Module-1

Overview of power generation

1. A) List the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plant.

Advantages:

• Space needed for operating a nuclear power plant is less as compared to other
conventional power plants for production of same amount of energy.
• Nuclear power plants are not effected by the unfavorable weather conditions.
• Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large demands of power requirement.
They give better performance at higher load factors of 80 to 90%.
• Materials expenditure on metal structures, piping, storage mechanisms is much lower
compared to a coal-burning power plant.
• It does not need large quantity of water.

Disadvantages:

• Initial cost to set up nuclear power plant is higher as compared to hydro or

steam power plant.
• Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying load conditions.
• Maintenance cost of the nuclear power plant is high.
• Trained people are required to handle nuclear power plants.

1.b) Explain about the cogeneration with neat diagram.

• Cogeneration is also called as combined heat and power. As it name

indicates cogeneration works on concept of producing two different form
of energy by using one single source of fuel.

• Out of these two forms one must be heat or thermal energy and other
one is either electrical or mechanical energy.

• Cogeneration is the most optimum, reliable, clean and efficient way of

utilizing fuel.

• The fuel used may be natural gas, oil, diesel, propane, wood, bassage,
coal etc.
• It works on very simple principle i.e the fuel is used to generate
electricity and this electricity produces heat and this heat is used to boil
water to produce steam, for space heating and even in cooling
buildings.

• In conventional power plant, the fuel is burnt in a boiler, which in turn

produces high pressure steam.

• This high pressure steam is used to drive a tribune, which is in turn is

connected to an alternator and hence drive an alternator to produce
electric energy.

• The exhaust steam is then sent to the condenser, where it gets cool
down and gets converted to water and hence return back to boiler for
producing more electrical energy.

• The efficiency of this conventional power plant is 35 % only.

• In cogeneration plant the low pressure steam coming from turbine is

not condense to form water, instead of it its used for heating or cooling
in building and factories, as this low pressure steam from turbine has
high thermal energy.

• The cogeneration plant has high efficiency of around 80 – 90%.

• In India, the potential of power generation from cogeneration plant is

more than 20,000 MW.

• The first commercial cogeneration plant was built and designed by

Thomas Edison in New York in year 1882.
1. c) Discuss the important factors for the selection of site for thermal
power plant.

Availability of coal:

• A thermal plant of 400M, capacity requires nearly 6000 tons of coal

every day.

• Power plant should be located near coal mines.

Ash Disposal Facilities:

• Ash comes out in hot condition and handling is difficult.

The ash can is disposed into sea or river.

Water Availability:

• Water consumption is more as feed water into boiler, condenser and

for ash disposal.

• Water is required for drinking purpose.

• Hence plant should be located near water source.

Transport Facility:

Public Problems:

• The plant should be far away from residential area to avoid nuisance
from smoke, fly ash and noise.

Nature of Land:

• Many power plants have failed due to weak foundations.

 • Land (soil) should have good bearing capacity to withstand dead load of
plant.

2. a) Classify the mechanical and electrical instruments in power

plant.

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS:

1. Temperature Measurement:
• Thermocouples (J,K,R,S,E etc Types) , RTD (pt100,pt1 000,jpt500 etc), Liquid
filled thermometer,Gas filled bulb & tube thermometer,Vap pressure
thermometer, Pyrometer (optical,radiation).
2. Pressure Measurement:
• C-type bourdon pressure gauge (spiral, helical, twisted), Bellows, diaphragm
gauges, vacuum gauges, manometer, draft gauges etc.
3. Flow Measurement:
• steam flow meter(flow nozzles,pitot tube etc), water flow meter & air flow
Meter (orifice,venturi,rotameter,hot wire anemometer), atomised steam
meter.
4. Fuel Measurement:
• coal measurement(belt speed with load/min-load cell & tachometer), Gas
meter(gas meter, positive displacement type disk-mutating),Oil Meter
(rotameter,nutating disk,etc)
5. Level Measurement:
• boiler drum(hydra step,bubbler methode-clode vessel etc),bunker level &
Ash(RF Type etc), hotwell,condenser,LP/HP
Heater,Deareatoretc(Capacitive,hydrostatic,sight glass etc).
6. Speed Measurement:

• Turbine speed (stroboscope), motor speed,belt speed-

tachometer,magnetic pick-ups etc. 7. Gas Analysis- CO+H20, SOX-
NOX, 02, CO2, calorific value of fuels measurement.
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT:

1. Current Measurement:
• Ammeter (generator load, feeder circuits, aux power, field circuit etc).
2. Voltage Measurement:
 • Voltmeter (generating & transmitting voltage,feeding voltage,motors
voltages,etc).
3. Energy Measurement
• Wattmeter (Power generate, feeder powers).
4. Other Meters
• Power factor, synchroscope, frequency, reactive power meter etc.
•

2.b) Compare the various conventional methods of power generation.

On the basis of this form of energy conversion, power plants are broadly classified
as follows:

• Thermal Power Station (Steam power plant)

• Hydroelectric Power Station
• Nuclear Power Station
• Thermal Power Station

Principle of operation: It works on Modified Rankine Cycle.

• Location: It is located at a site where coal, water and transportation facilities

are available easily. It is located near load centre’s.
• Requirement of Space: Need a large space due to coal storage, turbine,
boiler and other auxiliaries.
• Efficiency: Overall efficiency is least compared to other plants. (30%-32%
• Fuel Used: Coal (mostly) or oil.
• Availability of Fuel: Coal reserves are present all over the world. However,
coal is non-renewable and limited.

• Cost of Fuel: High. Coal is heavy and has to be transported to the plant.
• Initial Cost of Plant: Lower than Hydroelectric and Nuclear power plants.
• Running Costs: Higher than Hydroelectric and Nuclear power plants.
• Maintenance Costs: High. Skilled engineers and staff are needed.
• Transmission and Distribution Cost: Low. It is usually located near load
centres.
• Start-up Power: About 10% of unit capacity.
 • Starting time: Large
• Standby Losses: More than hydroelectric and nuclear power plants. Boiler
flame has to be kept burning, so some amount of coal is used constantly,
even when the turbine is not in operation.
• Cleanliness: Less clean. Smoke and ash are produced.

• Environmental Considerations: Air pollution occurs and leads to acid rain.

Greenhouse gases are also produced.
• Lifetime: 30 - 40 years.
Hydroelectric Power Plant
• Principle of operation: Potential energy of water is converted to Kinetic
energy and used to rotate a turbine.
• Location: Located where a large amount of water can be collected easily in a
reservoir by constructing a dam. Usually in a hilly area at high altitude.
•
• Requirement of Space: Very large space required. A dam is huge.
• Efficiency: As high as 85% to 90%
• Fuel Used: Water
• Availability of Fuel: Availability of water is unreliable because it depends on
the weather (rainfall.)
• Cost of Fuel: Water is free.
• Initial Cost of Plant: Very high. Construction of a dam and reservoir is
expensive.
• Running Costs: Zero, because no fuel is needed.
• Maintenance Costs: Low.
• Transmission and Distribution Cost: High. It is located in remote areas, away
from load centres.
• Start-up Power: 0.5% to 1% of unit capacity.
• Starting time: Low. Can be started instantly.
• Standby Losses: None.
• Cleanliness: Clean.
• Environmental Considerations: Affects marine life. People in the region have
to be relocated.
• Lifetime: Large (50 to 100 years.)
Nuclear Power Plant
• Principle of operation: Thermonuclear fission.
• Location: Located away from heavily populated areas.
 • Requirement of Space: Requires minimum space compared to other
plants of the same capacity.
• Efficiency: Higher than Thermal Power Station. About 55%
• Fuel Used: Uranium (U235) and other radioactive metals.
• Availability of Fuel: Deposits of nuclear fuel are present all over the
world. Also, uranium can be extracted from sea water, but it’s a
complicated and complex process.
• Cost of Fuel: Fuel (uranium) itself isn’t too costly. However, if enriched
uranium is used, then the cost of fuel increases considerably. A small
amount of fuel is used, so transportation costs are less.
• Initial Cost of Plant: Highest. A nuclear reactor is complex and
requires the most skilled engineers.
• Running Costs: Small amount of fuel used, so running cost is low.
• Maintenance Costs: Very high. Skilled personnel are needed.
• Transmission and Distribution Cost: Quite low. Such plants can be
located near the load centres.
• Start-up Power: 7% to 10% of unit capacity.
• Starting time: Less than TPS. Can be started easily.
• Standby Losses: Less.
• Cleanliness: Radioactive waste is produced. Less clean than HPS.
• Environmental Considerations: Disposal of radioactive wastes may
affect the environment, especially if it is buried underground.
Underwater contamination may occur.
• Lifetime: 40-60 years.

2. C) Identify the four significant need of instrumentation in power

generation.

• Process control instrumentation ensures consistency.

• Process control instrumentation improves quality.
• There’s opportunity for additional business.
• It reduces labour costs

3(a) Explain the topping and bottoming cycle operation of

cogeneration system?

✓ Types of Cogeneration
 • There are two main kinds of cogeneration cycle: a topping cycle and a
bottoming cycle.

✓Topping cycle:
• The topping cycle really is the only economic cycle of the two. The main
heat source generates high-enthalpy steam and electricity. Low-enthalpy
steam is taken from an intermediate turbine stage or the turbine exhaust
for process requirements. If the steam is taken from the turbine exhaust,
this is called a back-pressure turbine.
• The range of pressures for process steam varies and generally is on the
order of 0.5 bars to 40 bar.
The common subdivisions for types of topping cycle plant are
• •Steam electric plant with steam extraction from a condensing turbine
(note Figure 3–15).
• •Steam electric power plant with a back-pressure turbine.
• •Gas turbine power plant with waste heat recovery and a steam generator
(boiler).
• •Combined-cycle gas turbine plus steam turbine plant (steam turbine can
be back-pressure or condensing type).

✓ Bottoming cycle:
• The bottoming cycle is not very efficient. High-enthalpy heat is used
directly for process needs (e.g., cement manufacture), and low-enthalpy
waste heat is used to generate electricity.
• The bottoming cycle can provide a solution for the reverse situation to that
where the heat pump is attractive. That is when no low level heat
requirement exists and large amounts of heat are rejected at a relatively
low level (but still above 100°C). An example of how a bottoming cycle can
fit into an existing system Is shown in Figure 3. In this example a naphtha
fractionator receives hot feed directly from an upstream fractionator and
no heat can be recovered from the bottoms stream which has a flow rate of
28,000 BPSD.
• A light hydrocarbon is vaporized to recover power from this heat source.
The costs of a skid mounted, add on system, and of this size are about 2
million dollars. The size of these units will often be quite small, so the
power generated can usually be utilized within the facility.
 • This fact, coupled with increasingly favourable economics, suggest that
there will be wide application of small scale bottoming cycles in the
processing Industry. For this reason UOP offers skid mounted bottoming
cycle systems as part of our energy upgrading services.

3(b) List the function of a draft tube?

✓ In hydraulic turbines, the component draft tube is very significant. In
impulse turbines, the flow energy of the fluid is converted to kinetic energy by
means of the nozzle. In Reaction Turbines, part of the flow energy is converted to
K.E but remaining energy is still the pressure energy. Draft tubes are used in
Reaction turbines to convert K.E into useful pressure energy.
• Elbow with varying cross section
• Moody Spreading Draft Tube.
• Conical Diffuser or Divergent Draft Tube

3(c) Compared to Other conventional power plants?

✓ Advantages:
• Space needed for operating a nuclear power plant is less as compared to
other conventional power plants for production of the same amount of
energy.
• A nuclear power plant consumes very small quantity of fuel. Thus fuel
transportation cost is less and large fuel storage facilities are not required.
Further the nuclear power plants will conserve the fossil fuels such as coal,
oil, gas etc. for other energy need.
• There is increased reliability of operation.
• Nuclear power plants are not effected by the unfavorable weather
conditions.
• Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large demands of power
requirement. They give better performance at higher load factors of 80 to
90%.
• Materials expenditure on metal structures, piping, storage mechanisms is
much lower compared to a coal-burning power plant.
• It does not need large quantity of water.

✓ Disadvantages:
 • Initial cost to set up a nuclear power plant is higher as compared to hydro
or steam power plant.
• Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying load conditions.
• Radioactive wastes if not disposed carefully may have an effect on the
health of operators and the population nearby. In a nuclear power plant
the major problem faced is the disposal of highly radioactive waste in form
of solid, liquid and gas without any injury to the atmosphere. The
preservation of radioactive waste for a long duration of time creates many
difficulties.
• Maintenance cost of the nuclear power plant is high.
• Trained people are required to handle nuclear power plants.

