting operations, the work area

should be inspected to ensure that:
o There are no potential fire hazards

o An approved fire extinguisher is readily available
o There is no fire hazard on the opposite side where welding is
being performed on a floor, deck, wall, bulkhead, or other
partition
o The work area is clear of tools, scrap, wood, or other objects
that might fall or otherwise cause injury to another worker if
struck by the welder.
c. Welding and cutting should be done in an area having a nonflam

mable floor, such as concrete, but not on the concrete floor,
because of the possibility of explosive spalling of the
concrete. The material to be cut should be raised above the
concrete or the concrete shielded from the flame. If welding
must be done over wooden floors, a noncombustible covering
material should be placed over the floor to provide fire
protection and to prevent spatter from dripping through openings
in the floor. The use of wet sand or metal coverings, however,
may create electric shock hazards that otherwise would not exist.
d. Welding screens should be used to protect other workers from

ultraviolet (UV) light and sparks from welding operations.
Curtain and screen placement should not hamper the operator's
movements.
e. Personal protective equipment should be worn by all welders and

helpers as needed, including:
o Welding hoods with approved UV filter plates and cover plates

o Safety glasses under the welding hood
o Flameproof aprons made of leather or other fire-resistant
material
o Flameproof gauntlet gloves and shirts with long sleeves
o Cuffless trousers that hang below shoe tops and are attached
by clips or elastic bands around the trouser bottoms to pre
vent slag from entering the shoes.
f. Avoid burning while wearing ragged or oily clothes. Sparks may

lodge in rolled-up sleeves or pockets of clothing, or in cuffs
of overalls or trousers.
72
6. Chemical Handling
Persons working with chemicals such as fresh (moist) concrete, form

release agents, or epoxies should:
o Avoid d ire ct contact between skin surfaces and chemicals or
clothing saturated by chemicals
o Soon a fte r contact between skin surface areas and chemicals or
clothing saturated by chemicals, skin areas involved should be
washed thoroughly and saturated clothing areas rinsed out with
clean water
o Begin each workday with clean clothing
o Use b a rrier creams
o Wear full length trousers, long sleeve s h ir ts , waterproof gloves,
boots, and knee, elbow or hand pads
o Wear eye protection
o Conclude each workday with a shower or bath
o Periodically be updated on recommendations for safe usage con
tained on the appropriate chemical's m aterial safety data sheet.
7. Ladders and Scaffolds
a. Portable ladders should be:
o Equipped with safety feet
o Chocked and/or tied off to prevent accidental displacement ( if
necessary, a coworker should be used to hold the ladder)
o Of su ffic ie n t length to ensure that the v e rtic a l to horizontal
placement maintains a 1 to 4 r a tio (for each 10 feet in height,
the ladder feet should be 2-1/2 feet out).
b. Scaffolding should be:
o Free from holes and tripping hazards on the platforms
o Provided with adequate guardrails on a l l exposed sides, in
cluding the one next to the form if a floor gap exists
o Provided with a safe means of access.,
8. Chipping/Cleaning
The most common type of accident that occurs during chipping/cleaning
tasks involves fragments flying into workers' eyes. The following
recommendations are made to a lle v ia te th is problem:
o Persons involved in grinding, chipping, wire brushing, and/or
scraping should wear goggles or safety glasses with side shields
under a face shield,
o Since the chipping/cleaning tasks which u t i l i z e power tools can
cause p a rtic le s to be airborne for considerable distance (10 - 30
fee t), the operations should be isolated from other workers. If
73
this is not practical, then workers in the vicinity of these op
erations should also wear adequate eye and face protection.
B. Safe Work Practices for Precasting Processes
Safe work practices for procedures used in the manufacture of precast

concrete products are presented in this section. Included are safety recom
mendations that address the hazards of processes used in the precasting
industry as well as the application of tools or equipment used in a specific
process.
1. Form Work
a. Forms and Forming
(1) Forms and beds for casting should be:
o Arranged or laid out to provide a working space, aisle

way, or working platform clear of obstructions and suffi
ciently wide to provide ample room for the safe movement
of materials and vehicles
o Provided with access steps or ramps at convenient inter
vals along the bed or form
o Equipped with standard guardrails, if over 4 feet high.
(2) Forms should be structurally sound so that they do not

present a hazard to employees as they are built, repaired,
cleaned, modified, or moved.
(3) During form assembly, components should be chocked and/or

braced to prevent displacement.
(4) Safe access during vertical pipe form assembly should be

provided for workers during assembly, aligning of hoisted
parts, and attaching of hoist hooks.
(5) The floor, yard, platform, or other surface on which a form

is placed, built, or erected should be free of litter,
debris, and other loose materials that can cause tripping
hazards. Also, these surfaces should be well drained and
free of potholes, cracks, unevenness, or standing water that
may contribute to slips and falls..
(6) Tilt tables should be capable of supporting the temporary

loads of employees during forming operations in addition to
the imposed load of product. They should also be chocked
when in the upright position for cleaning, product removal,
or maintenance to avoid collapse.
74
b. Form Stripping
(1) Employees should be instructed that form bulkheads, etc.,

may temporarily adhere to the concrete product. The
bulkheads may release suddenly. Workers (and their body
parts) should not be positioned where they may be caught
between either the bulkhead, the product, and/or the form.
(2) During form stripping and product removal tasks, it is

important that form bulkheads and components be cribbed,
braced, or suspended by hoist to prevent their falling
unexpectedly.
(3) Prying tasks should only be performed with the proper tool
(crowbar or prybar). Shovels should not be used as substi
tute s.
(4) Cranes or hoists should not be used to remove products

lodged or stuck to the forms. The crane's safe lifting
capacity should not be exceeded. Use of properly adjusted
crane load indicating devices will help avoid exceeding
crane capacities.
(5) As forms are stripped, all excess material, wood, nails, and
bits of wire should be removed so that the area is clean and
safe. After forms are stripped, all nails should be bent or
pulled immediately.
2. Reinforcing
a. Reinforcing Materials/Assemblies
(1) Reinforcing assemblies should be fabricated with a working

level jig to avoid constant bending over to tie or weld.
(2) In the handling of reinforcing steel and fabricated

assemblies, the following precautions should be taken:
o Employees must be instructed and required to use correct

lifting techniques,
o Finished cages for pipes, columns, and beams should be
moved to their final locations in the forms with consider
ation of their weight and the physical capabilities of the
employees assigned,
o Mechanical lift assistance should be provided to safely
lift pieces too bulky or heavy to be handled manually,
o Bundles of reinforcing steel moved by crane or other means
should be securely tied and wedged together to prevent
slipping.
o Rebar bundles lifted by hoist should be rigged by 2-point
75
suspension chokers and moved in a balanced horizontal posi
tion. They should not be moved in the vertical plane,
o When bars carried by hand are long, bulky, or heavy, more
than one worker should be utilized,
o Rebar materials used in cutting and bending operations
should be located such as to minimize or eliminate the need
for the worker to lift the bar from ground level to the
cutting or bending height,
o Gloves should be worn during strand stringing, vise plac
ing, rebar tying or handling, mesh placement, and cage
handling tasks [39].
b. Metalworking Equipment
Metalworking equipment should meet the following requirements:
o Cage rollers should be equipped with deadman switches and

positive braking mechanisms that immediately stop the move
ment of the rollers,
o Cage or wire rollers should be equipped with trip wire
mechanisms at the in-rolling nip points, that automati
cally shut down the rollers when inadvertent contact is
made.
o Shearing machines should be equipped with physical guards
and/or proximity detectors.
c. Stressing
(1) General safety recommendations for stressing include the
following:
(a) Strand should be inspected as it is placed in the bed to

detect defects that could cause failure, such as:
o Nicks
o Kinks
o Broken wires
o Excess corrosion.
(b) Welding or cutting should not be allowed in any

stressing bed where strand has been strung or tension-
ed, or in any other location where strand is stored. If
an electric arc jumps to or from the strand, the
molecular structure of the strand is altered and a loss
of strength occurs. Heat from molten metal or torch
cutting will also change the mechanical properties of
steel wire strand.
(c) Strand vises used to secure strand at the anchor abut

ments should be placed away from a burned end to avoid
the area of altered strand strength. This distance
76
should be at least 12 diameters of the strand or 6
inches, whichever is greater.
(d) Strand previously gripped by vises, and therefore

nicked, must not be reused. Strand vises should be
cleaned and inspected between each use and lubricated as
necessary. Grips that become visibly worn or distorted,
or allow excessive slippage should be discarded.
(e) Check that the strands in the form are not crossed or
tangled before tensioning.
(f) Audible and visible alarm signals should be turned on

and remain on during tensioning. Any personnel not
directly involved in stressing operations should be
cleared from the "designated area" and remain clear
until audible and visual signals are turned off.
(g) The "designated area" should be the entire length of the

bed being stressed, including both ends and the sides
out to the center line of any adjacent bed, or one-half
the length of the longest member, but not less than 20
feet.
(h) Only stressing crew personnel directly involved in

tensioning are to be permitted in the vicinity of the
bed.
(i) Personnel in the stressing crew must not stand behind

the jack or in line with the tensioned steel, since
ruptured strand tends to retract along the line of
tension.
(j) No employees should be in the jacking area (the area

within the possible swing radius of the stressing jacks)
during stressing.
(k) Elongation should be measured by means of a template,

jig, or scale attached to the stressing jack that can be
viewed from a safe distance.
(1) Workers involved in tensioning should be protected by

bed end protection, a pumphouse, or a portable booth to
shield them from flying strands or bulkheads resulting
from strand breakage.
(m) An employee should be posted in a location with an

unobstructed view of the designated area in order to
warn personnel who inadvertently approach the re
stricted area.
77
(2) Bed End Protection
(a) Bed end protection should be provided at the jacking

abutment end of each stressing bed and should consist of
a main shield at or near the bed end (such as the
example shown in Figure IV-1) and a secondary barrier
downstream of the jacking area. Shields must be
designed to withstand the forces applied against them by
recoiling strand, flying bulkheads, and other material
that may be launched as a result of strand failures
during stressing. Shields can be fabricated of sheet
steel; heavy duty, small aperture expanded metal; or
concrete with a supporting frame of angle iron, channel,
or pipe. The purpose of bed end protection is to shield
those workers who are involved in the tensioning or
detensioning operation from flying chucks, strand, or
bulkheads resulting from chuck or strand breakage. The
following recommendations describe possible methods of
bed end protection. Staff engineers should develop
measures which are specific to the protection needs in
each plant [39].
(b) Bed end protection is in addition to:
o Safe plant layout

o Clearing the area of those not involved in stressing
o Minimizing the number of people involved in stressing
o Keeping people as far as possible from the jack during
stressing
o Using warning signals.
(c) In addition to bed end protection, a secondary barrier

(such as the example shown in Figure IV-2) should be
provided to block the path of strand retracting through
the abutment or pulling head as a result of tensioned
strand failure. Without such protection, the retracting
strand may continue along its path for several hundred
feet. The secondary barrier should be constructed of
concrete, steel, or other material able to withstand the
force of a chuck and strand retracting through the
pulling head. Alternatively., an angled trough that is
of sufficient strength and dimension to collect a
retracting strand and direct it toward the ground should
be permanently installed at the pulling head.
(3) Harping
Before harping, the operator should be knowledgeable of the

recommended depressing sequence and mark the required distance
78
T
♦Min.3l_*j
^ .S H IE L D Min.
A
3'
JACKING __T
BED
AREA —
END VIEWS S/DE VIEWS
.SHIELD T
Min.
_JL
3'
JACKING BED
AREA
FIGURE IV-1. EXAMPLE OF MAIN SHIELD BED END PROTECTION

Adapted from PCI Safety and Loss Prevention Manual [39].
on the harping dowel large enough to be visible from a safe

location during the harping sequence. During harping the
following safety recommendations should be followed:
o All unnecessary employees should be cleared from the

immediate area,
o Audible and visible alarms should alert personnel that
harping operations are taking place,
o An employee should be stationed in a safe area to en
sure that personnel do not enter the "designated area"
while harping operations are in progress,
o A mirror can be set up on the form so that an employee
can observe the depressing clip from a safe location,
o Entangled or misaligned strand should be restored to
its original position and then correctly harped. Work
ers must not attempt to shift strand while it is de
pressed .
There are different types of harping operations, and each

type requires special precautions. More detailed procedures
and safe work practices are contained in the Prestressed
79
Adapted from PCI Safety and Loss Prevention Manual [39].
Concrete Institute publication, "PCI Safety and Loss

Prevention Manual" [39].
(4) Dejacking
Dejacking, used to release a strand that is misplaced or

fouled, requires extreme care. The following precautions
should be taken:
o Hands and fingers must not be placed between the chuck

face and the jackhead.
o Jaws should be removed with a hook tool or other device
recommended by the manufacturer,
o Tension on strand should be released slowly.
(5) Detensioning
(a) Detensioning of cured product by cutting torch should

be performed as follows:
o a specific order for strands to be cut should be de

termined. Strands should then be cut at both ends
of the bed simultaneously in the predetermined se
quence.
o The method of cutting should minimize shock load
ing. Each strand should be preheated to partially
relieve tension prior to cutting.
o No employees other than the torch cutters should be
allowed in the "designated area."
80
o A strand should be cut with the torch cutter work
ing from the side, not the rear, of the strand.
(b) Strand release by "detensioning stand" in beds only

partially utilized should be performed as follows:
o Prior to stressing, place a solid steel cylinder,

called a spacer (approximately 2 inches long and
slotted to fit the strand), between the chuck and
the jackhead and tape it to the chuck,
o After casting and curing, remove the tape; place a
"detensioning stand" over the strand; and stress the
strand slowly until the spacer falls out.
o Use long-handled pliers or tongs to insert a removal
tool in its place; remove the chuck cap, and slowly
release tension until the removal tool has forced
the jaws from the barrel. When the jaws are access
ible, pull them free of the retaining ring, remove
them from the strand, and release tension slowly,
o Keep hands out of the "detensioning stand" by using
long-handled tools,
o Allow no employees other than the detensioning crew
in the "designated area."
o Do not regrip the strand on or near the previous jaw
marks.
o Use warning lights and horns and enforce "designated
area" precautions as when tensioning.
3. Oiling
a. Supplied air pressure vessels, used for spraying form release
agents, should have both a visible pressure gauge and a pressure
relief valve in proper operating order. Supplied air sprayers
should be labeled for their maximum safe operating pressure and
this pressure should not be exceeded.
b. Form release agents should be stored neatly in cabinets or areas

specially set aside for that purpose. Aisles should be
maintained to allow unobstructed movement of personnel and
equipment, and to avoid tripping and slipping hazards.
c. Material Safety Data Sheets for all form release agents should
be requested, and all applicable safety and health precautions
should be followed.
d. Eye and face protection, such as a face shield, should be manda

tory during spray application of form release agents.
e. A minimum of safety glasses should be used during hand applica

tions (swabbing, rolling) and during all transfers of form
release agents.
81
4. Concrete Mixing and Transport
a. Concrete Mixing
(1) Mixer energy sources should be locked out and tagged before
cleaning, maintenance, or repair procedures.
(2) Employees should be adequately instructed in preventive

