8.

022 (E&M) – Lecture 11

Topics:
Introduction to Special Relativity
Length contraction and Time dilation
Lorentz transformations
Velocity transformation

Special relativity
Ready for the challenge?
Special relativity seems easy but it’s not!
A new way of thinking that often goes against intuition
It will take some time to “digest it”, but believe me: it’s worth the effort!
Why do we need it in 8.022?
Weren't you frustrated last time when magnetic forces came out of
nowhere?
Special relativity naturally explains them in terms of electric forces seen
from in a reference frame in motion
This is important for everybody
Physics majors: first of many iterations on a crucial topic
Non Physics majors: chance to know what you are missing
Don’t forget: you are still in time…

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 2

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The principles of special relativity

Formulated in 1905 by A. Einstein

Incredible but true:
no Nobel Prize for this!

Based upon 2 postulates

The laws of physics are the same for all reference frames
The speed of light is the same (c) in all reference frames

(Inertial) Reference frame

System of coordinates in which the observer is non accelerating
(inertial = non accelerating)

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 3

Reference frames: examples

v
Situation
A train is moving with velocity
v w.r.t. to a station
A table is anchored to the train
A ball is falling from the table

We can identify 3 systems of reference and 3 observers:

Observer 1: sitting on a bench at the station
Observer 2: sitting on the table on the train
Observer 3: a bug sitting on top of the falling ball

Who are the observers in an inertial reference frame?

Observers 1 and 2
Observer 3 is not: the ball is falling with acceleration g

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 4

Is time the same in all reference frames?

These (apparently) innocent assumptions have amazing

consequences such as time is not absolute! v
Problem
The train is moving with velocity v // x axis
h
Observer 1: standing in the train
Observer 2: at the station
Observer 1 flashes a pulse of light vertically to a photosensor
mounted on the floor of the train
Both observers measure the time between when the light is
emitted and when the light reaches the sensor

Will the 2 observers measure the same time?

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 5

Time in different reference frames

v
Let’s calculate time measured by the 2 observers
Train reference frame (observer 1)
h’
h
⎧Distance traveled by light: h h
⎨ ⇒ ∆t = ∆t1 =
⎩Velocity of light: c c
Station reference frame (observer 2)
⎧⎪ Distance traveled by light: h'= h 2 +(v∆t ) 2 h'
⎨
2
∆t ' = ∆t 2 =
⎪⎩ Velocity of light: c c

h 2 +(v∆t 2 ) 2
2

( ∆t2 ) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
2
h' 2 v v2
= ∆ + ∆ ⇒ ∆ = ∆ −
2 2
t 2 t 2 t1 t 2 1
⎝c⎠ c2 c2 c2
1
Defining γ = ⇒ ∆t ' = γ ∆t
v2
G. Sciolla – MIT
1− 2 8.022 – Lecture 11 6
c

Time dilation
We just derived a very important result!
1 1 v
Gamma factor: γ ≡ = > 1 with β ≡ β v ≡
v2 1− β 2 c
1−
c2
Since ∆t’=γ∆t ∆t’ is always larger than ∆t
∆t’ = time measured by the observer in the station who sees
the clock in motion
∆t = time measured by the observer on the train, at rest wrt
the clock
Conclusion:
Clocks in motion run slower (time dilation) ∆t ' = γ ∆t

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 7

Length in different reference frames

Problem 2
Now observer 1 flashes a pulse of light horizontally from left end
of the train
The light is reflected by a mirror on the right end wall and
detected by a photosensor on the left wall

What is the length of the train measured by each observer?

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 8

Length in train reference frames

For observer in train reference frame
Events we are interested in: emission and reception of light
Time in between the two: ∆t = ∆ttrain
c∆t 2L
Length of the train: L = ⇒ ∆t =
2 c

L
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 9

Length in the station reference frame

Calculate separately ∆x1 (L R) and ∆x2 (R L)

v ∆ t '1 = ( L ' − v ∆ t '1 ) / c

∆ t ' 2 = ( L '+ v ∆ t '2 ) / c

∆t1 is shorter because train and light move in opposite directions

∆t2 is longer because train and light move in the same direction
L’ (t’) = length (time) measured from station reference frame

⎧ L '
⎪⎪ ∆ t '1 = c + v
Rearrange terms: ⎨
⎪∆t ' = L '
⎩⎪ 8.022 – Lecture
c − v11
2
G. Sciolla – MIT 10