4(a) Draw the overall layout of thermal power plant and

present the four?
 A major cycle of operation involved. Almost two thirds of electricity
requirements of the world are fulfilled by thermal power plants (or thermal
power stations).
 In these power stations, steam is produced by burning some fossil fuel (e.g.
coal) and then used to run a steam turbine.
 Thus, a thermal power station may sometimes call a Steam Power Station.
After the steam passes through the steam turbine, it is condensed in a
condenser and again fed back into the boiler to become steam. This is
known as ranking cycle.
 This article explains how electricity is generated in thermal power plants.
 As the majority of thermal power plants use coal as their primary fuel, this
article is focused on a coal fired thermal power plant.
Working Of a Thermal Power Plant:
Coal:

✓ In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the
generating station. Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The
coal is stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally
40 days backup coal storage which is used when coal supply is unavailable. Live
storage is a raw coal bunker in boiler house. The coal is cleaned in a magnetic
cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are present which may cause wear and
tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles
and then taken into pulveriser to make it in powdered form. Fine powdered coal
undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves efficiency of
the boiler. The ash produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the
boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic removal of ash from the
boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.
Boiler:

✓ the mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler
and then burnt in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is
formed at the centre of the boiler and large amount of heat energy is radiated
from it. The heat energy is utilized to convert the water into steam at high
temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the boiler walls in which water is
converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their way through
superheater, economizer, and air preheater and finally get exhausted to the
atmosphere from the chimney.
Superheater:

✓ The tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The saturated steam
produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in the superheater.
The superheated high pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
Economizer:

✓ an economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water before
supplying to the boiler.
Air preheater:

✓ the primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed in the
air pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of
pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
Steam turbine:

✓ High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes
turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy
in the steam turbinewhich acts as the prime mover. The pressure and
temperature of the steam falls to a lower value and it expands in volume as it
passes through the turbine. The expanded low pressure steam is exhausted in the
condenser.
Condenser:

✓ The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water

circulation. Here, the steam loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is
converted back into the water. Condensing is essential because, compressing a
fluid which is in a gaseous state requires a huge amount of energy with respect to
the energy required in compressing liquid. Thus, condensing increases efficiency
of the cycle.
Alternator:

✓ The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then
stepped up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be
utilized.
Feed water pump:

✓ The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump. Some
water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external
water source.
This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical
components. A practical thermal plant possesses more complicated design and
multiple stages of turbine such as High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate
Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT).

✓Advantages:
• Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
• It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
• The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
• The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.

✓Disadvantages:
• It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of
smoke. This is one of the causes of global warming.
• The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

4(b) Identify the parameter, which depends on the process output

from a hydroelectric power plant?
Power output of a hydro plant primarily depends upon the following factors...

• ✓ Available head
• ✓ Discharge
• ✓ Efficiency

4(c) Describe about solar cells?

Symbol of a Photovoltaic cell.
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect,
which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light.
Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules, otherwise known
as solar panels. In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.
Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source
is sunlight or an artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can be used
as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other
electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
• The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:
• The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.
• The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
• The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the
purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat.
A "photo electrolytic cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers
to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and
modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water directly into
hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

5)a. Discuss the importance of instrumentation and control in power

plants?
  Instrumentation and control systems play an important role in nuclear
power plant up rating projects.
 Significant changes to the plant control, protection or monitoring systems
will necessitate corresponding changes to the Human-System Interface in
the Main Control Room and possibly in other control centres.

5) b. Describe the working of once through boiler?

Explain and working:

The once through boiler works on the principle of critical point of water. In
Rankine cycle, as the pressure increases the saturation temperature equivalent to
that pressure also increases. At the pressure of 22.06 MPa and 373.946oC, the
water gets directly converted in to steam. Thus, as we go on increasing the
pressure, the amount of latent heat required reduces and at critical point, there is
no latent heat required as the water directly evaporates into steam. The once
through boilers work on the pressure above the critical point pressure of water
and thus are also called as “supercritical boilers”.

The basic processes that take place in once through boilers are
• 1-2: Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) work.
• 2-2s: Regeneration
• 2s-3: Boiler superheating
• 3-4: High Pressure Turbine (HPT) expansion
• 4-5: Reheating
• 5-6: Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT)
expansion
• 6-1: Condenser heat rejection.
The once through boilers do not have any boiler drum as there will be no
formation of water steam mixture available for separation. Instead of the drum,
these boilers employ separating vessels. The feed water fed to the boiler is
preheated using regeneration to raise the feed water temperature and harness
the heat of the extraction steam. This high pressure water (pressure and
temperature above critical point) then enters the boiler where it directly gets
converted into superheated steam. This superheated steam is then expanded in
the high pressure turbine. After the expansion of the steam in HPT, the steam is
fed back to the boiler for reheating to achieve the desired quality of steam.
The reheated steam is then expanded over the IPT and LPT and the steam then
get converted to condensate. This cycle is repeated.
There are some advantages of once through boilers which are listed below,

• The heat transfer rates are considerably large compared to sub-critical

boilers.
• The pressure level is more stable due to less heat capacity of the generator
and therefore gives better response.
• High thermal efficiency of power stations can be achieved.
• The problems of erosion and corrosion are minimized in once through
boilers as two phased mixtures do not exist.
• The turbo generators connected to super-critical boilers can generate peak
loads by changing the pressure of operation.
• Easy to operate, simple and adaptable to load fluctuations.

5) c. Distinguish between Hydro – Electric and solar methods of power

generation.
• Solar vitality requires maintenance whereas hydro-power is on an
enormous scale nonetheless requires low maintenance to be taken care of.
• Solar vitality has simple arrange whereas hydropower requires large
arrange.
• Solar power sources will be discovered for a single residence to large scale
whereas hydro vitality sources are for big utilization of energy
• Solar vitality Can be operated unmonitored for extended durations of time
whereas hydropower requires appropriate monitoring setup
• Solar vitality is Silent, unobtrusive operation whereas hydropower is
reverse to this case
• Hydropower is not applicable to many areas nonetheless photovoltaic
vitality is acceptable in nearly all circumstances the place the photovoltaic
shines straight
• Hydropower is the additional reliable provide of energy than picture voltaic
energy
• Hydropower is the least expensive provide as compared with photovoltaic
vitality
• Solar Powers are well-known for his or her mobility and flexibility whereas
it is not the case

6) a. Sketch the piping and instrumentation diagram of a boiler

system in power plant and explain the symbols used?
6) b. Describe the working of hydroelectric power plant?
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity.
A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy.
Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical
energy.

Plants range in size from "micro-hydrous" that power only a few homes to
giant dams like Hoover Dam that provide electricity for millions of people.
 The photo on the right shows the Alexander Hydroelectric Plant on the
Wisconsin River, a medium-sized plant that produces enough electricity to serve
about 8,000 people.

Parts of a Hydroelectric Plant

Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four major components (see

graphic below):

Dam. Raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also controls the
flow of water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.

Turbine. The force of falling water pushing against the turbine's blades causes the
turbine to spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill, except the energy is
provided by falling water instead of wind. The turbine converts the kinetic energy
of falling water into mechanical energy.

Generator. Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears so when the
turbine spins it causes the generator to spin also. Converts the mechanical energy
from the turbine into electric energy. Generators in hydropower plants work just
like the generators in other types of power plants.

Transmission lines. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and
business.
6)c. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of wind power plants.
 MODULE -2
MEASUREMENTS IN POWER PLANTS
1(a). Discuss the measurement of drum level control.

A dramatic decrease in this level may uncover boiler tubes, allowing them to
become overheated and damaged. An increase in this level may interfere with the
process of separating moisture from steam within the drum, thus reducing boiler
efficiency and carrying moisture into the process or turbine.
The three main options available for drum level control are
• Single element drum level control
The simplest but least effective form of drum level control.This consists of a
proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the drum level
transmitter. This signal is compared to a setpoint and the difference is a deviation
value.This signal is acted upon by the controller which generates corrective action
in the form of a proportional output. The output is then passed to the boiler
feedwater valve, which then adjusts the level of feedwater flow into the boiler
drum.
2. Two element drum level control
The two-element drum level controller can best be applied to a single drum boiler
where the feedwater is at a constant pressure. The two elements are made up of
the following:
level Element: a proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the
drum level transmitter. This signal is compared to a setpoint and the resultant is a
deviation value. This signal is acted upon by the controller which generates
corrective action in the form of a proportional value.
Flow Element: a mass flow rate signal (corrected for density) is used to control
the feedwater flow, giving immediate corrections to feedwater demand in
response to load changes. Any imbalance between steam mass flow out and
feedwater mass flow into the drum is corrected by the level controller. This
imbalance can arise from
Blowdown variations due to changes in dissolved solids
• Variations in feedwater supply pressure
• Leaks in the steam circuits

Three-element drum level control

The three-element drum level control is ideally suited where a boiler plant
consists of multiple boilers and multiple feedwater pumps or where the
feedwater has variations in pressure or flow. The three-elements are made up of
the following:
Level Element & Steam Flow Element: corrects for unmeasured disturbances
within the system such as

Boiler blowdown
Boiler and superheater tube leaks
Feedwater Flow Element: responds rapidly to variations in feedwater demand,
either from the
Steam flow rate feedforward signal
Feedwater pressure or flow fluctuations
In order to achieve optimum control, both steam and feedwater flow values
should be corrected for density.
1b) Write short notes on measurement of smoke density in power
plants?
 Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases [1]
emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with
the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass.
 It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires (including stoves, candles,
internal combustion engines, oil lamps, and fireplaces), but may also be
used for pest control (fumigation), communication (smoke signals),
defensive and offensive capabilities in the military (smoke screen), cooking,
or smoking (tobacco, cannabis, etc.).
 It is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a
smell for spiritual or magical purposes.
 It can be a flavouring agent and preservative for various foodstuffs.

1c) Describe the measurements of various electrical parameters

in a power plant.
 Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations
used to measure electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical quantities
may be done to measure electrical parameters of a system.
 Using transducers, physical properties such as temperature, pressure, flow,
force, and many others can be converted into electrical signals, which can
then be conveniently measured and recorded.
 High-precision laboratory measurements of electrical quantities are used in
experiments to determine fundamental physical properties such as the
charge of the electron or the speed of light, and in the definition of the
units for electrical measurements, with precision in some cases on the
order of a few parts per million. Less precise measurements are required
every day in industrial practice.
 Electrical measurements are a branch of the science of metrology.
 Measurable independent and semi-independent electrical quantities
comprise,VoltageElectric ,current,Electrical resistance and
electrical reactance and susceptance,Magnetic flux,Electrical charge by the
means of electrometer,Partial discharge measurement Magnetic field by
the means of Hall sensor, Electric fieldElectrical power by the means of
electricity meter’s-matrix by the means of network analyzer
(electrical),Electrical power spectrum by the means of spectrum analyzer.
ohmmeters
An electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance is known as an
ohmmeter. The instrument used to measure small value of resistance is micro-
ohmmeters.

2a) Explain the various radiation detectors used in power plants

Detecting & Measuring Radiation
Radiation has no odour or property that allows it to be seen. However, there are
many types of devices used to measure it. Some devices are qualitative—they
simply tell you that radiation is present but don’t tell you the amount of radiation
present or the amount of exposure you are receiving. Some are quantitative—
they might indicate the rate of radiation exposure, the quantity, or both. Although
there are many types of devices, the basic requirement for measurement is that
the radiation must be able to interact with the detector. If the radiation cannot
get in to the detection chamber because it doesn’t have enough energy or the
chamber wall is too thick, then it won’t get measured. This section will discuss
only those devices commonly used to measure beta- and gamma-emitting
radionuclides.
Local emergency responders will have some of these devices when they respond
to incidents that might involve radioactive material. Your local department of
health will use one or more of these devices to analyze samples taken from
around nuclear power plants to determine if any radioactive materials are being
released. Detectors. The interactions of alpha, beta, and gamma radiations with
matter produce positively charged ions and electrons. Radiation detectors are
devices that measure this ionization and produce an observable output. Early
detectors used photographic plates to detect "tracks" left by nuclear interactions
mainly used instrument
.GQ GMC – 300E – Plus Digital Geiger Counter and Nuclear Radiation Detector
Monitor. ...
6. SOEKS 01M Plus Generation 2 Geiger Counter Radiation Detector Dosimeter. ...
7. GQ GMC – 500+ (Plus) Geiger counter And Nuclear Radiation Detector Monitor
2b) how the airflow, pressure and temperature are monitored in boilers?
Draft is the differential caused by the flow of hot gas through a furnace.
On a vertical petrochemical heater, it is the differential between the furnace inlet
(bottom) and the stack. This differential is caused by the restrictions of the tubes
and the preheater in the bridge wall section before the stack. Draft will increase
as firing rate increases and will decrease as firing rate decreases. It is an
indication of air flow through the burner throats or total gas flow through the
furnace.