measures to avoid skin burns that can occur from prolonged,
direct contact between skin surfaces and fresh (moist)
concrete or clothing saturated by it.
(3) Where cement, sand or gravel are stored in silos, bins or

hoppers, the following procedures should be followed:
(a) Workers should be made aware that fine materials such as

cement, sand and gravel can freeze or bond and crust
over in cold or wet conditions. This crust can collapse
under the weight of an employee standing or walking on
it to free it up. The individual could sink into the
quicksand-like material and suffocate.
(b) Before entering the confined space of any silo, bin or

hopper, the worker should review the guidelines
appropriate for safe entry and emergency exit, including:
o Anyone entering such a confined space must wear a

safety harness with a lifeline attached and attended
by another worker outside the confined space but near
the entry port,
o There must be effective communication by sight and/or
sound between an employee inside a confined space and
the individual outside,
o If excessive dust levels exist inside confined spaces
proper respiratory equipment should be used,
o Exhausting the dust and lighting theinterior of a
confined space may be necessary,
o Eye protection should be worn.
o Hatches on mixers should have a primary and a secon
dary latch to hold them in the open position.
Further information on working safely in confined spaces

is contained in the NIOSH criteria document "Working in
Confined Spaces" [40].
(4) NIOSH/MSHA-approved respirators should be worn in areas

where dust levels are excessive. The threshold limit value
(TLV) for specific dusts and exposure levels are cited in
the 1981 TLV booklet of the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) [41].
82
(5) In high-noise areas, the following; recommendations should be
adhered to [32]:
o A continuously effective hearing conservation program, in

cluding annual audiometric testing of exposed employees,
must be established when noise levels are found to exceed
85 dB(A) for an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA),
o Administrative or engineering controls, including rotation
of exposed employees and acoustical booth isolation where
feasible, should be applied to reduce exposure time,
o All employees must be provided with hearing protection de
vices if feasible engineering controls are inadequate in
reducing noise to levels below 85 dB(A) for an 8-hour TWA.
b. Concrete Transport
(1) A signalman should be available at times of entry, movement,

and exit to ensure safe passage of concrete delivery trucks
to casting areas.
(2) Backing lanes should be free of equipment, material, and

workers [39].
(3) Movement of personnel and job equipment should be routed to

avoid crossing truck lanes, tracks, aisleways, or transfer
areas.
(4) Concrete delivery transporters should be equipped with

audible and visible alarms, including backup alarms to warn
of their approach, and mirrors to eliminate blindspots.
Casting Concrete
a. General
During the casting of concrete product, the following safety

recommendations should be followed:
(1) Concrete buckets should not be transported over workers

[42]. Workers should not step under overhead buckets.
(2) Buckets should have a positive locking gate [39].
(3) Concrete buckets should be equipped with a release latch

(bar, handle) designed and located to prevent fingers from
being caught between the latch bar and the bucket.
(4) Electric cords must meet OSHA standards and be free of

breaks and in safe condition. The cords should be placed or
protected so that they will not be run over and damaged or
be allowed to rest in water.
83
(5) Safe access to the points of concrete placement and consol
idation should be provided by s t a i r s , ramps, or ladders.
Also, a properly guarded walking and working surface must be
available.
(6) Safe work platforms should be provided for elevated casting
operations such as v e rtic a l wet casting of pipe.
(7) Rolling s t a i r scaffolds must be equipped with adequate
guardrails on a l l exposed sides, p a rtic u la rly the ends of
the scaffold and the interface between the form and the
scaffold i f a floor or wall opening e x ists.
(8) Employees should be trained in the proper methods of
shoveling, l i f t i n g , and moving heavy m aterials.
(9) Electric vibrators should be inspected for e le c tric a l
continuity and should be properly grounded.
b. Vertical Casting Pipe Machine
(1) Inadvertent entry onto the moving table of pipe machines
should be prevented by one or more of the following
techniques:
o Provide v isib le and audible alarms to warn employees when
the rotating table is ready to move,
o Use remote control devices so that no employee is required
to be on the table during any ro tational cycle,
o Incorporate a short time delay into the control mechanism
to activate alarms before movement of the table, allowing
workers to get off the table or prepare themselves for i t s
motion.
o Guard the outer edge of the machine to prohibit entry onto
the moving table.
(2) The interface (gap) between the rotating table of v e rtic a l
casting machinery and the adjacent floor should be guarded
or designed to prevent the entrapment of workers' hands and
feet. Holes on v e rtic a l casting tables should be covered
when not occupied by pipe forms.
c. Centrifugal Extruding Pipe Machine
(1) Employees should be protected from the hazards of being
caught in or struck by machine p a rts, or struck by flying
p a rtic le s (aggregate and cement) during centrifugal or
spinning pipemaking processes by the following techniques:
o Guard a l l areas where projections, bolts or nip points,
84
form release clamps, or other nonsmooth, spinning surfaces
create a hazard,
o Use remote control operating devices.
o Interlock a l l removable guards to the remote operating con
tro ls to prevent s ta r t up when guards are not in position,
o Provide a well-drained working surface to minimize the
amount of sp illed concrete and eliminate standing water.
(2) During troweling operations, a proximity detector or t r i p
wire mechanism with a positive stop braking system should be
used to prevent the inadvertent entrapment of the worker in
adjacent moving parts.
(3) Housekeeping and cleanup of discharged aggregate and/or
water should not be performed while spin casting machines
are in motion.
6. Finishing
a. Finishers should neither stand on nor work under suspended loads.
b. Adequate and safe work platforms should be provided for a l l
elevated finishing a c t iv it ie s .
c. Grinders (abrasive stone) should be equipped with properly
adjusted guards. A maximum of one-fourth inch of the working
surface should be exposed. The distance between the guard and
the stone should be no greater then one-fourth inch [32].
d. The exposed blades of concrete saws should be guarded. A
retractable lower-blade guard should be used.
e. Where caustic or acidic m aterials are used, the following pro
tective measures should be provided and used in case of s p ill s
on employees' skin or clothing:
o Employees should be kept informed of the i r r i t a n t m aterials
which they use and instructed in appropriate emergency pro
cedures in case of accidental contamination of skin or cloth
ing.
o Eyewash f a c i l i t i e s and showers must be readily accessible to
finishers.
o Gloves and safety goggles should be worn when workers are using
or chipping epoxy [39].
o Contaminated clothing should be removed immediately and the
affected skin area flushed with water for a minimum of 15
minutes.
7. Curing
a. Employees should be protected against contact with steam and hot
85
water lines used for accelerated curing of concrete products by
insulation, location, or guarding.
b. Curing compounds should be stored in cabinets designated for

them.
c. Aisles, passageways, and walkways should be maintained in a neat

and uncluttered condition during curing operations.
8. Product Handling and Transport

a. Only drivers and equipment operators authorized by the employer
should use product handling equipment such as automatic
unloaders, vault trucks, flatbed carriers, or tractors.
Operators should be trained in the safe operation of, and be
licensed to operate, a specific piece of product handling or
moving equipment.
b. Product handling equipment should be checked at the beginning of

each shift and deficiencies reported, including:
o Brake systems, steering, lights, backup alarms, and other warn

ing and safety devices
o Loose wires, impaired visibility, and defective electrical con
nections
o Fire extinguishers, flares, fuses or flags, chains, and other
weather condition requirements.
c. Before loading, trailers detached from a tractor should be

securely braced, the wheels chocked, and the landing gear
supported to prevent settling, tipping, or any other movement.
d. Worker access to tractor-trailer rigs and pickup beds can be

maintained by:
o Ensuring that broken or missing handholds and footholds are

repaired or replaced [42]
o Removing and refitting unsuitable handholds and footholds [42]
o Adding new handholds and footholds where they are needed for
worker access [42]
o Providing non-skid surfaces on all access systems which might
become slippery [42]
o Providing a handhold, long enough to be accessible by the
majority of drivers, on the right of the tractor driver's door
o Providing portable access stairs for pickup and trailer beds.
e. Loads to be shipped should be:
o Palletized or strapped
o Individually crated
o Secured to an A-frame
86
o Chocked and chained, or
o Chained and provided with proper dunnage.
f. Concrete products should be unloaded in accordance with the

following safety recommendations:
o The safe lifting capacity of the equipment should not be
exceeded.
o Loads that are long, oddly shaped, or difficult to rig should
be raised only a short distance until it is apparent they will
not spring, slip, or tip.
o Pipe or circular products should be off-loaded with skids,
ropes, or automatic unloaders,
o The job site unloading area should be examined for access,
stability, and temporary storage capability,
o Before unattended vehicles are unloaded, all wheels should be
chocked and the parking brakes set.
o Trailers should be loaded and unloaded evenly so as not to tip
the load or the trailer.
C. Safety Recommendations for Accident Causal Factor Patterns
Safe work practices addressing the accident causal factors or clusters of

factors identified by the accident analysis in Chapter III are presented in
this section. Since the accident patterns encompass various general and
specific tools and operations which have already been covered in sections A
and B of this Chapter, the preceding recommendations are cited where
appropriate.
1. Manual Materials Handling
Recommendations for control of hazards encountered in manual materials

handling activities are contained in paragraphs A.I., B.2.a.(2), and
B.5.a(8) of this chapter.
2. Working/Walking Surfaces
Recommendations addressing hazards associated with working/walking

surfaces are contained in paragraphs A.I.e., A.2.a(3)(e), A.4.a,
B.l.a.(5), B.l.b(5), B.3.b., B.5.c(l)., B.5.c(3), and B.7.c. of this
chapter.
3. Personal Protective Equipment
To protect workers, the use of various personal protective equipment

should become an integral part of the safety program. The most common
personal protective equipment that should be used are contained in Table
IV-1.
Requirements for personal protective equipment are covered in the OSHA

standards [32].
87
TABLE IV-1
RECOMMENDED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Type Type of Equipment Protection Provided Against Comments
Foot Steel-toed safety Falling or dropped objects, striking Safety boots should be worn by
boots, covering at against products, ground-level all employees. Boots should have
least the ankle obstacles, spilled concrete, ankle rubber or synthetic composition,
sprains nonslip soles without high or
narrow heels and steel insoles.
Knee-high safety Caustics and slipping Knee-high safety boots should be

boots worn by employees performing
casting operations. Boots
should be rubber, steel-toed,
and non-slip worn over heavy
socks, with trousers tucked in
or bloused.
Head Hardhats Falling objects, strike-against Hardhats should be worn by all

hazards, low beams, and other head- employees. Hats should be re
level obstacles sistant to impact, fire, and
moisture, and if necessary, be
made of nonelectrical conductor
materials.
Face Face shields Particles thrown off by such Shields should be worn by all
operations as spraying or grinding employees performing spraying or
grinding tasks. Shields should
be replaced when plastic is
cracked, brittle, or badly
scratched.
Skin Clothes suitable Caustic materials, entanglement in Loose sleeves or torn, ragged
for work performed machinery clothing should not be worn.
Buttoned, long-sleeved shirts
and trousers without cuffs
should be worn when casting,
finishing, welding, or burning.
TABLE IV-1
RECOMMENDED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (Continued)

Skin Gloves Abrasions, caustics, minor cuts, and Gloves should be worn when
(Cont.) scratches resulting from handling handling materials or products,
rough material or rebar bending, except when
operating machinery with
revolving parts or when they
interfere with the safe
operation of controls.
Rubber gloves Abrasions and caustics resulting from Rubber gloves should be worn, as
handling wet material needed, during some mixing and
finishing tasks.
Leather, wool, or Flame, heat, or sparks These materials are recommended

fire-retardant where flame, heat, or sparks
cotton are present.
Protective creams Irritating effect of cement or Should be used by workers

Barrier creams chemicals handling cement or finishing or
mixing concrete, as needed.
Eye Goggles Grinding, chipping, or burning, or Goggles offer good protection in

working in areas where the possibility general yard and plant work
of flying objects exists against dusts and particles and
are recommended for all employees
Safety eyeglasses Small-sized particles thrown off by Welders must also wear safety
with side shields such operations as metal sawing, glasses in addition to a welding
sanding, and chipping of concrete helmet.
Welder's helmet Molten metal splashes; ultraviolet and Helmets must be worn by all
visible radiation depending upon the welders. Helmets protect the
correct type of filter lens for the face, forehead, neck, and ears
exposure from direct exposure to
radiation from the arc
TABLE IV-1
RECOMMENDED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (Concluded)
Hearing Earplugs Noise levels between 90 and 130 dB(A), All employees exposed to an
depending on the type and quality of 8-hour time-weighted average of
earplug 85 decibels or greater must be
provided with hearing protection.
Ear muffs Noise levels between 90 and 135 dB(A) Employers must administer
depending on the quality and type of effective hearing conservation
earplug used with the ear muff programs to all employees exposed
to noise levels equal to or
exceeding an 8-hour
time-weighted sound level of 85
decibels in accordance with the
provisions of 29 CFR 1910.95.
Knee Knee pads Abrasion, caustics Should be worn by employees

performing finishing, screeding,
bull floating, or other tasks
which require working in a
kneeling position.
Respir Respirators, dust Harmful dusts, fumes, mists, and NIOSH/MSHA-approved respirators
atory masks vapors must be worn by employees
exposed to toxic agents. Respir
ators may be required when spray
ing, sand blasting, mixing, or
working in storage silos.
Fall Lifelines, safety Falls from elevations Should be worn by employees

belts and lanyards working from elevated work
surfaces which are not adequate
ly guarded against fall hazards.
4. Access
Recommendations addressing hazards associated with inadequate or

nonexistent access to work areas are contained in paragraphs
A.2.a(1)(b), A.4.a., A.7.a., A .7. b ., B.l.a(l), B .5 .a (5 ) , B .5.a(6) ,
B.6.b., and B.8.d. of this chapter.
5. Mechanical Materials Handling
Recommendations for control of hazards encountered in mechanical

materials handling a c t iv it ie s are contained in paragraph A.2. of this
chapter.
6. Guarding
Guarding of machinery should conform to the following:

(a) Drives for machinery must be properly guarded at chains, b e lts,
and pulleys in fu ll accordance with the following requirements:
o Pulleys, belts, or chain drives 7feet (within reach) orless
from the floor should be guarded,
o Gears should be guarded by a complete enclosure,
o Sprocket wheels and chains should be enclosed if less than 7
feet above the floor or platform [32].
(b) Keys, setscrews, and other projections in revolving parts must

be removed, made flush, or guarded.
(c) To protect the operator and other employees from in-going nip
points, rotating parts, flying chips, or sparks, one or more of
the following guarding methods should be used:
o Barrier guards
o Electronic safety devices

o Two-hand tripping devices
o Remote operation.
(d) Circular, hand-fed ripsaws and crosscut table saws must be

guarded by a hood that encloses the portion of the saw above
the table prior to cutting and above the material being cut
(the hood should automatically adjust itself to the thickness
of, and remain in contact with, the material being cut) [32].
(e) All p< tions of the saw blade on bandsaws must be [32]:
o Enclosed or guarded, except for the working portion of the
91
blade between the bottom of the guide rolls and the table
(bandsaw wheels should be fully encased)
o Guarded to prevent hands from contact with the in-running

rolls.
(f) Radial saws should be provided with:
o A hood to protect the operator from flying splinters, broken

sawteeth, and sawdust
o A guard on the upper hood completely enclosing the upper por
tion of the blade down to the end of the saw arbor
o A lower blade guard that automatically adjusts to the thick
ness of the stock and that remains in contact with the stock
being cut
o Nonkickback fingers or dogs located on both sides of the saw
to oppose the tendency of the saw to pick up the material or
throw it back toward the operator..
(g) Other woodworking machinery in the plant should meet the

following requirements:
o Each planing and molding machine must have all cutting heads
and saws covered by a guard,
o Each disk sanding machine should have the exhaust hood or
other guard arranged to enclose the revolving disk, except
for that portion of the disk above the table if a table is
used.
o Belt sanding machines should have guards at each nip point
where the sanding belt enters a pulley. The unused run of
the sanding belt should be guarded against accidental contact.
(h) Recommendations contained in: A.3.a(2), A.3.a(3), B.2.b.,

