University of Santo Tomas

The Royal Pontifical Catholic University of the Philippines

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

Written Report
On
Temperature and Heat Sensors

Submitted by:
Cabangal, Erwin Cayl
Cabungcal, Cesarah Justine
Castillo, Michael Anthony
Castro, Angie

Submitted to:

Engr. Rose Ann Z. Tamolang

I. INTRODUCTION
Temperature is the measurement of hotness or coldness based on an arbitrary scale. For
our calculations, our basis is the S. I. unit of temperature which is the Kelvin. Temperature in
other terms, is the movement of individual molecules accelerating (raising temperature) or
slowing down (lowering of temperature). As molecules move and interact with one another,
they radiate, conduct, or even use convection as a mode of heat transfer (heat is another form
of energy) which we can only read through thermometers and sensors.

Figure 1: Temperature

Where do we use temperature sensors?

Figure 2: Temperature Sensors in Household Products

In household appliances, temperature sensors can commonly be found in the

ovens, refrigerators and scattered around the house which gives information to a thermostat.
These sensor can be used in particular functions. In refrigerators, the sensor can provide
actual temperatures to preserve foods and prevent spoilage. In colder regions of the world ,a
thermostat is used to maintain specified temperature of a house to relieve extreme
temperatures occurring outside.
 Figure 3: Temperature Sensors in Laboratory Use
Inside laboratories, digital thermometer is embedded with sensors reading accurate
temperature changes of reactions and solutions. Another device of sensors can be seen in
thermocouple. Also, specific sensors can be used in identifying temperature changes in fluid
flows.

Importance of Temperature Sensors

Figure 4: Temperature sensor in a process vessel

Temperature sensors can detect abnormalities of temperature inside plant process

to prevent damage to the equipment and delays during operations. Safety of the operations
and employees are one of the main reasons temperature sensors are being installed
throughout the plant. .A plant needs to be environment friendly when it comes to operating
near bodies of water. Having sensors that detects abnormalities or higher temperature of
waste streams can help save ecosystems thriving in rivers and lakes where common dumping
of process fluid takes place.

Figure 5: Importance of Temperature Sensor

An uncontrolled temperature could create runaway reactions that can endanger
the lives of workers and decrease optimal output of the operations. A runaway reactions
occurs when a variation of temperature is present during operations. Possible result of a
runaway reaction is extreme changes in monitored conditions such as pressure , viscosity ,
volume and flow of fluids. A possible scenario is an explosion of tank or container if an
accumulation of volatile materials from a side reaction. An incident or accident that occur does
not only affect the operation but also its output. This can lower the efficiency of plant or delay
goods and services provided .

II. TYPES OF SENSORS

Contact Temperature Sensor Types
These types of temperature sensor are required to be in physical contact with the object
being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to
detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of temperatures.

1. Thermocouples
Thermocouples are voltage devices that indicate temperature measurement with
a change in voltage. The most important property of the thermocouple is nonlinearity – the
output voltage of the thermocouple is not linear with respect to temperature. Thus, to convert
an output voltage to a temperature, it requires mathematical linearization. It consists of two
different metals: opened and closed. These metals work on the principle of thermo-electric
effect. When two dissimilar metals produce a voltage, then a thermal difference exists
between the two metals. Often the thermocouple is located inside a metal or ceramic shield
that protects it from exposure to a variety of environments. Metal-sheathed thermocouples
also are available with many types of outer coatings, such as Teflon, for trouble-free use in
acids and strong caustic solutions. Thermocouple sensor is the most commonly used
temperature sensor and it is abbreviated as TC. This sensor is extremely rugged, low-cost,
self-powered and can be used for long distance. Accuracy is low, from 0.5 °C to 5
°C. However, they operate across the widest temperature range, from -200 °C to 1750 °C.

Figure 6: Thermocouple Sensors

2. Resistive temperature measuring devices (RTD)
Rather than using a voltage as the thermocouple does, RTDs take advantage of another
characteristic of matter which changes with temperature - its resistance. The two types of
resistive devices are resistive temperature devices (RTDs) and thermistors.
RTD sensor is one of the most accurate sensors. In a resistor temperature
detector, the resistance is proportional to the temperature. This sensor is made from platinum,
nickel, and copper metals. However, nickle and copper are not as stable or repeatable.
Platinum RTDs offer a fairly linear output that is highly accurate (0.1 to 1 °C) across -200 to
600 °C. While providing the greatest accuracy, RTDs also tend to be the most expensive of
temperature sensors. RTDs are more linear than are thermocouples. They increase in a
positive direction, with resistance going up as temperature rises. It has a wide range of
temperature measurement capabilities as it can be used to measure temperature in the range
between -270°C to +850°C. RTD requires an external current source to function properly.
However, the current produces heat in a resistive element causing an error in the temperature
 measurements. There are different types of techniques to measure temperature by using this
RTD. They are two wired, three-wired and four-wired method.