Application:
How Is Boiler Air Flow Measured? Boiler air flow (or air flow on a forced or draft
furnace) may be measured with a pitot tube, air foil section, or any calibrated
flow restricting device located in the duct that leads from the forced draft fan to
the wind box. (The windbox is the area behind the burner throats that supplies
combustion air to the burners.) The differential across the windbox to the furnace
can be as high as 25" H2O, but is not used because each time a register is
adjusted, the flow relationship to delta P changes. On many boilers, air flow is the
measured differential between the furnace inlet and the boiler outlet. This takes
the differential of the hot gases as they flow through the furnace, across the
convection section, and out the stack. In most cases, the differential ranges from
0.5 to 2.0 inches of water.

2c) Explain the ringelmann chart with neat sketch.

A chart is a graphical representation of data, in which "the data is represented by
symbols, such as bars in a bar chart, lines in a line chart, or slices in a pie chart".[1]
A chart can represent tabular numeric data, functions or some kinds of qualitative
structure and provides different info.
The term "chart" as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings:
 A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, that organizes and represents a
set of numerical or qualitative data.
 Maps that are adorned with extra information (map surround) for a specific
purpose are often known as charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical
chart, typically spread over several map sheets.
 Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as the
chord chart in music notation or a record chart for album popularity.
 Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and
the relationships between parts of the data. Charts can usually be read
more quickly than the raw data. They are used in a wide variety of fields,
and can be created by hand (often on graph paper) or by computer using a
charting application. Certain types of charts are more useful for presenting
a given data set than others. For example, data that presents percentages
in different groups (such as "satisfied, not satisfied, unsure") are often
displayed in a pie chart, but may be more easily understood when
 presented in a horizontal bar chart.[2] On the other hand, data that
represents numbers that change over a period of time (such as "annual
revenue from 1990 to 2000") might be best shown as a line chart.

3. a) with a suitable diagram, explain the principle of electromagnetic

type flow meters. Also mention its advantages and limitations?
Electromagnetic Flow Meters Working Principle
 Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is a
volumetric flow meter which is ideally used for waste water applications
and other applications that experience low pressure drop and with
appropriate liquid conductivity required. The device doesn’t have any
moving parts and cannot work with hydrocarbons and distilled water.
 Magentic flow meters are also easy to maintain. Magnetic flow meters
works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
 According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a
magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is proportional to the
velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field and the length
of the conductor.
 In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within
or outside the meter body to generate a magnetic field.
 The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a
voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity.
 This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Mudflow
meter body and sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow
rate based on the pipe dimensions.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters Formula:
Electromagnetic flow meters use Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction for
making a flow measurement. Faraday’s law states that, whenever a conductor of
length ‘l’ moves with a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular to a magnetic field ‘B’, an emf ‘e’
is induced in a mutually perpendicular direction which is given by
e = Blv …(eq1)
where
B = Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2)
l = length of conductor (m)
v = Velocity of the conductor (m/s)
The volume flow rate Q is given by
Q = (πd2/4) v …(eq2)
where
d = diameter of the pipe
v = average velocity of flow (conductor velocity in this case)
From equation (eq1)
v = e/Bl
Q = πd2e/4Bl
Q = Ke
where K is a meter constant.
the volume flow rate is proportional to the induced emf. In Practical applications
we have to enter the meter constant ‘K’ value in magnetic flow meter which is
available in vendor catalogue/manual.
Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters
(i)The substance being measured must be conductive
(ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid, the
effective resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of
the impedance of the external circuit.
(iii) It is a very expensive device.
(iv) As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any suspended
matter in the liquid will be included.
Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter
(i) They are not very much affected by upstream flow disturbances.
(ii) They are practically unaffected by variation in density, viscosity, pressure and
temperature.
(iii) Electric power requirements can be low (15 or 20 W), particularly with pulsed
DC types.
(iv) These meters can be used as bidirectional meters.
(v) They are capable of handling extremely low flows.

3.b) List the various methods of measurement of moisture

1. Gravimetric Method
2. Electrical Conductivity Method
3. Measurement by using Densitometers
4. Neutron Scattering Method.

3.c) Write short notes on smoke density measurement.

In smoke density measurement generally following terms are used:
• smoke number is a term relating the output of smoke meters
(aetholometers) that measure optical properties of smoke on a filter paper
substrate.
• A variety of smoke number scales have been developed to relate different
instrument measurements to the assumed amount of soot being measured.
• An underlying assumption for such reporting is that soot is majority or at
least most important constituent of the smoke to be measured. common
reporting scales include cartridge smoke units(HSU), filter smoke number
(FSN),ETC.
• smoke factor (SF) is a term introduced by ESPH to describe its remote
sensing measurement of smoke. It represents a ratio of exhaust opacity to
the amount of fuel burned at the time of measurement.
• SF is measured in the UV using frequencies providing the greatest
sensitivity to the particulate mass fraction. The amount of fuel burned
element of the ratio is formulated by summing measurement of the carbon
based gases of the exhaust. for black diesel smoke,a SF of 1% of fuel by
mass is emitted as PM.

3.d) State the principle behind vortex flow meter?

Operation: Vortex flowmeters make use of a principle called the von Kerman
effect.
According to this principle, flow will alternately generate vortices when passing
by a bluff body A bluff body has a broad, flat front. In a vortex meter, the bluff
body is a piece of material with a broad, flat front that extends vertically into the
flow stream. Flow velocity is proportional to the frequency of the vortices.
Flowrate is calculated by multiplying the area of the pipe times the velocity of the
flow.
4a) List the types of differential pressure flow meter used in a feed
water line of a boiler. Explain its principle of operation with a neat
diagram.
Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an essential
requirement for maintaining the quality of industrial processes. In fact, most of
the industrial control loops control the flow rates of incoming liquids or gases in
order to achieve the control objective. As a result, accurate measurement of flow
rate is very important.
The tube is pointed into the flow and the difference between the stagnation
pressure at the tip of the probe and the static pressure at its side is measured,
yielding the dynamic pressure from which the fluid velocity is calculated using
Bernoulli's equation.
Units of measurement
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates, such
as litres per second or kilograms per second, respectively. These measurements
are related by the material's density. The density of a liquid is almost independent
of conditions. This is not the case for gases, the densities of which depend greatly
upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, composition.
Mechanical flowmeters
A positive displacement meter may be compared to a bucket and a stopwatch.
The stopwatch is started when the flow starts, and stopped when the bucket
reaches its limit. The volume divided by the time gives the flow rate. For
continuous measurements, we need a system of continually filling and emptying
buckets to divide the flow without letting it out of the pipe. These continuously
forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may take the form of pistons
reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter
or through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears or a helical screw.

Optical flow meter.

Flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany
natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short
distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is
scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects
scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. As the
same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light
on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second
electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas
velocity is calculated as {\displaystyle V=D/t} V = D/t where {\displaystyle D} D is
the distance between the laser beams and {\displaystyle t} t is the time interval.

4b) Explain the working principle of an electrodynamometer type

ammeter.
Definition: The instrument whose working depends on the reaction between the
magnetic field of moving and fixed coils is known as the Electro dynamo-meter
Wattmeter. It uses for measuring the power of both the AC and DC circuits. The
working principle of the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter is very simple and easy.
Their working depends on the theory that the current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field experiences a mechanical force. This mechanical force deflects
the pointer which is mounted on the calibrated scale.
Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
The following are the important parts of the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter.
Fixed coil – The fixed coil connects in series with the load. It is considered as a
current coil because the load current flows through it. For making the
construction easy the fixed coil divide into two parts. And these two elements are
parallel connected to each other. The fixed coil produces the uniform electric field
which is essentials for the working of the instruments. The current coil of the
instruments is designed to carry the current of approximately 20 amperes for
saving the power.
Moving Coil – The moving coil consider as the pressure coil of the instruments. It
connects in parallel with the supply voltage. The current flows through them is
directly proportional to the supply voltage. The pointer mounts on the moving
coil. The movement of the pointer controls with the help of the spring. The
current flows through the coil increases their temperature. The flows of currents
control with the help of resistor which connects in series with the moving coil.
Control – The control system provides the controlling torque to the instruments.
The gravity control and the spring control are the two types of control system.
Out of two, the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter uses spring control system. The
spring control system is used for the movement of the pointer.
Damping – The damping is the effect which reduces the movement of the pointer.
In this Wattmeter the damping torque produces because of the air friction. The
other types of damping are not used in the system because they destroy the
useful magnetic flux.
Scales and pointers – The instruments use a linear scale because their moving coil
moves linearly. The apparatus uses the knife edge pointer for removing the
parallax error which causes because of oversights.
Working of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
The Electrodynamometer Wattmeter has two types of coils; fixed and the moving
coil. The fixed coil connects in series with the circuit whose power consumption
use to be measured. The supply voltage applies to the moving coil. The resistor
controls the current across the moving coil, and it is connected in series with it.
Electrodynamometer-circuit
The pointer is fixed on the moving coil which is placed between the fixed coils.
The current and voltage of the fixed and moving coil generate the two magnetic
fields. And the interaction of these two magnetic fields deflects the pointer of the
instrument. The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the power
flows through it.

5)a. Explain the working principle of an electrodynamometer type

voltmeter.

 The working principle of the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter is very simple

and easy.
 Their working depends on the theory that the current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field experiences a mechanical force.
 This mechanical force deflects the pointer which is mounted on the
calibrated scale.
 The pointer is fixed on the moving coil which is placed between the fixed
coils.
 The current and voltage of the fixed and moving coil generate the two
magnetic fields.

5)b. Discuss the measurement of reactive power.

 True power is symbolized by the letter P and is measured in the unit
of Watts (W). Power merely absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive
properties is referred to as reactive power. Reactive power is symbolized by the
letter Q and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR).

5)c. List the types pressure transducers. Explain the pressure

transducers in detail.
There are five types of pressure transducers: Standard, Top Mount, Side Mount,
High Accuracy and High Temperature. Pressure transducers can be internal
(inside) or external (outside) depending on the type of pressure transducer.

Working.
A pressure transducer is a measuring device which converts an applied pressure
into an electrical signal. Generally, a pressure transducer consists of two parts, an
elastic material which deforms under the application of pressure and an electrical
part which detects this deformation.

Depending on the range of pressures to be measured the elastic material is given

different shapes and sizes, such as bourdon tube, piston, diaphragm, and bellows.
Most common among them is the diaphragm.

Three different types of electrical device can be attached to this elastic material
to make pressure transducers. These include resistive, capacitive and inductive
types.

• Resistive pressure transducers uses strain gauges, which are bonded the
deformable material. Any change in the deformation causes the change in
the electrical resistance of each strain gauge which can be measured by a
Wheatstone bridge.
• In the capacitance type pressure transducers, change in pressure is
measured change in capacitance between two capacitance plates. One
plate bonded to the deformable side of the elastic material while other one
is bonded to the unpressurized surface.
• In inductive pressure transducer the deformation of the elastic material is
used to provide linear movement of a ferromagnetic core. This linear
movement will vary the induced AC current..
6) a. Describe the working principle single-phase electrodynamometer
power factor meter.
 The construction of the single phase electrodynamometer is shown in the
figure below. The meter has fixed coil which acts as a current coil. This coil
is split into two parts and carry the current under test. The magnetic field of
the coil is directly proportional to the current flow through the coil.
 The meter has two identical pressure coils A and B. Both the coils are
pivoted on the spindle. The pressure coil A has no inductive resistance
connected in series with the circuit, and the coil B has highly inductive coil
connected in series with the circuit.
 The current in the coil A is in phase with the circuit while the current in the
coil B lag by the voltage nearly equal to 90º. The connection of the moving
coil is made through silver or gold ligaments which minimize the controlling
torque of the moving system.
 The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and the other
is on coil B. The windings are so arranged that they are opposite in
directions. The pointer is in equilibrium when the torques are equal.

Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given as θ–

angular deflection from the plane of reference.

Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.

The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as

The deflecting torque is acting on the clockwise direction.

The value of maximum mutual inductance is same between both the deflecting
equations.
 This torque acts on anti-clockwise
direction. The above equation shows that the deflecting torque is equal to the
phase angle of the circuit
.6) c. List the types of strain gauges. Explain the types in details with
neat diagram..
6)b. Describe the different methods of dust monitors.

Dust Measurement In power houses it is necessary to control the amount of dust

into flue gases . in order to comply with the requirements imposed by the
municipal laws to control the pollution. Human observation of dust was, of course
the initial stimulus to develop better techniques for control and monitoring the
dust. Human observation. still remains one of the primary enforcement tools
unused by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to ensure the proper
operation and maintenance off particulate control equipment. The EPA does
provide training in dust reading and only certified trained observers are used for
such enforcement activity. Studies have been undertaken to quantify the errors of
such measurement techniques and lumen frailties are also involved. To overcome
the difficulties in the visual observation many instruments have been designed for
dust monitoring.
Types of Dust Monitoring Instrument 1. Optical type flow dust monitor 2.
Electrical type flow dust monitor 3. Electrostatic type flow dust monitor 4.
Reflected light dust monitor .9.2.1 Optical type flow dust monitor The optical
type of dust monitoring instrument consists of light source, photo editor and a
glass plate. Initially a lean glass plate is placed in the flow path of e dust laden gas.
After a particular time, the plate is analysed by measuring the obscuration caused
by the deposition of dust on the glass plate.

