INTRODUCTION

The concept of universities has undergone significant changes over the

preceding century. Particularly, after Independence, the functioning and size of Indian
Universities multiplied with greater pace. Increased national aspirations expected
universities to develop as ‘centres for excellence’ rather than degree awarding
institutions.

Since 1857, after first three Indian universities were set up in Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras, there has been a phenomenal growth of the university system in India, not
always for academic considerations. A number of political and social considerations
have also often motivated the setting up of universities. In order to satisfy regional
(converted into political) aspirations of the people, an increasing number of universities
have been set up in various states. When political expediency supersedes academic
imperatives and financial constraints, this results into a limping system that can hardly
keep pace with the requirements of the rapidly changing times. Most of the expansion
of the universities has taken place without the desirable concomitants of consolidation
and integration of academic requirements. Hence, what has taken place is the ‘growth’
of the university system and not ‘development’; even this ‘growth’ has been
unbalanced.

Universities, ideally, are organizations devoted to development of human

resources and humanism. The greatest challenge before the institutions of higher
learning in India is to synthesize technology with humanism and blending empirical
reality with normative goals. Further, the basic contribution of the university system is
to raise and maintain the standards of excellence in all the fields of its functioning. The
universities are expected to meet the increasing demand for excellence in literary,
scientific, technological and professional fields.

1.1 EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN INDIA

The modern university system is the outcome of a very slow and systematic
process of evolution linked with the societal changes. As an institution cannot continue

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to live on its post- successes and practice, similarly, university has to accommodate the
societal needs and expectations in its functions.

The main purpose of the British Rulers for importing higher education was to
man the middle and lower echelons of the administrative systems. University education
did not meet the society’s expectations. It was hardly designed to do so.

The educational scene in India since the ancient times to the present era can be
broadly classified into different periods like the Vedic Period, the Buddhist Period, the
Muslim Period, the British Period, the pre- and post- Independence Periods.

1.1.1 Vedic Period

During the early stage of Vedic period, education was only a family concern.
The children used to get education from within their family, mainly from their
preceptors. However, during the later stages of the Vedic era, education shaped into the
institutionalized form to some extent. During this period, a student used to live with
teachers at the latter’s dwellings during the period of their education. These teaching
places were known as ‘Ashrams’. The ‘Ashrams’ grouped them into ‘Charans’ for
better co-ordination between themselves which in turn collectively formed an
organization called ‘Prishads’. Then there were also stabilized institutions, the
academies of science, like the ‘Panchala Parishad’. Later emerged Jainism and
Buddhism with their emphasis upon the system of organized brotherhood,
accommodated in the ‘viharas’ and ‘monastries’. The Brahminical system followed suit
with similar institutions like ‘Mathas’.

The main emphasis of the Vedic Education was on the following:

i) Infusion of Spiritual and Religious Values

ii) Character Development (“Simple living and high thinking”)

iii) Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values

iv) Preservation and Diffusion of National Culture

v) Personality Development

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 Despite a wide gap between Ancient Indian and modern education, there are
several elements of Vedic education which can be adopted by modern education:

i) Idealism

ii) Discipline and Teacher-Pupil Relationship

iii) Teaching Methods

iv) Simple life of students.

v) All round development of child

vi) Equality of Opportunity

vii) Education for self sufficiency

viii) Free and Universalisation of education.

During the Vedic period, the government or the state did not participate even the
least in the financing of education. However, a few authors are of the view that the state
rulers patronized education to some extent by occasionally providing land or finances
for education to the religious establishments of the time.

1.1.2 Buddhist Period

Buddhists established centres of higher learning known as ‘monasteries’ or

‘Viharas’ where students from India and foreign countries were imparted education.
The Buddhists did not offer any educational opportunities apart from or independent of
its monasteries. With the passage of time, these ‘Viharas’ grew into vast centres of
learning and took the shape of ‘universities’. Taxila, Nalanda and Valabhi are known to
be the best examples of such institutes of higher education of the Buddhist period. Thus,
during the Buddhist period, education was institutionalized to a good extent for such big
institutes of higher learning with continuous and sufficient flow of funds from the
government. Consequently, some definite and dependable sources of revenue came into
being for financing the centres of higher learning of the Buddhist period. Thus popular
means of financing were fees from students and endowments besides the ‘Viharas’
getting grants from the states.

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1.1.3 Muslim Period

A proper system of education and its financing did not prevail in India during
the era of Muslim rule. During this period, the institutions which provided primary,
secondary and higher education were the ‘maktabs’, the Arab schools and the
‘madrassas’. Primary education was given in ‘maktabs’ and the higher education was
imparted in ‘madrassas’. An important feature of these education institutions was the
stress on Muslim religious studies. The Muslim rulers set up institutions in Delhi,
Ajmer, Jallandhar, Firozabad and a prominent library at Delhi know as Imperial
Library, Delhi for spreading Muslim religious thought and Islamic culture.

Even the Mughals did not develop a systematic system of financing education
but education was well patronized and encouraged by the then emperors. They
advanced education by liberal grant of lands or money to mosques which in turn housed
the ‘maktabs’ and ‘madrassas’. Stipends and scholarships to outstanding individuals in
the field of education were also granted. Most of the emperors in the later Muslim
period financed the new buildings and provided funds for repairs and renovations of
‘maktabs’ and ‘madrassas’. Further, they provided funds for the setting up of libraries.
The financing of education by the state though indirect, strengthened during Muslim
period as compared to that in the Buddhist or the Vedic period.

1.1.4 British Period

The Britishers shaped the course of events in the Indian educational scene after
the Mughals. Among the early attempts of the East India Company in the field of
education in India was the setting up of ‘madrassas’ in Calcutta for Mohammedans and
in Banaras for Hindus in the year 1781 and 1792 respectively.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, in 1817 succeeded in setting up a Hindu College at

Calcutta for promoting the knowledge of European languages to the Indians, and
another college known as Elphinstone College came into being in 1834 in Bombay to
provide training to the youth for the Indian Civil Services.

The efforts and support of Auckland, William Bentock and Raja Ram Mohan
Roy led to the establishment of first universities in India, viz. University of Bombay,

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University of Calcutta and University of Madras along the lines of the then University
of London.

An organized system of higher education was introduced in India, through the

establishment of the three universities. This at once boosted the pace of development of
higher education and consequently more colleges came into being enrolling larger
number of students.

1.2 VARIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES

1.2.1 The First Education Commission (Pre-Independence)

The first Indian Education Commission was appointed by Lord Ripon in 1882,
with William Hunter, a member of the executive council of Viceroy, as its Chairman.

The Hunter Commission held that the system of higher education should enable
its recipient to enter the different professions of general nature. The important
recommendations of the commission were:

Setting up of two separate educational systems, managed by the government and

Private Agencies in Higher Education.

Provision of alternative courses in bigger colleges.

Principles to be followed for college fees and exemption from them.

Teaching from model text books in government and non government colleges.

Encouragement of vernacular education.

Indianization of Education.

The rate of grant-in-aid to each college should be determined by the strength of

the staff and the expenditure on maintenance.

For establishing library or for other educational equipments, non-recurring or

special grant may be given to the colleges.

Introduction of diversified and varied curricula.

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 Outstanding students may be sent to England for higher education on
Government scholarships.

The number of students receiving free education should be limited.

1.2.2 The Second Education Commission (Pre-Independence)

There was practically no progress of education from 1897-1902. It was during

this period that Lord Curzon came to India in1899 as the Viceroy of India. Lord Curzon
made a lot of reforms in the field of education after having an insight into the problems
and flaws in the university education system in India. Finally, the second Indian
University Commission was appointed, under chairmanship of Sir Thomas Raleigh on
22nd January, 1902 to enquire into the conditions and prospects of universities
established in British India.

The recommendations of this Commission related to:

Reorganization of University Government.

A much more strict and systematic supervision of the colleges.

Imposition of more exact conditions of affiliation.

A close attention to the environment in which students work.

There should be some defined limits of teaching functions by the University.

Major changes in the examination methods and curricula.