B.5.b(l), B.5.b(2), B.5.c(l), B.6.C., and B.6.d. of this
chapter.
7. Chocking, Bracing, «nd Cribbing
Recommendations addressing hazards associated with chocking, bracing,

and cribbing are contained in paragraphs A.2.a(l)(f), A.2.c(7), A.7.a.,
B.l.b(2), B.8.C., B.8.e., and B.8.f. of this chapter.
8. Lockout/Tagout (Control of Hazardous Energy)
Recommendations for control of hazards associated with energy control

are contained in paragraphs A.2.e(4), A.2.e(6), and B.4.a(l) of this
chapter.
Further information regarding hazardous energy control is contained in

the NIOSH document "Guidelines for Controlling Hazardous Energy During
Maintenance and Servicing" [43].
92
Chapter V
SAFETY MANAGEMENT
There should be little disagreement that safety is ultimately the re

sponsibility of management. In addition to the fact that the Occupational
Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA)requires each employer to furnish each
employee a place ofemployment that is free from recognized hazards likely
to cause death or serious physical harm, worker accidents and injuries are
counter-productive and costly. As shown in Chapter III of this document
(specifically Table III-3), the occupational injury and illness incidence
rate for the precast concrete products industry in 1980 was in the top 3% of
the durable goods manufacturing industries. Since 1977, the estimated cost
of actual paid-out medical and indemnity expenses of occupational injuries
in this industry has averaged more than $30.9 million per year. The
National Safety Council estimates that the full costs of work-related
accidents have been 3.4 times greater than the cost of actual paid-out
claims, or over $105 million per year (see Chapter III).
These needless losses can be controlled by managing successful safety

programs. However, safety programs can only be successful when plant
management providesan environment responsive to worker safety and is
committed to providing a safe workplace. Safety recommendations such as
those presented in Chapter IV or safety standards such as those promulgated
by OSHA will not, by themselves, reduce occupational injuries. Management
must accept the responsibility of implementing a safety program which is
designed for successful accident prevention. Such success requires an
organized approach. No individual level of management can do the job by
itself. It takes a combined effort of all — from the plant manager down
through the first-line supervisor to the employees.
This chapter presents the basic elements of safety program management. It

outlines criteria for evaluation of present safety programs and suggests
implementation of critical elements which are indicative of safety being a
management function. It is recognized that each company will need to tailor
its safety program to fit the various characteristics of its particular
operation.
A. Pre-Assessment of Present Program
Before revising an on-going safety program or attempting to design a new

program, it is advisable that management assess its existing safety status
within the plant. An evaluation of the present safety status will help out
line where changes and additions are essential. It will yield answers to
the seriousness of the plant's accident problem, it will identify the major
organizational deficiencies which have an adverse effect on the safety
93
program, and i t w ill identify the major accident prevention deficiencies
within the program i t s e l f .
Assessment of the following basic elements of the safety program should be
made:
1. Management leadership
2. Assignment of responsibility
3. Id en tificatio n and control of hazards
4. Employee and supervisory training
5. Accident reporting and investigation
6. Emergency plans
7. Employee awareness.
U tilization of pre-assessment tools such as the American Society of Safety
Engineers (ASSE) Safety Audit contained in Appendix C, or the example
assessment forms contained in Appendix D can provide insight into safety
program weaknesses which need management's attention.
B. Basic Elements of a Safety Program
It is d if f ic u lt to outline a safety program that w ill be applicable to a ll
precast concrete plants, since a program must vary with the specific needs
of each company. It is important that a safety program be tailored for the
processes and operations of an individual company. I t becomes the
responsibility of management to design and define a program within the
constraints of a specific p la n t's operation. A safety program should,
however, include aspects of the following basic elements:
1. Management Leadership
Management's in te re st in safety must be sincere and v isib le to
employees. Therefore, senior management must establish achievable
safety program objectives and communicate these to a l l employees. The
safety program objectives should receive the same management scrutiny as
that given for the control of quality, cost, and production. Once the
objectives are established, then management must plan, organize and
control the overall program to meet the objectives.
Management's leadership and support should contain the following key
elements:
a. Written Policy
A written safety policy is management's method of communicating a
direction to be followed. I t is the f i r s t step in organizing to
meet the stated objectives. I t is important that the policy be in
writing to reduce confusion concerning direction and assignment of
responsibility.
94
The written policy should be concise, to the point, and should
address the following areas:
o Management's intent
o Scope of a c tiv itie s covered
o Measurement of safety performance
o Safety sta ff
o Safety committee
o Delegation of authority
o Safety rules and procedures [44].
Policy statements signed by top management are indicative of th eir
concern for employee safety and health. Such concerns by top
management for safety makes i t easier:
o For supervisors to implement and enforce company policy
o For the company to promote safe and healthful work practices
o For employees to observe the stated policy
o To purchase equipment with specified safety features
o To maintain and repair equipment according to good
engineering control and safety practices [45].
Figures V-l and V-2 are shown to provide examples of plant safety
policies. Selection of these examples are not indicative of th e ir
overall quality except that a published safety policy available to
employees is b e tte r than none at a l l .
b. Employee Participation
A w ritten safety policy is management's way of informing employees

that safe performance of work is a requirement of the job.
However, management cannot always expect employees to work or
perform safely. The employee makes that decision based upon the
safety a ttitu d e he has developed through his work experiences.
Management can motivate workers to accept the safety program by
encouraging th e ir participation. Employees should p a rtic ip a te in
the program because:
o P articipation ensures that employees know th e ir jobs and the
associated hazards
o P articipatio n promotes morale
o Employee p articipation is indicative of management's concern
o Employee pa rtic ip a tio n encourages suggestions for improved
safety and health conditions [45].
Employee p a rtic ip a tio n can be encouraged by conducting safety
meetings and by forming a plant safety committee. Holding safety
meetings is a useful technique for communicating safety to
employees. These meetings are more commonly referred to as safety
huddles, ta ilg a te sessions, or toolbox sessions. These are short
95
SAFETY AND HEALTH POLICY
I t is the policy of th is company to provide every employee with a safe and

healthful workplace.
When a person enters the employ of our company, they have the right to ex
pect to be provided with a proper place in which to work, as well as proper
and safe machines and tools with which to do the job, and that the employee
will be able to devote his or her energies to the work without undue danger.
Only under these circumstances can the association between employee and em
ployer be mutually profitable and harmonious. It is our desire, intention,
and responsibility to provide a safe workplace, safe equipment, and proper
m aterials and to establish and in s is t on safe methods and practices at a ll
t ime s .
People are our most important asset—th e ir safety is our greatest
responsibility.
It is a basic responsibility for a l l employees of th is company to make the
SAFETY of fellow human beings a part of th eir daily, hourly concern. This
responsibility must be accepted by each person who conducts the a ff a ir s of
the company, regardless of the capacity in which they function.
Employees are expected to know the SAFETY rules applicable to th eir job and
must use the SAFETY equipment provided. Rules of conduct and rules of
SAFETY shall be observed by a ll employees. SAFETY equipment must not be
destroyed or abused.
The jo int cooperation of employees and management in the observance of th is
policy will provide safe working conditions and accident-free performance to
our mutual advantage.
We consider the SAFETY of our personnel to be of f i r s t importance, and we
ask your fu ll cooperation in making th is policy effe ctiv e .
Company President
FIGURE V-l. EXAMPLE OF A PLANT SAFETY AND HEALTH POLICY

Adapted from American Society for Personnel Administration, 19 Church
S treet, Berea, OH 44017.
96
As we are known and recognized for our products and s e rv ic e , so
should we te known fo r our sa fe ty performance. No job must ever
become so ro u tin e or so urgent th a t every sa fe ty p recau tio n i s not
observed. Prevention of personal in ju ry and damage to the property
and equipment of both the company and i t s customers must always r e
main uppermost in the mind of every employee.
I t is the policy of ABC PRECAST CONCRETE CORPORATION to develop and
m aintain safe and e f f i c i e n t o p e ra tio n s. Our sa fe ty program has
been designed, in accordance with the W illiam s-S teig er Occupational
Safety and Health Act of 1970, to develop safe working co n d itio n s.
The success of our program re q u ire s the f u l l support of each and
every employee.
President
FIGURE V-2. EXAMPLE OF A PLANT SAFETY POLICY STATEMENT

Adapted from Summary Plant Observation Report and Evaluation [46].
meetings u sually conducted by the supervisor with a l l h is employees. The

