Fluid Mechanics Manual

Laboratory Manual
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
PREPARED BY:
RANJAN BASAK
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 1

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIENT NAME OF EXPERIMENT HOURS
NO.
1 Calibration of Venturimeter 2+2
2 Calibration of Orificemeter 2+2
3 Calibration of Rotameter 2+2
4 Calibration of Rectangular and V-Notches 2+2
5 Reynolds experiment: Laminar and Turbulent flow 2+2
6 Determination of friction factor of pipes 2+2
7 Determination of loss coefficients of pipe fittings 2+2
8 Determination of metacentric height 2+2
9 Verification of Bernoulli’s theorem 2+2
10 Determination of Centre of Pressure 2+2

Experiment No. 1
TITLE
CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER
OBJECTIVES
To measure discharge through Venturimeter and determine co-efficient of discharge
INTRODUCTION:
If a constriction is placed in a closed channel carrying a stream of fluid, there will be

increase in velocity, and hence increase in Kinetic Energy, at the constriction, from an
energy balance, as given by Bernoulli’s Theorem, there must be a corresponding
reduction in pressure. Rate of discharge from the constriction can be calculated by
knowing this pressure reduction, the area available for flow at the constriction, the
density of fluid, and the Co-efficient of discharge (ratio of actual flow to the theoretical
flow).
THEORY:
VENTURIMETER:
A Venturimeter consists of;

1. An Inlet Section followed by a convergent cone.
2. A Cylindreical Throat.
3. A gradually divergent cone.
The inlet section of the Venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe, which is
followed by a convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers from
the original size of the pipe to that of the Throat of the Venturimeter. The Throat of
Venturimeter is a short parallel side tube having its cross-sectional area smaller than that
of the pipe. The divergent cone of the Venturimeter is gradually diverging pipe with its
cross-sectional area increasing from that of the Throat to the original size of the pipe. At
Inlet Section & Throat of the Venturimeter, pressure taps are provided.
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a Venturimeter, fitted in pipe. Pipe consists of separate flow
control valves, inlet and outlet. Sump tank with centrifugal pump is provided for water
circulation through pipe. The pressure tapings are provided at inlet and throat of venturi
meter. Pressure tapings are connected to a differential manometer. Discharge is measured
with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:
1. Electricity supply: Single phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 amp socket with earth
connection.
2. Water supply (Initial Fill).
1. Drain required.
2. Floor Area Required: 1.5 m x 0.75 m.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Starting procedure:
1. Close all the valves provided.

2. Fill sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
3. Open by-pass valve.
4. Fill manometer with mercury by opening the valve and PU pipe from the test
section connected at the bottom most point of manometer.
5. Close the valve and connect the PU pipe back to its place after doing so.
6. Ensure that all ON/OFF Switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
7. Now Switch ON the main power supply.
8. Switch ON the pump.
9. Open flow control valve of desired test section.
10. Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to avoid
the blow of water on manometer fluid.
11. Open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the air
from manometer.
12. When there is no air in the manometer, close the air release valves.
13. Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and by
pass valve.
14. Record the manometer reading.
15. Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using stop
watch and measuring tank.
16. Repeat steps (12) to (14) for different flow rates of water, operating control valve
and by pass valve.
17. When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the by pass valve fully.
Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the control
valve of desired test section.
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first.

2. Switch OFF pump.
3. Switch OFF power supply to panel.
4. Drain the apparatus completely with the help of drain valves provided.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:
DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
d1 = 0.028m
d2 = 0.014m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. h1, cm h2, cm R1, cm R2, cm t, sec
1.
2.
3.
CALCULATIONS:
h1 – h2
h = ---------- , m = ---------------------- m
100
ρm
H = h ( ---- - 1) , m of water = ---------------------- m
ρw
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Qa = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
T
π
a1 = ----- d12, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
π
a2 = ----- d22, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4

Qa
Cd = ----- = ---------------------------
Qt
NOMENCLATURE:
A = Area of measuring tank, m2

a1 = Area at inlet of Venturimeter, m2
a2 = Area at Throat of Venturimeter, m2
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge.
d1 = Diameter at inlet of Venturimeter, m
d2 = Diameter at throat of Venturimeter, m
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H = Loss of head, m of water
h = Manometer difference, m
h1, h2 = Manometer reading at both points, cm
Qa = Actual Discharge for Venturi.
Qt = Theoretical discharge for Venturi.
R = Rise of water level in measuring tank, m
R1 = Final level of water in measuring tank, cm
R2 = Initial level of water in measuring tank, cm
t = Time taken for Rise of water level in measuring tank, sec
ρm = Density of manometer fluid (Hg), kg/m3
ρw = Density of water, kg/m3
PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230 volts.
2. Never fully close the control valve and by-pass valve at a time.
3. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run pump at least once in a fortnight.
4. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
1. If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
2. If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes and avoid
closing the flow control valve and by-pass valve at a time.