Based on the recommendations contained in the Report of the Education

Commission, the Legislative Council passed the ‘Indian Universities Act’ which came
into force on the 21st March, 1904. The Act introduced important changes in the
organization and administration of the Indian universities. No doubt, more
dissatisfaction than satisfaction was created among the people by the Act of 1904. In
reality, this Commission failed to make any impact on Indian education.

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1.2.3 The Third Education Commission (Pre-Independence)

For a comprehensive review of the position and problems of the Calcutta

University, the Government of India, by a resolution dated 14th September, 1917,
appointed the Calcutta University Commission under the chairmanship of Sir Michael
Sadler, the then Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds. The Commission was also
asked to consider the problems of secondary education. The Commission had opined
that improvement in secondary education was a pre-requisite to bring about any
improvement in university education. The recommendations of the Commission in
relation to the university education were:

Secondary and intermediate education to be controlled by the Board of

Secondary Education.

Establishment of additional universities.

Lessening of government control over the universities.

New theory about governance of universities.

Appointment of whole time salaried Vice Chancellors.

Introduction of new courses.

Establishment of an Inter-university Board for co-coordinating the activities of

various Indian universities.

1.2.4 Hartog Committee

Simon Commission appointed an Auxiliary Committee under Chairmanship of

Sir Philip Hartog, to inquire into the various aspects of Indian Education.

a) Observations of the Committee in Respect of Higher Education

The committee observed the following defects in higher education:

Although the number of Universities had gone up but their standard was going
down.

Lack of practical experience, intellectual interest, discipline and sense of

responsibility in the students on leaving the college.

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 Unhealthy competition between the Universities.

Unbalanced activities and unconducive environment in the colleges and the

Universities.

Improper organization of the Honors courses.

Increased wastage in the field of higher education and poor examination results.

The libraries in the universities were not well equipped and rich.

b) Recommendations of the Hartog Committee

Establishment of affiliating universities along with unitary, residential and

teaching universities.

Maintenance of well-equipped central Libraries.

Up gradation of the standard of secondary education to improve the standard of

university education.

Provision for separate Honors and Pass Courses.

More emphasis on improving the standard of teaching, learning and research

work

The libraries in the Universities should be well equipped and rich

1.2.5 Sergeant Report on Education (1944)

The Government of India, while considering the master plan for development of
the Indian life in all respects, appointed Sir John Sergeant, the Education Member to
formulate an Educational Scheme for being placed before the Central Advisory Board
of Education. The Board accepted all the recommendations of this Committee for
implementation. The important recommendations included were:

Abolition of Intermediate classes. The first year of this course to be added in the
school and the second year of the course to be added to the two year degree
course so as to make the degree course of three years duration.

Introduction of Tutorial system and improvement of the methods of research.

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 Admission of University courses to be made on the basis of merit.

Appointment of competent teachers and improvement of their service conditions

including the pay scales.

Establishment of Grants Committee along the lines of University Grant

Committee of United Kingdom.

Table 1.1: Universities Established in the Pre-Independence Period

Sr. No. University Year of establishment

1. University of Calcutta, Calcutta 1857 (January)
2. University of Bombay, Bombay 1857 (July)
3. University of Madras, Madras 1857 (September)
4. Punjab University, Lahore (now named as 1882
Lahore University)
5. University of Allahabad, Allahabad 1887
6. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 1916
7. Mysore University, Mysore 1916
8. Patna University, Patna 1917
9. Osmania University, Hyderabad 1918
10. Aligarh, Muslim University, Aligarh 1920
11. Lucknow University, Lucknow 1920
12. University of Dacca 1920
13. University of Delhi, Delhi 1922
14. University of Nagpur, Nagpur 1923
15. Andhra University, Waltair 1926
16. University of Agra, Agra 1927
17. Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 1929
18. University of Kerala, Kerala 1937
19. Utkal University, Bhubaneswar 1943
20. University of Sagar, Sagar 1946
21. University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 1947 (January)

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1.2.6 Post Independence Period - First Education Commission

After Independence, the first Education Commission was appointed in 1948

under the Chairmanship of Dr. Radhakrishanan. The basic objective of the Commission
was to make recommendations on the following aspects of higher education including
financing, administration, course curriculum etc.

(i) Problems of Teachers

(ii) Standard of Teaching

(iii) Curriculum (Arts and Science)

(iv) Post graduate Training and Research (Arts and Science)

(v) Professional Education

(vi) Religious Education

(vii) Medium of instructions

(viii) System of Examinations

(ix) Students Admission, Activities and Welfare

(x) Women’s Education

1.2.7 Mudaliar Commission (1952-53)

After Dr. Radhakrishanan Commission, another Commission under the

chairmanship of Sir A.L. Mudaliar, the then Vice-chancellor of Madras University, was
appointed in 1952. The objective of this Commission was to study the various facets of
secondary education. The Commission suggested the abolition of intermediate course
and making the degree a three year course. The recommendations of the Commission
were largely accepted.

1.2.8 University Grants Commission (1956)

The University Grants Commission (UGC) was established under the UGC Act,
1956 to take all the necessary steps for the promotion and co-ordination of University
education and for the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching,
examination and research in Universities. For the purpose of performing its functions

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under the Act, the Commission may inquire into the financial needs of the Universities
and allocate and disburse grants to Universities.

1.2.9 Committee on Model Act for Universities (1961-62)

The Committee on Model Act for Universities was appointed in December 1961
with a view to suggest improvement in the functioning of universities. The committee
made wide- ranging recommendations in respect of the proper working of the
universities including the one that the University Act should only provide the broad
constitutional framework, and constitutional details should be left to the universities
through their respective statutes and ordinances to provide overall flexibility in
functioning of the universities subject to the individual needs of each university.

1.2.10 Kothari Commission on Education (1964-66)

The famous Kothari Commission on Education was appointed by the Indian

Government under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari, the then chairman of
University Grants Commission (U.G.C.) to advise the Government on the national
pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all respects.

The report of the Commission, submitted in June 1966, is an extremely valuable

document in the entire field of education. This Commission surveyed and examined the
various stages of education, and made very important and useful recommendations
covering all aspects for proper and fuller development of National Education. The
recommendations, in general related to the following aspects:

(i) Education and National objectives

(ii) Teacher-status

(iii) Teacher Education

(iv) Enrolment and Manpower

(v) Equalization of Educational Opportunities

(vi) Objectives and Improvement of Higher Education

(vii) Expansion of Facilities

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(viii) The Governance of Universities

(ix) Education for Agriculture

(x) Science Education and Research

(xi) Adult Education

(xii) Educational Planning and Administration

(xiii) Educational Finance

1.2.11 Gajendragadkar Committee (1969-70)

The University Grants Commission appointed Gajendragadkar Committee on

the Governance of Universities under the chairmanship of late Dr. P.B. Gajendragadkar,
former Chief Justice of India and the then Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Bombay, to consider the structure, functions, responsibilities and powers of the
statutory bodies, conditions of service of staff, student’s participation and other allied
matters for the Universities in India. The broad recommendations of the committee
were:

(i) Flexible pattern of organization

(ii) University should be an autonomous body.

(iii) Effective participation of all the members of the university.

(iv) Student’s participation in the government of the university.

(v) University Grants Commission should come forward to advise the State
Governments so that the quantum of grants is adequately fixed for the
Universities.

(vi) Setting up of suitable mechanism to deal with the grievances of the students,
teachers and Administrative staff.

1.2.12 Ishawar Bhai Patel Review Committee (1977)

In 1977, Central Government appointed Ishawar Bhai Patel Review Committee

with Education Minister its Chairman.

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 The committee opined that the course curriculum should be framed, keeping in
view the local needs and it should also suit the needs of those getting education. It
emphasized different sources of learning besides the class room. It also suggested a ban
on homework up to V standard students. The committee further stressed that the
institutions should use funds optimally. The committee also recommended flexible
academic years in schools.

1.2.13 Adiseshiah Review Committee (1978)

The President of National Council of Education Research and Training, Dr. P.C.
Chander, who was also the then Education Minister in the Centre Government,
appointed a committee with Malcom S. Adiseshiah, the then Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Madras to review the curriculum of +2 standard education in the schools.
The committee made following major recommendations:

(i) Semester system of education at +1 and +2 stage.