In the analysis process, the dust collected glass plate is placed in between the .
light source and the photocell. The light beam is allowed to pass through the glass
. plate and it is received by a photocell. The output of the photocell decreases
with increase in the dust on the glass plate. By calibrating the photo cell output in
terms . of dust emission, we can directly measure the amount of dust present in
the gas. 3.9.2.2 Electrical type flow dust monitor The electrical type of flow dust
monitoring instrument uses the principle of charging to measure the amount of
dust present in the flue gas. The instrument gets a sample of dust laden gas at a
constant velocity and charges the dust electrically and then measures this charge.
This charge will be l proportional to the amount of dust present in the flue gas.
3.9.2.3 Electrostatic type flow dust monitor The Electrostatic type flow dust
monitoring instrument uses a tube made. from special materials for the
measurement of dust. The instrument withdraws sample of gas at a constant
velocity and imparts a swirl to the gas and passes it through the tube. The swirling
dust gives an electrostatic charge to this tube by friction. The measurement of
this charge gives the measure of the dust in the flue gas.
Reflected light dust monitoring instrument differs from the optical flow dust
monitor in the way that it measures the scattered light or reflected light instead
of measuring the light absorbed by dust. This type of instrument consists of a
lamp and a photocell are mounted by. side. But in the optical type of flow dust
monitoring instrument photocell and the lamp are placed on either side of the
tube. In this, the light from the lamp is allowed to pass into the duct through a
small opening. While it passing through the dust laden gas some of the light will
be reflected back on the photocell. Reflected light rays is directly proportional to
the amount of dust present in the gas. The output from the photocell is amplified
and can be indicated or recorded by a recorder.
 MODULE-3
ANALYSERS IN POWER PLANTS

1(a) List The Places Where Ph Measurement Adopted In Power Plant ?

 pH is a critical measurement to power plants worldwide. The types of
applications that utilize pH vary widely.
 A strong understanding of pH measurement basics is required to
successfully measure and control these applications.
 The most common applications include the plant makeup water (including
reverse osmosis pre-treatment and ion exchanger effluent), scrubbers,
cooling towers, condensate/feedwater, and waste water treatment.
 Each application possesses a unique set of characteristics that can require
special considerations in order to achieve accurate and efficient pH
measurement.
 Concerns such as the mounting location, process flowrate and pressure, pH
range, temperature, contaminant level, chemical composition, and probe
type must be evaluated in order to properly measure pH in each
application.

Power Plant Applications


All large power plants, whether nuclear or fossil-based, share similar pH-
based applications, such as makeup water, condensate/feedwater, and
wastewater.
 There are also some pH applications, such as scrubbers or cooling water,
which may not be present at each power plant.

 Some samples present little challenge for pH measurements.

 Samples that are highly buffered or that change pH gradually over time and
can be easily characterized by a representative grab sample present little
challenge for pH measurement.
  Unfortunately, this is not the case with many of the samples in a power
plant.
 The water streams of interest are frequently difficult to sample
representatively.
 Some are lightly buffered with very little ionic strength. Others are very
high in solids and/or scaling rates, which makes them very abrasive and
subject to rapid pH changes. All of these different types of samples require
the highest accuracy possible in a pH measurement.

1(b) List Detectors in Gas Chromotagraphy?

Gas chromatography detectors

 GC DETECTORS
 FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR (FID)
 NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS DETECTOR (NPD)
 ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR (ECD)
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR (TCD)
 FLAME PHOTOMETRIC DETECTOR (FPD)
 PHOTOIONIZATION DETECTOR (PID)
 ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR (ELCD)
These are the Detectors available in Gas Chromatography.

1(c) Describe the operation of electrical conductivity meter?

An electrical conductivity meter (EC meter) measures the electrical conductivity in
a solution. It has multiple applications in research and engineering, with common
usage in hydroponics, aquaculture, aquaponics Ni, and freshwater systems to
monitor the amount of nutrients, salts or impurities in the water.
Principle:
Common laboratory conductivity meters employ a potentiometric method and
four electrodes. Often, the electrodes are cylindrical and arranged concentrically
[citation needed]. The electrodes are usually made of platinum metal. An
alternating current is applied to the outer pair of the electrodes. The potential
between the inner pair is measured [citation needed]. Conductivity could in
principle be determined using the distance between the electrodes and their
surface area using Ohm's law but generally, for accuracy, a calibration is
employed using electrolytes of well-known conductivity

Temperature Dependence:
The conductivity of a solution is highly temperature dependent, therefore it is
important to either use a temperature compensated instrument, or calibrate the
instrument at the same temperature as the solution being measured. Unlike
metals, the conductivity of common electrolytes typically increases with
increasing temperature.

Conductivity Measurement Application:

Conductivity measurement is a versatile tool in process control. The
measurement is simple, fast and most advanced sensors require only a little
maintenance. The measured conductivity reading can be used to make various
assumptions on what is happening in the process. In some cases it is possible to
develop a model to calculate concentration of the liquid. Concentration of pure
liquids can be calculated when the conductivity and temperature is measured.
The preset curves for various acids and bases are commercially available. For
example, it is possible to measure the concentration of high purity hydrofluoric
acid using conductivity based concentration measurement [Zhejiang Quhua
Fluorchemical, China Valmet Concentration 3300]. Benefit of conductivity and
temperature based concentration measurement is the superior speed of inline
measurement compared to on-line analyzer.

Conductivity based concentration measurement has limitations. The

concentration-conductivity dependence of most acids and bases is not linear.
Conductivity based measurement can’t determine on which side of the peak the
measurement is and therefore the measurement is only possible on linear section
of the curve. Kraft pulp mills use conductivity based concentration measurement
to control alkali additions to various stages of the cook. Conductivity
measurement won’t determine the specific amount of alkali components but it is
a good indication on the amount of effective alkali (NaOH + ½ Na2S as NaOH or
Na2O) or active alkali (NaOH + Na2S as NaOH or Na2O) in the cooking liquor. The
composition of the liquor varies in different stages of the cook. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop a specific curve to each measurement point or use
commercially available products.

2(a) Explain The Working Principle Of Flame Photometer ?

 Flame photometry is one of the branches of atomic absorption

spectroscopy. It is also known as flame emission spectroscopy.
 Currently, it has become a necessary tool in the field of analytical chemistry
 Flame photometer can be used to determine the concentration of certain
metal ions like sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium and cesium etc.
 In flame photometer spectra the metal ions are used in the form of atoms.
 The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Committee
on Spectroscopic Nomenclature has named this technique as flame atomic
emission spectrometry (FAES).

Principle of Flame photometer :

 The compounds of the alkali and alkaline earth metals (Group II) dissociate
into atoms when introduced into the flame. Some of these atoms further
get excited to even higher levels. But these atoms are not stable at higher
levels.
 Hence, these atoms emit radiations when returning back to the ground
state. These radiations generally lie in the visible region of the spectrum.
Each of the alkali and alkaline earth metals has a specific wavelength.

2(b) Describe the operation Of Parametric oxygen Analyzers?

Oxygen is a paramagnetic gas and is attracted into a strong magnetic field.
Because this measurement is a purely physical effect, nothing is consumed and in
principle the cell has an unlimited life. However, contamination of the cell by
dust, dirt, corrosives or solvents can lead to deterioration. Measurement range is
typically 0.05% to 100% O2.
Theory
The operating principle of the paramagnetic sensor is the paramagnetic
susceptibility of the oxygen molecule, a physical property which distinguishes
oxygen from most other gases.
The sensor incorporates two nitrogen-filled glass spheres mounted on a rotating
suspension. This assembly is suspended in a strong magnetic field. The oxygen in
the surrounding gas is attracted to the magnetic field, resulting in a force on the
glass spheres. The strength of the torque acting on the suspension is proportional
to the oxygen content of the surrounding gases.

Principle of Operation
Refer to Figure above. The measuring system is “null-balanced”. First the “zero”
position of the suspension assembly, as measured in nitrogen, is sensed by a
photo-sensor that receives light reflected from a mirror attached to the
suspension assembly. The output from the photo-sensor is fed back to a coil
around the suspension assembly. This feedback achieves two objectives.

First, when oxygen is introduced to the cell, the torque acting upon the
suspension assembly is balanced by a re-storing torque due to the feedback
current in the coil. The feedback current is directly proportional to the volume
magnetic susceptibility of the sample gas and hence, after calibration, to the
partial pressure of oxygen in the sample. Therefore, the current gives an accurate
measurement of the concentration of oxygen in the gas mixture.

Second, the electromagnetic feedback “stiffens” the suspension, damping it

heavily and increasing its natural frequency, making the suspension resilient to
shock
Applications
 The paramagnetic o2 analyzer may be used for measurement of oxygen at
any level between 0-100% in gases or gas mixtures.

 The Systech Illinois PM700 oxygen analysers provide, user selectable ranges
of: 0-2%, 0-10%, 0-30%, 0-100%, 98-100% and 20-22%.
 With oxygen purity measurements in the 98-100% range an absolute
downstream pressure regulator must be used.


2(c) Describe The Working Principle Of "In situ" Flue Gas Analyser ?
Percent Oxygen and ppm CO can be measured in this method.

This method uses an analysers probe, which is inserted in to the. duct at the point
of analysis. An analysis cell on the end of the probe. analysers the hot flue gas
flowing past it. With no sampling system time . lag, typical response times of
these analysers is 50 to 10 seconds. Fig. 2.25 shows the arrangement for this
method. The analysis will be that existing at the point of cell location in the. duct.
Due to stratification of the flow in large ducts, electric utility size. boilers generally
use several probes at different locations in the duct cross section.

The best location of these probes can be determined by traverse esting. The
location of this type of probe along the flue gas stream is. ery flexible, needs only
on a open area on one side of the boiler duct . system for probe insertion.
Because of the air seal leakage of regenerative. air preheaters, the analyser
probes should be installed in the flue gas stream ahead of such air preheaters.

If % oxygen is being measured, the measuring cell is Zirconium oxide. The

principle is that of a fuel cell. The cell reacts to the ratio of the partial pressure of
oxygen in the flue gas to the partial pressure of oxygen in. reference air that is
also admitted to the cell. Because of the cell temperature, any residual
combustible gas is burned in the cell and absorbs some of the oxygen is the flue
gas. The result is therefore, a measurement of % net oxygen. The output of the
cell is a millivolt signal that is an analogue of the logarithm of the partial pressure
ratio of the % oxygen in the flue gas to hat of the reference air. In order that
results will be accurate and repeatable, the cell temperature is closely controlled.
The typical controlled temperature set point for such cells is in the 1300 to
16000F range. The upper temperature limit for this method is that of the cell
temperature.

The cell output (approximately 0 to 100mV) is further processed by. inversion,

linearization and amplification to produce a linear signal of %, Oxygen Vs millions
PS (mA). In this form the signal can easily be used by. any form of standard
control instrumentation. If ppm CO is being measured, the analysis cell operates
on the infrared absorption principle. In this principle, carbon monoxide absorbs .
a part of infrared energy from an included infrared source. The amount absorbed
is within the frequency range specific to carbon monoxide. Measuring the
absorption of infrared energy within that range provides a measurement of
carbon monoxide. The resulting electrical signal in some of the ppm CO analysers
is compensated for % moisture, temperature and excess air and is processed and
amplified to that of a standard instrumentation signal

3a) Describe in detail about the Steam purity meter

Steam purity refers to the amount of solid, liquid, or vaporous contamination
in the steam. High-purity steam contains very little contamination. Normally,
steam purity is reported as the solids content. Steam quality is the proportion of
saturated steam (vapour) in a saturated condensate (liquid)/ steam (vapour)
mixture. A steam quality of 0 indicates 100 % liquid, (condensate) while a steam
quality of 100 indicates 100 % steam.
Measurement Of Steam Purity

 Impurities
 Methods of steam purity measurement
 Representative steam sampling
Accurate measurement of steam purity is essential to identifying the cause of
potential or existing steam purity problems in modern boiler plants. One reason
for this is that superheated steam turbines have an extremely low tolerance for
solids contamination in the steam. Fortunately, techniques are available to
determine steam contamination in the parts per billion range to satisfy the
demands of most systems. The test results make it possible to determine the
effect of changing boiler operation on steam purity.
IMPURITIES

Impurities present in steam can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. Solids are usually
dissolved in water droplets or are present as dust. Because water treatment
practices are such that most soluble chemical constituents of boiler feedwater are
converted to sodium salts, most solids present in steam are sodium salts, with
minor amounts of calcium, magnesium, iron, and copper also present.
METHODS OF STEAM PURITY MEASUREMENT

Several methods of measuring steam purity have been available and used
for many years. Each offers its own distinct advantages.