Experiment No. 2
TITLE
CALIBRATION OF ORIFICEMETRE
OBJECTIVES
To measure discharge through Orificemeter and determine co-efficient of discharge
INTRODUCTION:

flow).
An Orificemeter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called Orifice, which
is concentric with the pipe axis.
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of an Orificemeter, fitted in pipe. Pipe consists of flow control
valves, inlet and outlet. Sump tank with centrifugal pump is provided for water
circulation through pipe. The pressure tapings are provided at inlet and outlet of orifice
meter. Pressure tapings are connected to a differential manometer. Discharge is measured
with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
connection.
3. Drain required.
Starting procedure:

4. Fill manometer with mercury by opening the valve and PU pipe from the test
section connected at the bottom most point of manometer.
5. Close the valve and connect the PU pipe back to its place after doing so.
9. Open flow control valve of desired test section (venturi meter or orifice meter).
11. Open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the air
from manometer.
pass valve.
16. Repeat steps (12) to (14) for different flow rates of water, operating control valve
and by pass valve.
17. When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the by pass valve fully.
Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the control
valve of desired test section.
Closing Procedure:

2. Switch OFF pump.
DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
d1 = 0.028m
d2 = 0.014m

OBSERVATION TABLE:
1.
2.
3.
CALCULATIONS:
h1 – h2
h = ---------- , m = ---------------------- m
100
ρm
H = h ( ---- - 1) , m of water = ---------------------- m
ρw
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Qa = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
t
π
a1 = ----- d12, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
π
a2 = ----- d22, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
Qa
Cd = ----- = ---------------------------
Qt

NOMENCLATURE:

a1 = Area at inlet of orificemeter, m2
a2 = Area at Throat of Area of orifice, m2
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge.
d1 = Diameter at inlet of orifice meter, m
d2 = Diameter at throat of diameter of orifice, m
H = Loss of head, m of water
h1, h2 = Manometer reading at both points, cm
Qa = Actual Discharge for Orifice (m3/sec).
Qt = Theoretical discharge for Rota meter (LPH).
ρm = Density of manometer fluid (Hg), kg/m3
TROUBLESHOOTING:
2. If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes and avoid closing
the flow control valve and by-pass valve at a time.

Experiment No. 3
TITLE
CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER
OBJECTIVES
To calibrate rotameter
INTRODUCTION:

flow).
THEORY:
The Rotameter is a variable – area meter that consists of an enlarging transparent tube
and a metering “float” (actually heavier than the liquid) that is displaced upward by the
upward flow fluid through the tube. The tube is graduated to read the flow directly.
Notches in the float cause it to rotate and thus maintain a central position in the tube.
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a Rota meter, fitted in pipe. Pipe consists of flow control
valves, inlet and outlet. Sump tank with centrifugal pump is provided for water
circulation through pipe. Pressure tapings are connected to a differential manometer.
Discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
connection.
5. Drain required.

Starting procedure:

7. Open flow control valve.
pass valve.
9. Measure the flow of water, discharged through desired test section, using Rota
meter, stop watch and measuring tank.
10. Repeat steps (7) and (8) for different flow rates of water, operating control valve
and by pass valve.
Closing Procedure:

2. Switch OFF pump.
DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. Qt, LPH R1, cm R2, cm t, sec
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS:
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Qa = ----------- x 3600 x 1000, LPH = ----------------- LPH
t
Error = ( Qt – Qa), LPH = ------------------ LPH
NOMENCLATURE:

Qa = Rota meter (LPH)
Qt = Rota meter (LPH)
TROUBLESHOOTING:

Experiment No. 4
TITLE
CALIBRATION OF RECTANGULAR AND V-NOTCHES
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge Cd of different notches:

1. Rectangular Notch
2. V – Notch 450
3. V – Notch 600
INTRODUCTION:
A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of a liquid through a small channel or a
tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a
way that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.
The sheet of water flowing through notch is called Nappe or Vein. The bottom edge of a
notch over which the water flows, is known as the sill or crest.
THEORY:
CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:
The ratio of actual discharge Qa over a notch to the theoretical discharge Qt is known as
co-efficient of discharge. Mathematically, Co-efficient of discharge:
Qa
Cd = ------
Qt
DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
DISCHARGE OVER TRIANGULAR NOTCH:

DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a sump tank, pump to circulate water and a flow channel. A set
of three knife edged notch plates made of brass is provided. One of them is rectangular,
other is ‘V’ notch having angle 600 and third is ‘V’ notch having angle 450. The notches
are interchangeable. A pointer is provided to measure the height of water level over the
crest of the notch. Discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
connection.
2. Water supply.
3. Drain required.
Starting procedure:

3. Fix desired notch at the outlet of flow channel.
8. Operate flow control valve and by pass valve to fill the flow channel up to no
discharge occurs through notch.
9. Fully open by pass valve and close the flow control valve and wait for level of
water in flow channel becomes stable.
10. Measure the height of water level at no flow condition (crest height).
11. Regulate flow of water through channel with the help of flow control valve and by
pass valve.
12. Record the height of water level in the channel with the help of pointer Gauge.
13. Measure flow rate using measuring tank and stop watch.
14. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates.
15. Repeat the experiment for other notches.
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over, switch OFF pump.

3. Open by pass valve and flow control valve.
4. Drain water from all the tanks with the help of drain valves provided.

DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
L = 0.065 m
V – NOTCH:
θ = 450, 600 = 0.7854, 1.0472 radian
OBSERVATION:
Test notch = -----------------------

h0 = ---------------- cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. h, cm R1, cm R2, cm t, sec
1.
2.
3.
CALCULATIONS:
h – h0
H = ---------- , m = ---------------------- m
100
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Q = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
t

NOMENCLATURE:

Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for rectangular notch and triangular notch.
H = Water head over crest, m
h = Liquid level flow at particular height, cm
h0 = Crest height, cm
L = Width of the rectangular notch in meter, m
Q = Actual Discharge, m3/s
R = Rise of water level in measuring tank, cm
t = Time taken for R, sec
θ = Angle of V-notch, Radian.
2. Never switch ON main power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF swiches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Never fully close the delivery valve and by-pass valve at a time.
4. If apparatus is not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.
TROUBLESHOOTING:

Experiment No. 5
TITLE
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT: LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
OBJECTIVES
a) To study different flow conditions.

b) To obtain the Reynolds number in different flow conditions.
INTRODUCTION:
Depending upon the relative magnitudes of viscous and inertial forces, flow can occur in
two different manner viz., Laminar flow and turbulent flow. In laminar flow viscous
effect are more predominant than the inertial effects. But when shear and nominal
stresses are added with the increase in velocity of flow the flow is turbulent. To identify
the laminar and turbulent ranges of flow a dimensionless parameter is being utilized
which is a measure of the relative importance of inertial force and viscous force
prevailing in the flow of a fluid, which is known as Reynolds number. It is equal to the
ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force per unit volume. This mean that a large
value of Reynolds’s number signifies less viscous effects and vice versa. To determine
the different flow conditions, equipment first used by Professor Osborne Reynolds after
whose name Reynolds’s number (Re) exists.
The motion is laminar or turbulent according as the value of Re is less than or greater
than a certain value. If a liquid such as water is allowed to flow through a glass tubes, and
if one of the liquid filament is made visible by means of dye, then by watching this
filament we may get insight into the actual behavior of the liquid as it moves along. After
the water in the supply tank has stood for several hours to allow it to come completely to
rest. The outlet valve is slightly opened. The central thread of the dye carried along by the
slow stream of water in the glass tube is seen to be nearly as steady and well defined as
the indicating column in an alcohol thermometer. But when, as a result of further opening
of the valve, the water velocity passes a specific limit, a change occurs, the rigid thread of
dye begins to break up and to group momentarily ill-defined. The moment the dye
deviates from its straight line pattern corresponds to the condition when the flow in the
conduit is no longer in laminar conditions. The
discharge, Q flowing in the conduit at this moment is measured and the Reynolds
number =
(in which d is the diameter of the conduit and v is the kinematics viscosity of water) is
computed. This is the lower critical Reynolds number. Finally, at large velocities the dye
mixes completely with the water and the colored mixture fills the tube.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:
Apparatus consist of storage cum supply tank, which has the provision for supplying
coloured dye through jet. A Perspex tube is provided to visualize the different flow
condition. The entry of water in Perspex tube is through elliptical bell mouth to have
smooth flow at the entry. A regulating valve is provided on the downstream side of the
tube to regulate the flow. The discharge must be varied very gradually from a smaller to
larger value. A collecting tank is used to find the actual discharge through the Perspex
tube.
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTAL WORK:
Step 1: Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter of Perspex tube, Area of the
collecting tank, room temperature etc.
Step 2: By maintaining suitable amount of steady flow in the Perspex tube, open inlet of
the dye tank so that the dye stream moves as a straight line in the tube.
Step 3: The discharge flowing in the Perspex tube is recorded.
Step 4: This procedure is repeated for other values of discharge.
Step 5: By increasing the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube, again open the inlet of the
dye tank so that the dye stream begins to break up in the tube, which shows the fluid is no
more in the laminar conditions. Hence transition stage occurs.
Step 8: On further increase in the velocity of flow in the Perspex tube, again open the
inlet of dye tank so that the dye mixes completely in the tube which shows fluid is no
more in the transition stage. Hence turbulent flow occurs in the tube.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Inner diameter of conduit, d, mm = 25
Room temperature, θ , 0C =
Kinematics viscosity of water, v, cm2 / sec =
Area of collecting tank, cm2 =
S No. Discharge Measurement