(ii) Priority to rural areas for establishing schools.

(iii) Encouragement to the teachers for in-service and pre-service training to improve
the standard of education.

(iv) The framing of syllabi and subject combination as per the needs of the students
and requirements of the states.

1.2.14 National Knowledge Commission (NKC)

The National Knowledge Commission was constituted in June, 2005 by the

Prime Minister of India to prepare a blue print for reforming India’s knowledge related
institutions and infrastructure. The main emphasis of the commission was on five key
areas:

1. Enhancing access to knowledge.

2. Reinvigorating institutions where knowledge concepts are imparted.

3. Creating a world class environment for creation of knowledge.

4. Promoting applications of knowledge for sustained and inclusive growth.

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5. Using knowledge applications in efficient delivery of public places.

The Commission submitted over 200 recommendations to the Government on

24 focus areas till 2008.The Commission is still functioning.

a) Organization of NKC

NKC consists of eight members, including the Chairman. All members perform
their duties on a part- time basis and do not claim any remuneration. A small Technical
Support Staff assisted the members in their duties. The Commission also had the right
to co-opt experts to help in the management of its tasks. The Planning Commission is
the nodal agency that is responsible for planning and budgeting.

Prime Minister

Planning NKC chairman Ministers

Commission Members Staff States

Source: NKC Report 2006-2009

Fig. 1.1: Organization of National Knowledge Commission

b) Why NKC was required

The issues that were to be addressed by NKC were:

1. Expansion: The enrolment in higher education stood at 16 million in 2010

while it was 11 million in 2006. Undoubtedly, there had been a growth in
enrolment in higher education, but it is not sufficient when compared with other
countries. Similarly, the gross enrolment ratio (GER) was around 8-10% in 2006
whereas it rose to 12% in 2010. But global GER average was 26% in 2007.
Various committees that examined the higher education scenario in India
recommended a targeted GER of 20%. Achievement of this target implied a
drastic increase in the scale and size of the higher education system.

2. Access: NKC was required to remove inter-caste, male-female and regional

disparities in enrolment. For example, gross enrolment ratio for people living in

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 rural areas was 6 percent for rural areas whereas it was 20 percent for people
living in urban areas in 2004-05. Similarly, the gross enrolment ratio for
Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes was 6.57, 6.52
and 8.77 respectively. (Source: UGC)

3. Regulation: Another reason for setting up NKC was to relax the cumbersome
regulatory procedures and entry barriers for setting up new universities and for
getting deemed university status for already established institutions. Other
similar reasons had been to deal with the issue of non-recognition of majority of
the colleges by UGC, inadequate system of affiliation for undergraduate
colleges and many more. These circumstances led to difficulty in maintaining
standard of teaching and examination in the higher education.

4. Faculty: Other issue that was desired to be addressed by the NKC was shortage
of qualified faculty for higher education. The reasons for this had been the non-
availability of suitably qualified people, steady decline in popularity of the
profession because of lack of incentives in teaching profession. Hence, the need
was felt for increasing pay-structure of teachers along with the introduction of
performance based incentives to ensure superior quality teaching.

5. Funding: Another important reason for setting up NKC was to make

suggestions on how to increase public expenditure on higher education to the
desired level. Various committees have unanimously agreed that state funding
should be increased to 6 percent. The state spending on higher education was
0.34 percent and that on technical education was 0.03 percent in 2004-05 against
the recommended proportions of 1 per cent and 0.5 percent. These
recommendations were made by Central Advisory Board for Education (CABE).
(Source: Ministry of Higher Education)

6. Private Institutions: The share of private unaided higher education sector has
recently shown an upward trend. Similar trend was observed in enrolment also.
It was expected that about half of incremental enrolment targeted for higher
education would be contributed by private providers. Taking into consideration
the role of private sector, it was desired to relax strict entry barriers for private

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 sector. Also there were not enough measures to regulate the products and
outputs of private sector. This was also one of the aspects regarding which
recommendations were desired to be made by NKC.

7. Accreditation: Accreditation is basically the process of determining quality of

higher education institution. In India government agencies conduct
accreditation. For this purpose, National Assessment and Accreditation Council
(NAAC) was set up by the UGC in 1994. Assessment by NAAC is based on
certain predetermined criteria. Till, 2006, NAAC had accredited only 140 out of
the 355 universities and 3492 out of 18,064 colleges and this constituted just
over 40 percent of universities and less than 20 percent of all colleges and it
hardly covered any private college or university. This implied serious quality
problems for higher education.

8. Quality: Quality of higher education provided in India was one of the major
concerns. There was an annual outflow of more than 1,50,000 students to the
west every year in 2005-06 and this led to driving out of nearly 2-3 billion
dollars in foreign exchange per annum. India’s standing with regard to world
class standards was perhaps very low.

c) Recommendations of NKC

1. Increase in GER: NKC recommended increasing Ger in higher education to 15

and above by 2015.

2. Diversification of Source of Financing: NKC has also suggested

diversification of sources of financing including private participation,
philanthropic contributions and industry linkages in the process of financing.

3. Creation of Universities: To achieve the motive of expansion of Indian

Education System, NKC recommended the creation of 1500 universities by
2015 with provisions for frequent curriculum revision, appropriate system of
appointments and incentives for faculty, a good deal of autonomy in
management combined with accountability, freedom to set student fee levels and
to tap other sources of generating funds.

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4. Creation of Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education
(IRAHE): NKC recommended the setting up of Independent Regulatory
Authority for Higher Education (IRAHF) with a view to reduce entry barriers.

5. Reform of Existing Universities: For assuring quality of higher education,

NKC has made the following recommendations among others:

a) Frequent curricula revisions

b) Introduction of course credit system

c) Increased reliance on internal assessment

d) Encouraging research

e) Reforming governance of institutions

6. Restructuring System of Under Graduate College: NKC has recommended

the restructuring of the system of under graduate colleges in a manner that could
provide a viable model for quality higher education.

7. Models for Community Colleges: NKC also recommended to create models

for community colleges including:

a) General Education Programmes

b) Employment Oriented Programmes

c) Creating flexibility for students to pursue higher education later in life.

8. Attract Students in Science and Maths: To encourage and rejuvenate science

education and research in the country, NKC recommended the following:

a) Launch of massive science outreach program.

b) Upgrading available infrastructure

c) Revitalizing the teaching profession.

d) Revamping teacher training at all levels.

9. Improvement in Quality of PhDs: NKC recommended following steps to

improve the quality of PhDs.

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 a) Investment in education and research at all levels.

b) Renovation and reform of university system.

c) Fostering of a global outlook in research.

d) Rejuvenation of doctoral programmes across disciplines.

e) Development of vigorous industry – academic interaction.

10. National Knowledge Network: Success of the research depends to the extent
on live consultations. Data sharing and resource sharing practices are adopted to
achieve this. NKC made the recommendations of establishment of a high end
national knowledge network connecting all India’s knowledge institutions
through an electronic digital broadband network with gigabit capacity.

1.2.15 Yashpal Committee

The Government of India constituted a Committee through a notification issued

by MHRD in February 2008, under the Chairmanship of Prof. Yash Pal, .former
Chairman of UGC.

Later on the Committee was named as, “The Committee to Advise on

Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education in India”. The Committee was
constituted with the following objectives:

a) To review the functioning of the UGC and the All India Council of Technical
Education (AICTE).

b) To critically assess the role and preparedness of UGC and AICTE in providing
institutional leadership to the demands of access, equity, relevance and quality
of higher education/technical education and the University system.

c) Assessment of the role of these institutions in determining and enforcing

standards of higher/technical education in State Universities.

d) To determine the possibilities of introducing a system of incentives and

disincentives to prevent dilution and comprising of national standards of
higher/technical education.

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e) To examine UGC’s mechanisms in coordinating standards of higher education
vis-à-vis the functional role of other statutory agencies such as AICTE, Medical
Council of India(MCI), Dental Council of India (DCI) etc.