Figure 7: RTD Sensor Figure 8: Thermistors

Thermistors are solid state temperature sensors that actually act like electrical
resistors that are temperature sensitive, which is relatively inexpensive, adaptable, and easy to
use. It changes its resistance when the temperature changes like RTD sensor. Thermistors are
made from of semiconductor material that has been sintered in order to display large changes in
resistance in proportion to small changes in temperature like manganese and oxides of nickel,
which make them susceptible to damages. Thermistors are an incredibly accurate category of
temperature sensors and offers higher sensitivity than the resistor temperature detectors. Most of
the thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient. It means, when the temperature
increases the resistance decreases. A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a
large, predictable, and precise change in resistance correlated to variations in temperature. The
thermistor has an entirely different type of construction.

3. Bi-metallic devices /Thermostat

Bi-metallic Devices take advantage of the expansion of metals when they are
heated. In these devices, two metals are bonded together and mechanically linked to a
pointer. When heated, one side of the bimetallic strip will expand more than the other. And
when geared properly to a pointer, the temperature measurement is indicated. Advantages of
bimetallic devices are portability and independence from a power supply. However, they are
not usually quite as accurate and you cannot easily record the temperature but portability is a
definite advantage for the right application.
 The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or
switch, that basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or
aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The bi-metallic strip can
be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating an electrical switch
in thermostatic.

Figure 9: Thermostat Mechanism

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to
back. When it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat.
When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip
bends up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the current from flowing.

Figure 10: On/Off Thermostat

There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement
when subjected to temperature changes. There are the “snap-action” types that produce an
instantaneous “ON/OFF” or “OFF/ON” type action on the electrical contacts at a set
temperature point, and the slower “creep-action” types that gradually change their position as
the temperature changes. Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for
controlling the temperature set point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can
also be found on walls to control the domestic heating system. Creeper types generally consist
of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up as the temperature changes.
Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature changes as the
strip is longer and thinner.

4. Thermometers
Thermometers are well-known liquid expansion devices also used for temperature
measurement. Generally speaking, they come in two main classifications: the mercury type
and the organic. The distinction between the two is notable, because mercury devices have
certain limitations when it comes to how they can be safely transported or shipped. The
volume of the thermometer is linearly proportional to the temperature – when the temperature
increases, the volume of the thermometer also increases. When the liquid is heated it expands
inside the narrow tube of the thermometer. This thermometer has a calibrated scale to indicate
the temperature. The thermometer has numbers marked alongside the glass tube to indicate
the temperature when the line of mercury is at that point.

Figure 11: Thermometer

The advantages of this is that it has no power source required, no calibration, easy
to use and cheap. It has an operating range if -200 to 260 C. The disadvantage of it is that it
doesn’t produce electric signals, meaning it cannot be digitized or automated, so it is difficult
to use it in process controls.
5. Semiconductor Sensor
Semiconductor sensors are devices placed on integrated circuits (ICs). Popularly,
these sensors are known as an IC temperature sensor. They are classified into different types:
Current output temperature sensor, Voltage output temperature sensor, Resistance output
silicon temperature sensor, Diode temperature sensors and Digital output temperature
sensor. Present semiconductor temperature sensors offer high linearity and high accuracy
over an operating range of about 55°C to +150°C. These sensors are effectively two identical
diodes with temperature-sensitive voltage vs current characteristics that can be used to
monitor changes in temperature. They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy
of the basic sensor types at 1 °C to 5 °C. They also have the slowest responsiveness (5 s to
60 s) across the narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).

Figure 12: Semiconductor Sensor

One good example of this is the fan control system in your laptops or PCs. A
semiconductor temperature sensor send signals when to turn on/off the the fan if the
temperature of your device changes. Since it is very small, it can be installed directly on PC
boards and other consumer products such as cellphones, MP3 players and amplifiers.One
disadvantage of it is that it has a limited temperature range of -40 to 120 C.