Specific Conductance

Specific conductance is one of the most commonly used methods. The

specific conductance of a sample, measured in micro Siemens (µS) or
micro ohms (µmho), is proportional to the concentration of ions in the
sample. When boiler water is carried over in steam, the dissolved solids
content of the boiler water contaminates the steam, and steam sample
conductivity increases. Measurement of this increase provides a rapid and
reasonably accurate method for determining steam purity.

METHODS OF STEAM PURITY MEASUREMENT

Several methods of measuring steam purity have been available and used
for many years. Each offers its own distinct advantages.

Specific Conductance
Specific conductance is one of the most commonly used methods. The
specific conductance of a sample, measured in microsiemens (µS) or
micromhos (µmho), is proportional to the concentration of ions in the
sample. When boiler water is carried over in steam, the dissolved solids
content of the boiler water contaminates the steam, and steam sample
conductivity increases. Measurement of this increase provides a rapid and
reasonably accurate method for determining steam purity.

3b) Define total suspended

particles

 A total suspended
particle (TSP) is an
archaic regulatory
measure of the mass
concentration of
particulate matter (PM) in
community air.
 It was defined by the (unintended) size-selectivity of the inlet to the
filter that collected the particles.

3c) Define emission rate

An emission factor is defined as the average emission rate of a given

GHG for a given source, relative to units of activity. Global Warming
Potentials

3d) List the methods adopted to monitor fine particle emission

An emission factor is defined as the average emission rate of a given

GHG for a given source, relative to units of activity. Global Warming
Potentials. An emission intensity (also carbon intensity, C.I.) is the emission
rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an
industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide
released per mega joule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse
gas emissions produced to gross
4a)Explain the working principle of katharometer dissolved oxygen analyzers.
Dissolved oxygen refers to oxygen dissolved in water. Its concentration is expressed as the amount of
oxygen per unit volume and the unit is mg/L. Biologically, oxygen is an essential element for respiration
of underwater life and also acts as a chemical oxidizer. The solubility of oxygen in water is affected by
water temperature, salinity, barometric pressure, etc. and decreases as water temperature rises.

Measurement of dissolved oxygen by the membrane electrode method

The membrane electrode method measures a diffusion current or reduction current generated by the
concentration of dissolved oxygen or partial pressure of oxygen to obtain the concentration of dissolved
oxygen. This method is not affected by the pH value of water being measured, oxidation and reduction
substances, color, turbidity, etc. and the measurement method offers good reproducibility.l

When a sensor is inserted into water, an air layer forms on the membrane (Teflon membrane). The
oxygen partial pressure (concentration) in the air layer is in equilibrium with the concentration of
dissolved oxygen in the water. The membrane electrode method measures the oxygen concentration in
the gas phase to indirectly obtain the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water.

There are two types of membrane electrode method:

 Galvanic cell method, and

 Polarographic method.

These methods differ only in the presence or absence of an external applied voltage and have the same
performance, features, and usage method.

(1) Galvanic cell method

The membrane has high permeability to oxygen and is constructed so that the electrodes and
electrolyte are isolated from the water being measured. The counter electrode is a base metal and the
working electrode is a noble metal and potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Oxygen passes
through the membrane and is reduced on the working electrode, and so the method measures the
reduction current flowing between both electrodes, which is proportional to the concentration of
dissolved oxygen
.(2) Polarographic method

The sensor construction is almost the same as that of the galvanic cell method. The counter electrode is
silver-silver chloride and the working electrode is gold or platinum. When a voltage of 0.5–0.8 V is
applied between both electrodes, oxygen that has permeated through the membrane initiates a
reduction reaction on the working electrode, causing a polarographic limiting current to flow which is
proportional to the oxygen concentration.
This method measures the concentration of
dissolved oxygen based on this current value.

4b)State the need of fuel analysis in coal power plant?

Reduction of hardness, TSS, TDS, and conductivity for the plant influent stream.

• Provision of high quality water for introduction into the boilers or process.

• Reduce or offset fresh water demands and pretreatment cost.

• Retain heat in recycled process water as a possible method to reduce energy requirements.

• Elimination of biological growth, and odor in effluent.

• Reduction of effluent discharge volume and associated treatment cost.

• Simplify influent or effluent treatment with a compact, low energy system.

4c)What is the need for Boiler water treatment?
 Any combination of organics and inorganic material which during chemical reaction or
transformation gives out large amount of heat is called fuel
 Fuel can be hydrocarbon fuel and non-hydrocarbon
 Industrial fuels have heat values from as low as 500 kcal/kg to as high as 11000 kcals/kg
 Heat generated by fuel is used a boiler to generate steam for process, power generation, and a
variety of other applications. The chemical characteristics of the fuel decide many aspects of
boiler design.
 The boiler designed for gas fuel will have the smallest furnace size, and the boiler designed for
coal will have the biggest size.

5a)Explain the working principle of electrochemical dissolved oxygen

meter
Dissolved oxygen refers to oxygen dissolved in water. Its concentration is
expressed as the amount of oxygen per unit volume and the unit is mg/L.
Biologically, oxygen is an essential element for respiration of underwater life and
also acts as a chemical oxidizer. The solubility of oxygen in water is affected by
water temperature, salinity, barometric pressure, etc. and decreases as water
temperature rise
The membrane electrode method measures a diffusion current or reduction
current generated by the concentration of dissolved oxygen or partial
pressure of oxygen to obtain the concentration of dissolved oxygen. This
method is not affected by the pH value of water being measured, oxidation
and reduction substances, colour, turbidity, etc. and the measurement
method offers good reproducibility.
When a sensor is inserted into water, an air layer forms on the membrane
(Teflon membrane). The oxygen partial pressure (concentration) in the air
layer is in equilibrium with the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
water. The membrane electrode method measures the oxygen
concentration in the gas phase to indirectly obtain the concentration of
dissolved oxygen in water.
There are two types of membrane electrode method:
 • Galvanic cell method, and
• Polarographic method.
• Galvanic cell method

The membrane has high permeability to oxygen and is constructed so that

the electrodes and electrolyte are isolated from the water being measured.
The counter electrode is a base metal and the working electrode is a noble
metal and potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Oxygen passes
through the membrane and is reduced on the working electrode, and so the
method measures the reduction current flowing between both electrodes,
which is proportional to the concentration of dissolved oxygen.

(2) Polarography method

The sensor construction is almost the same as that of the galvanic cell
method. The counter electrode is silver-silver chloride and the working
electrode is gold or platinum. When a voltage of 0.5–0.8 V is applied
between both electrodes, oxygen that has permeated through the
membrane initiates a reduction reaction on the working electrode, causing
a pornographic limiting current to flow which is proportional to the oxygen
concentration. This method measures the concentration of dissolved
oxygen based on this current value.

5b)Describe working of Chromatograph with a neat diagram

Chromatography is the technique used for separation of those solutes that
dissolve in the same solvent.
To understand how this technique can be used let us perform an activity.
Take a thin strip of filter paper. Draw a line on it using a pencil,
approximately 3 cm above the lower edge as shown in figure(a). Put a
small drop of ink (water soluble, that is, from a sketch pen or fountain pen)
at the centre of the line. Let it dry. Lower the filter paper into a jar/glass/
beaker/test tube containing water so that the drop of ink on the paper is just
above the water level, as shown in Fig(b) and leave it undisturbed.
Watch carefully, as the water rises up on the filter paper. Now observe that
the coloured component that is more soluble in water, rises faster and in
this way colours get separated
Applications of Chromatography
To separate
• colours in a dye
• pigments from natural colours
• drugs from blood.

5c)Why fuels need to be analyzed?

• If you are a fuel consumer, it is important that you have knowledge
about your fuel quality in order to be prepared to handle operating
problems such as slag formation or corrosion.

• Requirements should be listed for all relevant fuel parameters for

each individual plant. Thus, you ensure the necessary fuel quality and
the purchase price. Quality control of the supplied fuel consignment
constitutes important follow up.

• Whether you manufacture or sell fuels, it is very important to know

the quality of your products and to be able to document this to your
 customers. By performing a test of the product, you and your
customers will be certain of the quality work you trade in.
6a)Discuss the auto analysis method for determining of total
iron.
• Iron has an important role on the prevention of anaemia, which is an
important public health problem.
• Results from studies, conducted in humans and animals, have shown
that iron ions (Fe2+ and Fe3+) have cariostatic properties.
• Alone or in combination with other ions, like fluoride and copper, iron
has a great effect on the reduction of the cariogenic potential of the
sugar.
• The iron content of beer should be as low as possible.
• Under normal conditions, the iron content of fermented beer is below
0.2 ppm. If it is higher in the finished beer, a pickup of iron after
fermentation is indicated.
• Iron is said to enter more readily in solution in a beer highly saturated
with CO2 gas.
• Highly oxidized beers also dissolve more iron. High amount of iron
can contribute to colour increase due to an interaction with worth
and/or beer tannins and hop constituents.

• The aim of this work was the implementation and optimizations of

some UV-VIS molecular absorption spectrometric methods for
determination of total iron from commercial beer samples;
• the results were compared with those obtained by flame atomic
absorption spectrometry (FAAS) using a spectrometer Shimadzu AA
6200.
Also, in this study, was compared the efficiency of different digestion
procedures (dry ash procedure and digestion procedure with nitric
acid) on beer samples
• Prior to analysis, the beer samples were degassed.
• The most appropriate method for the determination of iron in beer
was found FAAS and the concentrations obtained were in the range
of 0.33 - 1.59 mg/L.
• For determination of the relative accuracy of the applied methods for
iron analysis the “t” test was performed.
6b)Describe a Pollution monitoring instrument

 PMI is a science leader in the development and improvement of

instruments, methods, techniques and other tools to measure and
monitor air quality and evaluate air emissions to protect publichealth
and the environment from air pollution. Measurement research is
advancing the ability to determine the composition of sources of air
pollution, conduct exposure assessments, improve monitoring
capabilities and support public health research, among other
applications. Research is being conducted to:
 Develop and evaluate new and improved air measurement
technologies and capabilities to enable air quality regulators and
managers to effectively address air quality issues.
 Collect air pollution emissions data from designated sources to
expand the emissions inventory in the US and build understanding of
atmospheric chemistry for use in making decisions to protect air
quality.
 Develop innovative air sensor technology and analysis tools to
improve the availability and accessibility of air quality measurement
technology for communities and citizen scientists.
 High quality air pollution data is needed by air regulators and
managers to implement the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
and develop effective preventive and mitigation strategies to protect
air quality. Understanding what is in the air near sources of pollution
such as industrial applications, oil and gas production facilities, coal-
fired power plants and highways is critical to safeguard public health
and the environment from six common air pollutants and other
hazardous air pollutants regulated by PMI
PMI is advancing air measurement technologies and capabilities to assist
states, communities and tribes with air quality monitoring. EPA and state
and local agencies are using the research and technology to:
• Monitor compliance with the air quality standards
• Conduct emissions characterization research
• Identify effective pollution prevention and control strategies
• Develop global emissions inventories
• Develop the next generation regulatory and compliance strategies
6c)Specify the sensors used for the measurement of oxygen
in flue.
There are different solutions for measuring the constituents within flue
gases. As with most measurement protocols, especially within the industrial
sector, the determination of the gases within a flue, alongside the
temperature of the local environment, are performed using sensors. In this
article, we look at some of the sensing methods for flue gases
• Flue gas, simply put, is the gas from industrial processes and
automotive exhausts that exits into the atmosphere by a flue - which
is a duct, pipe or chimney opening that enables the gases to travel
from the source to the local atmosphere.
• Flue gases come in many different forms, and from many various
sources, but the most common output is from industrial plants and
power plants. In most cases, the flue gas is the exhaust gas from
combustion processes within the plant. So, given that many different
 processes give off various gases, the constituents within the flue gas
will vary from plant to plant.

• However, because most flue gases are a product of combustion,

there are certain gases which will always be present, and these
include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour. Some of
the other common constituents include carbon monoxide, hydrogen
fluoride, sulphur oxides, ammonia, and various volatile organic
compounds (VOCs); as well as solid particles arising from incomplete
combustion processes.