primary functions of such meetings are to f o s t e r communication between
management (supervisor) and employees r e l a t i n g to safety co n scio u sn ess, and
to dissem inate safety concepts. The su bject should be sp e c ific to work
being performed or planned for the upcoming week. The session should take
place at the work s i t e and l a s t 10-15 minutes. Employees knowledgeable in
sp e c ific safety subject areas should be requested to lead the safety
d isc u ssio n s, thereby encouraging peer p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
Establishment of a sa fe ty committee is another technique which demonstrates
management's d e s ire th a t employees p a r t i c i p a t e in the p la n t sa fe ty program.
Committees may vary considerably in d i f f e r e n t o rg a n iz a tio n s, but should have
the basic functions of developing, promoting, and m aintaining safety
p r a c tic e s in the p la n t. Such committees should also serve as a means for
communicating safety p o l i c i e s to both management and lab o r.
c. Leading by Example
Leading by example expresses i n t e r e s t and concern in the safety
program as well as i n d i r e c t l y m otivating o th e rs to show the same
concerns. Management which p a r t i c i p a t e s in injury accident
97
in v e s tig a tio n s , safety meetings, and safety committees; which
conducts p erio d ic housekeeping in sp e c tio n s; or which observes the
plant safety ru le s while conducting a p la n t sa fe ty walk-through is
seen by the employees as being serio us about the program.
Management thereby communicates i t s concern about the program.
d. Rewarding Performance
Management should e s t a b l is h procedures for rewarding e f f e c t iv e
safety performance. Worker behavior p a tte r n s are strengthened by
p o sitiv e reinforcement rewards. Reinforcing safety performance has
the following advantages:
o I t removes the unwanted side e f f e c t s of d is c i p l i n e , confron
t a t i o n , c o n f l i c t , and f r u s t r a t i o n
o I t increases employee job s a t i s f a c t i o n
o Employees see the foreman or supervisor as a h e lp fu l resource
o I t c re a te s an atmosphere of mutual r e c ip ro c ity between super
v iso r and employee
o I t in c re a se s the p ro b a b ility of an employee continuing the
safe b e h a v io r[45].
2. Assignment of R e sp o n sib ility
Management has the r e s p o n s i b il i ty for c o n tro llin g unsafe a c ts of
employees and unsafe working c o n d ition s. U ltim ately, the p la n t manager
has the o v e ra ll r e s p o n s i b il i ty for meeting the p l a n t 's sa fe ty program
o b je c tiv e s.
Since p la n t size and o rg an iza tio n al s tr u c tu r e vary widely throughout the
p re ca st concrete products in d u stry , assignment of safety
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s must be app ro p riate for the management s tr u c tu r e w ithin
the p la n t. In very small p la n ts , the owner/operator may have sole
r e s p o n s i b il i ty ; in la r g e r p la n ts , r e s p o n s i b il i ty is assigned to the
p lan t manager, middle managers and f i r s t - l i n e su p e rv iso rs.
A d d ition ally , the employees must also be assigned r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in
order to meet the sta te d safety program o b je c tiv e s .
a. Plant manager r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s include:
o Adopting and implementing a safety program w ithin a l l p la n t
department s
o E sta b lish in g and communicating the sa fe ty o b je c tiv e s
o Providing managers and supervisors with the time, money,
manpower, and a u th o rity necessary to implement the safety
program
o Motivating a l l subordinate managers to f u l f i l l t h e i r
assigned r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
o Auditing the sa fe ty program and evaluating i t s e ffe c tiv e n e s s
98
o Ensuring th a t the p la n t complies with the various fe d e r a l,
s t a t e , and local safety standards and codes [47].
b. Middle manager r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s include:
o Supplementing basic formal accident prevention tra in in g
provided subordinate supervisors with personal and group
i n s t r u c t io n
o Conducting sa fe ty meetings with subordinate supervisors
o P a r ti c ip a ti n g in accident in v e s tig a tio n s and implementing
recommended c o r re c tiv e actio n s to prevent recurrence
o Conducting planned safety in sp ectio n s
o Ensuring subordinate supervisors properly o r ie n t and i n
s t r u c t employees assigned to new job p o sitio n s
o Maintaining sa fe ty d is c i p li n e
o Ensuring subordinate supervisors enforce use of personal
p ro te c tiv e equipment where required
o Recommending sa fe ty program improvements [47].
c. F i r s t - l i n e supervisor r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s include:
o Being resp o n sib le fo r the safety of a l l re g u la rly assigned
employees
o Ensuring th a t assigned personnel know p la n t and department
safety ru le s and r e g u la tio n s , e s ta b lis h e d safe job proced
u res, and a l l major hazards a sso c ia ted with t h e i r tasks and
work areas
o Developing cooperative safety a t t i t u d e s of employees through
a p p lic a tio n of approved methods of preventive and c o r re c tiv e
d is c i p li n e
o Conducting planned safety in sp e c tio n s w ith in the assigned
work area
o Maintaining s a t is f a c t o r y standards of housekeeping
o Providing prompt medical treatment fo r a l l i n j u r i e s no m atter
how s l i g h t
o In v e s tig a tin g a l l reported ac cid en ts to personnel and equip
ment w ithin h is assigned area
o Ensuring assigned personnel use the req uired sa fe ty apparel
and equipment
o Knowing sa fe ty standards which apply to the o peratio n s he
supervises
o Knowing how to operate emergency equipment i n s t a l l e d w ithin
his assigned work area
o Recommending sa fe ty program improvements [47].
d. Employee r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s include:
o Obeying p la n t safety ru le s and safe o peratin g procedures
o Reporting hazards to immediate su perviso rs
o Reporting ac cid en ts promptly and fa c tu a l ly to t h e i r immedi
ate su p e rv iso rs.
99
3. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C o n tr o l o f H a z a rd s
Whenever management decides to e it h e r implement an accident prevention
program or to overhaul an e x is tin g program, employees are in c lin e d to be
sk e p tic a l of pro jected r e s u l t s and tend to take a "wait and see"
a t t i t u d e . A vigorous management e f f o r t to elim in ate longstanding
hazards and to provide a sa fe r workplace can convince employees th a t
management is tru ly concerned about t h e i r o n -th e -jo b well being.
However, p r io r to e lim in atin g these hazards, management must f i r s t
id e n tify them. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of hazards re q u ire s a f a i r l y complete
in sp ectio n of a l l p re c a st operating a reas. The in sp e c tio n should be
made by a small group composed of someone from production, someone from
maintenance, and the safety program c o o rd inator. The hazard
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n process should be done in phases to reduce in te rfe re n c e
with normal work ro u tin e s.
Safety in sp ectio n c h e c k li s t s may be h e lp fu l in d ir e c tin g the g roup's
in sp ectio n to the o perating areas with the more hazardous work
exposures. Management can e i t h e r o b ta in c h e c k lis ts from insurance
companies, or develop one s p e c i f i c a l l y fo r t h e i r p la n t a f t e r a n a ly s is of
the inju ry data presented in Chapter I I I , Table I I I - 5 . As an example,
analyze n a ils as a source of in ju ry . The ta b le shows th a t n a i l s mostly
re s u lte d in puncture i n j u r i e s to employee's f e e t. Therefore, i t is
assumed th a t when wooden forms are removed from cured product, the n a i l s
are not bent over or removed, thereby c re a tin g a hazard to workers.
Analysis of the "machinery" source in d ic a te s th a t lack of adequate
guards are c re a tin g a hazard. I f these sources of injury are present
w ithin the p la n t, the c h e c k lis t should address these items.
A fter the i n i t i a l in sp e c tio n has been performed, a program for
c o rre c tin g the noted d e f ic ie n c ie s and performing p erio d ic in sp ectio n s
should be e s ta b lis h e d . Id e n tify in g hazards by means of in sp e c tio n and
promptly elim in ating or c o n tro llin g them i s one of the b est methods
management can use to demonstrate i t s i n t e r e s t and concern fo r accident
prevention to employees.
Periodic inspections are e s s e n t i a l to:
o Id en tify new or re c u rrin g hazards
o Ensure safe o p e ra tio n of equipment
o Detect use of required personal p ro te c tiv e equipment
o Keep check on general housekeeping
o Ensure a v a i l a b i l i t y of f i r s t aid m a te r ia ls
o Ensure f i r e fig h tin g equipment is in proper o perating c o n d ition
o Check on c o n d itio n of storage areas [48].
4. Safety Training
In ranking of importance, employee tr a in in g is of top p r i o r i t y in a
safety management program. Training is necessary to guide and i n s t r u c t
100
both new employees and employees new to a p a r t i c u l a r ta s k . Newly h ired
employees should always receive i n s t r u c t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n about the
company, the p la n t, the product, o rg a n iz a tio n a l arrangements, lin e s of
a u th o rity , and safety p o l i c i e s and r u le s . S pecific t r a in i n g , including
supervised o n-th e-job t r a in i n g , must be provided to each employee.
During o r i e n t a t i o n to the p la n t, a new employee should be given copies
of the company's safety p o licy , and safety ru le s and re g u la tio n s . If an
employee s t a r t s a new task , changes ta s k s, or uses new or modified
equipment, i t is e s s e n t i a l th a t q u a lity t r a in i n g for t h i s job be
provided. Training may be necessary to develop a p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l th a t
cannot be performed sa fe ly without sp e c ific knowledge; e . g . , working at
a rebar bender, c a stin g concrete, or operating a f o r k l i f t . Safety
tr a in in g is based on the general assumption th a t the development of a
p o s itiv e mental a t t i t u d e predisposes an in d iv id u a l to safe h a b its of
work and conduct. A job should be explained in d e t a i l by breaking i t
down in to manageable p a r ts . If personal p ro te c tiv e equipment is
req uired , employees must understand why i t must be used and what may
happen i f i t i s not used properly. Hazards should be i d e n t i f i e d , and
precautions or safe work p ra c tic e s demonstrated. Training should take a
new employee through each ste p , and each step should be fu lly
demonstrated. In a d d itio n , the supervisor should v e r if y , a t re g u la r
i n t e r v a l s , th at the o r i g i n a l lessons are being followed and th a t the
employee is not developing bad h a b its or taking dangerous s h o r tc u ts .
The type of tra in in g re q u ire d , by employee group, is presented in Table
V-l.
Other t r a in in g , such as f i r s t - a i d courses, cardiopulmonary r e s u s c i t a
tio n (CPR), f i r e e x tin g u ish e r use, and o th er emergency procedures may be
re q u ire d .
Training is a continuous p rocess, and a tt e n t i o n must be paid to a l l
employees. An employee who continues to repeat an unsafe procedure i s
not working s a fe ly , even i f an accident has not occurred. The following
in d ic a to rs might show a need fo r tra in in g or re tra in in g :
o High incidence of injury
o An increase in the number of "near misses" th a t could have r e
su lted in accidents
o A change in a process or in tro d u c tio n of a new process
o A recent upswing in a c tu a l accident experience
o Excessive waste or scrap due to poor housekeeping.
5. Accident In v e s tig a tio n
The in v e s tig a tio n of a ccid en ts is an important p art of the sa fe ty /a c c id e n t
prevention program. I t i d e n t i f i e s accident causes so th a t sim ila r
s i tu a tio n s can be prevented by management a c tio n s such as mechanical im
provements, b e t t e r su pervision , or employee t r a in i n g . I t determines the
"changes" or d ev iatio n th a t produced an "e rro r" r e s u l ti n g in an a c cid en t; i t
101
TABLE V-l
EMPLOYEE TRAINING
Personnel to Receive
Training A ctivity Training Sources of Training
O rie n ta tio n All new employees Personnel department, safety
personnel, su p e rv iso rs, foremen;
PCI sa fe ty o r i e n t a t i o n s l i d e / ta p e
Manual m a te ria ls All employees, National Safety C ouncil's " L ift
handling, including including foremen, Safely" b oo k let, NIOSH's "Work
l i f t i n g , p u llin g , management personnel P ra ctice s Guide for Manual L i f t
pushing in g ," sa fe ty personnel, insurance
companies
Housekeeping, All employees, PCI storage s l i d e / t a p e , sa fe ty
storage including foremen, personnel, foremen
management personnel
Cranes, h o is ts All o p e ra to rs, o i l e r s , Operator c e r t i f i c a t i o n programs,
mechanics, foremen formal t r a in i n g through
equipment manufacturers or
schools, dry runs
Mechanical mater All d r i v e r s , rig g e rs , PCI handling s l i d e / t a p e , equip
i a l s handling, leadmen, supervisors ment m anufacturers, o n-th e-job
rigging tra in in g
F o r k l if ts F o r k l i f t o p e ra to rs, National Safety Council, equip
help ers ment m anufacturers, on-th e-job
and c e r t i f i c a t i o n tra in in g
Road v eh icles Truck d r i v e r s , over- Insurance companies, o n -th e -
the-road v eh icle job t r a in i n g , s t a t e lic e n sin g
operators requirtiments
Personal p ro te c tiv e All employees Safety personnel, foremen
equipment
R e sp ira to r use VTe ld e rs , h e lp e rs, Safety personnel, equipment
f i n i s h e r s , foremen manufacturers
Welding All welders, h elp ers, On-the-job t r a i n i n g , unions,
foremen equipment manufacturers
F i r s t aid Foremen, leadmen, Red Cross, safety/m edical
supervisors department
Plant operations All workers, leadmen, Supervisors, foremen, safety
foremen involved personnel
102
p u b lic iz e s the p a r t i c u l a r hazard among employees and t h e i r su p e rv iso rs; and
i t d i r e c t s a tt e n t i o n to accident prevention in g en eral. Since nothing is
learned from unreported a c cid en ts, even minor i n j u r i e s and near misses
should be in v e stig a te d .
The in v e s tig a tio n of a ccid en ts i s the r e s p o n s i b il i ty of a l l le v e ls of
management. However, the f i r s t l i n e supervisor i s perhaps the b est q u a l i
fie d , since he i s close to the job s, working c o n d itio n s, and workers. The
supervisor must be tra in e d and have the a b i l i t y to recognize the cause of
a c c id e n ts. This e valuation may require the a s s is ta n c e of management,
equipment su p p lie rs , and insurance re p re s e n ta tiv e s . Figure V-3 shows an
example of an accident in v e s tig a tio n form.
The basic problem confronting any supervisor interview ing a person involved
in an accident is obtaining complete f a c ts . Often a worker i s r e lu c ta n t to
cooperate for fe a r of r i d i c u l e , sarcasm, or reprimand. I t i s important to
s t r e s s the need for f a c ts so th a t recurrence can be prevented in the
fu tu re . I t is also h e lp fu l to ask in d iv id u a ls involved in accid en ts fo r
t h e i r ideas on making the job s a fe r.
Witnesses are important sources of accident inform ation. When a f a t a l
in ju ry occurs, a w itness may be the only d i r e c t source of information
a v a ila b le . When a serio us injury occurs, a w itness may be the only means of
v e rify in g incoherent pieces of the i n j u r e d 's account. For minor i n j u r i e s , a
w itness may be able to c l a r i f y some of the circumstances surrounding the
accident b e t t e r than the in ju re d person him self. This i s a lso tru e of near
accid en ts th a t have a p o t e n t i a l for serio us in ju ry .
In a l l cases, a l l le v e ls of management can le a rn how to prevent accid en ts
through in v e s tig a tio n s . By in v e s tig a tin g a c cid en ts, sim ila r unsafe
p r a c tic e s and conditions can be monitored in the fu tu r e . The information
compiled can also help to design b e t t e r t r a in i n g programs, emphasize areas
needing management's a t t e n t i o n , and g en erally prevent fu ture p o te n tia l
problems.
Management's p a r t i c i p a t i o n is highly important to a functioning safety
program in the p recast concrete products in d u stry . E ffo rts should be made
to reduce the unnecessary co sts of worker inju ry and i l l n e s s , loss in
production time, as well as re p a ir and replacement of damaged machinery and
p ro d u c ts.
6. Emergency Plans
Management should have a w r itte n plan of a c tio n o u tlin in g procedures to be
taken in emergency s i t u a t io n s such as employee in ju ry and f i r e . The purpose
of the plan is to e lim in ate as much confusion as p o ssib le in order th a t
immediate p o s itiv e response w ill be taken to minimize the dangers of the
emergency.
103
A C C I D E N T IN V E S T I G A T I O N REP O R T FORM
NAME OCCUPATION HOW LONG AT THIS JOB
LOCATION IN PLANT DATE & TIME OF INJURY
FOREMAN WITNESSED BY
INJURY ESTIMATED TIME LOSS
MEDICAL DISPOSITION
Complete and return to the safety office for
review by top manaqement within two days: SENT OUT RETURNED
Describe what took place, what task
WHAT HAPPENED? and operation was being done.
WHAT COULD HAVE HAPPENED?
Get all the facts by studying

WHY DID IT HAPPEN?
the job and situation involved.
Question by use of WHY-WHAT-
WHEN-WHO-HOW.
Determine which of the H

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE? items require additional
attention:
EQUIPMENT MATERIAL PEOPLE
Selection Selection Selection
Arrange Placement Placement
Use Handling Training
Maintain Processing Leadership
Take or recommend action, de
WHAT HAVE YOU DONE THUS FAR? pending upon your authority.
Investigated by Date Reviewed by Date

Foreman Safety
Management Date
FIGURE V-3. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION REPORT FORM
The plan should include:

o Diagrams showing e x i t s , f i r e e x tin g u ish e r lo c a tio n s , and
egress routes
o Procedures for reporting f i r e s and emergencies to a u t h o r it i e s
o Posting requirements of emergency telephone numbers for ambu
lance, doctor, h o s p i ta l , f i r e , and police
o Requirements for d r i l l s and tr a in in g
104
o P rovision of f i r s t - a i d treatment
o Provision of medical treatm ent.
C. Post-Assessment of Program
The primary purpose of assessment is to ensure th a t the safety program is
being applied e f f e c t iv e ly and c o r re c tly by a l l le v e ls of management.
The post-assessment of a safety program is performed a f t e r ad d itio n s or
a l t e r a t i o n s have been implemented in to the program. The post-assessm ent of
the program is accomplished to:
o Determine serious weaknesses in a p p lic a tio n s of the program
o Id e n tify c o r re c tiv e a ction s needed to improve the q u a lity of the
program
o Motivate middle managers and supervisors to apply the safety program.
Assessment of the program should be made in the following areas:
o Accident in v e s tig a tio n s
o Control of hazards
o Conduct of safety insp ectio ns
o Safety tra in in g
o Safety a tt i tu d e
o Safe work procedures
o Management p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The example forms contained in Appendix D can be u t i l i z e d as p o s t- a s s e s s -
ment to o ls . Analysis of the r e s u l t s obtained from the forms can provide
plan t management with in d ic a to rs as to which basic elements of the o v e ra ll
program need management's a tt e n t i o n . Management must make a p p lic a tio n of
the safety program happen. This re q u ire s planned implementation of
c o n tro ls , continuous management involvement, and p erio d ic assessment to
ensure e f f e c tiv e program o p e ra tio n s.
Suggested Reading L ist on Safety Management:
Anton, T .J. Occupational Safety and Health Management. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, 1979. 295 pp.
Bird, F . E . ; Loftos, R.G. Loss Control Management. L oganville, GA:
I n s t i t u t e Press, 1976. 562 pp.
Chissick, S.S.; D e rric o t, R . , eds. Occupational Health and Safety
Management. New York, NY: Wiley, 1981. 705 pp.
Denton, D.K. Safety Management, Improving Performance. New York, NY:
105
G r i f f i t h s , R .F ., ed. Dealing with Risk: the Planning, Management, and
A cc e p ta b ility of Technological Risk. New York, NY: Wiley, 1981. 144
pp.
Grimaldi, J . V . ; Simonds, R.H. Safety Management, 3rd. Ed. Homewood,
IL: R. D. Irwin, 1975. 694 pp.
Hammer, W. Occupational Safety Management and Engineering, 2nd. Ed.
Englewood C l if f s , NJ:P r e n t i c e - H a ll , 1981. 494 pp.
H einrich, H.W.; P etersen, D.; Roos, N.R. I n d u s t r i a l Accident
Prevention: A Safety Management Approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,
1980. 468 pp.
Kochan, T.A. ; Dyer, L.; Lipsky, D.B.. The E ffec tiv e n e ss of
Union-Management Safety and Health Committees. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E.
Upjohn I n s t i t u t e for Employment Research, 1977. 127 pp.
P etersen, D. Human Error Reduction and Safety Management. New York,
NY: Garland STPM P ress, 1982. 229 pp.
P etersen, D. Analyzing Safety Performance. New York, NY: Garland STPM
Press, 1980. 328 pp.
P etersen, D. Techniques of Safety Management, 2nd. Ed. New York, NY:
Schenkelbach, L. The Safety Management Primer. Homewood, IL: Dow
Jones-Irw in, 1975. 150 pp.
T a rra n ts, W.E. The Measurement of Safety Performance. New York, NY:
Garland STPM Press, 1980. 414 pp.
106
CHAPTER VI
RECOMMENDATION FOR RESEARCH NEEDS
During the development of th i s document, s p e c if ic top ics concerning the

development of the comprehensive safety recommendations for p recast concrete
products operations were id e n ti f i e d which req uire f u rth e r research. To more
fu lly assess the safety and h e a lth problems in the in d u stry , the following
analyses are also needed:
o Development and t e s ti n g of standards for bed end p ro te c tio n in
s tre s s in g operations
o Onsite te s tin g for the adequacy of moving v eh icle warning systems,
and the development of recommendations for minimum standards fo r such
systems coordinated with d if f e r e n t i n d u s t r i a l environmental c o n s tra in ts
o Research and t e s tin g of machine guarding and/or work p ra c tic e s for the
in te rfa c e between the worker and pipe spin casting equipment
o Research to determine the s a f e s t manual m a te ria ls handling methods for
common tasks in t h is industry
o A research study to determine the e ffic a cy of tra in in g programs for
l i f t i n g properly.
107
REFERENCES
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Data in NIOSH I n d u s t r i a l F ile . Unpublished rep ort by National I n s t i t u t e
for Occupational Safety and Health, C in c in n a ti, OH: March 17, 1981. 1 p.
2. Pennsylvania Department of Labor. 1979 Pennsylvania In d u s tr ia l
D irectory, 26th ed. H arrisburg, PA: Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s , Research,
and Planning, O ffice of Management S ervices. 1979. pp. 732-5.
3. U.S. Department of Commerce. Concrete, P la s t e r , and Cut Stone
Products. P u b lic a tio n No. MC77-1-32D. Industry S eries 1977 Census of
Manufacturers. Washington, DC: Bureau of Census. 1977. 45 pp.
4. Duffy, J. J. American Concrete Pipe A sso ciatio n. Unpublished re p o rt.
Vienna, VA: August 5, 1981. 1 p.
5. Freedman, S. P re stresse d Concrete I n s t i t u t e . Unpublished re p o r t.
Chicago, IL: July 21, 1981. 1 p.
6. T ilfo rd , J. E. National Precast Concrete A ssociation. Unpublished
re p o r t. In d ian ap o lis, IN: July 29, 1981. 1 p.
7. Bennett, W. B. J r . P re stre s sin g Improves C oncrete's Competitive
Advantage. Concrete C onstruction. March 1981. pp. 235, 237, 239.
8. American Concrete Pipe A ssociation. Concrete Pipe Handbook. Vienna,
VA: 1980. pp 2-8 to 2-17.
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United S tates by In d ustry , 1978 and 1979. Washington, DC: Bureau of
Labor S t a t i s t i c s .
10. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational I n ju r ie s and I l l n e s s e s in the
United States by In d ustry , 1976. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor
S t a t i s t i c s . 1979. p. 26.
United S tates by In d ustry , 1977. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor
S t a t i s t i c s . 1980. p. 25.
United S tates by In dustry, 1979 and 1980. Washington, DC: Bureau of
Labor S t a t i s t i c s . 1980. p. 3.
109
13. National Council on Compensation Insurance. Workers' Compensation
Experience—Codes 3030 and 4034. New York, NY: 1975-1978. Unpaginated.
14. Workers' Compensation Insurance Rating Bureau of C a lifo rn ia .
C la s s if ic a ti o n Experience Class Code 4034. San Francisco, CA: 1977. 1 p.
15. Compensation Rating and Insurance Bureau for New Jersey . January 1,
1981 Rate Revision. NJ: 1977. p. 320.
16. New York Compensation Insurance Rating Board. C l a s s if ic a ti o n
Experience—Codes 4034 and 3030. New York, NY: 1977. 1 p.
17. The State of Texas— S ta te Board of Insurance. Raw Data Cards for
C la s s if ic a tio n Codes 3030 and 4034. A ustin, TX: 1977. 1 p.
18. Workmen's Compensation Fund, S ta te of West V irg in ia . Class C-4.
Charleston, WV: State Compensation Commissioner. June 30, 1977. 5 pp.
19. Pennsylvania Compensation Rating Bureau. S ta te s of Pennsylvania and
Delaware for Class 511. P h ila d e lp h ia , PA: 1975-1978. pp. 40, 86.
20. Department of Labor and In d u s trie s , S ta te of Washington. S t a t i s t i c s for
F isc a l Years (June through July) 1976 through 1978. Olympia, WA:
October 1981. 3 pp. Unpublished Report.
21. S tate of Wyoming Workers' Compensation D ivision. Major C l a s s if ic a ti o n
#32— Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products—Total Reported P ay ro ll,
Premium C ollected, No. of I n j u r ie s , Total of Claims Paid. WY: October
1981. 2 pp. Unpublished Report.
22. National Safety Council. Accident Facts, 1979 ed. Chicago, IL: 1979.
pp. 4-5.
23. Root, W. ; McCaffrey, D. Providing More Information on Work Injury and
I l l n e s s . Monthly Labor Review 101(4): 16-21, 1979.
24. U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Supplementary
Data System (SDS). Unpublished Accident and Injury Data fo r 1976-1979.
25. Hinze, J. Turnover, new workers, and sa fe ty . J. Const. Div. (ASCE) 104
(C04): 409-17. 1978.
26. Mason, K. Some Aspects of Accident Causation Related to Occupation, Age
and Experience of Worker. Vancouver, Canada: Workers' Compensation
Board of B r i t is h Columbia. 1977. 44 pp.
27. Safety in Manual M aterials Handling. DHEW (NIOSH) Pub. No. 78-185.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health
Service. Centers for Disease Control. National I n s t i t u t e for
Occupational Safety and Health. July 1978.
110
28. Work P ra c tic e s Guide for Manual L iftin g . DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 81-122.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service.
Centers for Disease Control. National I n s t i t u t e for Occupational Health
and Safety. March 1981.
29. How to L ift Safely. U.S. Government P rin tin g O ffice #1980-660-964.
C incinn ati, OH: National I n s t i t u t e fo r Occupational Safety and Health.
1980.
30. Audiovisual Resources in Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH)
Pub. No. 82-102. C in c in n a ti, OH: National I n s t i t u t e for Occupational
Safety and Health. D ivision of Standards Development and Technology
T ransfer. October 1981.
31. Margolis, B. L. ; Kroes, M. H. The Human Side of Accident Prevention.
S p rin g fie ld , IL: Charles C. Thomas. 1975.
32. U.S. Department of Labor. OSHA General Industry Standards—29 CFR
1910. Occupational Safety and Health A dm inistration. 1978. 820 pp.
33. Dickie, D. E. Crane Handbook, 1st ed. Toronto, Canada: Construction
Safety A ssociation of O ntario. 1975. pp. 69, 75, 79-89.
34. Dickie, D. E. Rigging Procedures and P recau tio ns— Chapter 7 of Rigging
Manual, 1st ed. Toronto, Canada: Construction Safety A ssociation of
Ontario. 1975. pp. 169-88.
35. Construction Safety A ssociation of Ontario. "Most i n j u r i e s to dozer
loader and backhoe operators re la te d to poor mounting and dismounting."
The Counsellor. Ontario, Canada: October 1981. pp. 4-5.
36. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Wheel-Type Front End Loaders. EP
385-1-51. July 1979.
37. National Safety Council. Accident Prevention Manual for I n d u s tr ia l
O perations—Engineering and Technology, 8th ed. Chicago, IL: 1980.
38. National Safety Council. S up erviso r's Safety Manual, 5th ed. Chicago,
IL: 1978.
39. P restressed Concrete I n s t i t u t e . PCI Safety and Loss Prevention Manual
Section IV, A through K, M. Chicago, IL: Unpaginaged.
40. C r i t e r i a for a Recommended Standard. . .Working in Confined Spaces.
DHEW (NIOSH) Pub. No. 80-106. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. Public Health Service. Centers fo r Disease Control. National
I n s t i t u t e for Occupational Safety and Health. December 1979.
Ill
41. TLVs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Agents in the Workroom Environment with Intended Changes fo r 1981.
American Conference of Governmental I n d u s tr ia l H ygienists. C incinn ati,
OH: 1981. 94 pp.
42. Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, U niversity of Waterloo.
Human Factors Engineering Report on Mounting and Dismounting
Construction Equipment. Report prepared for C onstruction Safety
A ssociation of O ntario. September 1980.
43. Guidelines for C ontrolling Hazardous Energy During Maintenance and
Servicing. DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 83-125. Morgantown, WV: N ational
I n s t i t u t e for Occupational Safety and Health. D ivision of Safety
Research. September 1983.
44. Peterson, D. Techniques of Safety Management. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill. 1971. pp. 29-32.
45. Cal./OSHA C onsultation Service. Evaluation of Safety and Health
Program. San F rancisco, CA: C a lifo rn ia Department of I n d u s t r i a l
R elatio n s. 1982.
46. Enviro Control, Inc. Summary Plant Observation Report and Evaluation
(SPORE). (Unpublished report submitted to NIOSH under c o n tra c t No.
210-80-0040). R ockville, MD: October 1981.
47. Euniger, M. Operation Zero Accident Prevention Fundamentals.
P ittsb u rg h , PA: Normax P u b lic a tio n s, Inc. 1972.
48. National Safety Council. Handbook of Occupational Safety and Health.
Chicago, IL: 1976. pp. 2-6.
49. Canadian Standards A ssociation. Precast: Concrete—M aterials and
Construction, 3rd Ed., CAN3-A23.4-M78. O ntario, Canada: 1978. 77 pp.
50. Canadian Standards A ssociation. Q u a lific a tio n Code for Manufacturers of
A rc h ite c tu ra l and S tru c tu ra l P recast Concrete, CSA-A251-1971. O ntario,
Canada: 1971. 121 pp.
51. U.S. Department of Labor. OSHA Construction Industry Standards— 29 CFR
1926. Occupational Safety and Health A dm inistration. 1979. 618 pp.
52. Diekemper, R. F. ; S partz, D.A. A Q u a n titativ e and Q u a lita tiv e Measure
of I n d u s t r i a l Safety A c t i v i t i e s . ASSE J. 15:12-19, December 1970.
112
APPENDIX A
EXAMPLES OF MANUFACTURED CONCRETE PRODUCTS
WITHIN SIC 3272
Appendix A
Examples of Manufactured Concrete
Products w ithin SIC 3272
This appendix contains a l i s t i n g of the v ario u s manufactured concrete
products concerned w ithin the scope of th i s document.
Areaways, basement window: concrete
Art marble: concrete
A rc h ite c tu ra l p recast concrete panels
Ashlar: cast stone
Bathtubs: concrete
Beams and j o i s t s : concrete
Bridge products: p re c a st concrete
Building stone, a r t i f i c i a l : concrete
B urial v a u lts : concrete and p re c a st terra z zo
Catch basin covers: concrete
Ceiling squares: concrete
Chimney caps: concrete
Church fu rn itu re : concrete
Columns: concrete
Conduits: concrete
Copings: concrete
Cribbing: concrete
Doorframes: concrete
Drain t i l e : concrete
F ire p lac e s: concrete
Floor sla b s: p recast concrete
Floor t i l e : p recast concrete
Fountains, wash: p re ca st te rra z z o
Garbage boxes: concrete
Grave markers: concrete
Grease tra p s : concrete
Hollow-core p re stre sse d planks
Housing components, p re fa b ric a te d : concrete
In c in e ra to rs : concrete
I r r i g a t i o n pipe: concrete
Laundry tra y s : concrete
L in te ls : concrete
Manhole covers and frames: concrete
Mantles: concrete
M attresses for r i v e r revetment: concrete a r t i c u l a t e d
Meter boxes: concrete
Monuments: concrete
Panels and se c tio n s, p re fa b ric a te d : concrete
Paving m a te ria ls : p re fa b ric a te d concrete, except blocks
P ie r footings: p re fa b ric a te d concrete
114
P ilin g : p re fa b ric a te d concrete
Pipe: concrete
Poles: concrete
Posts: concrete
Septic tanks: concrete
Shower re c e p to rs: concrete
Siding: p re ca st stone
S ilos: p re fa b ric a te d concrete
Slabs, crossing: concrete
Steps: p re fa b ric a te d concrete
Storage tanks: concrete
S tru c tu ra l p recast p re s tre s s e d concrete products
Tanks: concrete
Thresholds: precast terra z zo
Tombstones: p recast te rra z z o or concrete
Wall base: precast terra z zo
Wall squares: concrete
Well curbing: concrete
Window s i l l s : c a st stone
115
APPENDIX B
REVIEW OF STATE, FEDERAL, AND FOREIGN SAFETY STANDARDS
AND TRADE ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
APPENDIX B
REVIEW OF STATE, FEDERAL, AND FOREIGN SAFETY STANDARDS
AND TRADE ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
This appendix contains a review of e x is tin g S ta te , F ederal, and foreign
safety standards as well as trade a s s o c ia tio n g u id elin e s th a t apply to the
p recast concrete products ind u stry.
A. S tate and Foreign Standards
A review of the standards of the S tates th a t adm inister t h e i r own
occupational safety and h e a lth programs shows th a t no S ta te has v e r t i c a l
standards th a t s p e c i f i c a l l y address sa fe ty in the manufacturing of p recast
concrete products. Safety m atters in the remaining S ta tes are re g u la te d by
the OSHA General Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1910 [32].
Occupational safety and h e a lth standards th a t address o perations in the
p re ca st concrete products industry were requested from Germany, the United
Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, A u s tra lia , Canada, and Mexico.
The Canadian standards [49, 50] th a t re g u la te a r c h i t e c t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l
o perations are included for ev a lu a tio n . A u s tr a lia , France, and Belgium have
standards for the concrete c o n stru c tio n in d u stry , but do not re g u la te
manufacturing o p e ra tio n s. The remaining c o u n trie s do not have safety
standards th at s p e c i f i c a l l y address p recast concrete operatio n s.
B. Trade Association Guidelines
The ACPA has published a "Concrete Pipe Handbook" [8] th a t contains some
suggestions on handling, unloading, and s i t e sto ra g e . The PCI has developed
a "Safety and Loss Prevention Manual" [39] th a t includes se c tio n s on
su bjects such as tr a in in g m otivation, yard s to ra g e , tensioning equipment,
s tre s s in g operatio n s, s t e e l placement, t r a v e l i f t s , chucks, and harping.
These su b je c ts are s p e c i f i c a l l y re la te d to tasks or o perations in the
a r c h i t e c t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l se c to rs of the ind u stry.
C. Foreign Standards vs. Trade A ssociation Guidelines
In te r n a tio n a l standards and g u id elin e s are incorporated, where appro
p r i a t e , in the comprehensive sa fe ty recommendations presented in Chapter
IV. A comparison of these standards and g u id elin e s are presented t o p i c a l ly ,
by o peratio n , in the following se c tio n .
1. Forming
Canada req uires t h a t , in f a c i l i t i e s for making forms and a c c e sso rie s,
the co n stru c tio n of the forms be w ithin the to le ra n c e s required fo r the
product. They also re q u ire th a t a l l form-making shops have e x its and
118
f i r e f i g h t i n g equipment a p p ro p riate to the work space, m a t e r ia l s , and
expected hazards.
Canada also re q u ire s th a t f a c i l i t i e s for producing p re s tre s s e d con
c r e te elements include measuring equipment for s e t t i n g up and checking
alignments and le v e ls . Canada re q u ire s th a t th e re be adequate d u s t-
c o l l e c t i n g and v e n t i l a t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s when personnel are in
woodworking shops where wood or p la s t i c forms are made.
2. Reinforcing
Canada re q u ire s th a t work benches or gigs where welding is performed be
arranged so th a t employees are p ro te c te d from welding fla sh e s and th a t
the areas be v e n t il a te d to avoid exposure to excessive welding fumes.
PCI r e f e r s to the OSHA General Industry Standards in 29 CFR 1910.217 and
re q u ire s welding areas to be v e n t il a te d and p ro tected to prevent welding
fla s h .
3. S tressin g
Both Canada and the PCI have sa fe ty requirements fo r s t r e s s i n g opera
t io n s . The PCI re q u ire s th a t a s h ie ld or guard be provided for bed end
p ro te c tio n of the jacking area. There are suggestions fo r the m a te ria ls
for a b a r r i e r , but no s p e c if ic requirements.
4. Oiling
There are no unique sa fe ty standards in any i n t e r n a t i o n a l or consensus
standards th a t address the tasks of t h i s o p e ra tio n , except those
d iscussing walking and working surfaces in the PCI "Safety and Loss P re
vention Manual" [39].
5. Mixing
The PCI has no s p e c if ic s a fe ty standards regarding batching and mixing
th a t r e l a t e to s a fe ty . The Canadian standards re q u ire th a t the batch
p la n t be kept clean a t a l l times.
6. Casting
The PCI recommends th a t gloves, long-sleeved s h i r t s , and long tro u s e rs
be worn when employees are performing any of the v arious tasks re l a t e d
to concrete o p e ra tio n s, such as shoveling, rak in g , v ib r a t in g , and
screeding. The PCI re q u ire s th a t personnel performing the shoveling
tasks be tra in e d in proper procedures to reduce the p o t e n t i a l fo r back
s t r a i n s . They a lso re q u ire th a t ex tru d er hoppers have guards and th a t
a l l e l e c t r i c a l connections be in su la te d or guarded.
The PCI r e f e r s to requirements regarding noise in 29 CFR 1926.52 and CFR
1910.95.
119
7. S trip p in g
There are no s p e c ific requirements in the PCI, ACPA, or Canadian
standards th a t apply to tasks in the s tr ip p in g o p e ra tio n .
8. Curing
The PCI has both recommendations and s p e c if ic requirements concerning
steam, hot o i l , e l e c t r i c , and m oisture curing. They include
requirements for the in s u la tio n of steam, hot: o i l , and hot water lin e s
and for therm ostats, tim ers, and c i r c u i t b reak ers fo r e l e c t r i c curin g .
9. Finishing
The PCI "Safety and Loss Prevention Manual" [39] recommends the use of
rubbersoled shoes where th e re are slip p e ry su rfaces and re q u ire s the use
of hard h a ts , eye p ro te c tio n , knee pads, and gloves in the performance
of c e r t a i n o p e ra tio n s; e . g . , gloves are req uired fo r a l l f i n is h e r s
working with concrete; eye p ro te c tio n is re q u ire d while concrete is
poured; and eye p ro te c tio n is required whenever f i n is h e r s are chipping,
burning, d r i l l l i n g , or grinding.
During sp e cia l fin is h in g processes such as sand b la s t i n g , the PCI r e
q uires adequate exhaust v e n t i l a t i o n and r e s p i r a to r y p ro te c tiv e
equipment. When acid e tch in g i s used as a fin is h in g technique, the PCI
re q u ire s th a t warning signs be posted and v i s i b l e , th a t a l l c a u s tic and
acid products be lab e le d , and th a t employees know the lo c a tio n of the
n e a re st p o rta b le water supply. I t a ls o recommends the use of p ro te c tiv e
face, hand, fo o t, and body clo th in g for employees performing these ta s k s.
10. M aterials Handling
PCI r e f e r s to 29 CFR 1926.600 for c e r t a i n general requirem ents, but also
s p e c ifie s in i t s "Safety and Loss Prevention Manual" [39] th a t o perators
be tra in e d and q u a l if ie d , be able to pass a t l e a s t a verbal examination,
be s p e c i f i c a l l y designated to a p a r t i c u l a r ta s k , and make a d a ily minimum
check of t h e i r equipment. PCI also re q u ire s th a t the grounds be properly
maintained for safe o peratio n s and p r o h ib its the carry in g or holding of
loads over work areas where o th e r employees are p re se n t.
The ACPA re q u ire s th a t product handling conform with the standard
recommendations in i t s handbook.
Canada re q u ire s th a t a l l p hysical production f a c i l i t i e s be la i d o ut,
designed, and con stru cted so th a t there w i l l be adequate space fo r mate
r i a l s , sto ra g e , equipment, and production f a c i l i t i e s , with s u f f i c i e n t
capacity so th a t production can be adequately maintained without
adversely a ffe c tin g the sa fe ty of p la n t, personnel, or products.
The PCI has both general and s p e c i f i c recommendations fo r yard sto ra g e ,
including storage a re a , dunnage, sta ck in g , personnel s a fe ty , s tra n d , and
120
rebar sto ra g e . They a lso have recommendations regarding product t r a n s
p o rta tio n , including o perating ru le s for d rivin g in hazardous weather.
The PCI p ro h ib its the use of drugs and alco ho l; i t a ls o re q u ire s th a t
d riv e rs wear hardhats and sa fe ty shoes.
The OSHA General Industry Standards in 29 CFR 1910 [32] re g u la te sa fe ty and
health in the p re ca st concrete products industry (SIC 3272); however, the
standards do not apply to a l l o p e ra tio n s, ta s k s , and con d ition s s p e c ific to
the in d u stry . Those items in the e x is tin g standards th a t are re l a t e d to the
manufacture and d eliv e ry of p re ca st concrete products are presented in Table
B-l.
Although SIC Code 3272 is reg ulated by OSHA standards under 29 CFR 1910, the
OSHA c o n stru c tio n standards in 29 CFR 1926 con tain elements which are
re la te d to c e r ta i n operatio n s w ithin the p re c a st concrete products
ind u stry. The standards in CFR 1926 th a t impact on working conditions in
the industry are included in Table B-l for inform ational purposes.
E. Summary
OSHA General Industry Standards apply to many of the o p e ra tio n s, ta s k s, and
conditions ty p ic a l of p recast concrete manufacturing o p e ra tio n s. These OSHA
re g u la tio n s address su b je c ts such as walking and working su rfaces,
handtools, v e n t i l a t i o n , n o ise , f i r e prevention, r e s p i r a to r y p ro te c tio n ,
machine guarding, ladders, sc a ffo ld in g , and welding or c u ttin g . OSHA
standards do n o t, however, re g u la te some of the ta s k s , equipment, and opera
tio n s th a t are s p e c ific to the p recast concrete products in d u stry , such as
forming, s t r e s s i n g , detensio n in g, o i l i n g , concrete tra n s p o rt and c a s tin g .
Existing i n te r n a tio n a l standards and tra d e a s s o c ia tio n guid elines address
many of the hazards th a t are unique to tasks in the p re ca st concrete indus
t r y . PCI provides g u id elin e s fo r worker p ro te c tio n in such areas as ten
sioning, a r c h i t e c t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l product sto ra g e , yard layout and
c le a n lin e s s , product shipping, and s te e l placement. ACPA guid elines address
the areas of pipe handling and unloading.
The recommendations fo r safe work p ra c tic e s in Chapter IV include app licable
standards from OSHA and fo reign sources and from trade a s s o c ia tio n
g u id elin e s. Additional recommendations are presented to include:
o Employee tra in in g
o Manual m a teria ls handling
o Housekeeping
o Personal p ro te c tiv e equipment.
121
TABLE B - l
OSHA STANDARDS THAT IMPACT ON THE MANUFACTURE AND DELIVERY
OF PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS
A p p l ic a b l e
S ta n d a r d A re a o f Im p act
1910
Subpart D Walking and Working Surfaces
. 22 General requirements
.23 Guarding openings & holes
.24 Fixed s t a i r s
.25 Wood ladders
.26 Metal ladders
.27 Fixed ladders
.28 Scaffolding
.29 Mobile sc a ffo ld s
Subpart E Means of Egress
.36 General
.37 Means of egress
Subpart G Occupational Health and Environmental Control
.94 V e n tila tio n
.95 Noise
.97 Nonionizing r a d ia tio n
Subpart H Hazardous M aterials
.101 Compressed gases
(general requirements)
.102 Acetylene
.104 Oxygen
.106 Flammable and combustible
l iq u id s
.1 1 0 Storage and handling of
liq u e f ie d petroleum gases
Subpart I Personal P ro te c tiv e Equipment
.133 Eye and face p ro te c tio n
.134 R espiratory p ro te c tio n
.135 Occupational head
p ro te c tio n
.136 Occupational foot
p ro te c tio n
Subpart J General Environmental Controls
.141 S an ita tio n
.144 Color coding
.145 Signs and tags
122
TABLE B - l
OF PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS ( C o n tin u e d )
A p p l ic a b l e
1910 (Cont.)
Subpart K Medical and F i r s t Aid
.151 Medical se rv ice s and
f i r s t aid
Subpart L F ire P ro te c tio n
.157 P ortable f i r e
e x tin g u ish e rs
.158 Standpipe & hose systems
.159 Automatic sp rin k le r
systems
.160 Fixed dry chemical
exting u ish ing systems
.161 Carbon dioxide
exting u ish ing systems
.163 Local f i r e alarm
sig n alin g systems
Subpart M Compressed Gas and Compressed Air Equipment
.166 Inspection of compressed
gas cy lin d e rs
.169 Air re c e iv e rs
Subpart N M aterials Handling and Storage
.176 Handling m a te r ia ls ,
general
.178 Powered i n d u s t r i a l trucks
.179 Overhead & gantry cranes
.180 Crawler, locomotive, and
truck cranes
Subpart 0 Machinery and Machine Guarding
.212 General requirements for
a l l machines
.213 Woodworking machinery
requirements
.215 Abrasive wheel machinery
.217 Mechanical power presses
.219 Mechanical power-
transm ission apparatus
123
TABLE B - l
OF PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS ( C o n tin u e d )
Applicable
Standard Area of Impact
1910 (Cont.)
Subpart P Tools, Hand and P ortable Powered
.242 Hand & p o rta b le powered
to o ls & equipment, general
.243 Guarding of p o rta b le
powered to o ls
.244 Other p o rta b le to o ls & equipment
Subpart Q Welding, C utting and Brazing
.252 Welding, c u ttin g & brazing
Subpart S E lectrical
.309 National E l e c t r i c a l Code
Subpart Z Toxic and Hazardous Substances
.1000 Air contaminants
1926
Subpart C General Safety and Health
.21 Safety t r a in i n g & education
.25 Housekeeping
Subpart E Personal P ro te c tiv e Equipment
.102 Eye and face p ro te c tio n
.103 R espiratory p ro te c tio n
.104 Safety b e l t s , l i f e l in e s ,
and lanyards
.105 Safety h a ts
Subpart G Signs, S ig nals, and Barricades
.201 Signaling
Subpart H M aterials Handling, Storage, Use, and Disposal
.250 General Storage
.251 Rigging equipment
.252 Disposal of waste m a te ria ls
Subpart K E lectrical
.400 General
.4012 Grounding and bonding
.402 I n s t a l l a t i o n & maintenance
124
TABLE B - l
OF PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS (C o n c lu d e d )
A p p lic a b le
1926 (Cont.)
Subpart N Cranes, D erricks, and Hoists
.550 Cranes and d e rric k s
Subpart 0 Motor Vehicles
.600 Equipment
.601 Motor v eh icle s
.602 M aterials handling equipment
Subpart Q Concrete, Concrete Forms, and Storage
.700 General pro vision s
.701 Forms and sto rin g
Subpart W Rollover P ro te c tiv e S tru c tu re s
.1000 Rollover p ro te c tio n
.1001 Performance c r i t e r i a
.1002 Frame t e s t procedures
.1003 Overhead p ro te c tio n
Adapted from OSHA General Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1910 [32] and OSHA Con-
s t r u c ti o n Industry Standards, 29 CFR 1926 [51].
125
APPENDIX C
SAMPLE SAFETY AUDIT
A. ORGANIZATION & ADMINISTRATION
Activity Poor
1. Statement of p o l i c y , No statement of Loss

responsibilities Control Policy.
assigned Responsibility &
accountability not
assigned
2. Safe opera t i n g No w r i t t e n SOP's.

procedures ( SOP's)
3. Employee selection Only pre-employment

& placement physical examination
given
4. Emergency & di No p l a n or pro

saster control plans cedures
5. D i r e c t m a n a g e m e n t No m e a s u r a b l e acti
involvement vity.
SAMPLE SAFETY AUDIT
Fair Good Excellent

A general under Loss Control Policy In addition to "Good"
standing of Loss & responsibilities Loss Control Policy
Control, responsi written & distri is reviewed annually
bilities & account buted to super & is posted. Re
ability, but not visors. sponsibility & ac
written countability is em
phasized in super
visory performance
evaluations.
Written SOP's for Written SOP's for All hazardous opera

some, but not all, all hazardous tions covered by a
hazardous opera operations. procedure, posted at
tions the job location, with
an annual documented
review to determine
adequacy.
In addition, an In addition to In addition to "Good"

aptitude test is "Fair" new employ when employees are
administered to new ees' past safety considered for promo
employees. record is consid tion, their safety
ered in their em attitude & record are
ployment . considered.
Verbal understand Written plan out All types of emergen

ing on emergency lining the minimum cies covered with
procedures requirements. written procedures.
Responsibilities are
defined with backup
personnel provisions.
Followup on acci In addition to In addition to "Good"

dent problems "Fair," management reviews all investi
reviews all injury gation reports. Loss
& property damage Control problems are
reports & holds treated as other
supervision account operational problems
able for verifying in staff meeting.
firm corrective
measures.
SAMPLE
A. ORGANIZATION & ADMINISTRATION (Continued)
Activity Poor
6. Plant safety rules No written rules.
B. INDUSTRIAL HAZARD CONTROL

Activity Poor
1. Housekeeping— Housekeeping is gen
storage of mate erally poor. Raw
rials, etc. materials, items be
ing processed & fin
ished materials are
poorly stored.
2. Machine guarding Little attempt is

made to control
hazardous points on
machinery.
3. General area guard Little attempt is

ing made to control such
hazards as: unpro
tected floor open
ings ; slippery or
defective floors;
stairway surfaces;
inadequate illumina
tion, etc.
4. Maintenance of No systematic pro

equipment, guards, gram of maintaining
handtools, etc. guards, handtools,
controls & other
safety features of
equipment, etc.
SAFETY AUDIT (Continued)
Fair Good Excellent

Plant safety rules Plant safety rules In addition, plant
have been developed are incorporated in work rules are firmly
& posted. the plant enforced & updated at
work rules. least annually.
Fair Good Excellent