Yashpal Committee concentrated on some major problems of the Indian higher

education sector, such as;

a) Undermining undergraduate education.

b) Low pedagogic quality of the Indian Higher Education.

c) Distances and isolation of various disciplines within the education system.

d) Division between research bodies and universities.

e) Poor governance of universities.

f) Interference from various political or commercial vested interests in university

functioning.

g) Loss of autonomy of universities.

h) Subversion of the principle of autonomy.

i) Growth of private commercial players in the system of higher education.

j) Affordability problems as many private institutions charge exorbitant fees.

k) Unhealthy growth in the number of deemed universities.

l) Multiplicity of regulatory systems that lead to duplication of inspection and

control.

The Committee also tried to recover the idea of the university by concentrating
on the following issues:

a) Minimization of the gap between theory and practice.

b) Institutions of higher learning should try to evolve their academic programmes

with reference to the problems of everyday life.

c) Issues relating to curriculum and syllabus making.

d) Work experience to the students should be included as an aspect of learning.

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e) Multidisciplinary learning.

f) Rehabilitation of professional education in the university.

g) Recognition and preparation of teacher education for all stages of school

education as a sector of higher education.

h) Issues relating to the autonomy of universities.

The following recommendations were made by the Yashpal Committee:

a) Universities should be made self regulatory bodies to be assisted by hassle free

and transparent regulatory process.

b) Regarding the academic content of the professional courses, universities should

be made responsible.

c) Academic functions of the professional bodies like AICTE, NCTE, BCI, MCI
should be divested and should be restored to the universities.

d) An all-encompassing Commission for Higher Education (HEC,) which will be a

Central Statutory Body, should be created to replace the existing regulatory
bodies including UGC, AICTE, NCTE etc.

e) The top most priority of the HEC would be the curricular reform based on the
principles of mobility within a full range of curricular areas and integration of
skills with academic depth.

f) Restructuring of the undergraduate programmes to enable students to have

opportunities to access all curricular areas with fair degree of mobility.

g) All universities must have the full range of knowledge areas. No single
discipline or specialized university should be created

h) Institutes of excellence like IITs and IIMs should be converted into full fledged
universities.

i) Universities should not work in isolation and must interact and develop live
relationship with the outside real world. Further, universities should develop
capacities to respond to the various challenges.

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j) All levels of teacher education should be brought under the purview of higher
education.

k) Evolution of new governing structures to enable the universities to preserve their

autonomy in a transparent and accountable manner.

l) To stop the practice of according status of deemed university. For all existing
deemed universities, it would be mandatory to submit new accreditation norms
to be framed on the lines proposed in the report within a period of three years
failing which the status of deemed university would be withdrawn.

m) Creation of single accreditation window for all institutes of higher education.

n) Keeping in view the needs of the growth of State funded universities, quantum
of Central financial support would be enhanced substantially.

o) Continuous evaluation and assessment of the expansion of the higher education

system to respond to the needs of different regions in India in order to ensure
equity access, quality and opportunity of growth along the academic vertical.

Table 1.2: Education in Post-Independence India: Some Milestones

1947 India achieves independence

1948-49 University Education Commission constituted; gives Report
1950 India becomes a Republic. Free and compulsory education enshrined as one of the
Directive Principles of State Policy in the new Constitution
1951 Decennial Census yields a Literacy Rate (5+) of 18.3% (overall), 8.9% (female)
First Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) established at Kharagpur
1952-53 Secondary Education Commission Constituted; gives Report
1956 University Grants Commission ((UGC) established by Act of Parliament
Indian Institute of Technology (Kharagpur) Act passed by Parliament
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru delivers the First convocation address at the first IIT
(Kharagpur)
1958 Second IIT established at Mumbai
1959 Third and Fourth IITs established at Kanpur and Chennai, respectively
1961 NCERT established
Institutes of Technology Act passed by Parliament to provide a common legal
framework for all IITs
First two Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) set up at Ahmedabad and Kolkata
1963 Fifth IIT established at Delhi
1964-66 Education Commission constituted; gives Report
1968 First National Policy on Education (NPE) adopted, in the light of the recommendations of
the Education Commission

21
1963 Third IIM established a Bangalore
1975 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme launched to provide for holistic
development of children up to the age of six years.
1976 Constitution amended to change “Education” from being a “State” subject to a
“Concurrent” one
1984 Fourth IIM established at Lucknow
1985 Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) established by an Act of Parliament.
1986 New National Policy on Education (NPE) adopted
1987-88 Many large centrally assisted schemes like “Operation Blackboard”, “Education
Technology”, “Vocationalisation of Secondary Education”, etc., launched in pursuance of
NPE, 1986.
1992 NPE, 1986, revised, based on a review by the Acharya Ramamurti Committee
1993 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) vested with statutory status by an Act of
Parliament.
`1994 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) launched to universalize primary
education in selected districts.
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) established by UGC (with
headquarters at Bangalore) to assess and accredit institutions of higher education.
National Board of Accreditation (NAB) established by AICTE to periodically
evaluate technical institutions and programmes
Sixth IIT established at Guwahati
1995 Centrally-assisted Mid-Day Meal scheme launched in government and semi-government
primary schools all over the country, with central assistance by way of free food grains.
1996 Fifth IIM established at Kozhikode
1998 Sixth IIM established at Indore
2001 Decennial Census yields Literacy rate (7+) of 65.4% (overall), 53.7% (female)
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) launched to universalize elementary education of good
quality all over the country
University of Roorkee converted into (the seventh) IIT
2002 Constitution amended to make Free and Compulsory Education, a Fundamental Right
(yet to be brought into force)
2003 17 Regional Colleges of Engineering converted into National Institutes of Technology,
fully funded by the Central Government
2004 Education Cess levied for raising additional finance needed to fulfill Government’s
commitment to universalize quality basis education
Mid-Day Meal scheme revised to provide central assistance to meet cooking cost as
well
EDUSAT, a satellite dedicated to education, launched
2005 National Commission for Minority Education Institutions established by Act of Parliament
2006 Two Indian Institutes of Science Education & Research (IISERs) established at Kolkata
and Pune, respectively.
2007 Seventh Indian Institute of Management established at Shillong
One Indian Institute of Science Education & Research (IISER) established at Mohali.
The National Institutes of Technology (NITs) brought under a common statutory
framework by established NIT Act.
Rashtriya Sanskrit Parishad Constituted
The Central Education Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act Notified.
Source: Report on Education Sector in India prepared by Perth Education Society (2012)

22
 Table 1.3: Structure/Stages of Education in India

Sr. Stage Classes/ Duration Corresponding Age

No. Group of Students
(indicative)
1. School Stages 1-XII 6-18 Years
1.1 Elementary I-VIII (I-VII in few states) 6-14 Years
1.1.1 Primary I-V (I-IV in few states) 6-11 Years
1.1.2 Upper Primary VI-VIII (V-VII in few 11-14 Years
states)
1.2 Secondary IX-XII (VIII-XI in few 14-18 Years
states)
1.2.1 High School IX-X (VIII-X in few states) 14-16 Years
1.2.2 Higher/ Senior XI-XII 16-18 Years
Secondary
2. Higher/ University 18-24 Years
Education
2.1 Non-Professional
Degree Courses
2.1.1 Undergraduate 3 Years
2.1.2 Postgraduate 2 Years
2.2 Professional Degree/ Depends on the nature of
Diploma Courses Course
Source: Report on Education Sector in India prepared by Perth Education Society
(2012)

The education at the school level is divided into four stages whereas higher
education is for a period of three to five years. Thus. the higher education qualifications
in India are three years bachelors or undergraduate degree programs followed by two
years masters or postgraduate degree programs which again are then followed by the
pre- doctoral or doctoral programs.