Initial Final Time taken Discharge
(cm) (cm) (sec) Q (cm3 / sec)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Calculate the discharge in different flow conditions.
Also calculate the Reynolds number for different flow conditions.
Experiment No. 6
TITLE
DETERMINATION OF FRICTION FACTOR OF PIPES
OBJECTIVES
To determine the friction factor for Darcy – Weisbach equation.
INTRODUCTION:
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to
which some of the energy of fluid is lost. The loss of energy in the pipelines comes under
major energy losses and minor energy losses. In long pipelines the friction losses are
much larger than the minor losses and hence, the latter are often neglected. The losses
due to friction in the pipelines are known as major energy losses. The friction in the
pipeline due to a viscous drag between the stream bands of fluid. The stream bands of
adjacent to the solid surface are always at rest relative to the wetted surface. The viscous
drag is due to the molecular attractions between the molecules of the fluid.
THEORY:
It is found that the total friction resistance to fluid flow depends on the following:
1. The area of the wetted surface.

2. The density of the fluid.
3. The surface roughness.
4. It is independent of the fluid pressure.
5. It increases with the square of the velocity.
The loss of head in pipe due to friction is calculated from Darcy – Weisbach equation
which has been given by:
f LV2
hf = -------------
2gd
hf = Loss of head due to friction
f = Friction factor
L = Distance between pressure point
V = Mean velocity of fluid

d = Diameter of pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consist of sump tank with centrifugal pump. Two pipes of different
diameter for which common inlet connection is provided with control valve to regulate
the flow, near the down stream end of the pipe. Pressure tapings are taken at suitable
distance apart between which a manometer is provided to study the pressure loss due to
friction. Discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank and stopwatch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
connection.
2. Water supply.
3. Drain required.
5. Mercury (Hg) for manometer (250 gm).
Starting procedure:

4. Close all pressure taps of manometer connected to pipes.
5. Ensure that ON/OFF Switch given on the panel is at OFF position.
6. Switch ON the main power supply.
8. Open flow control valve and by pass valve to regulate the flow of water in the
desired Test Section.
10. Now open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the
air in manometer.
12. Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve.

15. Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control valve
and by-pass valve.
16. .When experiment is over for one desired test section, open the by-pass valve
fully. Then close the flow control valve of running test section and open the
control valve of secondly desired test section.
17. Repeat same procedure for other test section.
Closing Procedure:

2. Switch OFF pump.
4. Drain the tanks with the help of drain valves provided.
DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
d = 0.022 m (For pipe ¾”)
= 0.016 m (For pipe ½”)
L = 1.25 m (for ¾” pipe)
= 1m (for ½” pipe)
OBSERVATION:
Test pipe = ----------------------- (3/4” / 1/2")
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1.
2.
3.
CALCULATIONS:
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100

