EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AIM: Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter,
ammeter, multi-meter, oscilloscope. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors

Basic safety precautions:-

1. Remove jewelry, metal watches, or other metal accessories while performing any
experiment, as these can be dangerous in the vicinity of rotation machinery and
electrical connections.
2. Do not wear loose apparel, shorts, or short skirts, as they expose skin to electrical
connections and rotation machinery.
3. Have a pen, calculator, lab notebook, and experiment description prepared and ready.
4. Avoid loose wires, cables, and connections.
5. Turn off all equipment before leaving the lab.
6. Familiarize oneself with all ON/OFF buttons on equipment, circuit breakers, and
disconnect switches of a bench.

Ammeter: - Ammeter is employed for measuring of current in a circuit and connected in

series in the circuit. As ammeter is connected in series, the voltage drop across ammeter
terminals is very low. This requires that the resistance of the ammeter should be as low as
possible. The current coil of ammeter has low current carrying capacity whereas the current
to be measured may be quite high. So for protecting the equipment a low resistance is
connected in parallel to the current coil and it is known as shunt resistance.

Analog Ammeter
Voltmeter: - Voltmeter is employed to measure the potential difference across any two
points of a circuit. It is connected in the parallel across any element in the circuit. The
resistance of voltmeter is kept very high by connecting a high resistance in series of the
voltmeter with the current coil of the instrument. The actual voltage drop across the current
coil of the voltmeter is only a fraction of the total voltage applied across the voltmeter which
is to be measured.

Analog voltmeter

Multimeter: - Multimeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the current, voltage and
resistance. These can be used to troubleshoot many electrical types of equipment such as
domestic appliances, power supplies etc.

Digital Multimeter
Oscilloscope: - The purpose of this lab is to introduce students to the basic tools used by
engineers and technicians in analyzing electronic equipment: the function generator, the
analog oscilloscope, and the digital oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is a tool commonly used
by engineers and technicians to analyze and troubleshoot electronic systems. In addition, real
signals, such as those which carry voice or data, can be very complex and difficult to analyze.
The function generator is a device used to generate an electronic signal with specific known
characteristics, thereby enabling an engineer or technician to test and examine a circuit.
During this lab, the student will use the function generator to generate a number of signals
and to analyze those signals using either of the ‘oscilloscopes’. The student will become
familiar with the basic waveforms -- sine, square, and triangle waves -- and the components
of the waveforms -- amplitude, period, and frequency. At the conclusion of this lab the
student should feel comfortable using the function generator and the oscilloscopes.

Resistor: - Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current
in an electric circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω (omega).
They are available in different values, shapes and sizes. Every material has some resistance.
Some materials such as Rubber, Glass and air have very high opposition to current to flow
.These materials are called insulators. Other materials such as Copper, Silver and Aluminum
etc. Has very low resistance, they are called Conductors.
Identification:-

Formula:-
R = V/I
Where, V = input voltage,
I = input current
Unit of Resistance is Ohm (Ω).

Capacitors: - It is a device which stores a charge. It does not pass direct current (dc) but will
effectively allow the flow of alternating current (ac). The reactance of a capacitor ‘C’ is
dependent on the freq of the ac signal and is given by

Xc = 1/2πfc

A capacitor ‘c’ when charged to a voltage has a stored energy of 1/2CV2 Joules. A capacitor
essentially consists of two conducting plates separated by a dielectric medium.
Symbol:

Capacitance of a capacitor ‘c’ is given by

Where, A = area of conductor

D= Diameter of conductor
ε= constant
The SI unit of capacitance is Farad (F).

Inductors: - When current flow through a wire that has been coiled, it generates a MF which
opposes any change in the current this keeps the current flow at a steady rate, its reaction of
MF is known as inductance. The electronic component producing inductance is called
inductor. Inductance is measured in henry.

Result: - We have successfully study the basic electrical component.

 EXPERIMENT NO:-3

AIM: - Three-phase transformers: Star and Delta connections. Voltage and Current
relationships (line-line voltage, phase-to-neutral voltage, line and phase currents). Phase-
shifts between the primary and secondary side.

Theory:-Any three phase system, either supply system or load can be connected in two ways
either star or delta.
(i) Star Connection: - In this connection, the starting or termination ends of all
winding are connected together & along with their phase ends this common
point is also brought out called as neutral point.
(ii) Delta Connection: - If the terminating end of one winding is connected to
starting end of other & If connection are continued for all their windings in
this fashion we get closed loop. The three supply lines are taken out from
three junctions. This is called as three phase delta connected system.
The load can be connected in similar manner. In this experiment we are concerned with
balanced load.

The load is said to be balanced when

i.)Voltages across three phases are equal & phases are displaced by 120° electrical.
ii.)The impedance of each phase of load is same.
iii.)The resulting current in all the three phases are equal & displaced by 120°
electrical from each other
iv.) Active power & reactive volt amperes of each is equal.

Some term related to 3 ph system

i. Line Voltage - The voltage between any two line of 3 ph load is called as line
voltage e.g. VRY, VYB & VBR.. For balance system all are equal in magnitude.
ii. Line Current – The current in each line is called as line current e.g. IR, IY, & IB.
They are equal in magnitude for balance system.
iii. Phase Voltage – The voltage across any branch of three phase load is called as phase
voltage.
VRN, VYN, & VBN are phase voltage
iv. Phase Current – current passing through any phase of load is called as phase
current.
For star connection of load
Line voltage (VL) = √3 phase voltage (Vph)
Line current (IL) = Phase current (Iph)
For delta connection of load
Line voltage (VL) = phase voltage (Vph)
Line current (IL) = √3 phase current(Iph)
The three phase power is given by,

P= power consumed by the load = √3VL IL cos(  )

Where  is phase angle & it depends on type of load i.e. inductive, capacitive
or resistive.

Circuit Diagram:

A) For star connected load:

B) For Delta connected load:

Result:-We successfully studied about experiment connections of 3-phase transformers and

Voltage and Current relationships.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 04

AIM: Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: dc machine (commutator brush

arrangement), induction machine (squirrel cage rotor), synchronous machine (field winging -
slip ring arrangement) and single-phase induction machine.

THEORY:
a) Construction of a DC Machine
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice
versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine.
Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel.
It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes;
(i) They support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed
on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks
for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for
cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through
a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to
collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of
a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is
equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They
rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping
the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

DC Machine parts

b) Construction of a Induction Machine

Induction motor has two main parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A stator winding
is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three phase supply is given to it.
Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the
mechanical load through the shaft.
The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as
1. Squirrel cage rotor,
2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three main parts :
Stator frame
It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator
core and the field winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection and mechanical
strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die-cast
or fabricated steel.
Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the
eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated.
Stator Winding or Field Winding
The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry three
phase windings. The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or delta The
winding wound on the stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding, and
when this winding is excited by three phase ac supply, it produces a rotating magnetic field.
Squirrel Cage Three Phase Induction Motor
The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical and have slots on its
periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed. The squirrel cage
rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars. This aluminum, brass or copper bars are
called rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor
conductors are permanently shorted by the copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings. To
provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence
form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage
induction motor. The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical.
 Construction of Induction Machine

c) Construction of a Synchronous Machine

Stator of Synchronous Machine
The main stationary part of the machine is stator. The stator consists of the following parts.
Stator Core
The stator core is made up of thin silicon laminations. It is insulated by a surface coating to
minimize hysteresis and eddy current losses. Its main purpose is to provide a path of low
reluctance for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator windings.

Stator Winding
The stator core has cuts on the inner periphery to accommodate the stator windings. The
stator windings could be either three-phase windings or single phase windings.

Rotor of Synchronous Machine

The rotor is the moving part of the machine. Rotors are available in two types:
1. Salient Pole Type
2. Cylindrical Rotor Type
The salient pole type rotor consists of poles projecting out from the rotor surface. It is made
up of steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses. A salient pole machine has a non-
uniform air gap. The gap is maximum between the poles and is minimum at the pole centres.
A cylindrical rotor is made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum
steel forgings of high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum steel. The poles are created by the
current flowing through the windings.