Housekeeping is Housekeeping & Housekeeping &
fair. Some attempts storage of materials storage of materials
to adequately store are orderly. Heavy are ideally con
materials are being & bulky objects well trolled .
made. stored out of
aisles, etc.
Partial, but inade There is evidence of Machine hazards are

quate or ineffec control which meets effectively control
tive attempts at applicable Federal & led to the extent
control are in State requirements, that injury is un
evidence. but improvements likely. Safety of
may still be made. operator is given
prime consideration at
time of process design.
Partial, but inade There is evidence of These hazards are ef

quate attempts to control which meets fectively controlled
control these applicable Federal & to the extent that
hazards are evi State requirements— injury is unlikely.
denced. but further improve
ment may still be
made.
Partial, but inade Maintenance program In addition to "Good"

quate or ineffective for equipment & a preventative main
maintenance. safety features is tenance system is
adequate. Electri programmed for
cal handtools are hazardous equipment
tested & inspected & devices. Safety
before issuance, & reports filed &
on a routine basis. safety department
consulted when ab
normal conditions are
found.
SAMPLE
B. INDUSTRIAL HAZARD CONTROL(Continued)
Activity Poor
Materials handling— Little attempt is
hand & mechanized made to minimize
possibility of in
jury from the han
dling of materials.
6. Personal protective Proper equipment not

equipment— adequacy provided or is not
& use adequate for specif
ic hazards.
C. FIRE CONTROL &INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

1. Chemical hazard con- No knowledge or use
trol references of reference data.
2. Flammable & explo- Storage facilities

sive materials con- do not meet fire
trol regulations. Con
tainers do not carry
name of contents.
Approved dispensing
equipment not used.
Excessive quanti
ties permitted in
manufacturing areas.
SAFETY AUDIT (Continued)
Fair Good Excellent

Partial but inade Loads are limited as In addition to con
quate or ineffective to size & shape for trols for both hand &
attempts at control handling by hand, & mechanized handling,
are in evidence. mechanization is adequate measures
provided for heavy prevail to prevent
or bulky loads. conflict between other
workers & material
being moved.
Partial but inade Proper equipment is Equipment provided

quate or ineffective provided. Equipment complies with stand
provision, distribu identified for ards. Close control
tion & use of per special hazards, maintained by super
sonal protective distribution of vision. Use of safe
equipment. equipment is con ty equipment recog
trolled by super nized as an employ
visor. Employee is ment requirement.
required to use pro Injury record bears
tective equipment. this out.
Data available & In addition to Data posted & follow

used by foremen when "Fair" additional ed where needed.
needed. standards have been Additional standards
requested when have been promul-
uecessaiy■ gated, reVi6W€u with
employees involved &
posted.
Some storage facili Storage facilities In addition to "Good"

ties meet minimum meet minimum fire storage facilities
fire regulations. regulations. Most exceed the minimum
Most containers containers carry fire regulations &
carry name of con name of contents. containers are always
tents. Some approv Approved equipment labeled. A strong
ed dispensing equip generally is used. policy is in evidence
ment in use. Supply at work area relative to the con
is limited to one trol of the handling,
day requirement. storage & use of
Containers are kept flammable materials.
in approved storage
cabinets.
SAMPLE SAFETY AUDIT (Continued)
FIRE CONTROL & INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE (Continued)
Activity Poor Fair Good Excellent
3. Ventilation— fumes, V e n t i l a t i o n rates Ventilation rates in In addition to In addition to "Good"
smoke and dust are b e l o w industrial exposure areas meet "Fair" ventilation equipment is properly
control hygiene standards in minimum standards. rates are periodi selected & maintained
areas where there is cally measured, re close to maximum ef
an industrial corded & maintained ficiency.
hygiene exposure. at approved levels.
4. Skin contamination Little attempt at Partial, but incom The majority of All workmen informed
control control or elimina plete program for workmen instructed about skin-irritating
tion of skin irrita protecting workers. concerning skin- materials. Workmen
tion exposures. First-aid reports irritating mate in all cases provided
on skin problems rials. Workmen pro with approved per
are followed up on vided with approved sonal protective
an individual basis personal protective equipment or devices.
for determination equipment or de Use of proper equip
of cause. vices. Use of this ment enforced &
equipment is en facilities available
forced. for maintenance.
Workers are encour
aged to wash skin
frequently. Injury
record indicates good
control.
5. Fire control Do not meet minimum Meets minimum re In addition to In addition to "Good"
measures insurance or munici quirements. "Fair" additional a fire crew is or
pal requirements. fire hoses i/or ex ganized & trained in
tinguishers are pro emergency procedures
vided. Welding per & in the use of fire
mits issued. Extin fighting equipment.
guishers on all
welding carts.
6. Waste— trash col Control measures Some controls exist Most waste disposal Waste disposal haz
lection & disposal, are inadequate. for disposal of problems have been ards are effectively
air/water pollution harmful wastes or identified & control controlled. Air/
trash. Controls programs instituted. water pollution po
exist but are inef There is no room for tential is m i n i m a l .
fective in methods further improvement.
or procedures of
collection & disposal.
Further study is
necessary.
D. SUPERVISORY PARTICIPATION, MOTIVATION & TRAINING
1. Line supervisor All supervisors have All shop supervisors All supervisors In addition, special
safety training not received basic have received some participate in divi ized sessions con
safety training. safety training. sion safety training ducted on specific
session a minimum of problems.
twice a year.
2. Indoctrination of No program covering Verbal only A written handout to A formal indoctrina

new employees. the health & safety assist in indoctri tion program to
job requirements. nation. orientate new em
ployees is in effect
3. Job hazard analysis No written program. JHA program being JHA conducted on In addition, job ha
(JHA). implemented on some majority of opera zard analyses per
jobs. tions . formed on a regular
basis & safety pro
cedures written &
posted for all oper
ations .
4. Training for spe Inadequate training An occasional train Safety training is In addition to "Good
cialized operations given for special ing program given given for all spe an evaluation is per
(Fork trucks, grind ized operations. for specialized cialized operations formed annually to
ing, press brakes, operations. on a regular basis determine training
punch presses, sol & retraining given needs.
vent handling, etc.) periodically to re
view correct proce
dures.
5. Internal self No written program Plant relies on out A written program Inspection program i
inspection. to identify & eval side sources; i.e., outlining inspection measured by results;
uate hazardous Insurance Safety guidelines, respons i.e., reduction in
practices &/or con Engineer & assumes ibilities, frequency accidents & costs.
ditions . each supervisor in & follow up is in Inspection results
spects his area. effect. are followed by top
management.
6. Safety promotion & Bulletin boards & Additional safety Safety displays & Special display cab
publicity. posters are consid displays, demonstra demonstrations are inets, windows, etc.
ered the primary tions, films, are used on a regular are provided. Dis
means for safety used infrequently. basis. plays are. used regu
promotion. larly & are keyed to
special themes.
D. SUPERVISORY PARTICIPATION, MOTIVATION & TRAINING (Continued)
7. Employee/supervisor Little or no attempt Infrequent safety Supervisors regu In addition to items
safety contact & made by supervisor discussions between larly cover safety covered under "Good"
communication. to discuss safety supervisor & employ when reviewing work supervisors make good
with employees. ees. practices with in use of the shop safe
dividual employees. ty plan & regularly
review job safety
requirements with each
worker. They contact
at least one employee
daily to discuss safe
job performance.
E. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, STATISTICS AND REPORTING PROCEDURES

1. Accident investiga No accident investi Line supervision Line supervision In addition to items
tion by line per gation made by line makes investigations trained & makes com covered under "Good"
sonnel. supervision. of only med i c a l in plete & effective investigation is
ju r i e s . investigations of made of every acci
all accidents; the dent within 24 hours
cause is determined; of occurrence. Re
corrective measures ports are reviewed by
initiated immedi the department mana
ately with a comple ger & plant manager.
tion date firmly
established.
2. Accident cause & No analysis of dis Effective analysis In addition to ef Accident causes & in
injury location abling & medical by b o t h cause & fective accident juries are graphical
analysis & statis cases to identify location maintained analysis, results ly illustrated to de
tics. prevalent causes of on m e d i c a l & first are used to pinpoint velop the trends &
accidents & location aid cases. accident causes so evaluate performance.
where they occur. accident prevention Management is kept
objectives can be informed on status.
established.
3. Investigation of No program. Verbal requirement Written requirement In addition, manage

property damage. or general practice that all property ment requires a
to inquire about damage accidents of vigorous investiga
property damage $50 & more will be tion effort on all
accidents. investigated. property damage ac
cidents.
4. Proper reporting of Accident reporting Accidents are cor In addition to In addition to "Good"
accidents & contact procedures are in rectly reported on a "Fair" accident re there is a close li
with carrier. adequate . timely basis. cords are maintained aison with the insur
for analysis pur ance carrier.
poses________________
RATING FORM
Poor F air Good E x cellent Comments
ORGANIZATION & ADMINISTRATION
1. Statement of policy,
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s assigned. 0 5 15 20
2. Safe operating procedures
(SOP's). 0 2 15 17
3. Employee s e le c tio n and
placement. 0 2 10 12
4. Emergency and d i s a s t e r
c ontrol planning. 0 5 15 18
5. D irect management in
volvement . 0 10 20 25
6. Plant safety ru le s . 0 2 5 8
Total value of c ir c le d numbers + + + 20 Rating
B. INDUSTRIAL HAZARD CONTROL
1. Housekeeping— storage of
m a te r ia ls , e tc . 0 4 8 10
2. Machine guarding. 0 5 16 20
3. General area guarding. 0 5 16 20
4. Maintenance of equipment
guards, hand to o ls, e tc . 0 5 16 20
5. M aterial handling—hand
and mechanized. 0 3 8 10
6. Personal p ro te c tiv e equip
ment—adequacy and use. 0 7 20 20
Total value of c ir c le d numbers + + + 20 Rating
C. FIRE CONTROL & INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
1. Chemical hazard control
re fe re n c e s. 0 6 17 20
2. Flammable and explosive
m a teria ls con tro l. 0 6 17 20
3. V e n tila tio n — fumes, smoke
and dust c o n tro l. 0 2 8 10
4. Skin contamination c o n tro l. 0 3 10 15
5. F ire con tro l measures. 0 2 8 10
6. Waste— tra sh c o lle c tio n and
d isp o sa l, a ir/w a te r
p o llu t io n . 0 7 20 25
Total value of c ir c le d numbers 20 Rating
134
Poor F air Good E xcellent Comments
D. SUPERVISORY PARTICIPATION, MOTIVATION & TRAINING
1 . Line supervisor safety
training. 0 10 22 25
2. In d o c trin a tio n of new
employees. 0 1 5 10
3. Job hazard a n a ly s is. 0 2 8 10
4. Training for sp e cia liz e d
o p e ra tio n s . 0 2 7 10
5. In te rn a l s e lf - in s p e c tio n . 0 5 14 15
6. Safety promotion and
p u b lic ity . 0 1 4 5
7. Employee/supervisor contact
and communication. 0 5 20 25
Total value of c ir c le d numbers ____ +_____ +____ +____ X .20 Rating
E. ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, STATISTICS & REPORTING PROCEDURES
1. Accident in v e s tig a tio n by
lin e supervisor. 0 10 32 40
2. Accident cause and injury
loc a tio n analysis and
statistics. 0 3 8 10
3. In v e s tig a tio n of property
damage. 0 10 32 40
4. Proper rep ortin g of accidents
and contact with c a r r i e r . 0 3 8 10
Total value of c ir c le d numbers ____ +____ +____ + X .20 Rating
SUMMARY
The numerical values below are the weighted ra tin g s c a lc u la te d on r a tin g
sh eets. The t o t a l becomes the o v e ra ll score for the lo c a tio n .
A. Organization & Adm inistration ___________
B. I n d u s t r i a l Hazard Control
C. Fire Control & I n d u s tr ia l Hygiene ___________
D. Supervisory P a r ti c ip a ti o n ,
Motivation & Training
E. Accident In v e s tig a tio n , S t a t i s t i c s
& Reporting Procedures
TOTAL RATING ___________
Copyright by the American Society of Safety Engineers. Reprinted by the
Department of Health and Human Services with permission. F urther
reproduction without permission of copyright holder p ro h ib ite d .
135
APPENDIX D
EXAMPLES OF SAFETY PROGRAM ASSESSMENT FORMS
A c c id e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n A s se ssm e n t Form
Yes No
1. Are employees required to re p o rt a l l i n j u r i e s and _____ ___
property damage incidents?
2. Do the accident in v e s tig a tio n procedures urge employees _____ ___
to re p o rt near miss accidents?
3. Are f i r s t - l i n e supervisors required to in v e s tig a te _____ ___
and rep ort minor inju ry accidents?
4. Is a w ritte n record made of a l l accident in v e stig a tio n s? _____ ___
5. Does a management lev el above the f i r s t - l i n e supervisor
p a r ti c ip a t e in serio us injury accidents?
6. Are the m ajority of accid en ts in v e stig a te d on the day
of the occurrence?
7. Have s u p e r v i s o r been tra in e d in techniques of accident
in v e stig a tio n ?
8. Do accident re p o rts c le a r ly id e n tify the cause(s) of
the accident?
9. Are recommendations for c o rre c tiv e a c tio n to prevent
recurrence implemented in a timely manner?
10. Is someone assigned the r e s p o n s i b il i ty of keeping OSHA
records, and are they kept up to date?
138
A s se ss m e n t f o r C o n tr o l o f H a z a rd s Form
Yes No
1. Is safety and h ea lth data re a d ily a v a ila b le to a l l _____ ___
employees?
2. Are m a teria l safety data sheets a v a ila b le to supervisors? _____ ___
3. Are safe job procedures and safety ru le s a v a ila b le to _____ ___
a l l employees?
4. Are ro u tin e sa fe ty and h ea lth inspections conducted? _____ ___
5. Is there a procedure for handling employee sa fe ty and
health complaints?
6. Are noted safety d e f ic ie n c ie s promptly corrected?
7. Is there an engineering and a d m in istra tiv e con tro l
program in e ffe c t?
8. Is management knowledgeable in the s e le c tio n , care and
maintenance of personal p ro te c tiv e equipment?
9. Are employees in s tru c te d in the c o rre c t use and care
of personal p ro te c tiv e equipment?
10. Is there a program in e f f e c t for good housekeeping and
and ro u tin e maintenance?
139
A s s e s s m e n t o f S a f e t y I n s p e c t i o n Form
Yes No
1. Does the safety program provide for p erio d ic sa fe ty and _____ ___
h ealth inspections?
2. Are ind ivid uals assigned r e s p o n s i b il i ty for conducting _____
inspections?
3. Do management and employees conduct jo i n t inspections? _____ ___
4. Does management have an abatement program in e f f e c t? _____
5. Does the insp ectio n cover m a te ria ls storage and m a te ria l _____ ___
handling?
6. Does the in sp ectio n cover housekeeping in general and
and p a r t i c u l a r l y for walking and working surfaces?
7. Does the inspection cover the use, care and maintenance
of personal p ro te c tiv e equipment?
8. Does the insp ectio n cover access and e x it to work areas?
9. Does the insp ectio n cover use, care and maintenance of ______
hand too ls (powered and unpowered)?
10. Does the insp ectio n cover physical and chemical hazards?
140
A s se s sm e n t o f S a f e t y T r a i n i n g Form
Yes No
1. Are a l l new employees given a safety o r i e n t a t i o n before _____ ___
they s t a r t work?
2. Are employees, old or new, provided with sa fe ty job _____ ___
in s tr u c tio n when assigned to a new job?
3. Is the tra in in g d ir e c te d to the sp e c ific hazards of the _____ ___
new job?
4. Has management i d e n ti f i e d those persons resp o nsib le for _____ ___
tr a in i n g employees?
5. Are sa fe ty ru le s and p r a c tic e s p e r io d ic a lly discussed
with a l l employees?
6. Is a p ortio n of each sa fe ty meeting devoted to providing
safety in s t r u c t io n fo r upcoming work?
7. Have sa fe ty tra in in g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s been assigned to
someone?
8. Are tra in in g p r i o r i t i e s being assessed? _____ ___
9. Are the tr a in in g o b je c tiv e s c le a r ly defined? _____
10. Is the tra in in g program p e r io d ic a lly evaluated?
141
A s se ssm e n t o f S a f e t y A t t i t u d e Form
Yes No
1. Do supervisors observe s ta te d safety ru le s and safe job _____ ___
procedures?
2. Do employees perceive management as doing a good job a t _____ ___
c o rre c tin g reported unsafe conditions?
3. Are employees given the opportunity to take an a c tiv e ______ ___
ro le in the sa fe ty program?
4. Are plant safety ru le s posted and made a v a ila b le to a l l _____ ___
employees?
5. Are reasons for the sa fe ty ru le s explained to the
employees?
6. Does management re in fo rc e safe employee behavior?
7. Are noncooperative employees reprimanded for in f r a c tio n s
of plant safety ru le s and p ra ctic es?
8. Does management support supervisor e f f o r t s to enforce
p lan t safety ru le s and p ra c tic e s?
9. Do employees fe e l th a t management is in t e r e s t e d and
involved in the safety program?
10. Does management feel th a t the employees are i n te r e s te d
and involved in the sa fe ty program?
142
A s s e s s m e n t o f S a fe Work P r o c e d u r e s Form
Yes No
1. Have accident re p e a te r jobs been i d e n ti f i e d and analyzed _____ ___
to develop sa fe r procedures?
2. Have safe job procedures been standardized fo r hazardous _____
jobs?
3. Are hazardous tasks covered by w ritte n safe job pro- _____ ___
cedures?
4. Do supervisors develop w r it t e n safe job procedures?
5. Are employees encouraged to p a r t i c i p a t e in development
of w ritte n safe job procedures?
6. Are w ritte n safe job procedures prepared p r io r to
i n i t i a t i o n of new jobs or tasks?
7. Do supervisors p e r io d ic a lly observe hazardous jobs or
tasks to determine i f safe work procedures are being
u t i l iz e d ?
8. Are hazardous jobs or tasks accomplished the same by a l l
work crews or s h if ts ?
9. Are w ritte n safe job procedures used to t r a i n employees?
10. Are w ritte n safe job procedures p e r io d ic a lly updated
for improving work methods?
143
A ss e s sm e n t o f M an a g e m e n t's P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S a f e t y Form
Yes No
1. Is the p lan t sa fe ty program a topic on the manager's _____ ___
s t a f f meeting agenda?
2. Do middle managers p e r io d ic a lly conduct sa fe ty meetings _____ ___
with subordinate supervisors?
3. Do middle managers conduct safety insp ectio ns? _____ ___
4. Does the p lan t manager review p erio d ic re p o rts of _____ ___
p lan t accidents?
5. Does management promptly c o rre c t unsafe conditions? _____ ___
6. Does management encourage employees to re p o rt hazardous _____ ___
conditions?
7. Does management encourage employee safety suggestions? _____
8. Does the p lan t have procedures for handling emergencies? _____ ___
9. Do members of management observe the p l a n t 's s ta te d
sa fe ty ru le s and p ra c tic e s?
10. Are a l l le v e ls of managers held accountable fo r t h e i r _____ ___
sa fe ty r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ?
Summary
The assessment forms address samples of various questions which may be asked
concerning the safety program. The questions presented on the sample forms
are not intended to re p re se n t the most important to be answered. They are
intended to be examples o n ly . Management may d e s ir e to find answers to
other areas of the sa fe ty program which are considered problem areas and
should develop an assessment to o l which would y ie ld those answers.
Adapted from Evaluation of Safety and Health Program and Operation Zero
Accident Prevention Fundamentals [45,47].
144
GLOSSARY
aggregate Hard, i n e r t mineral rock fragments or m a te ria ls such as