23
 Lower Kindergarten (LKG)
Upper Kindergarten (UKG)
[NURSERY]

Class I to Class 5
(Age 6-11)
[PRIMARY]

Class 6 to Class 10
(Age 11-15)
[SECONDARY]

Class 11 to Class 12
(Age 16-17)
[HIGHER SECONDARY]

Professional 4 years
Medical 5 years
Arts, Commerce 3 years
[GRADUATION]

1.5 – 3 years
[POST GRADUATION]

Fig. 1.2: Indian Education System

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education in India

24
1.3 ACTS AND SUBORDINATE LEGISLATIONS GOVERNING
UNIVERSITY AND HIGHER EDUCATION

Some of the major Acts and Legislations that govern University and Higher
Education are:

1.3.1 The University Grants Commission Act, 1956.

1.3.2 The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004
(Later on amended in 2010).

1.3.3 The Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006.

1.3.4 The Central University Act, 2009.

1.3.5 The All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987.

1.3.1 The University Grants Commission Act, 1956

The University Grant Commission Act, 1956 was passed to make provision for
the co-ordination and determination of standards in universities and for achievement of
the purpose to establish a university grant commission.

a) University Grants Commission (UGC)

UGC is a statutory organization set up by Union Government under the UGC

Act, 1956. It provides recognition for universities in India and provides funds for
government– recognized universities and colleges. Its head quarters are in New Delhi
with six regional centres in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and
Bangalore.

b) Functions of the Commission

It is the general duty of the Commission to take all necessary steps for the
promotion and co-ordination of university education and for the determination and
maintenance of standards of teaching, examination and research in universities. The
UGC’s mandate thus includes:

1. Promotion and Co-ordination of University education

2. Determination and Maintenance of standards of teaching, examination and

research in university

25
3. Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.

4. Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education and

disbursing grants to the universities and colleges.

5. Serving as a vital link between the Union and State governments and institutions
of higher learning.

6. Advising the central and state governments on the measures necessary for
improvement of University education.

c) Professional Councils

Accreditation for higher learning over universities under the aegis of University
Grants Commission is overseen by following sixteen autonomous statutory institutions:

1. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

2. Distance Education Council (DEC).

3. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

4. Bar Council of India (BCI)

5. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

6. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)

7. Medical Council of India (MCI)

8. Pharmacy Council of India (PCI).

9. Indian Nursing Council (INC).

10. Dental Council of India (DCI)

11. Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)

12. Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)

13. Rehabilitation Council.

14. National Council for Rural Institutes.

15. State Councils of Higher Education

16. Council of Architecture

26
1.3.2 The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004

The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act, 2004 was
framed to constitute a National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions and
to provide for matters connected directly or indirectly with such institutions. The key
objective was to ensure that educational right enshrined in Article 30(1) of the
constitution should be made available to the members of the notified minority
communities.

The Commission was constituted to perform the following functions:

1. To advise the Central or State Government on matters relating to the education

of minorities.

2. To look into specific complaints regarding deprivation or violation of right of

minorities.

3. To look into disputes relating to affiliation to a Scheduled University.

4. To do the acts necessary to the attainment of objects of the Commission.

1.3.3 The Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006

The Central Educational Institution (Reservation in Admission) Bill 2006

became an Act on 3.1.2007 when it received the assent of the President. The Act
contains the provisions relating to the reservation in admission of the students belonging
to the Scheduled Caste, the Scheduled Tribes and the other Backward Classes of
citizens, to certain Central Educational Institutions established, maintained or aided by
the Central Government.

The Act contains the provisions related to:

1) Reservation of seats in Central Educational Institutions.

2) Applicability and cases in which the Act is not applicable.

3) Mandatory Increase of seats.

4) Institutions of Excellence.

5) Definitions of Minority Educational Institution and OBC.

27
1.3.4 The Central Universities Act, 2009

The Central Universities Act, 2009 was enacted to establish and incorporate
universities for teaching and research in the various States and to provide for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto. It came into force on 15th January, 2009. A
Central University is fully funded by the Government of India.

The Universities established under the Act were desired to achieve the following
objects:

1) Dissemination and advancement of knowledge by providing instructional and

research facilities in such branches of learning as it may deem fit.

2) To make special provisions for integrated courses in humanities, social sciences,

science and technology in educational programmes.

3) To take appropriate measures for promoting innovations in teaching-learning

proceeds and inter-disciplinary studies and research.

4) To educate and train manpower for the development of the country.

5) To establish linkages with industries for the promotion of science and

technology.

6) To pay special attention to the improvement of the social and economic

conditions and welfare of the people, their intellectual academic and cultural
development

1.3.5 The All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987

The All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987 was enacted:

1) To provide for the establishment of an All India Council for Technical

Education with a view to plan and co-ordinate development of the technical
education system throughout the country.

2) For the promotion of qualitative improvement of such education in relation to

planned quantitative growth and the regulations and proper maintenance of
norms and standards in the technical education system and matters connected
herewith.

28
 The Council may take all the steps necessary for ensuring coordinated and
integrated development of technical education and maintenance of standards. Thus, the
Council may:

1) Undertake survey in the various fields of technical education, collect data on all
related matters and make relevant forecasts.

2) Co-ordinate the development of technical education in the country at all levels.

3) Allocate and disburse out of the fund of the Council to technical institutions and
Universities imparting technical education in co-ordination with the
Commission.

iv) Promote innovations, research and development.

v) Formulate schemes for promoting technical education for women, handicapped

and weaker sections of the society.

vi) Promote effective link between technical education system and other relevant
systems.

vii) Evolve suitable performance appraisal systems for technical institutions and
Universities imparting technical education, incorporating norms and
mechanisms for enforcing accountability.

viii) Formulate schemes for training of teachers and set up centres for offering staff
development programs.

ix) Lay down norms and standards for courses, curricula, physical and instructional
facilities, staff pattern, staff qualifications, quality instructions, assessment and
examinations.

x) Fix norms and guidelines for charging tuition and other fees.

xi) Grant approval for starting new technical institution and for introduction of new
courses.

xii) Advise the Central Government in respect of grant of charter to any professional
body.

xiii) Lay down norms for granting autonomy to technical institutions.

29
xiv) Take all necessary steps to prevent commercialization of technical education.

xv) Provide guidelines for admission of students.

xvi) Inspect or cause to inspect any technical institutions.

xvii) Withhold or discontinue grants in respect of courses, programmes to such

technical institutions which fail to comply with the directions given by the
Council.

xviii) Take steps to strengthen the existing organizations and to set up new
organizations to ensure effective discharge of the Council’s responsibilities

xix) Declare technical institutions at various levels and types offering courses in
technical education fit to receive grants.

xx) Advise the Commission for declaring any institutions as a deemed university.

xxi) Set up a National Board of Accreditation to periodically conduct evaluation of

technical institutions or programmes.

1.4 NATIONAL POLICES ON EDUCATION

1.4.1 Education Policy of 1913

The dissatisfaction that prevailed among the people on account of the Indian
Universities Act, 1904 paved the way for reconsideration of the whole educational
policy through the expansion of higher education. Thus, the King Emperor prompted
the announcement of Resolution of the Government of India on the Education Policy on
21st February, 1913. The resolution on the Education Policy introduced a new principle
to restrict the area over which affiliating universities should have control. In pursuance
of this principle, it recommended creation of a separate university for each of the
leading provinces in India. It also recommended creation of new local teaching and
residential universities.

1.4.2 National Policy on Education, 1968

Education, being a factor vital to national progress and society, it has been an
issue of utmost concern for the Government of India and States to give more attention
to education. This concern emerged in the post-independence period. Several

30
Commissions and Committees were constituted to review the problems of education
reconstruction. Some recommendations made by these Commissions were implemented
also. Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, Resolution on Scientific Policy was
passed as a result of which, the development of science technology and scientific
research received special emphasis. Towards the end of the third Five Year Plan,
Education Commission (1964-66) was appointed to hold a comprehensive review of the
education system and also to advise the government on the principles, policies and
patterns to be followed for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects.

The Commission gave recommendations to promote the development of

education in the country in accordance with the following principles:

1. Free and Compulsory Education.

2. Status Emoluments and Education of Teachers

3. Development of Languages

4. Equalization of Educational Opportunity

5. Identification of Talent

6. Work-Experience and National Service.

7. Development of Science Education and Research.

8. Education for Agriculture and Industry

9. Production of Books.

10. Reforms in Examination System

11. Education Opportunity at the Secondary level

12. Development of part time education and correspondence courses.

13. Spread of Literacy and Adult Education.

14. Development of Games and Sports.

15. Promotion of Education of Minorities.

16. Uniform Educational Structure in all parts of the country.

31
17. Development of University Education.

The following recommendations were made in relation to the University

Education:

a) Laboratory, library, other facilities and the strength of the staff will help to
determine the number of whole time students to be admitted to a college or
university department.

b) New universities should be established only after ensuring proper standards and
adequate provision of funds for the purpose.

c) Improvement of standards of training and research at the post-graduate level and

organization of post-graduate courses should be given special attention.

d) Strengthening of centres of Advanced study.

e) Close association between the universities and institutions for research to give
increased support to research in universities.

1.4.3 National Policy on Education, 1986 (As Modified in 1992)

The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 was adopted by Parliament in

May, 1986. Later on to review NPE and to make recommendations for its
modifications, a committee was set up in May 1990 under the Chairmanship of Acharya
Ramamurti. The committee submitted its report in December, 1990. Another
Committee was set up in July, 1991 under the chairmanship of the then Chief Minister
of Andhra Pradesh, Shri N. Janardhana Reddy, on the requisition of Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE). This Committee submitted its report in January, 1992 and
the same was considered by CABE in its meeting held on 5-6 May, 1992. CABE
broadly endorsed NPE, recommending a few changes in the Policy. The modifications
in NPE were specified in the paper “National Policy on Education, 1986--- Revised
Policy Formulation.”

NPE was divided into twelve broad categories/parts that laid emphasis on
various aspects of education.

32
Part-I: This part, in general discussed the need for new Education Policy by taking a
view of the aspects that were covered by Education Policy, 1968 and the aspects which
were uncared for in the education policy of 1968.

Part-II: The second part of the policy document concentrated on essence and role of
education.

Part-III: This part discussed the National system of education to be followed by

focusing on the principles on which the Education System should be based. The main
idea behind the adoption of National System of Education was to solve the issues of
access and equality in education. It also covered the aspect of strengthening and
empowerment of the institutions that are involved in implementing the Education Policy
like University Grants Commission, All India Council of Technical Education and
many more.

Part-IV: This part discussed in detail the issues related to equality in education, that is,
how disparities can be removed and equal opportunity to get education can be attained.
The policy concentrated on the issue by taking care of the following aspects:

a) Education for Women’s Equality

b) Education of Scheduled Castes

c) Education of Scheduled Tribes

d) Education of Other Educationally Backward Sections and Areas

e) Adult Education.

Part-V: In this section of the policy document, emphasis was laid on reorganization of
education at different stages by discussing the issues related to:

a) Early Childhood Care and Education

b) Elementary Education

c) Secondary Education

d) Vocationalisation

e) Open University and Distance learning

33
f) Delinking Degrees from Jobs

g) Rural Universities

h) Higher Education

As far as higher education is concerned, policy document made the following

recommendations:

a) To make higher education more dynamic.

b) To lay emphasis on the consolidation of and expansion of facilities in the

existing institutions.

c) To take the steps to prevent the system from degradation.

d) Development of autonomous colleges and creation of autonomous departments

within the universities on a selective basis.

e) Redesigning the courses and programmes to meet the demands of specialization

and increasing flexibility in the combination of courses.

f) Participation of Councils of Higher Education in State-level planning and co-

ordination of Higher Education.

g) Transformation of teaching methods including use of audio-visual aids,

electronic equipment, development of science and technology.

h) Ensuring quality of research in the universities and provision of more facilities

for research.

i) Setting up of suitable mechanisms by the UGC for coordinating research in the

universities and encouragement of setting up of national research facilities.

j) Encouragement of inter-disciplinary research to fulfill the need for synthesis of

knowledge.

k) Setting up of a national body covering higher education and agriculture,

medical, technical, legal and other professional fields to bring about
coordination and consistency in policy.

34
Part-VI: This section of the policy document focused on improvement of technical and
management education.

Part VII: This section covered the aspects related to efficient working of the system.

Part-VIII: This section covered the system of reorientation and process of education.

Part-IX: This part of the document covered the issues relating to recruitment of
teachers and the pay and service conditions of the teachers.

Part-X: This section endeavoured to discuss the system of management of education.

Part-XI: This part discussed the issues related to arrangement of resources, efficient
use of facilities and the system of review to be followed for efficient and effective
implementation of the policy.

Part-XII: This part tried to foresee the future of education.

1.5 PRESENT REGULATORY FRAMEWORK OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The present system of higher education is governed by the University Grants

Commission (UGC) which is the apex body responsible for coordination, determination
and maintenance of standards and release of grants. Various professional councils are
responsible for recognition of courses, promotion of professional institutions and
providing grants to undergraduate programmes. The Central Advisory Board of
Education coordinates between the Centre and the States. A brief review of the main
players in the Indian higher education system is given below:

1.5.1 Main players in the Higher Education System

(a) University Grants Commission (UGC): UGC is responsible for coordination,

determination and maintenance of standards, release of grants. Also, it is the
lone grant giving agency in the country.

(b) Professional Councils: These are responsible for recognition of courses,

promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to undergraduate
programmes and various awards. The list of statutory professional councils has
been given:

35
(c) Central Government: Central Government is responsible for formulating major
policies for higher education regulation. It provides grants to the UGC and
establishes Central Universities in the country. The Central Government is also
responsible for declaration of educational institutions as 'Deemed to be
University' on the recommendation of the UGC. Such universities are allowed to
set their own syllabus, admission criteria and fees structure. Some prominent
institutions are also classified as institutions of national importance.

(d) State Governments: State Governments are responsible for establishment of

the state universities and colleges and provide plan grants for their development
and non-plan grants for their maintenance.

(e) Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE): The Board is responsible for
co-ordination between the Union and states in the field of education.

Universities in India can be established by an Act of Parliament or State Legislatures

such as Delhi University, Calcutta University and Himachal Pradesh University. Both
Government-aided and unaided colleges are affiliated with a University.

1.6 SYSTEM OF GOVERNANCE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

INSTITUTIONS

The universities are of various kinds with a single faculty, or multi-faculties;

teaching or affiliating or teaching cum affiliating, single campus or multiple campuses.
Most of the universities are affiliating universities, which prescribe the course of study
to the affiliated colleges, hold examinations and award degrees. Because of the rapid
growth of the universities many of them became unmanageable. Thus, as per National
policy on Education, 1986 a scheme of autonomous college was launched where the
degree continues to be awarded by the university, but the name of the college is also
included. The colleges develop and propose new courses of study to the university for
approval. They are also fully responsible for conduct of examination. There are at
present 428 autonomous colleges (As on 07.01.2013) in the country.

36
 Central Govt. (MHRD) Central Govt.
Ministries

State UGC Professional

Government Councils

State Central Univ. Institutions of National National

Universities Deemed Univ. Importance Laboratories

Autonomous Single Faculty/ multi Faculty

Colleges Industry
Teaching or affiliating
Teaching cum affiliating
Single or Multi faculty

Education Bachelors (UG)

PG Diploma, Masters (PG)
M.Phi., Doctoral

Research

Fig. 1.3: Indian Higher Education System

Source: Foundation for Excellence in Higher Education and Research in India: A

Voluntary Initiative (Proposal Document)