Length contraction
Total time in the station reference frame = sum of ∆t’1 and ∆t’2:
L ' L '
∆ t ' = ∆ t '1 + ∆ t ' 2 = + =
c − v c + v
2c 2c 2 L 'γ 2
= L ' 2 = L ' =
c − v 2
v 2
c
c 2 (1 − )
c2
Remember how time dilates: ∆t’=γ∆t

2 L 'γ 2
2L L
= ∆ t ' = γ∆ t = γ ⇒ L'=
c c γ
Since γ>1
Moving objects appear contracted (length contraction)
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 11

Summary so far
Assume Special Relativity postulates hold:
The laws of physics are the same for all reference frames
The speed of light is the same (c) in all reference frames

Consequences:
Time dilation
clocks in motion run slower ∆t ' = γ ∆t
Length contraction
L
moving objects appear contracted L ' =
γ
REALLY??? Can we check this experimentally???
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 12

Application:
Cosmic Ray Muons
Cosmic ray muons:
Cosmic rays are energetic particles (mainly protons) coming from
somewhere in the Universe
When they hit the atmosphere they will produce showers of particles
µ are of particular interest because they are very penetrating and
have a long lifetime (2.2 µs)

Question: Can muons produced in the upper atmosphere

reach the ground?
Input:
Muon’s velocity = 99.99% of velocity of light c
Atmosphere ~20 Km thick

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 13

Application:
Cosmic Ray Muons (2)
Inputs:
vµ = 99.99% of velocity of light c, atmosphere ~ 20 Km

Non relativistic approach:

∆l = 0.9999 c ∆t = 0.6 Km < 20 Km: NO, they cannot reach the ground

Relativistic approach
Relativity: same phyiscs
γ = 1/sqrt(1-v2/c2) ~ 71 in all reference frames!
Approach 1: our perspective
τµ = 2.2 µs in muon’s reference frame
In our reference frame: τ’ = τ/γ = 71 x 2.2 µs = 156 µs
Now muon can travel: ∆l = 42 Km: OK!
Approach 2: muons’ perspective
The ∆l’ = 20 Km of atmosphere appear contracted to a relativistic µ
∆l = ∆l’/γ = 20Km/71 ~ 0.3 Km that can be traveled with τ=2.2 µs: OK!

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 14

More on Cosmic Ray Muons

The number of cosmic muons detected at sea level and on the top of
Mount Everest are different. By how much?
Hypotheses:
Muons are produced in the upper atmosphere: ~ 20 Km
β = 0.9999 γ = 1/sqrt(1-v2/c2) ~ 71 N(t)
Mount Everest ~ 8 Km
Muons decay exponentially N(t) = N0exp(-t/τ)
Choose 1 RF and stay with it t
τ’µ = 156 µs in our R.F.
At sea level:
L=20Km T=66 µs Nsea=N0exp(-66/156)=0.65 N0
On Mount Everest:
L=12Km T=40 µs NEverest=N0exp(-40/156)=0.77 N0
At sea level expect ~15% less cosmic µ than on Mount Everest: OK!
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 15

How do lengths perpendicular to v transform?

Thought experiment
Train moving towards a tunnel with velocity v=0.9c

Height of train in train’s RF: htrain= 3.5 m

Height of tunnel in tunnel’s RF: h’tunnel = 4.0 m

If we have Lorentz contractions: L’=L/γ

γ = 1/sqrt(1-0.92)=2.29

In tunnel’s reference frame: the train moves with β=0.9

h’train= htrain/γ = 3.5/2.29 = 1.5m no problem: it will fit!

In train’s reference frame: tunnel moves with velocity β=0.9

htunnel= h’tunnel/γ = 4/2.29 = 1.7m < htrain they will smash!

Different observers come to different conclusions

against relativity principle! Lorentz contraction cannot happen
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 16

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Lorentz transformation
“Time dilation” and “Length contraction” are consequences of the so
called “Lorentz transformation”
Consider 2 inertial reference frames: O and O’
O’ is moving w.r.t. O with velocity v // x axis where
(x,y,z,t) the coordinate in the O reference frame
(x’,y’,z’,t’) the coordinate in the O’ reference frame

y y’ v

O O’
z z’ x x’

Lorentz transformation:
Linear transformation that relates the coordinate in the 2 R.F.
Why linear? Because reference frames are inertial
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 17

y y’
v

Lorentz transformation (2) z

O
z’
O’
x x’

⎧ x ' = Ax + Bt (1)
The most general form for a linear transformation: ⎪y' = y
z and y do not change because v // x ⎪
⎨
⎪z ' = z
ignore them in the following

⎪⎩t ' = Cx + Dt (2)

Goal: calculate coefficients A,B,C,D
First requirement:
O and O’ overlap at t=0: At t=t’=0, x=x’=0
For O, the origin of O’ moves away with velocity v
⎧ x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
Substitute in (1) ⇒ 0 = Avt + Bt ⇒ B = -vA ⇒ ⎨
⎩t ' = Cx + Dt (4)
For O’, the origin of O moves away with velocity -v
Substitute in (3) : x ' = A( x − vt ) = - Avt. From (4): x ' = −vt ' = −v(Cx + Dt) − vDt
⎧x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
⇒ D= A ⇒⎨
⎩t ' = Cx + At (5)
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 18

 y y’
v

Lorentz transformation (3) z

O
z’
O’
x x’

Second requirement:
Send a light pulse along the x direction at t=0

After a time t the coordinates of the light pulse are x=ct and x’=ct’. Substitute in
(3) and use (5):

⎧ct ' = x ' = A( x − vt ) = A(ct − vt ) v

⎨ ⇒ c(Cct + At ) = A(ct − vt ) ⇒ C = − A 2
⎩ct ' = c (Cx + At ) = c(Cc t + At ) c

⎧x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
⎪
⇒⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = A⎜ t − c2 x ⎟ (6)
⎩ ⎝ ⎠

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 19

y y’
v

Lorentz transformation (4) z

O
z’
O’
x x’

Third requirement:
Send a light pulse along the y direction at t=0
After a time t the coordinates of the light pulse are (x=0; y=ct) in O; in O’
the total displacement is: x’2+y’2= (ct’)2. Substitute (3) and (6):

x '2 + y '2 = (ct ')2

2
⎛ v ⎞
A2 ( x − vt )2 + y2 = c2 A2 ⎜ t − 2 x⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Since x = 0 and y = ct ⇒ A2 (vt )2 + ( ct ) = c2 A2t 2
2

1 ⎧x ' = γ ( x − vt )
⇒ A= ≡γ ⎪
2 ⇒⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = γ ⎜ t − c2 x ⎟
⎛v⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝c⎠ ⎩ ⎝ ⎠
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 20

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Lorentz transformation: summary

Summarizing: when O’ moves wrt O with velocity +v//x axis

To go from O (at rest) to O’ (in motion): y y’

v

⎧ x ' = γ ( x − vt )
⎪ O O’
⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = γ ⎜ t − c 2 x ⎟ z z’ x x’
⎩ ⎝ ⎠

To go from O’ (in motion) to O(at rest), just change the sign of the velocity:
⎧ x = γ ( x ' + v t ')
⎪
⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪ t = γ ⎜ t '+ c 2 x ' ⎟
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
The other coordinates (y and z) are not affected
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 21

y y’
v

Transformation of velocity z
O
z’
O’
x x’

Consequence of Lorentz transformations

Observer in motion O’ shoots a bullet with velocity u’x // +x axis
What is the velocity of the bullet ux measured by O?

dx d ( γ ( x ' + v t ')) d x '+ v d t '

ux = = =
dt ⎛ v ⎞ v
d t '+ 2 d x '
d ( γ ⎜ t '+ 2 x ' ⎟ )
⎝ c ⎠ c
d x '/ d t ' + v u 'x + v
= =
v v u 'x
1 + 2 d x '/ d t ' 1 +
c c2
Conclusion: u 'x + v ux − v
ux = and u 'x =
v u 'x vu
1+ 1 − 2x
c2 c
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 22

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 y y’
v

Velocity not // to v z
O
z’
O’
x x’

How do we sum velocity not // to the relative motion of the 2 R.F.?

Observer in motion O’ shoots a bullet with velocity u’y perpendicular to v
What is the velocity of the bullet ux measured by O?

dy dy ' dy '
uy = = =
dt ⎛ v ⎞ v
γ ( d t ' + 2 d x ')
d ( γ ⎜ t '+ 2 x ' ⎟ )
⎝ c ⎠ c
d y '/ d t ' u 'y
= =
v v u 'x
γ ( d t ' + 2 d x ') / d t ' γ (1 + )
c c2
Conclusion: u 'y uy
uy = and u 'y =
v u 'x vu
γ (1 + ) γ (1 − 2 x )
c2 c
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 23

Summary and outlook

Today:
Principle of Special Relativity and its amazing consequences
Length contraction and Time dilation
Lorentz transformations
Velocity transformation (v always < c)

Next time:
More on Relativity:
How to transform electric fields and forces
Prove that E and B are intimately connected

G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 11 24

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