MODULE 4

CONTROL LOOPS IN BOILERS

1a. List the applications of superheaters in power plant
• Power plants
• Steam engines
• Locomative use
• Damper and shifting valve
• Front end throttle
• Typical parts made are impellers, cutters for machining, dies for
metal forming, and melds for making plastics or rubber components.
This process has cast parts weighing as much as 700 kg.
1b. Discuss the combustion control of liquid and gaseous
fuel boilers
 The basic difference in the approach to combustion control for liquid
or gaseous fuel boilers from that for solid fuel boilers is that the fuel
can easily be measured.
 This basic difference applies, however, only for systems that
incorporate fuel flow/air flow ratio or difference as part of the control
strategy.
 Simple systems such as the single-point positioning (jackshaft) or
parallel positioning systems can be applied to all types of boilers in a
similar fashion.
 As discussed in Section 8, the combustion control loops for all boilers
respond to the Btu demand signals generated in the master control
loop.
 The Btu demand signal is assumed to be linear with respect to Btu
flow. A fully modulating control is used for almost all industrial boiler
applications.

2a. Write short notes on interlocks in boiler operation.

An Interlock in the boiler's control system is a programmed or

hardwired condition that forces a device to be in a pre-determined or
permissive state before the process can continue. Depending on design
pressure ,fuel type, either liquid, gas or solid, all steam boiler require
interlocks to sequence the operation and to prevent damage to the
boiler.Examples of such devices are High or Low Boiler Drum Water Level,
Low Boiler Feed Pump Pressure, High or Low Fuel pressure, High or Low
Atomization pressure(oil fired),Proof of Ignition, Proof of Flame,FD and/or
ID(solid fuel)Fan Motor Operation or combustion air
pressure,DamperorValve position and High Boiler Steam Pressure as well
as O2 and furnace temperature.9

2b. How a furnace draft can be measured accurately?

 The air is drawn into the furnace by the slightly lower pressure that
results from heat rising up through the stack, the same way a chimney
draws air into a fireplace. The combination of low draft pressures and the
extreme environment of heat around the furnace make accurate draft range
pressure measurements.

2c. Explain the different methods of superheated steam

temperature control?

SUPERHEATER
 The superheater is a heat exchtlnger in which hat is transfmrcd to
the
saturated steam to increase its lcmpcralure. it incrcescs the overall cycle
cflicicncy.
In addition, it reduces the moislure content in the lest stages of turbine

ids characterized by different temperatures and situated at two

adjacent rooms. 'I'here arc two kinds of heat exchangers which are different
for the
geometry of the thurmal exchange surface, they are double pipe and plate
heat
exchangers. 'I'hcsupcrhectter is of double pipe type heat exchanger. The
double pipe
heat exchanger consists of two tubes. The external one in which the
service fluid
flows and the internal onc in which process fluid flow. A double pipe heat
exchanger scheme is depicted
 3(a) Describe the significance of Interlocks in boiler
operations.
• Many of the interlocks related to the start‐ up,
shutdown, and operand of a boiler are implemented for the purposes of
protecng personnel and equipment.
• Most of the interlock and safety features directly
related to the boiler can be classified as either
burner management or compulsion control.

• This delineator is made because boiler safety standards define very

specific funcons for burner management and require it to be
implemented in a dedicated system, separate and apart from other
control funcons.
• A burner management system (BMS) is primarily
concerned with the interlock, sequence, and ming funcons required to
safely put burners into service and to stop fuel and trip the boiler on
detecon of potenally unsafe condions (master fuel trip).

• Other combuson control interlocks and protecon funcons, not necessarily a

part of BMS, include furnace dra (implosion protecon) control, fuel/air
cross‐ liming, and “runbacks.”
• An overview of some of the most common boiler safety interlocks is as
follows:

PURGE INTERLOCK :Prevents fuel from being admied to an unfired furnace

unl the furnace has been thoroughly air purged.
LOW AIR FLOW INTERLOCK OR FAN INTERLOCK:Fuel is shut off upon
loss of air flow or combuson air fan or blower.
LOW FUEL SUPPLY INTERLOCK: Fuel is shut off upon loss of fuel supply
that would otherwise result in unstable flame condions.

FAN INTERLOCK:Stops forced dra upon loss of induced‐ dra fan.

LOW WATER INTERLOCK (OPTIONAL): Shuts off fuel on low water level
in boiler drum.
HIGH COMBUSTIBLES INTERLOCK (OPTIONAL) :
Shuts off fuel on highly combusble content in the flue gases.

3.b) Define stoichiometric ratio.

The stoichiometric rao is the exact rao between air and flammable gas
or vapor at which complete combuson takes place. The stoichiometric
rao of combuson varies for various fuels and oxidizers. ... A
stoichiometric rao is neither too rich nor too lean. lt contains just
enough fuel to burn all the oxygen.

3.c) Describe the combustion air flow control

Introducon:

Dra is the differenal caused by the flow of hot gas through

a furnace. On a vercal petrochemical heater, it is the differenal

between the furnace inlet (boom) and the stack. This differenal is
caused by the restricons of the tubes and the preheater in the bridge
wall secon before the stack. Dra will increase as firing rate increases
and will decrease as firing rate decreases. It is an indicaon of air flow
through the burner throats or total gas flow through the furnace

How Is Boiler Air Flow Measured? Boiler air flow (or air flow on a
forced or balanced draft furnace) may be measured with a pitot tube,
air foil section, or any calibrated flow restricting device located in the
duct that leads from the forced draft fan to the windbox. (The windbox
is the area behind the burner throats that supplies combustion air to
the burners.) The differential across the windbox to the furnace can
be as high as 25" H2O, but is not used because each time a register is
adjusted, the flow relationship to delta P changes. On many boilers,
air flow is the measured differential between the furnace inlet and the
boiler outlet. This takes the differential of the hot gases as they flow
through the furnace, across the convection section, and out the stack.
In most cases, the differential ranges from 0.5 to 2.0 inches of water.

4)a) Draw the diagram of Three -element feed water control system
and explain its working

WORKING:

Smart Pump Sequencing: In “headered mode,” pumps are

automacally sequenced on/off to ensure that the number of pumps in

service meets the demand. If any pump fails to start when called, the
Feedwater Center immediately starts another pump to replace the faulted
pump. The operator may manually select the lead pump or allow the lead
pump to rotate automacally. Addionally, the total number of pumps in
service may be set automacally or manually as selected by the operator or
all pumps may be shutdown by a building automaon system (BAS)
‘enable/disable’ contact input.

Easy Installaon& Setup: The Feedwater Center

integrates Modbus communicaons, relays, 24 VDC power supplies, and

outdoor reset funcons into a single wall mountable controller. Simple menu-
style fill-in-the-blanks setup displays minimize commissioning and training
me.

LCD Graphic Display: LCD graphic display brings plant

overviews, outdoor reset, alarms and event status and

setup displays right to the operator’s touch.

Alarms & Event Summary: Up to 200 alarms, system

events and operator acons are listed in “first in first out” order with a
me/date stamp. Alarms include system fault, pump failure and both over
and under temperature condions.
Hard Manual Backup: Hardwired control switches and

dials provide simple manual control for easy troubleshoong and service.
Each pump has an individual speed demand bar graph, a manual speed
demand output knob, and an Auto/ Manual switch.

Modbus Communicaon Interface: A factory configured

RS485 MODBUS interface is available for building automaon or SCADA

system monitoring and control.

Oponal Features: The Feedwater Center has many

features that can be added or removed according to your needs. This

controller was designed to accommodate the needs of any 1-4 pump
system. It is able to run with a surge and a deaerator tank (or one of each,
or none). It accommodates 0-3 transfer pumps and 0-4 feed water pumps.
The JC-FWC-FC can be used in headered pump applicaons as well as
individual feed water pumps to each boiler. The JC-FWC-FC can have all
of these following sensors;

Temperature:

• Condensate Return Line

• DA Tank Pressure:

• DA Tank

• Feedwater Header

• Steam Header

• Make Up Water Level:

• 1 DA Tank

• 1 Surge Tank

4)b) Define draft loss

in Furnace.
A decrease in the stac pressure of a

gas in a furnace or boiler due to flow resistance.

4)c) Define air-fuel ration.

Air–fuel rao (AFR) is the mass rao of air to fuel present in a combuson
process such as in an internal

combuson engine or industrial furnace. . .. If exactly enough air is provided

to completely burn all of the fuel, the rao is known as the stoichiometric
mixture, o en abbreviated to stoich.

4)d) Explain the furnace draft control systems.

dra controls are sll common on all types of boilers, but for very different
reasons. Namely, boiler construcon. Since then, many more boilers were of
brick-set construcon, required to be run at negavedra or balanced dra
pressure. Because the furnaces were not air ght, the furnace walls were
kept cool by a constant stream of cool air drawn in by the slightly negave
pressure of the furnace. Allowing these furnaces to “go posive” for even a
short amount of me could result in damage to the boiler casing or injury to
boiler operators. Boilers made in this era typically had tall stacks to induce
a negave pressure (or dra ) in the boiler, or induced dra fans. To control
the negave pressure generated by a tall stack or an induced dra fan, stack
outlet dampers were installed and controlled to maintain a setpoint typically
about 0.1” negave pressure measured at the back of the furnace. Then as
now, proper dra control was also important for flame stability and
maintaining the correct fuel air rao in the boiler.

Today dra controls are required to accurately maintain dracondions in the

furnace and compensate for changes in outside condions including:

• Changes in ambient air temperature

• Changes in stack temperature as the boiler warms up or changes firing

rates

• Changes in wind velocity blowing across the stack

• Changes in dracondions caused by mulple boilers connected to a
common breeching.

Just as importantly, modern low NOx burners are more sensive than their
1964 counterparts. Ultra low NOx burners are extremely sensive to
dracondions (and ambient temperature, stack oxygen, phase of the moon,
operator’s a tude, etc.) Too much dra can cause the burner to run lean,
become unstable, and flame out. Too li le dra can cause the burner to burn
back into the burner internals and damage equipment. Most burner
manufacturers require dra controls be installed with their burners if any of
the following condions are present:

• Boiler stack is taller than 100 . (somemes 50 . is the limit)

• An induced dra fan is running in the stack

• Two or more boilers share a common stack

5a) List the parameters considered for Deaerator control.

Explain deaerator control methods
Deaerator

The deaerator is an important feed-water system component which is used

to remove the dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in the feed
water. The presence of theses gases in the feed-water which will enter in
boiler or steam generator can causes a rapid corrosion in the tubes. So the
deaerator uses the following techniques to dissolve the

1) If the partial pressure of the liquid reduces then gas dissolved content
will be reduced. This done by spraying the feed-water in deaerator.

2) If the temperature of the solution rises up to saturation temperature then

the solubility content will reduces. This is that the feed-water is spared in
the presence of high temperature steam and gets heated up so that the
dissolved gases will flow through the deaerator vents. After the above
process the feed water will be collected in deaerator storage tank from
which it is supplied to steam generator (boiler) through Boiler Feed water
Pump (BFP).

Deaerator Storage Level

The Feed water after spraying and heating, it is collected in deaerator

storage tank. The deaerator with inlet water, steam and outlet water patsies
shown in below figure.

deaerator flow diagram

The condensate water from the hot well is fed to the deaerator through the
condensate extraction pump. The steam consists of two paths, one is
extraction steam from main steam and other one is the drainage of the feed
water high pressure heaters (HPH 5&6). The output is connected to BFP to
supply the feed water to steam generator. So the water storage in the tank
depends on the input and output flows from the deaerator, i.e. if the inlet is
more compared to outlet then the level is increases and in other case the
level decreases. To control this level it is envisaged to control the inlet flow
from condensate which gives better results.

effects of deaerator level

Deaerator high level: If the water in deaerator storage tank level increases
then the pressure in the deaerator increases which effects the inlet steam
flow. This affects heating of inlet water which reduces the temperature of
the water. So the removal of dissolved gasses will be disturbed.

Deaerator Low level: The low level may not have significance affect on the
desecration process but due to this low level the outlet flow may reduce
which is delivered to steam generator. There will be a trip sigal to BFP on
deaerator low level. So the deaerator level should be maintained.

Deaerator storage tank level control loop

desecrator level control system

In a power plant the deaerator control loop is one of the important control
system which controls the CEP outlet flow by throttling the CEP outlet
valve. The arrangement of control loop schematic is shown in below figure.

The control loop gets three measurement inputs which is called as three
element deaerator level controller. The three elements of the controller are:

Deaerator Level control

Feed water to the boiler(steam Generator)

Condensate water to the deaerator.

In earlier days it is only one element (deaerator level) controller i.e. The
level is the measured value and controller throttles the valve according to
this level to match to the set value. But during transient conditions the
performance was poor so it is replaced with the three element controller.

Three element controller

In this controller the difference between feed water and condensate water
acts as main controller element and the deaerator level acts as fine control
element. This combination provides the better control of level during
transients. block diagram of the controller is shown in below figure.

Deaerator level three element control system

Let us consider the combined inlet flow i.e. extraction steam, Heater
drainage and condensate flow is raised to 120%. This affects the level of
the deaerator in which the outlet is constant at 100%. The difference 20%
is sense by the controller as a first element and reduces its control output
which closes the CEP outlet valve so that the flow reduces. This prevents
the increase in deaerator level i.e. it acts as a feed forward controller and
counteracts for the increase in level. This results very small raise in level
which is course controlled by the level controller as a second element
controller.

5b) Dew point of flue gas

With any type of fuel, corrosion and fouling potentials rapidly increase
below gas temperatures of 140 degrees F (60 degrees C), which is the
typical water dew point for flue gases. The dew point temperature,
commonly termed dew point, DP, is the temperature to which a parcel of
moist air must be cooled at constant atmospheric pressure and constant
water vapour content in order for saturation to occur. It can be alternatively
defined as the temperature at which the actual pressure of the vapour
contained in an air parcel equals the saturation pressure, under constant
5c) Analyze the main steam and reheat steam temperature
control in power plant.
 To get best possible heat rate to reduce fuel costs operators tries to
maintain steam temperature at the rated value. By adjusting the
amount of spray water in to the steam header after it pass through a
stage of super-heater (SH) it is possible theoretically to control
superheat temperature control.
  When reheat steam temperature is controlled by flue gas damper, the
tail flue of the boiler is divided into two parallel flues. ... By changing
the opening of two flue dampers, the ratio of flue gas that flows
through cryogenic reheater and cryogenic superheater is changed, so
as to control the temperature of reheat steam.
 To get better operational efficiency and also to prevent unnecessary
material and thermal stress in thick walled components of boiler and
turbine, it is very important to precisely control steam temperature on
utility boiler.
 To get best possible heat rate to reduce fuel costs operators tries to
maintain steam temperature at the rated value. By adjusting the
amount of spray water in to the steam header after it pass through a
stage of super-heater (SH) it is possible theoretically to control
superheat temperature control.
 However, on account of non linearity, load dependent time constant
(of the system response), gain, high dead time, time lag/time delay &
uncertainty, it is very difficult to maintain the temperature precisely
with conventional PID controllers.
 Process dead time changes with load, so, there will be requirement
of feed forward signal requirement to take care of changes in firing
rate and/or feed flow especially for once through boilers.

6a) List the various types of fan used in boiler. Also explain
the method of controlling the furnace draft in boiler
Draft fan a fan used to control draft in a boiler. Stack an opening at the top
of the boiler that is used to remove flue gas. Damper a movable plate that
regulates the flow of air or flue gases in boilers. Downcomers tubes that
transfer water from the steam drum to the mud drum.
The difference between natural and mechanical draft. Natural draft cooling
towers make use of the chimney operation of the cooling tower. The air
flow is caused by the temperature difference between the air inside and
outside the cooling tower. ... All of the cooling towers distributed by Almelo
have mechanical draft.
Forced Draft (FD) fans purpose is to provide a positive pressure to a
system. ... Fans for boilers force ambient air into the boiler, typically
through a preheater to increase overall boiler efficiency. Inlet or outlet
dampers are used to control and maintain the system pressure.

Definition of balanced draft. Applied to combustion units in which forced

and induced drafts are adjusted to give atmospheric pressure in the
combustion chamber to avoid the infiltration of unwanted cold air.

Induced draft implies an inlet fan placed on top of the cooling tower and the
creation of low pressure. Axial fans are always used for this type of draft.
Forced draft means an exhaust fan placed at the base of the cooling tower
which then causes overpressure.

Burner Combustion Control for Boilers. Boilers are often the principal
steam or hot water generator system used in industrial plant or commercial
heating. Consequently, they must be designed to operate efficiently and
safely whilst responding rapidly to any change in demand.

In large scale industrial applications, the controlling and optimization of the

parameters must be done efficiently and effectively so as to attain smooth
operation of the plant. In this paper the main control parameters in the
boiler are coal flows, temperatures in the combustion zone, air to fuel ratio,
ash content that is the percentage of ash in raw coal, and mineral content.
These parameters are to be monitored so as to avoid clinker formation on
the platen super heater tubes in the boiler. Condition Based Maintenance
(CBM) was used as the main maintenance method to monitor the boiler
parameters and a branch known as fuzzy logic for the monitoring of the
boiler parameters. The results show that the boiler should stop or continue
to run depending on the Furnace Draught Pressure (FDP). When the FDP
is within the range -7.5 – 5kPa the fuzzy controller send a message to
continue run the boiler, fro -10kpa to -7.5kPa the fuzzy controller send a
message to stop the boiler, also from 6kPa to 10kPa the fuzzy will send a
message to stop the boiler. The boiler will only run when the logic is 1 and
when the logic is zero the boiler should stop but in the case that the logic is
0 but there is no clinker that is forming the run command will be executed
that is the fuzzy read the environment and act according to the
environment. On the ID fans when the electrical consumption is within the
range 0.9225-0.9375kPa the fuzzy controller send a message to run the
boiler because there will be no clinker formation and this is shown by the
accepted range of electrical consumption, any value outside this range the
fuzzy controller will send a message to stop the boiler. The fuzzy logic
controller is used in the sense that it is adaptive and can control itself when
necessary

6c) Specify the role of attemperator in steam power plant.

An attemperator is in the boiler or steam line, not the turbine. It is used for
the final temperature control of the steam before it enters the turbine. This
is important because the turbine is designed for a particular steam
temperature, and exceeding this may cause damage.

MODULE 5
TURBINE MONITORING AND CONTROL
1.a)Illustrate the speed and vibration monitored in power
plants?
Turbine speed:
Speed is defined as the distance travelled or revolution per unit time of
the system .

The frequency of the generated power signal varies with the speed of the

turbine hence speed of the turbine is monitored.

The speed of the turbine is measured by means of optical measurement

method .

The arrangement is as shown in the figure and a circular plate with hole
in regular intervals at its circumference is attached to the rotating part of
the turbine and light can pass through the holes.

The plate with holes is illuminated by means of a light source and light is
detected by means of proximity sensor placed and pulse are generated
when light is detected through the moving plate with holes.

From the pulse generated per second the speed of the turbine is
calculated .

Turbine vibration:

The unwanted acceleration of a fixed unit over a fixed boundary is defined

as vibration.
Vibration in turbine is monitored in power plant as,

(1)It reduces the efficiency of the turbine and

(2)Causes damage to the blades of the turbine.

Monitoring :

The vibration in turbine can be measured by means of two methods,

1.Non-contact measurement method (Proximity probe method)2.Direct

contact measurement method

(Seismic sensor method)

A non-contact measurement method.

The proximity probe energised by 24 volts is placed on the boundary such

that it is closer to the turbine boundary and the back emf of the probe is
monitored.

If there is vibration ,the boundaries of turbine gets changed ,this reflects

changes in the back emf measured.

From the back emf changes ,the vibration of the turbine is measured.

1.b)why speed control is required in turbine?

The speed control of a turbine with a governor is essential ,as turbines
need to be run up slowly to prevent damage and some applications (such
as the generation of alternating current electricity)require precise speed
control .
1. c) Explain the different cooling methods for an electric
generator. Why hydrogen cooling is preferred over others for
large generators?
2.a)List the basic controls in turbine lubrication system?
2.b).write short notes on shell temperature monitoring
and control in a turbine.
Shell temperature:

2.c)Enumerate the essential steam turbine parameters to

be monitored and controlled
Turbine speed:
Turbine vibration:
Shell temperature:
Lubricant oil temperature

3)a. Describe the significance of Interlocks in boiler

operations.
• Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser lowers the
temperature at which heat is rejected.
 • The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam
can be increased without increasing the boiler pressure by
superheating the steam to high temperatures.

3)b. Discuss in brief on the turbine-boiler monitoring and

control schemes.
• By coordinating the action of the boiler firing and the turbine
valve. action into a single subsystem, the firing rate demand
control can be. As shown in the block diagram of figure 5.24, the
major portion of the responsiveness of the boiler following
method and the additional stability of the turbine following
schemes are thus combined. The implementation of this is
shown in the control logic diagram. of figure 5.24. In this
arrangement the MW demand is applied to both the turbine
valves and the firing rate demand as a feedforward signal. Item
(1) straightens the relationship between the MW rate and the
Item (2) modifies the feedforward signal to energy flow to the
turbine. account for any off-normal economiser inlet temperature
that would cause . he normal firing rate to be modified. change
would come form a change in the top heater. Such a change or
the removal of the heater from service
• The sum of the Mw error plus the steam pressure error is the.
total error input to the firing rate demand proportional- plus -
integral controller (5), which is the final control of the firing rate
demand.
• The Firing rate demand is used to drive the total error to zero.
difference between the steam pressure and Mw errors is driven
to zero. by the turbine valve final controller (6). This system can
be tuned to make a load increase more stable but less
responsive. or vice versa.
• Load can be picked up or dropped without stretching the boiler .
stability. In the end, a sustained load change in either direction
can be handled more smoothly and at a faster rate. Typically, it
stretches the. capability of a boiler following system to pick up
load faster than. approximately 2.5 percent per minute. Double
 this rate is not uncommon. with coordinated control of the boiler
and turbine.
•

GRAPH
 • Block Diagram

4)a. Write in brief about the cooling system in Power plant?

(8 marks)

COOLING SYSTEM:

Cooling system technologies, which differ greatly in the amounts

of water withdrawn and consumed, include the following: Once-through
cooling Closed-cycle wet cooling Cooling pond Dry cooling Hybrid cooling
At present, about 43% of U.S. thermoelectric generating capacity is served
by once-through systems, 42% by closed-cycle systems, 1% by dry cooling
systems, and the remainder by cooling. ponds. Regulatory requirements in
several states are forcing existing plants to switch from once- through to
closed-cycle systems with wet cooling towers, and plants in many areas of
the country are facing water constraints that result in production losses and
are leading to increased interest in hybrid or dry cooling system retrofits.
For new U.S. plants, permitting and public acceptance issues have almost
eliminated once-through cooling from consideration and have created
significant challenges to the use of current closed-cycle wet cooling
technology. Many new . plants are required to use dry cooling only.

How it Works: Water for Power Plant Cooling

In the United States, 90 percent of electricity comes from thermoelectric
power plants—coal, nuclear, natural gas, and oil—that require
cooling. The remaining ten percent is produced by hydroelectric and other
renewable energy facilities. Some renewable energy technologies are
thermoelectric as well, including certain types of concentrating solar,
geothermal, and biomass power plants.

Why is cooling necessary?

Thermoelectric power plants boil water to create steam, which then spins
turbines to generate electricity. The heat used to boil water can come from
burning of a fuel, from nuclear reactions, or directly from the sun or
geothermal heat sources underground. Once steam has passed through a
turbine, it must be cooled back into water before it can be reused to
produce more electricity.

Types of cooling
Even though all thermoelectric plants use water to generate steam for
electricity generation, not all plant cooling systems use water. There are
three main methods of cooling:
• Once-through systems take water from nearby sources (e.g., rivers, lakes,
aquifers, or the ocean), circulate it through pipes to absorb heat from the
steam in systems called condensers, and discharge the now warmer water
to the local source. Once-through systems were initially the most popular
because of their simplicity, low cost, and the possibility of siting power
plants in places with abundant supplies of cooling water. This type of
system is currently widespread in the eastern US Very few new power
plants use once-through cooling, however, because of the disruptions such
systems cause to local ecosystems from the significant water withdrawals
involved and because of the increased difficulty in siting power plants near
available water sources.
• Wet-recirculating or closed-loop systems reuse cooling water in a
second cycle rather than immediately discharging it back to the original
water source. Most commonly, wet-recirculating systems use cooling
towers to expose water to ambient air. Some of the water evaporates; the
rest is then sent back to the condenser in the power plant. Because wet-
recirculating systems only withdraw water to replace any water that is lost
through evaporation in the cooling tower, these systems have much lower
water withdrawals than once-through systems, but tend to have appreciably
higher water consumption. In the western US, wet-recirculating systems
are predominant.
• Dry-cooling systems use air instead of water to cool the steam exiting a
turbine. Dry-cooled systems use no water and can decrease total power
plant water consumption by more than 90 percent.[2] The trade-offs to
these water savings are higher costs and lower efficiencies. In power
plants, lower efficiencies mean more fuel is needed per unit of electricity,
which can in turn lead to higher air pollution and environmental impacts
from mining, processing, and transporting the fuel. In 2000, most US dry-
cooling installations were in smaller power plants, most commonly in
natural gas combined-cycle power plants.[3]

4)c. What are the monitoring parameters in vibration

measurement?

There are three main parameters are measured to evaluate the vibration
characteristics of any dynamic system as displacement, velocity and
 acceleration. The peak-to-peak distance is measured from the upper limit
to the lower limit, measured in mm to micron level

4) d. Explain why lubricant oil temperature is to be monitored

continuously in a boiler?
CMT’s oil condition monitoring equipment enables engineers
and maintenance managers to conduct oil analysis quickly and easily on-
site, providing laboratory grade oil condition results in minutes. Oil condition
monitoring and machinery oil analysis helps to:

• Protect your assets

• Improve your productivity
• Increase your uptime
• Save your money
While temperature, pressure and vibration sensors all have their part to
play in an oil condition monitoring and machinery oil analysis, early
detection of changes in oil and lubricant condition provide greater insight
into the actual condition of vital machinery and equipment.
4)b. Write in brief about the shell temperature monitoring
and control?
CS200 process imaging system from Retek has been designed for kiln
shell temperature monitoring. The Retek CS200 is a comprehensive
temperature measurement system for monitoring, control, and analysis of
rotating kilns primarily used in the cement and paper industries (lime kilns).
This unique combination of infrared sensor technology and a powerful
industrial software programme, allows accurate detection and monitoring of
refractory hot spots and internal build-up, and prevents costly kiln damage
and extend production runs between refractory replacements.
Technology evolution

The CS200 expands on the successful CS100 kiln shell-monitoring

product, which has seen over 170 installations worldwide. With such a
broad range of experience in much diverse geography, Raytek is in the
unique position of combining its broad range of temperature measurement
solutions with expert application knowledge to create some of the most
comprehensive kiln shell monitoring products available on the market
today.

The CS200 system has features such as full-colour hierograms of the kiln
surface, user-defined alarms, automatic fan control and extensive historical
data analysis capability. The new CS200 system builds on the existing
CS100 base and increases the number of lines scanned per revolution to
200, adds OPC server functionality, more powerful database applications,
and full integration of options that were standalone accessories in the older
system. Most notably, multiple point sensors can be installed and
configured to monitor portions of the kiln ‘shadowed’ from the main sensor
by physical obstructions, and the results displayed as one homogenous
hierogram. Similarly, a separate sensor is available to monitor the burning
zone of the kiln with the data seamlessly incorporated into one common
display.

Options previously available, such as the live ring migration software to

monitor tyre slip, are still supported by the new product but now the results
are fully integrated into one display allowing the operator to monitor the
complete kiln without switching back and forth between different
applications. The integration does not stop at the display, all error and
alarm reports are now fully integrated, as is the OPC interface.

The hardware has also been significantly enhanced with ease of installation
and use in mind, and as far as possible connection boxes are pre-wired at
the factory.

5a.) vibration and shell temperature monitoring

Vibration measurement

The principle characteristics of the vibration signal that we measure are

AMPLITUDE,

FREQUENCY AND PHASE.

Amplitude

Amplitude is a measure of how severe the vibration is and can be

expressed in 3 different ways:

 Peak to peak,
 Zero to peak
 and RMS, depending on what signal we are measuring.
 One revolution (one cycle period “T”)

Vibration is measured either in terms of displacement, velocity or

acceleration. Vibration displacement is always measured as Peak to Peak,
a measure of the total excursion of the rotor or machine casing in MILS or
MICROMETERS. Vibration velocity and Acceleration are measured as
Zero to Peak or RMS. Units used are “inches per second” or “millimetres
per second” for velocity or in terms of “G” or “meters per second per
second” for acceleration. Frequency is a measure of how fast a body is
vibrating and is used to identify the source of vibration. Normally Frequency
is expressed in shaft rotate speed. If a vibration is at the same frequency
as the shaft speed, this will be 1X or 1 time shaft speed. If it is twice it is
2X. Also the frequency may be expressed in cycles per second or Hertz, or
in cycles per minute. The period of vibration is measured in seconds and
the reciprocal calculated will give in Hertz. Relative phase is a simple
timing relationship between 2 events which may be 2 vibration signals for
Relative Phase measurements or a vibration signal and a keyphasor
reference signal for Absolute measurements. Both these are important
vibration signal properties. To measure the relative phase between 2
vibration signals, both signals should be at the same frequency and should
be in the same units i.e. Both displacements, both velocity or both
acceleration. Both signals may be taken as the reference and the relative
phase is expressed as an angle between Degree and 180degree leading or
lagging.

SHELL MONITORING
Shell or Case Expansion is a very important measurement as part of a
Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) System for large steam turbines.
This measurement should be included in turbine retrofit plans when
at all possible.

The Shell Expansion measurement is utilized by operators to monitor the

proper thermal growth of the turbine's shell during start-up, operation, and
shutdown. The turbine's shell is anchored to the foundation at one end of
the machine and allowed to expand or grow by sliding towards the opposite
end. The expansion or growth of the turbine's shell Expansion is the
measurement of how much the turbine's shell expands or grows as it is
heated. As large turbine cases grow or expand thermally, in some case up
to several inches, and was usually supplied as part of the Original
Equipment Manufactures TSI system supplied with the turbine.

Used in conjunction with a Differential Expansion (DE) measurement (Case

to Rotor) the thermal growth of both the case and rotor can be monitored to
prevent costly rubs between the rotating and stationary parts of the turbine.
The recommended Shell Expansion measurement device is a CMCP LVDT
(Linear Variable Differential Transformer) engineered and manufactured to
provide long measurement ranges, long life and simple installation.
Both retrofit and new applications may be accommodated easily with
CMCP LVDT design as it incorporates a protective epoxy coated aluminium
housing with mounting flanges and a spring loaded plunger with an
adjustable roller tip.
Occasionally due to improper turbine shell pre-heating, maintenance or the
location of the steam inlets being used to preheat the turbine the turbine
shell may become distorted which can cause internal damage.

Turbine "Cocking" occurs when the turbine slider hangs up or sticks on one side of
the foundation and continues to grow or slide on the other. This condition
sometimes corrects itself by breaking loose quite dramatically. To monitor for
distortion or cocking two (2) LVDT's may be utilized and are installed on either
side of the Front Standard or turbine case. If the Turbine Case does not grow
evenly the case is allowed to cool and then reheated with more even heat
Distribution.

5b.)LUBRICANT OIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN TURBINE

 • Elemental Spectroscopy
• Particle Counting
• Anti Oxidant Trend
• Water Contamination
• Total Acid Number
• Kinematic Viscosity

5c.VARIOUS PARAMETERS NEEDED FOR TURBINE

CONTROL SYSTEM
TURBINE DROOP CONTROL

The turbine droop control is the basic turbine governor mode. In this mode
the speed reference is reduced with the increase in load of the turbine.

TURBINE LOAD CONTROL

The turbine load control is a modified droop control. In this mode the load
of the turbine is the reference and the governor tires to maintain a constant
load under all operating conditions irrespective of the frequency changes.

TURBINE ISOCHRONOUS CONTROL

The turbine isochronous control is the frequency control. In this mode the
frequency of the turbine is the set point and the governor tires to maintain a
constant frequency under all operating conditions irrespective of load
changes

6a.)EXPLAIN OIL COOLING SYSTEM

Oil cooling is the use of engine oil as a coolant, typically to remove surplus
heat from an internal combustion engine. The hot engine transfers heat to
the oil which then usually passes through a heat-exchanger, typically a type
of radiator known as an oil cooler. The cooled oil flows back into the hot
object to cool it continuously.
 Usage

Oil cooling is commonly used to cool high-performance motorcycle

engines that are not liquid-cooled. Typically, the cylinder barrel remains air-
cooled in the traditional motorcycle fashion, but the cylinder head benefits
from additional cooling. As there is already an oil circulation system
available for lubrication, this oil is also piped to the cylinder head and used
as a liquid coolant. Compared to an oil system used solely for lubrication,
oil cooling requires additional oil capacity, a greater flow rate through the oil
pump, and an oil cooler (or a larger cooler than normal).
If air-cooling proves sufficient for much of the running time (such as for an
aero-engine in flight, or a motorcycle in motion), then oil cooling is an ideal
way to cope with those times when extra cooling is needed (such as an
aero-engine taxying before take-off, or a motorcycle in a city traffic jam).
But if the engine is a racing engine that is always producing huge amounts
of heat, water or liquid cooling may be preferable.

Air-cooled aviation engines may be subject to "shock cooling" when

descending from cruising altitude prior to landing. During descent, very little
power is needed, so the engine is throttled back and thereby develops
much less heat than when maintaining altitude. While descending, the
plane's airspeed rises, substantially increasing the rate of air-cooling the
engine. These factors may cause the cylinder head to crack; but the
adoption of oil-cooled cylinder heads significantly reduces or cancels the
problem as the heads are now "oil-warmed".

Advantages

• Oil has a higher boiling point than water, so it can be used to cool items at
a temperature of 100 °C or higher. However, pressurised water-cooling
may also exceed 100 °C.
• Oil is an electrical insulator, thus it can be used inside of or in direct contact
with electrical equipment such as in transformers.
• Oil is already present as a lubricant, so no extra coolant tanks, pumps nor
radiators are required (although all of these items may need to be larger
than otherwise).
• Cooling water can be corrosive to the engine and must contain a Corrosion
inhibitor rust-inhibitor, whereas oil naturally helps to prevent corrosion.

Disadvantages

• Coolant oil may be limited to cooling objects under approximately 200–

300 °C, otherwise the oil may degrade and even leave ashy deposits.
• Pure water may evaporate or boil, but it cannot degrade, although it may
become polluted and acidic.
• Water is generally available should coolant need to be added to the
system, but oil may not be.
• Unlike water, oil may be flammable.

6b.) Describe about speed control of steam turbine

Governor is a heart component of the turbine which controls it during steady
state and transient conditions. The governor does this function by controlling
the steam flow through the turbine by adjusting the control value. The
governor is a control component with advanced protections for the turbine
which ensure safe operation of the turbine. Governing system of the turbine
does the following functions:
• Controls the turbine speed during start-up or in no load condition to
permit the unit to be synchronized with the grid.
• Controls the turbine load when running in parallel with the
grid/generating sets.
• All protective functions to ensure the safe operation of the unit.
• Methods of governing
• Depending the final control component of governing system these are
divided as nozzle governing and throttle governing
Nozzle Governing
In nozzle governing method, there will not be any importance to the steam
inlet pressure and it is done by the boiler and bypass pressure control
system. So the use of nozzle governing is limited to small turbines.
Throttle governing
Due to throttling of control values there will be high energy loss across the
control values. Hence the design of value should be adequate to withstand
the pressure of the steam.

6.c) EXPLAIN STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL

In a steam-using plant, steam is often generated at high pressures and
reduced locally to provide heat for each steam user. This is usually done to
minimize the diameter of steam distribution piping and enable more cost-
efficient steam delivery.

Reducing Steam Pressure

A common way of lowering pressure is by throttling down the size of the
steam passageway. For the most basic pressure reduction, it is possible to
simply use a conventional globe valve in a fixed partly-open position, or by
inserting an orifice plate into the flow of steam. However, any fluctuation in
flow rate would be accompanied by a corresponding fluctuation in pressure.
To avoid such circumstances, pressure reducing valves (PRVs) can be
used to provide precise control of downstream pressure. They
automatically adjust the amount of valve opening to allow the pressure to
remain unchanged even when the flow rate fluctuates.

Advantages of Pressure Reducing Valves

While it is possible to maintain a constant pressure by using the
combination of an actuated control valve, a pressure sensor, and a
controller, a pressure reducing valve offers the advantage of being able to
control pressure through fully-automatic self-contained operation, requiring
no type of external power source. It can offer the further advantage of
extremely rapid response action by immediately sensing and adjusting
based on the downstream pressure.
 Types of Pressure Reducing Valves for Steam
In pressure reducing valves, the mechanism that automatically adjusts the
downstream pressure typically uses the balance of forces between the steam
pressure and an adjustment spring. At present, this is a universal concept on almost
all manufactured pressure reducing valves. However, there are two different ways
in which this mechanism is implemented to control the amount of valve opening:
• Non-piloted, Direct Acting Valve: Adjustment spring places downward
pressure setting force directly on the main valve.
• Pilot-Operated Valve: Adjustment spring places downward pressure setting
force directly on a pilot valve, which is smaller and different from the main valve

• DirectActing(Non-piloted)
Used for small loads where extremely close pressure control is not needed.
• Pros: Compact size, low price, easy to install.
• Cons: Higher droop (variation from set pressure) than Pilot-operated PRV.

Pilot-Operated
Used for larger loads where close pressure control is required
• Pros: Close pressure control, fast response to load variation, may be used across a
broader range of flow rates than the direct acting types.
• Cons: Larger size, higher price.
Typical Applications in a Steam-Using Plant:

• Small load applications such as sterilizers, unit heaters, humidifiers, and small
process equipment may typically use a simple Direct Acting PRV for pressure
reduction.
• In case of larger flows, such as steam distribution piping, loads may fluctuate
greatly depending on the operational status of the recipient equipment. Such load
 variations and large capacity would call for the use of a Pilot-operated PRV to
reduce pressure.
• Furthermore, the amount of steam used by certain equipment at start-up may differ
significantly from the amount required during normal operation. Such wide
variations may also necessitate the use of a Pilot-operated PRV for pressure
reduction.