37
 Table 1.4: Regulatory and Statutory Bodies for Higher Education in India

Sr. Name, Statute Statutory Primary Other Function Overlaps with

No. and Year, Mandate Function Functions of*
Ministry and
Website
1. University Co-ordination and Release of grants Recognition of universities Other
Grants determination of to universities and college (including professional
Commission standards in and colleges eligibility for central councils and
(UGC) The UGC higher education grants): specification of DEC
Act, 1956 and research in degrees; Minimum
Ministry of HRD the country standards of instruction;
www.ugc.ac.in common pay scales;
common facilities, and
institutional accreditation
through NAAC
2. Distance Promotion, Release of grants Initiated assessment and Other
Education coordination and to open accreditation activities professional
Council (DEC) determination of universities and councils and the
under section 25 standards of the correspondence UGC
of the IGNOU open universities course institutes
ACT, 1985 and distance
Ministry of HRD education systems
in the country
www.ignou.ac.in
/dec/
3. All India Council Planning and Approval of Funding for institutional, UGC, DEC,
for Technical coordinating degree and and faculty development; Pharmacy
Education development of diploma programs pay scales and Council of India,
(AICTE) ACTE technical in engineering, qualifications of teachers; Council of
Act, 1987 education in the architecture, accreditation through NBA Architecture and
Ministry of HRD country pharmacy and the State
hotel Councils for
www.aicte.ernet.i management Technical
n Education
4. Medical Council To establish Registration of Eligibility criteria for State Medical
of India (MCI) standards in medical admissions; Exam for Councils and the
MCI Act, 1953 medical education practitioners and recognition of foreign State
Ministry of and to define recognition of qualification for practice in Governments;
Health medical medical India UGC and DEC to
qualification in institutions a limited extent.
www.mcindia.or India and abroad
g
5. The Council of Regulate Registration of Maintaining the register of AICTE
Architecture profession and architects, architects and make
(COA) the practice of maintaining recommendations with
Architects Act, architects and standards of regard to recognition and
1972 Ministry of town planners in education, derecognition of a
Urban India recognized qualification
Development qualifications and
standards of
www.coa- practice
india.org
6. Pharmacy Regulate Registration of Prescribe curriculum and AICTE and State
Council of India profession and pharmacists and requirement of practical Pharmacy
(PCI) practice of approval of training Councils
pharmacy in India pharmacy
The Pharmacy institutions
Act 1948

38
 Ministry of
Health
www.pci.nic.in
7. Indian Nursing Uniform Accepts Collection and compilation 22 State Nursing
Council INC Act, standards of qualification of data relating to nurses, Councils with
1947 Ministry of training for awarded by mid wives, health visitors different Acts
Health Nurses universities having meaning
www.mohfw.nic. within and and registering
in/nic/ outside India power
8. Dental Council To regulate dental Recommend to Lay down course Ministry of
of India (DCI) education and the central curriculum for various Health
The Dentists Act, profession of government to courses in dentistry
1948 Ministry of dentistry in the accord permission
Health country to start a dental
www.dciindia.or college, start
g courses and an
increase of seats
9. Central Council Prescribe and Maintain Central Prescribe curriculum and State Council
of Homeopathy recognize Register of courses; code of ethics,
(CCH) qualification in Homeopaths requirement of recognition
homeopathy
10. Central Council Proscribe and Prescribes Prescribe curriculum and State Council
of Indian recognise minimum course; standards of
Medicine qualification in standards of professional conduct and
(CCIM) IMCC homeopathy education in code of ethics to be
Act, 1970 Indian Systems of observed by the
Ministry of Medicine viz. practitioners
Health Ayurved, Siddha,
www.ccimindia. Unani Tibb. and
org maintains a
Central register
for the same
11. Rehabilitation Standardize and Recognition of Registration of profession, -
Council of India regulate the institutions for assessment and
(RCI) RCI Act, training of physiotherapy accreditations; promotion
1992 Ministry of personnel and and related fields of barrier free environment
Social Justice professionals in
www.rehabcounc the field of
il. rehabilitation and
special education
nic.in
12. National Council Planned and Recognition of Lay down norms and DGC
for Teacher coordinated teacher education standards
Education development of institutions
(NCIE) NCTE the teacher
Act, 1993 education in the
www.ncte-in.org country
13. Indian Council Coordinate Coordinate and Accredit agriculture UGC
for Agriculture agriculture fund agricultural universities; hold joint
Research research and education and admission tests
(ICAR). Not a education research in 30
statutory body state and 1 central
Ministry of and several
Agriculture deemed
www.icar.org.in universities for
agriculture

39
14. Bar Council of Lays down Lays down Listing of members of bar; State Bar council
India (BCI) the standards of standards of listing of foreign
Advocate Act, professional professional universities whose
1962 Ministry of conduct and conduct and qualifications are approved
Law standards of legal standards of legal in India
httg:barcouncilof education education
india.nic.in
Professional Associations
Institute of Regulate Conduct Final Exam in equivalent -
Chartered profession of professional to masters program if a
Accountants of chartered courses, bachelors degree is
India (ICAI) accountants in coordinate obtained before
ICAI Act, 1949 India practical training
Ministry of and hold
Company Affairs examination
www.icai.org
Institute of Regulate Conduct Final Exam is equivalent
Company profession of professional of masters program if a
Secretaries of company courses, bachelor’s degree is
India (ICSI) ICSI secretaries in coordinate obtained before
Act, 1980 India practical training
Ministry of and hold
Company Affairs examination
www.icsi. Org
Institute of Costs Regulate and Conduct Final Exam is equivalent to
and Works develop professional masters program if a
Accountants of profession of cost courses, bachelor’s degree is
India (ICWAI) accountants in coordinate obtained before
ICWAI Act, 1994 India practical training
Ministry of and hold
Company Affairs examination
www.icwai.org
Other Professional associations are – Institution of Engineers, India (IEI),Institute of Electronics and
Communication Engineers (IETE)
Association of Promote inter- Publish Organize academic, sports
Indian university universities news and cultural event,
Universities activities and and handbook of equivalence of degree /
(AIU) Set up in cooperation in Indian Certificates awarded by the
1925 as a the field of Universities and accredited foreign
membership- education, various other Universities educational,
based culture, sports publication institutions
organization – a and allied areas
Registered
Society
www.aiuweb.org

Source: Compiled with information from the respective website

In addition there is a National Council of Rural Institutes (NCR) set up in 1995

as a nodal organization for development of rural institutions in the country. This has
been a non-starter.

In most cases, there is some overlap in functions of professional councils and

academic functions of the university concerned

40
1.7 GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Owing to the growing share of services sector and increased demand for skilled
workforce, the higher education system in India has witnessed immense growth. As
depicted in Fig. 1.4 the number of universities and higher education institutions has
witnessed a tremendous growth between the year 2000-01 and 2011-12.

659

266

Universities

2000-01 2011-12

33,023

11,146

Higher
Education
Institutions

2000-01 2011-12

Fig. 1.4: Growth of Higher Education

Factors Accelerating the Demand for Higher Education in India

1. Demographic Transformation: With 50% of the population between the ages

of 15-64, and the median age between 20-30, India presents an attractive market
for higher education.

41
2. Rising Household Income: Average household income is expected to increase
3 times by 2025. With rising household incomes, the number of households with
the ability to pay large sums for higher education is increasing.

3. Economic Growth and Increasing Demand for Skilled Manpower: India has
become a trillion dollar economy, demonstrating an 8% plus average GDP
growth during the past few years with a growing share of the services economy.
The services economy has spelled an increase in the demand for skilled
manpower which in turn has fuelled the growth in the higher education sectors.

1.7.1 Growth of Universities/Colleges

700 35000
33023 659

600 30000
564

500 25000
No. of Universities
No. of Colleges

400 20000

300 15000
256
12806
200 190 10000

7346
133
100 103 4722 5000
3604
55
30 1542
695
0 0
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2011-12
Years

No. of University No. of Colleges

Fig. 1.5: Growth of Higher Education Institutions

Source: MHRD / UGC

The number of Universities in the year 2011-12 is 659 as compare to 30 in the

year 1950-51. There were 70 colleges in 1950-51 while there are more than 33,000
colleges in 2010-11. This clearly depicts a significant growth in the Indian higher
education sector (as shown in the figure below).

42
 700
659

600

500
Number of Universities

400 387

300
256

200 190

133
103
100

0
1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2006-07 2011-12
Year

Fig. 1.6: Growth of Universities on India

Source: Higher Education in India: Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017) and beyond,
FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012
The number of universities has grown more than six times in the last four decades.

