Chapter 8

Multistage Rockets

8.1 Notation

With current technology and fuels, and without greatly increasing the e↵ective Isp by
air-breathing, a single stage rocket to Earth orbit is still not possible. So it is necessary
to reach orbit using a multistage system where a certain fraction of the vehicle mass is
dropped o↵ after use, thus allowing the non-payload mass carried to orbit to be as small
as possible. The final velocity of an n stage launch system is the sum of the velocity gains
from each stage.

Vn = v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . . . . + vn (8.1)

The performance of an n -stage system can be optimized by proper selection of the struc-
tural mass, propellant mass and specific impulse of each of the n stages.
Let the index i refer to the ith stage of an n stage launch system.The structural and
propellant parameters of the system are as follows.
M0i - The total initial mass of the ith vehicle prior to firing including the payload mass,
ie, the mass of i, i + 1, i + 2, i + 3,...., n stages.
Mpi - The mass of propellant in the ith stage.
Msi - Structural mass of the ith stage alone including the mass of its engine, controllers
and instrumentation as well as any residual propellant which is not expended by the end
of the stage burn.
ML - The payload mass

8-1
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-2

Figure 8.1 schematically shows a three stage rocket at each regime of flight.

Figure 8.1: Three stage rocket notation.

Define the following variables.

P ayload ratio

M0(i+1)
i =
M0i M0(i+1)
(8.2)
M0(n+1) ML
n = =
M0n M0(n+1) M0n ML

Structural coef f icient

MSi M Si
"i = = (8.3)
M0i M0(i+1) MSi + M P i

M ass ratio
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-3

M0i 1+ i
Ri = = . (8.4)
M0i MP i "i + i

Ideal velocity increment

n
X n
X ✓ ◆
1+ i
Vn = Ci ln (Ri ) = Ci ln . (8.5)
"i + i
i=1 i=1

P ayload f raction
✓ ◆✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ML M02 M03 M04 ML
= = ......
M01 M01 M02 M03 M0n
✓ ◆✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ (8.6)
1 2 3 n
= ...... .
1+ 1 1+ 2 1+ 3 1+ n

Take the logarithm of (8.6) to express the payload fraction as a sum in terms of the payload
ratios

n
X ✓ ◆
i
ln ( ) = ln . (8.7)
1+ i
i=1

8.2 The variational problem

The structural coefficients, "i and e↵ective exhaust velocities, Ci , are known constants
based on some prior choice of propellants and structural design for each stage. The question
is: how should we distribute the total mass of the vehicle among the various stages? In
other words, given Vn , choose the distribution of stage masses so as to maximize the payload
fraction, . It turns out that the alternative statement; given maximize the final velocity
Vn , leads to the same distribution of stage masses.
The mathematical problem is to maximize

ln ( ) = G ( 1, 2, 3, . . . . . . , n) (8.8)

for fixed

Vn = F ( 1, 2, 3, . . . . . . , n) (8.9)
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-4

or, equivalently, maximize (8.9) for fixed (8.8). The approach is to vary the payload ratios,
( 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . . . . , n ), so as to maximize . Near a maximum, a small change in the i
will not change G.
✓ ◆
@G
G= i =0 (8.10)
@ i

The basic idea is shown in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Variation of G near a maximum.

The i are not independent, they must be chosen so that Vn is kept constant.
✓ ◆
@F
F = i =0 (8.11)
@ i

Thus only n 1 of the i can be treated as independent. Without loss of generality let’s
choose n to be determined in terms of the other payload ratios. The sums (8.10) and
(8.11) are

n ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 9
X1 @G @G >
i + n =0 >
>
>
>
@ i @ n >
=
i=1
. (8.12)
n ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ >
>
X1 @F @F >
>
i + n =0 >
>
;
@ i @ n
i=1

Use the second sum in (8.12) to replace n in the first

CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-5

n
X1 ⇢✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@G 1 @F
+ i =0 (8.13)
@ i ↵ @ i
i=1

where
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@F @G
↵= / (8.14)
@ n @ n

plays the role of a Lagrange multiplier. Since the equality (8.13) must hold for arbitrary
i , the coefficients in brackets must be individually zero.