A x R
Q = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
t
π
a = ----- d2, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
Q
V = ----- , m/sec = ---------------------- m/sec
a
h1 – h2
h = ---------- , m = ---------------------- m
100
ρm
hf = h (------ - 1 ) , m = ---------------------- m
ρw
2hf gd
f = ----------- = --------------------
LV2
NOMENCLATURE:

a = Cross-sectional area of pipe, m2
d = Inside diameter of pipe, m
f = Friction factor
g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
h1 , h2 = Manometer reading at both points, cm
hf = Head losses, m of water
L = Distance between pressure tapings, m
Q = Discharge, m3/sec
V = Velocity of fluid, m/sec
ρm = Density of manometer fluid (Hg), Kg/m3

2. Never fully close the Delivery valve and by-pass valve at a time.
3. To prevent clogging of moving parts, Run Pump at least once in a fortnight.
4. Always use clean water.
5. If apparatus is not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus
completely.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
2. If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes, avoid closing
the flow control valve and by-pass valve simultaneously, during operation.

Experiment No. 7
TITLE
DETERMINATION OF LOSS COEFFICIENTS OF PIPES FITTINGS
OBJECTIVE:
a) To study the losses of head due to various fittings in pipelines.

b) To determine the loss of head in the fittings at the various water flow rates.
c) To determine the loss co-efficient for the pipe fittings.
INTRODUCTION:
Loss of head due to change in cross-section, bends, elbows, valves and fittings of all
types fall into the category of minor losses in pipe lines. In long pipe lines the friction
losses are much larger than these minor losses and hence the latter are often neglected.
But, in shorter pipe lines their consideration is necessary for the correct estimate of
losses.
THEORY:
When there is any type of bend in pipe, the velocity of flow changes, due to which the
separation of the flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies, takes place. Thus
the energy is lost. The losses of head due to fittings in pipe:
V2
hL = KL ------
2g
The minor losses in contraction can be expressed as:
V12
hL = KL ------
2g
The minor losses in enlargement can be expressed as:
(V1 – V2)2
hL = KL --------------
2g
Where
hL = Minor loss or head loss

KL = Loss coefficient
V = Velocity of fluid
V1 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of small Diameter
V2 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of large Diameter
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consist of two pipes with different fittings. Bend, sudden expansion,
sudden contraction and elbow are provided at pipe 1. Ball valve and gate valve are
provided at pipe 2. Pressure tapings are provided at inlet and outlet of these fittings at
suitable distance. A differential manometer fitted in the line gives head loss due to
fittings. Supply to the pipe line is made through centrifugal pump, which deliver water
from sump tank. The flow of water in pipes can be regulated by the valve provided at the
end for pipe 1 and gate valve fitting for pipe 2. Discharge is measured with the help of
measuring tank and stop watch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
1. Electricity Supply: Single phase, 220V AC, 50 Hz, 0.5 kW with earth connection.
2. Water supply.
3. Drain required.
4. Floor Area Required: 1.5 m x 0.75 m
5. Mercury (Hg) for manometer (250 gm).
Starting procedure:

3. Fill manometer with mercury up to half of its level by opening the PU pipe from
the fitting connected to the bottom most point of the manometer and connect the
pipe back to its position.
6. Switch ON the main power supply.
8. Open flow control valve of pipe 1 for bend, sudden enlargement, sudden
contraction and elbow fitting or ball valve and gate valve fitting.
10. Now open the air release valve provided on the manometer, slowly to release the
air in manometer.

12. Adjust water flow rate in desired section with the help of control valve and by-
pass valve.
15. Repeat same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating control valve
and by-pass valve.
16. Repeat the experiment for other fittings of selected pipe.
17. When experiment is over for selected pipe, open the by-pass valve fully. Then
close the flow control valve of pipe and open the control valve of other pipe.
18. Repeat same procedure for selected test section and so on.
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over, close the pressure taps of manometer.