35000
33023

30000

25000
Number of colleges

21170
20000

15000
12806

10000
7346
4722
5000 3604

0
1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2006-07 2011-12
Year

Fig. 1.7: Growth of Colleges in India

Source: Higher Education in India: Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017) and beyond,
FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012

43
 India has more than 33,000 colleges with one-third of the colleges having been
set up in the last five years

40

35 29.3
25.9
30

25 19.1

20

15

10

0
India USA China

India USA China

GER 17.9% 95% 26%

Fig. 1.8: Comparative Analysis of GER

Comparison with other countries (2012 data for India; 2009 data for the US and China)
Using global definition of GER (18-22 age cohorts), India’s GER was 20.2% in 2011–
12
Source: Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, Twelfth Five Year Plan:
Chapter on higher education, UNESCO: Global Education Digest 2011.
National Center for Education Statistics USA.

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is the statistic used to measure access to

education in countries. It is the ratio of students enrolled at each level of education; in
this case, higher education is a proportion of the population of relevant age group. India
has advanced not only in the GER but also in the provision of private higher education
institutions as compared to other countries. A huge potential exists for enrolment in
India due to a low GER in higher education.

44
 The growth in the higher education has resulted in a very sharp increase in the
number of institutes. Universities have grown at a constant CAGR of 4.6% from 1970-
71 to 2011-12. Colleges have grown at a higher CAGR of 5.6% between 1970-71 and
2011-12.

Steps to be taken to Improve GER by 2020

The Indian Government has set a target of achieving a 30% GER in the higher
education sector by 2020, up from 12% in 2010. This would require the following
efforts as per “EDGE-2011” Report:

a) An additional enrollment of 40 million which is an incremental increase of 24

million from that of 2010.
b) 33,000 more institutions would be required.
c) Taking into account the prescribed infrastructure for educational institutes,
investment of about ~INR 1, 000, 00 crores would be required.
Apart from this, a three pronged approach would facilitate the achievement of
this aggressive target that will include:

a) Optimization of Existing Capacity

There is a huge potential to optimize existing capacity as there is a significant
under-utilization of the same across the states and specializations.

b) Encouragement of Private Sector Participation

In order to supplement the investment required to reach the target GER, private
participation in the Indian Higher Education Sector needs to be encouraged.

c) Use of New Models for Growth

New growth models which have large potential in terms of accessibility need to
be implemented to reach the target GER.

The government has allocated an increased budget of INR 850 billion in the XI
five year plan (2007-2012) (an almost nine fold increase from about INR 96 billion in
the X five year Plan) for expansion of higher education facilities in the country.

45
1.7.2 State-wise Number of Universities/University Level Institutions in the
Country (as on December 2011)

The graph shows the state-wise number of universities/university level

institutions in the country. Tamil Nadu has maximum number of universities.

70

59 58
60

50 48
46
44
42

40
Number

35

30 28
25 25
21 22
18 19 19 19
20 17
15
12
10 9
10
4 5
3 2 3 3 3 3

0
Arunchal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh

Jammu & Kashmir

Andhra Pradesh

Sikkim

Uttar Pradesh
Tripura
Mizoram

Tamilnadu

Uttarakhand
Orissa
Delhi

Kerala
Haryana

Karnataka
Assam

Maharashtra
Chattisgarh

Gujarat

Nagaland

Punjab

Chandigarh
Madya Pradesh
Bihar

Goa

Manipur

Meghalaya

West Bengal
Rajasthan

States/ UTs

Fig. 1.9: State-wise Number of Universities/University Level Institutions in the

Country (as on December 2011)

Source: UGC/MHRD

1.7.3 State-wise Number of Colleges (2010-2011)

In terms of number of state-wise colleges, Maharashtra is leading all the states

with 4361 colleges. The figure clearly shows the increase in the number of colleges and
universities over a period of time from 1950-51 to December 2011.

46
 5000
4631
4500
4066
4000 3859

3500
3078
Number of Colleges

3000

2412
2500 2256 2267

2000 1836

1500
1060 1100
1000 902 852
653 641
507
500 314 328 360
231 243
16 54 76 64 28 55 15 39 6 25 3 4 1
0
Arunchal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Andhra Pradesh

Sikkim

Uttar Pradesh
Tripura
Jharkhand

Mizoram

Tamilnadu

Uttarakhand
A&N Islands
Kerala
Haryana

Karnataka

Delhi
Assam

Maharashtra
Chattisgarh

Gujarat

Nagaland

Punjab

Chandigarh

D&N Haveli
Madya Pradesh

Daman & Diu

Bihar

Goa

Manipur

Odisha
Meghalaya

Rajasthan

Lakshdweep
States/ UT's

Fig. 1.10: State-wise Number of Colleges 2010-11*

Source: UGC/MHRD

1.7.4 Growth of Students Enrolment in Higher Education

Higher education enrolments have also witnessed a sharp increase with 3,

97,000 enrolments in 1950-51 and above 165 millions in 2010-11. As far as CAGR is
concerned, enrolments in higher education have grown at a relatively steady rate of 6%
for over 20 years between 1985-86 and 2009-10.

30

25.9
25

20

16.97

15

10
8.399

5 4.925

2.752
1.954
1.05
0 0.397
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2011-12

Fig. 1.11: Growth of Students Enrolment (in millions) in Higher Education

Source: MHRD for 1950-51 &1960-61 and UGC for 1970-71 onwards

47
 30

25.9
Student enrollment in higher education (million)

25

20

16.6

15

10
8.4

4.9
5
2.8
2

0
1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2006-07 2011-12
Year

Fig. 1.12: Historical growth in Enrollments (in millions) in

Higher Education in India
Source: MHRD; Higher Education in India: Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017) and
beyond, FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012
Student enrollment in HEIs has grown 12 times in the last four decades.
1.7.5 Growth of Teaching Staff in Universities and Colleges

With expansion of the University Higher Education System and increase in the
students’ enrolment in higher education, the growth of teaching staff in Universities and
colleges is obvious. The number of teachers during the year 1950-51 was 23,549, while
this figure was 8,16,996 during the year 2010-11

Fig. 1.13: Growth of Teaching Staff in Universities and Colleges

Source: MHRD for 1950-51 & 1960-61 and UGC for 1970-71 onwards

48
1.8 EXPENDITURE ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

The spending in the Indian higher education sector was estimated to be ~INR
46,200 crores in 2010 and projected to grow at 18% Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR) till 2020. This implies that spending in this sector is estimated to be over ~INR
232,500 crores in the year 2020. The government has allocated an increased budget of
INR 850 billion in the XI five year plan (2007-2012) (an almost nine fold increase from
about INR 96 billion in the X five year Plan) for expansion of higher education facilities
in the country.
450000

400000
382981
Central Expenditure on Education During the 11th Plan (Rs. in million)

350000
320272

300000

250000

203104
200000

147781
150000

107330
97678
100000 88853 91516
78261

50000 40081
26277 21236 18068 19691
5305
0
Elementary Education Secondary Education University and Higher Technical Education Others
Education and Distance
Learning
2007-08 2011-12 2012-13

Fig. 1.14: Central Expenditure on Education during the 11th Plan (Rs. in millions)

Source: Government of India (2011)

1.9 PROFILE OF PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Punjab Technical University (PTU) was established in the Year 1997 under the
Punjab Technical University Act, 1996(Punjab Act No. 1 of 1997) to provide for the
establishment and incorporation of a University for the advancement of technical
education and development thereof in the State of Punjab and for matters connected
therewith. In pursuance of this Act, the University started its journey with 09
engineering colleges and few management colleges affiliated to it. Since then, the
University has come a long way and during this Academic Session 2011-12, the

49
University has affiliated 100+ engineering Colleges, 139 Management and Computer
Application courses, 37 institutions imparting Pharmacy education, 11 colleges
imparting Hotel Management education, 06 Colleges providing Architecture Education
and 21 Regional Centre for M.Tech and Ph.D. in different branches of Engineering and
Management and 01 Regional Centre for M.Pharmacy. More than 2013 Learning
Centres of PTU are providing professional education through Distance Learning all
over the Country and abroad.

At present, after 15 years of its existence, PTU is providing education to

approximately 5 lac students in the fields of Engineering, Management, Architecture
and Pharmacy. This number includes 50 per cent students form the states other than
Punjab.

50