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@G 1 @F
+ = 0; i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1 (8.15)
@ i ↵ @ i

From the definition of ↵ given by (8.14)

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@G 1 @F
+ = 0. (8.16)
@ n ↵ @ n

We now have n + 1 equations in the n + 1 unknowns ( 1, 2, 3, . . . . . . , n , ↵).

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 9
@G 1 @F >
+ = 0; i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n >
>
>
@ i ↵ @ i >
=
✓ ◆ (8.17)
n
X 1+ >
>
i >
>
Vn = Ci ln >
;
"i + i
i=1

If we supply the expressions for F and G in (8.17) the result for the optimal set of payload
ratios is (no sum on the index i)

↵"i
i = . (8.18)
(Ci C i "i ↵)

The Lagrange multiplier is determined from the expression for Vn .

X ✓ ◆
Ci ↵
Vn = Ci ln (8.19)
"i C i

Note that ↵ has units of velocity. Finally, the optimum overall payload fraction is
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-6

n
X ✓ ◆
↵"i
ln ( ) = ln . (8.20)
(Ci Ci "i ↵ + ↵"i )
i=1

8.3 Example - exhaust velocity and structural coefficient the

same for all stages

Let Ci = C and "i = " be the same for all stages. In this case
⇣ Vn
⌘
↵=C 1 "e( nC ) . (8.21)

The payload ratio is

Vn
"e( nC )
1
= Vn . (8.22)
e( nC ) 1

The payload fraction is

Vn
!n
1 "e( nC )
= Vn (8.23)
(1 ") e( nC )

and the mass ratio is

Vn
R = e( nC ) . (8.24)

Consider a liquid oxygen, kerosene system. Take the specific impulse to be 360 sec implying
C = 3528 m/ sec; a very high performance system. Let Vn = 9077 m/ sec needed to reach
orbital speed. The structural coefficient is " = 0.1 and let the number of stages be n = 3.
The stage design results are ↵ = 2696 m/ sec, = 0.563, R = 2.3575 and the payload
fraction is

= 0.047. (8.25)

Less than 5% of the overall mass of the vehicle is payload. It is of interest to see how much
better we can do by increasing the number of stages in this problem. Equation (8.23) is
plotted in Figure 8.3 using the parameters of the problem.
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-7

Figure 8.3: Payload fraction as a function of number of stages for a constant parameter
high performance launch vehicle.

It is clear that beyond three stages, there is very little increase in payload. Note also that
one stage cannot make orbit even with zero payload for the assumed value of ".

8.4 Problems

Problem 1 - A two stage rocket is to be used to put a payload of 1000 kg into low earth
orbit. The vehicle will be launched from Kennedy Space Center where the speed of rotation
of the Earth is 427 m/ sec. Assume gravitational velocity losses of about 1200 m/ sec and
aerodynamic velocity losses of 500 m/ sec. The first stage burns kerosene and oxygen
producing a mean specific impulse of 320 sec averaged over the flight, while the upper stage
burns hydrogen and oxygen with an average specific impulse of 450 sec. The structural
coefficient of the first stage is 0.05 and that of the second is 0.07. Determine the payload
ratios and the total mass of the vehicle. Suppose the same vehicle is to be used to launch a
satellite into a north-south orbit from a launch complex on Kodiak island in Alaska. How
does the mass of the payload change?
Problem 2 - A group of universities join together to launch a four stage rocket with a
small payload to the Moon. The fourth stage needs to reach the earth escape velocity
of 11, 176 m/ sec. The vehicle will be launched from Kennedy Space Center where the
speed of rotation of the Earth is 427 m/ sec. Assume gravitational velocity losses of about
1500 m/ sec and aerodynamic velocity losses of 600 m/ sec. To keep cost down, four stages
with the same e↵ective exhaust velocity C and structural coefficient " are used. Each stage
burns kerosene and oxygen producing a mean specific impulse of 330 sec averaged over each
segment of the flight. The structural coefficient of each stage is " = 0.1. Is the payload
CHAPTER 8. MULTISTAGE ROCKETS 8-8

fraction greater than zero?

Problem 3 - A low-cost four stage rocket is to be used to launch small payloads to orbit.
The concept proposed for the system utilizes propellants that are safe and cheap but provide
a specific impulse of only 200 sec. All four stages are identical. What structural efficiency
is required to reach orbit with a finite payload?