Result: - We have successfully study the cut out section of machines.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

AIM: Torque Speed Characteristic of separately excited dc motor.

THEORY:

Separately excited dc motor

In case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field and
armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the
armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of DC current.

From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can
be varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.

Operating characteristics of separately excited dc motor

Both in shunt wound dc motor and separately excited dc motor field is supplied from constant
voltage so that the field current is constant. Therefore these two motors have similar speed -
armature current and torque – armature current characteristics. In this type of motor flux is
assumed to be constant.

Speed – armature current (N – Ia) characteristics: We know that speed of dc motor is

proportional to back emf / flux i.e Eb / φ. When load is increased back emf Eb and φ flux
decrease due to armature resistance drop and armature reaction respectively .However back
emf decreases more than φ so that the speed of the motor slightly decreases with load.
Torque – armature current (T – Ia) characteristics: Here torque is proportional to the flux
and armature current. Neglecting armature reaction, flux φ is constant and torque is
proportional to the armature current Ia. T – Ia characteristics is a straight line passing through
the origin. From the curve we can see that huge current is needed to start heavy loads. So this
type of motor do not starts on heavy loads.

Torque- speed characteristics

Speed control of separately excited Dc motor

Speed of this type of dc shunt motor is controlled by the following methods:
I. Field control methods: Weakening of field causes increase in speed of the motor while
strengthening the field causes decreases the speed. Speed adjustment of this type of motor is
achieved from the following methods:
II. Field rheostat control: – Here a variable resistance is connected in series with the field
coil. Thus the speed is controlled by means of flux variation. Reluctance control involving
variation of reluctance of magnetic circuit of motor. Field voltage control by varying the
voltage at field circuit while keeping armature terminal voltage constant.
III. Armature control methods: Speed adjustment of separately excited DC motor by
armature control may be obtained by any one of the following methods:
i. Armature resistance control: the speed is controlled by varying the source voltage to
armature. Generally, a variable resistance is provided with the armature to vary the armature
resistance.
ii. Armature terminal voltage control: It involves variation of voltage in armature circuit.

Result: - We have successfully study the torque-speed characteristics of separately DC

motor.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 06

AIM: Demonstration of (a) dc-dc converters (b) dc-ac converters – PWM waveform (c) the
use of dc-ac converter for speed control of an induction motor and (d) Components of LT
switchgear.

THEORY:
The Power Electronic Converter can be classified mainly into four types:
1. AC to DC Converter (Controlled Rectifier)
2. DC to DC Converter (DC Chopper)
3. AC to AC Converter (AC voltage regulator)
4. DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
AC to DC = Rectifier: It converts AC to unipolar (DC) current
DC to AC = Inverter: It converts DC to AC of desired frequency and voltage
DC to DC = Chopper: It converts constant to variable DC or variable DC to constant DC
AC to AC = Cycloconverter, Matrix converter: It converts AC of desired frequency and/or
desired voltage magnitude from a line AC supply.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique is
applied in the inverter (DC/AC converter) to output an AC waveform with variable voltage
and variable frequency for use in mostly variable speed motor drives.

Components of LT switchgear
Generally electrical switchgear rated upto 1KV is termed as low tension switchgear. The term
LT Switchgear includes low voltage circuit breakers, switches, off load electrical isolators,
HRC fuses, earth leakage circuit breaker, miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and molded case
circuit breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system.
Incomer
The incomer feeds incoming electrical power to the incomer bus. The switchgear used in the
incomer should have a main switching device.
Sub - Incomer
Next downstream part of the LV Distribution board is sub - incomer. These sub-incomers
draw power from main incomer bus and feed this power to feeder bus.

Feeders
Different feeders are connected to the feeder bus to feeds different loads like, motor loads,
lighting loads, industrial machinery loads, air conditioner loads, transformer cooling system
loads etc.

In LT switchgear system, electrical appliances are protected against short circuit and overload
conditions by electrical fuses or electrical circuit breaker.

Result: - We have successfully study the all types of converters.