2. Switch OFF pump.
DATA:
A = 0.077m2
g = 9.81 m/sec2
d1 = 0.016 m
d2 = 0.028 m
ρm = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 Kg/ m3
OBSERVATION:
Test Fitting = ------------------------ (Bend, Sudden enlargement, Sudden contraction,

elbow, Ball valve or Gate valve)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS:
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Q = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
T
π
a1 = ----- d12, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
π
a2 = ----- d22, m2 = ---------------------- m2
4
Q
V1 = ----- , m/sec = ---------------------- m/sec
a1
Q
V2 = ----- , m/sec = ---------------------- m/sec
A2
h1 – h2
h = ---------- , m = ---------------------- m
100
ρm
hL = h (------ - 1 ) , m = ---------------------- m
ρw
2ghL
KL = ----------- = -------------------- (For Sudden contraction, Bend, Elbow,
V12 Ball valve or Gate valve)
2ghL
KL = --------------- = -------------------- (For sudden enlargement)
(V1 – V2)2
NOMENCLATURE:

a1 = Cross-sectional area of small diameter pipe, m2

a2 = Cross-sectional area of large diameter pipe, m2
d1 = Small diameter of pipe, m

d2 = Large diameter of pipe, m
h1 , h2 = Manometer reading
KL = Loss coefficient
V1 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of Small Diameter, m/sec
V2 = Velocity of fluid in pipe of Large Diameter, m/sec
ρm = Density of manometer fluid (Hg), Kg/m3
1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
2. Never fully close the flow control valves and by-pass valve simultaneously.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
2. If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes, avoid closing
the flow control valve and by-pass valve simultaneously, during operation.

Experiment No. 8
TITLE
DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT
OBJECTIVE
To determine experimentally the metacentric height of a flat bottomed pontoon.
AIM
To determine average metacentric height of a flat bottomed pontoon.

THEORY
A body floating in a fluid is subjected to the t following system of forces.
1. The downward force of gravity acting on each particle that goes to make up
the weight of body, wc acting through centre of gravity G.
2. The upward buoyant force of the fluid acting on the various elements of the
submerged surface of the floating body FB, acting through centre of buoyancy
B.
For a body to be in equilibrium on the liquid surface, the two forces Wc and FB must
lie in the same vertical line ie, these two forces must be collinear, equal and opposite.
Wc
M
C C
B
B

When the vessel has been titled through an angle ӨӨ the centre of gravity C of the body
G is usually remains unchanged in its position, B ie, centre of buoyancy will generally
change its position, thus Wc and Fa forms a couple, The line of action of FB in the new
position cuts the axis of the body at M, which is called the metacentric height. The
metacentric height is a measure of the static stability of the floating bodies.
The metacentric height can be obtained by equating righting couple and applied
moment.
Wm × Xd
(Wc + Wm)tanӨ
Here, Wc is the weight of vessel, Wm the weight of unbalanced mass causing moment
on the body, Xd is the distance of the un balanced mass from the centre of the cross bar.
EXPERMENTAL SET UP:
The experimental set up consists of a pontoon (flat bottomed vessel), which is

allowed to float in a MS tank having a transparent side, Removable steel strips are placed
in the model for the purpose of changing the weight of the vessel. By means of a
pendulum (consisting of a weight suspended to a long pointer) , the angle of tilt Ө can be
measured on a graduated arc. For titling the ship model a cross bar with two movable
hangers is fixed on the model. Pendulum and graduated arc are suitably fixed at the
centre of the cross bar.

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTAL WORKING STEPS:
1. Note down the relevant dimensions as area of collecting tank, mass density of
water etc.
2. Note down the water level in the tank when pontoon is not in the tank.
3. Pontoon is allowed to float in the tank. Note down the reading of water level in
the tank. Mass of pontoon can be obtained by the help of Archimedie’s
principle.
4. Position of unbalanced mass, weight of unbalanced mass and the angle of heel
can be noted down. Calculated the metacentric height of the pontoon.
5. The procedure is repeated for other positions and valve of unbalanced mass.
6. Also the above procedure is repeated while changing the weight of the
pontoon by changing the number of the strips in the pontoon.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS:
1. Fill up the data sheet.

2. Find the metacentric height of the flat bottomed vessel.
SAMPLE DTA SHEET:
Area of tank =
Water level (without pontoon) =
Unit weight of water level =
metacentric Average
Mass of Distance height (cm)
Reading of
S. the unbalanced Angle of Wm Xd
tank with
No pontoon mass Wm of heel unbalance (Wc + Wm)tanӨ
pontoon(Y2
. Wc = gm Ө d mass Xd
cm)
(Y2- Y1) (cm)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Apparatus should be in leveled condition.
2. Reading must be taken in steady condition of water.
3. Unbalanced mass should be measured by taking care that water disturbance

should be minimum.