sand, g ravel, or slag used for mixing with a cementing
m a te ria l to form concrete. Fine aggregate is sand and
other fin e ly graded m a te r ia ls . Coarse aggregate is the
large m a te ria l th a t passes through sieve openings of
one-fourth inch or more.
b u ll flo a t A too l used to spread out and smooth the con crete.
bush hammer An air-powered re c ip ro c a tin g to o l used to give a textured
appearance to a r c h i t e c t u r a l concrete products by
roughening the surface.
camber (a) The upward d e f le c tio n th a t occurs in p re stre sse d
concrete elements due to the net bending r e s u ltin g from
s t r e s s i n g forces and se lf-w e ig h t. I t s p e c i f i c a l l y does
not include dimensional in a c c u ra c ies. (b) A b u i l t - i n
upward curvature in some molds for p recast concrete other
than p re stre sse d to avoid d e f le c tio n under load to below
a defined lin e of fin ish ed product.
cement Any of various c o n stru ctio n adhesives, co n sistin g essen
t i a l l y of powdered, calcined rock and clay m a te r ia ls ,
th a t form a paste with water and can be molded or poured
to se t as a so lid mass.
concrete A mixture of cement, sand, and aggregate with water th at
hardens by chemical curing in to a f i n a l product s im ila r
to stone in te x tu re , weight, and d u r a b i li t y .
connection A device for attachment of p re ca st concrete elements to
each o th er or to a building s t r u c tu r e .
curing The maintenance of humidity and temperature of fre s h ly
placed concrete during some d e f i n i t e period following
p lacin g , c a stin g , or fin is h in g to ensure s a t is f a c t o r y
h yd ration of the cementitious m a te ria ls and proper
hardening of the concrete. When the curing temperature
remains in the normal environmental range (g enerally
between 10° C and 30° C) , the term "normal curing" is
used. When the curing temperature is increased to a
145
higher range (g enerally between 30° C and 70° C), the
term "a c c ele ra te d curing" is used.
d e f le c tin g of The process of c re a tin g draped stra n d .
stra n d
detensioning of The re le a s e of tension from the tendon, u sually occurring
strand or wire a t the time the p re s tre s s in g force is t ra n s fe rre d from
the bed anchorage to the in d iv id u a l pieces c a st in the
bed.
detensioning The minimum concrete stre n g th sp e c ifie d for ind ivid ual
stre n g th or concrete elements before the p r e s tr e s s in g force may be
t r a n s f e r stren gth tr a n s f e r r e d to them.
draped strand A strand th a t is held up a t s p e c ific p o in ts , and held
down a t o th e rs, to form a sp e c ia l desired p r o f i l e .
dry-mix concrete Concrete designed with very low water/cement r a t i o s and
slumps to be used with sp e cia l c o n so lid a tio n methods,
tamping, or e x tru sio n production equipment.
dunnage M aterials (u su ally wood) used for keeping concrete
products from touching each o th e r or other m a te ria ls
during storage and tr a n s p o r ta tio n .
form A s t r u c tu r e or mold for the support of concrete while i t
is s e t ti n g and gaining s u f f i c i e n t stre n g th to be s e l f -
supporting .
form re le a se A substance applied to the forms for the purpose of p re
agent venting a bond between the form and the concrete c a st in
it.
formwork The system of support for fresh ly placed con crete,
including the mold or sheathing th a t c o n tac ts the
concrete as well as a l l supporting members.
g rips The p a r ts of a strand v is e th a t a c tu a lly contact or g rip
the w ires or stra n d s.
hardware A c o l l e c t i v e term used to cover a l l items embedded in the
concrete (o ther than reinforcement) or otherwise used in
connecting p recast elements or a tta c h in g or accommodating
adjacent m a te ria ls or equipment:.
jig A device to a lig n p a r ts of an assembly, u su a lly for p re
assembling re in fo rc in g s t e e l and hardware cages, with a
minimum of measurement and c o n s is te n t accuracy, from one
cage to the next.
146
l i f t i n g frame A device designed to provide two or more l i f t i n g p oin ts
(or spreader of a p re ca st concrete element with p re d ic ta b le load d i s
beam) t r i b u t i o n and prearranged d ir e c t io n of p u llin g force
during l i f t i n g .
machine-cast Products c a st by one or more machines s p e c i f i c a l l y design
products ed for the purpose. Slipform and ex tru sio n machines are
types of casting equipment used to make so lid or
hollow-core sla b s.
machine fin ish F inishes applied by sp e cia l to o ls while the concrete is
s t i l l in the forms and p l a s t i c .
no-slump concrete Concrete with a near-zero slump to be used with sp e cia l
c o n so lid a tio n methods, tamping, or e x tru sio n production
equipment.
p recast concrete A concrete element c a st in a lo c a tio n o th er than i t s
f i n a l p o s itio n in se rv ic e . P recast concrete may be
produced a t the job s i t e , in temporary p la n ts , or in
permanent f a c t o r i e s .
precast concrete A general term for any p re ca st product re g ard le ss of
element c l a s s i f i c a t i o n or a p p lic a tio n . The term includes any
nonconcrete items incorporated in the element a t the time
of manufacture.
p re s tre s s in g bed The platform and abutments needed to support the forms
and m aintain the tendons in a s tre s s e d condition during
placing and curing of the concrete.
re ta r d e r An admixture th a t delays the s e t ti n g of concrete p aste.
screeding The smoothing or lev e lin g o ff of fresh ly c a st concrete by
manual or mechanical means. A screed u sually has a
wooden or metal edge th a t is moved h o r iz o n ta lly across
the con crete, pushing excess m a te ria l in fron t of i t and
f i l l i n g in low places.
self-stressing Equipment t h a t , in ad d itio n to serving as forms for con
forms c r e t e , accommodates the pretensioned strands (or w ires)
and su sta in s the t o t a l p re s tre s s in g force by s u ita b le end
bulkheads and s u f f i c i e n t c r o s s - s e c tio n a l stre n g th .
slump The drop from the top of a slump cone to the top of the
unsupported concrete a f t e r the sudden removal of the
supporting slump cone. The d iffe re n c e in h e ig h t,
measured in inches or c e ntim eters, is the slump of the
concrete. A wet or s o ft mix slumps more than a dry or
s t i f f mix.
147
strand chuck A device for holding a strand under tension,
or v ise
s trip p in g The process of removing a p re ca st concrete element from
the form in which i t was c a s t.
two-blocking The a c tio n of the crane hook block being pulled in to the
crane boom head.
water/cement The weight of water r e l a t i v e to the weight of cement in a
ratio concrete mix. Enough water must be added to the mix to
provide h ydration. Excess water improves w ork ability but
reduces stre n g th .
148
tV U .S . GOVERNMENT P R IN T IN G O F F IC E 1 9 8 4 — 7 5 9 - 1 0 3 / 1 0 4 2
DEPARTM EN T OF HEALTH AND HUMAN S E R V IC E S
PUBLIC HEA LTH SERVIC E
C E N T E R S F O R D IS E A S E C O N T R O L
N A T IO N A L IN S T IT U T E FO R O C C U P A T IO N A L S A F E T Y AND H E A L T H
R O B E R T A . T A F T L A B O R A T O R IE S
4676 C O LU M B IA P A R K W A Y , C IN C IN N A T I, OHIO 45226
O FF IC IA L BUSINESS Special Fourth C lass-B o o k P O STA G E AND F E E S PA ID

P E N A L T Y FO R P R IV A T E USE. $300 U.S. D E P A R T M E N T OF HHS
H H S396
D H H S (NIOSH) Publication No. 84-103

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\l u

Com prehensive S afety

Contract No. 210-80-0040

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

For sale by the Superintendent of D o c u m e n t s , U.S. G o v e r n m e n t

Mention of company name or product does not constitute endorsement

D H H S (NIOSH) Publication No. 84-103

Technical Guidelines present the results of comprehensive systematic

This document provides guidance for protecting workers in the precast

Donald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Dond.)

The determination of how workers are injured during precasting operations

To further enhance the document's usability for small to middle-sized pre­

Paul Zia, Ph.D., P.E.

II-l. Prestressed and Reinforced Beam F o r m ....................... 10

II-l. Number of Plants and Employees Producing

Mr. Ted A. Pettit and Mr. Ronald L. Stanevich, NIOSH/DSR/Standards and

Technological advances, beginning with reinforced concrete and culminating

The widespread use of standardized precast/prestressed concrete products,

This document concerns occupational exposure in the manufacturing of precast

concrete products (SIC 3272). Examples of products manufactured within SIC

o Concrete Block and Brick (SIC 3271)

In this chapter the precast concrete products industry is described, its

Concrete is a building material made by thoroughly mixing cement; sand;

Precasting is a manufacturing procedure, whereas casting-in-place is a

o Work can be performed at a fixed site with accelerated curing

A. Plant Census and Worker Population

The precast concrete products industry is entrepreneurial, highly diversi­

Range by Number of Employees

1-7 8-19 20-49 50-99 100-249 250-499 500+ Total

% of Plants 51.0 24.2 15.5 6.0 2.7 0.4 0.2 100.0

Dept. of Commerce NIOSH Industrial Pa. Industrial

Industry Product Number of Production

Precast Concrete Pipe* 425 18,000

Total 3,925 62,500

*From Duffy J. J. American Concrete Pipe Association [4].

B. Process and Task Descriptions

This section describes the operations, tasks, and equipment required to

Forms for long or flat products require minimum assembly, except to

Swabbing is the hand application and spreading of the agent on the

Most spray application of form oil is by hand-pumped, hand-carried

The reinforcing operation includes the fabrication and placement of

There are four basic types of steel reinforcement:

o Plant fabricated cages and mats

Manual fabrication of reinforcing assemblies is common. Some­

Circular or elliptical reinforcing cages for concrete pipe are

Many small precast concrete products are reinforced by prefab­

c. Steel Plates and Rolled Sections

For connecting some structural and architectural precast concrete

Prestressing steel is usually seven-wire strand that is manually or

Adapted from Bennett W. B. Jr. [7].

Detensioning transfers the stress from the steel to the concrete to

Concrete may be batched and mixed at the products plant or purchased

Cement may be delivered to the plant in bulk cement trucks or railroad

5. Concrete Delivery and Casting

Casting of small products can be a manual operation; a quantity of mix

For casting larger pieces, the concrete is delivered from a truck, a

Systems used to deliver the mixed concrete to the placement location

Another method of delivering concrete is by transporter, which takes

Conveyors are frequently used to deliver concrete to the point of

To further enhance the document's usability for small to middle-sized pre

The precast concrete products industry is entrepreneurial, highly diversi

Manual fabrication of reinforcing assemblies is common. Some

Many small precast concrete products are reinforced by prefab

Access to elevated forms during casting is usually provided by plat

Straddle carriers are large, four-wheeled, wide-spaced, high

industries comprising the manufacturers of durable goods reported a substan

Currently, occupational accident and injury information from participat