Non-Contact Temperature sensors

From the name itself, it is used to measure temperature without any physical
contact. So how is temperature measured? In our heat transfer class, we have learned that
there are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Sensors of this
type measure temperature by detecting the infrared energy emitted by all materials which at
temperature above absolute zero. One example of this type is pyrometer.
1. Pyrometer
Pyrometer comes from the greek word pyros meaning fire and meter meaning to
measure. That’s why this type of device is ideal for extremely high temperature and can range
from -40 to 3500 C. Pyrometer measures the amount of heat radiated rather than conducted
and convected to the sensor. This type of device is designed to make quick one off
measurements so they’re shaped like pistols. You point them at the object you want to
measure and press the trigger. With no contact, it can measure temperature of up to 30 meters
or 100 ft distance

Figure 13: Pyrometer Sensor

There are two types of pyrometer, optical pyrometer and infrared pyrometer.
Optical pyrometer operates by allowing the operator to compare the intensity of light radiated
from a target at visible. Meaning it is human based measurement where the operator
compares the brightness of a hot body radiation at a specific color where each color has a
specific temperature. On the other hand, infrared pyrometer measures temperature directly
where you just press the trigger and it automatically measures the temperature.
Pyrometer can be used in different applications. For example, in Figure 14, a man
is taking the temperature of a ceiling - mounted ventilation system. In the second picture, a
member of the US Navy is using pyrometer to measure the sea temperature from the deck of
the ship. In industrial applications, since it can use in very high temperatures, it can be used
in measuring furnace temperatures for example or in metallurgy, it can be used to measure
the temperature of molten iron and steel.

Figure 14: Ceiling Temperature Measurement Figure 15: Sea Temperature Measurement
2. Thermal Imaging Camera
Thermal Imaging Camera is a heat sensor capable of detecting tiny differences in
temperature. The device collects the infrared radiation from objects in the scene and creates
an electronic image based on information about the temperature differences. It is ideal for
detecting hidden problems like leaks, electrical faults and poor insulation. Firefighters also
use this device during operation to detect the heat source.

Figure 16: Thermal Imaging Camera

III. APPLICATIONS
In this ever-changing world, there is a need to measure temperature in electronic
devices which is made possible by sensors. It is greatly applied in instruments that dissipates
power in the form of heat. Identifying system temperature is also vital to prevent damages and
control the battery status of rechargeable devices. General applications of temperature
sensors are the following :
 Monitoring
o Portable Equipment
o CPU Temperature
o Battery Temperature
o Ambient Temperature
 Compensation
o Oscillator Drift in Cellular Phones
o Thermocouple Cold-Junction Compensation
 Control
o Battery Charging
o Process Control
 For more specific temperature sensors applications, the next set of examples are
categorized according to which industry it is utilized:
a. Manufacturing Industry
o In industrial plants, temperature sensors are installed in equipment such as boilers
to provide adequate quantities, maximize boiler efficiency, and lessen the
possibility of scalding.
o To ensure optimum growth in mushroom cultivation systems, temperature sensors
are used to monitor and maintain the breeding room temperature.
o Storage warehouses also use temperature sensors to supply the required
temperature of the product to be stored in order to avoid spoilage and possible
contaminations.

Figure 17: Applications in Manufacturing Industry

b. Residential Homes
o Sensors are installed to measure the atmospheric temperature and send signals
to the control system that regulates the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) of the house.
 Figure 18: Applications in Residential Homes

c. Medical Applications
o Temperature changes in the body can be easily detected using sensors to assess
and evaluate irregularities and diseases so that it could immediately be treated.

Figure 19: Applications in Medicine/Health

d. Military Field
o Thermal imaging and night visions are common tactics in the military field to spot
temperature differences in the surroundings pixel by pixel using tiny cameras
called microbolometers.
 Figure 11: Applications in Military Field

IV. REFERENCES
[1]Young, R.D (2000). 7 Basic Types of Temperature Measuring Sensors. Retrieved from
https://www.wwdmag.com/water/7-basic-types-temperature-measuring-sensors
[2] Dave(2019) Know About Various Types of Temperature Sensors. Retrieved from
https://www.watelectrical.com/6-different-types-of-temperature-sensors-with-their-
specifications/
[3] N.A.(n.d).Four Most Common Types of Temperature Sensors. Retrieved from
https://www.ametherm.com/blog/thermistors/temperature-sensor-types
[4] N.A.(nd) What is an NTC Thermistor. Retrieved from
https://www.ametherm.com/thermistor/what-is-an-ntc-thermistor
[5] Agarwal, T., Agarwal, T. A. T., & Edgefx Technologies Pvt Ltd. (2017, April 12).
Temperature Sensor types, Working and their Applications. Retrieved from
https://www.efxkits.co.uk/how-temperature-sensor-work/
[6] (n.d.). SECTION 7 TEMPERATURE SENSORS Walt Kester, James Bryant ... Retrieved
from https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/design-
handbooks/temperature_sensors_chapter7.pdf0
[7]WatElectrical (2019, March 30) What is a Temperature Sensor? Types of Temperature
Sensors with Examples. Retrieved from https://www.watelectrical.com/6-different-types-of-
temperature-sensors-with-their-specifications/