Experiment No. 9
TITLE
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
OBJECTIVE
To verify Bernoulli’s equation experimentally
AIM
To calculate the total energy at different points
To plot the graph between the total energy vs distance
INTRODUCTION
Bernoulli’s theorem states that when there is a continuous connection between particles
of flowing mass of liquid, the total energy at any section of flow will remain the same
provided there is no reduction or addition of energy at any point.
THEORY
This is the energy equation and is based on the law of conservation of energy. This
equation states that at two sections of flow field the total energy remains the same,
provided there is no loss or gain of energy between the two sections. This equation is
valid only for steady flow. This equation is expressed as:
DESCRIPTION
The present experimental set up for Bernoulli’s theorem is self contained recirculating
unit. The set up accompanies the sump tank, constant head tank, centrifugal pump for
water re-circulation, measuring tank etc. Control valve and by-pass valves are provided to
regulate the flow of water in constant head tank. A conduit, made of Perspex, of varying
cross section is provided, which is having converging and diverging section. Piezometer
tubes are fitted on this test section at specified points. The inlet of the conduit is
connected to constant head tank. Discharge through test section can be measured with the
help of measuring tank and stop watch.

UTILITES REQUIRED
connection.
2. Water supply( initial fill)
3. Drain required
4. Floor area required: 1.5m × 0.75m.
Starting procedure:
2. Close all the valves.
3. Fill sump tank with water.
4. Open by-pass valve given on the water supply line.
5. Switch ON the main power supply and switch ON the pump.
6. Partially close the by-pass valve to allow water to fill in overhead tank.
7. Wait until overflow occurs from overhead tank.
8. Regulate flow of water through test section with the help of valve provided at the
end of test section.
9. Ensure that overflow still occurs; if not partially close the by-pass valve to do so.
10. Measure pressure head by piezometer tubes.
12. Repeat same procedure (8) to (11) for different flow rates of water, operating
control valve.
Closing procedure:
1. When experiment is over switch off the pump.
OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS

DATA:
g= 9.81m/s2
A=0.077m2
Sl. No. of test points d, mm a, m2 S, m

1 28.0 0.04(S1)
2 23.5 0.0785(S2)
3 18.5 0.092(S3)
4 14.0 0.1105(S4)
5 18.5 0.13585(Ss)
6 23.5 0.1562(S6)
7 28.0 0.19155(S7)

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. R1 , R2 , T, sec Piezometric tube reading, cm

No. cm cm
1 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
2
3
CALCULATIONS:
R1 – R2
R = -----------, m = -------------- m
100
A x R
Q = ---------- , m3/sec = ----------------- m3/sec
t

Plot the graph E (E1 to E7) vs S(S1 to S7)
NOMENCLATURE:

a = Cross-sectional area at test point (a1 to a7), m2
d = Diameter at test point (d1 to d7), m
E = Total energy at particular point (E1 to E7), m
h = Piezometric tube reading at particular point (h1 to h7), m
= Pressure head at a particular point, m

S = Distance of a particular point from reference (S1 to S7), m
= Kinetic head at a particular point, m
ρ = Density of fluid, kg/m3

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
2. If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes
3. Always use clean water.
5. Drain the apparatus completely after experimentation.

Experiment No. 10
TITLE
DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF PRESSURE
OBJECTIVE
To determine the centre of pressure of vertical water submerged surface.
AIM
1. Measurement of the static thrust on vertical water submerged surface.
2. Determination of the center of pressure of vertical water submerged surface.
THEORY
The magnitude of the total hydrostatic pressure force F will be given by
F
Where p is mass density of fluid, g is acceleration due to gravity, is depth to centroid of

submerged surface and A is the area of submerged surface.

This force will act through the center of pressure CP at distance Xp (measured along the
plane of the rectangular surface) from the point from the point O, where O is the
intersection of the plane of the water surface and the plane of rectangular surface.
Theoretical determination of Xp:
= +
Also, =
Where is distance from O to the centroid CG of the submerged surface, ICG is second
moment of area of the submerged surface, about the horizontal axis through CG and Ө is
angle of rectangular surface with water surface.
If rectangular plane is vertical i.e. is 00, then

=
and = +
Experimental determination of Xp:

For equilibrium of the quadra, taking moment about the pivot p gives
F.Y. =M.g.s.
Were, Y is distance form pivot to centre of pressure, M is balancing mass added to
hanger and s is distance form pivot to hanger.
Mgs
Y=
F
h1
But Y = Xp + r ̶
cos Ө
h1
or Xp = Y ̶ r ̶
cos Ө
Were, r is the distance from pivot to top of rectangular surface, h1 is depth to water
surface from top of rectangular surface and Ө is angle of inclination of rectangular
surface with water surface. If = Ө0 then
Xp = Y + h1 –r
APPARATUS
The apparatus consist of an accurately formed counterbalanced Quadra model pivoted on
tank edges at centre of its arc. This assemble is mounted on top of a Perspex reservoir.
The model is supported on a précised weighing beam arranged over a reservoir so that the
thrust on the specimen end face can be balanced by direct weighing technique. The water
level, which may be varied, is determined by the use of a scale on the model.

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Step1: the apparatus is correctly leveled.
Step2: the length 1 and width b of the rectangular surface, the distance r from the pivot to
the top of the surface, and the distance s from the hanger to the pivot are recorded.
Step3: the rectangular surface is clamped with the face vertical i. Step4: fill the water in
the reservoir.
Step5: As the Quadra gets submerged in the water a force is exerted on the rectangular
surface which causes the tilting of the Quadra. The Quadra can be balanced again by
applying weights on the hanger.
Step6: the above procedure is repeated for various combinations of depth.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
1. Fill up the data sheet.

2. Note down the values of h1 h2 & mass M.
3. Find the total hydrostatic force and the center of pressure of vertical water submerged
surface.
SAMPLE DATD SHEET

Vertical dimension of Quadra, 1 (cm) =
Horizontal dimension of Quadra, b (cm) =
Distance of top Quadra, from pivot, r (cm) =
Distance of hanger from pivot, s (cm) =
Mass density of water (gm/cm3) =
Area of rectangular surface, A cm2 =
bl3
Moment of inertia of rectangular surface I =
12
S.No.
h1 (cm)
h2 ( cm)
=( h1+ h2)/2 cm
F
(dyne)

= + (cm)
M (gm)
Y = M g s/F (cm)
Xp(Exp.) = (cm)
Y + h1-r
APPENDIX-1
Critical data of experiment
Vertical dimension of Quadra, 1 (cm) = 10.0
Horizontal dimension of Quadra, b (cm) = 10.0
Distance of top Quadra, from pivot, r (cm) = 10.6
Distance of hanger from pivot, s (cm) = 30.0
Mass density of water, p (gm/cm3) = 1.0
Area of rectangular surface, A cm2 = 100
bl3
Moment of inertia of rectangular surface I = =833.3 cm4
12
PRECAUTIONS
1. Apparatus should be correctly leveled.
2. Water level should be constant.
3. Take a number of readings to obtain accurate.
4. All the readings should be taken carefully during the experiment to reduce error.

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Laboratory Manual

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 1

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

To measure discharge through Venturimeter and determine co-efficient of discharge

If a constriction is placed in a closed channel carrying a stream of fluid, there will be

A Venturimeter consists of;

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 3

1. Close all the valves provided.

1. When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4

S. No. h1, cm h2, cm R1, cm R2, cm t, sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 5

A = Area of measuring tank, m2

PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6

To measure discharge through Orificemeter and determine co-efficient of discharge

If a constriction is placed in a closed channel carrying a stream of fluid, there will be

1. Close all the valves provided.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7

1. When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8

S. No. h1, cm h2, cm R1, cm R2, cm t, sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 9

A = Area of measuring tank, m2

PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10

If a constriction is placed in a closed channel carrying a stream of fluid, there will be

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 11

1. Close all the valves provided.

1. When experiment is over, close all manometers pressure taps first.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

S. No. Qt, LPH R1, cm R2, cm t, sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 12

Error = ( Qt – Qa), LPH = ------------------ LPH

A = Area of measuring tank, m2

PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 13

To determine the co-efficient of discharge Cd of different notches:

DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH:

DISCHARGE OVER TRIANGULAR NOTCH:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 14

1. Close all the valves provided.

1. When experiment is over, switch OFF pump.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 15

θ = 450, 600 = 0.7854, 1.0472 radian

Test notch = -----------------------

S. No. h, cm R1, cm R2, cm t, sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 16

A = Area of measuring tank, m2

PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 17

a) To study different flow conditions.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 18

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTAL WORK:

S No. Discharge Measurement

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: