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UNIT IV TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR DC CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS
3. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUITS
4. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS
5. CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS IN TERMS OF
Z,Y AND H PARAMETERS.

1. INTRODUCTION

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For higher order differential equation, the number of arbitrary constants

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equals the order of the equation. If these unknowns are to be evaluated for
particular solution, other conditions in network must be known. A set of
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simultaneous equations must be formed containing general solution and some
other equations to match number of unknown with equations.
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We assume that at reference time t=0, network condition is changed by switching

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action. Assume that switch operates in zero time. The network conditions at this
instant are called initial conditions in network.
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1. Resistor :
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Equ 1 is linear and also time dependent. This indicates that current through
resistor changes if applied voltage changes instantaneously. Thus in resistor,
change in current is instantaneous as there is no storage of energy in it.

2.Inductor:

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If dc current flows through inductor, dil/dt becomes zero as dc current is constant

with respect to time. Hence voltage across inductor, VL becomes zero. Thus, as
for as dc quantities are considered, in steady stake, inductor acts as short circuit.

We can express inductor current in terms of voltage developed across it as

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I through inductor cannot change instantaneously.

3.capacitor

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If dc voltage is applied to capacitor, dVC / dt becomes zero as dc voltage is

constant with respect to time.

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Hence the current through capacitor iC becomes zero, Thus as far as dc quantities
are considered capacitor acts as open circuit.

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Thus voltage across capacitor can not change instantaneously.

2. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS:

So far we have considered dc resistive network in which currents and

voltages were independent of time. More specifically, Voltage (cause input)
and current (effect output) responses displayed simultaneously except for a

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constant multiplicative factor (VR). Two basic passive elements namely,

inductor and capacitor are introduced in the dc network. Automatically, the
question will arise whether or not the methods developed in lesson-3 to lesson-
8 for resistive circuit analysis are still valid. The voltage/current relationship
for these two passive elements are defined by the derivative (voltage across
the inductor

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Our problem is to study the growth of current in the circuit through two stages,
namely; (i) dc transient response (ii) steady state response of the system

D.C Transients: The behavior of the current and the voltage in the circuit
switch is closed until it reaches its final value is called dc transient response of
the concerned circuit. The response of a circuit (containing resistances,
inductances, capacitors and switches) due to sudden application of voltage or
current is called transient response. The most common instance of a transient
response in a circuit occurs when a switch is turned on or off –a rather common
event in an electric circuit.

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Growth or Rise of current in R-L circuit

To find the current expression (response) for the circuit shown in fig. 10.6(a),
we can write the KVL equation around the circuit

The table shows how the current i(t) builds up in a R-L circuit.

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Consider network shown in fig. the switch k is moved from

position 1 to 2 at reference time t = 0.

Now before switching take place, the capacitor C is fully charged to V

volts and it discharges through resistance R. As time passes, charge and hence
voltage across capacitor i.e. Vc decreases gradually and hence discharge current
also decreases gradually from maximum to zero exponentially.

After switching has taken place, applying kirchoff’s voltage law,

Where VR is voltage across resistor and VC is voltage across capacitor.

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Above equation is linear, homogenous first order differential equation. Hence

rearranging we have,

Integrating both sides of above equation we have

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Now at t = 0, VC =V which is initial condition, substituting in equation we have,
pz
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Where Q is total charge on capacitor

Similarly at any instant, VC = q/c where q is instantaneous charge.

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Thus charge behaves similarly to voltage across capacitor.

Now discharging current i is given by

but VR = VC when there is no source in circuit.

The above expression is nothing but discharge current of capacitor. The variation
of this current with respect to time is shown in fig.

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This shows that the current is exponentially decaying. At point P on the graph.

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The current value is (0.368) times its maximum value. The characteristics of
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decay are determined by values R and C, which are 2 parameters of network.
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For this network, after the instant t = 0, there is no driving voltage source in
circuit, hence it is called undriven RC circuit.
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3. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUITS

Ideal and real capacitors: An ideal capacitor has an infinite dielectric

resistance and plates (made of metals) that have zero resistance. However, an
ideal capacitor does not exist as all dielectrics have some

leakage current and all capacitor plates have some resistance. A capacitor’s of
how much charge (current) it will allow to leak through the dielectric medium.
Ideally, a charged

capacitor is not supposed to allow leaking any current through the dielectric
medium and also assumed not to dissipate any power loss in capacitor plates

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resistance. Under this situation, the model as shown in fig. 10.16(a) represents
the ideal capacitor. However, all real or practical capacitor leaks current to
some extend due to leakage resistance of dielectric medium. This leakage
resistance can be visualized as a resistance connected in parallel with the
capacitor and power loss in capacitor plates can be realized with a resistance
connected in series with capacitor. The model of a real capacitor is shown in
fig.

Let us consider a simple series RC−circuit shown in fig. 10.17(a) is connected

through a switch ‘S’ to a constant voltage source .

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The switch ‘S’ is closed at time ‘t=0’ It is assumed that the capacitor is initially
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charged with a voltage and the current flowing through the circuit at any instant
of time ‘’ after closing the switch is
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Current decay in source free series RL circuit: -

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At t = 0- , , switch k is kept at position ‘a’ for very long time. Thus, the network
is in steady state. Initial current through inductor is given as,

Because current through inductor can not change instantaneously

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Assume that at t = 0 switch k is moved to position 'b'.

Applying KVL,

Rearranging the terms in above equation by separating variables

Integrating both sides with respect to corresponding variables

Where k’ is constant of integration.

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To find- k’:

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Form equation 1, at t=0, i=I0
Substituting the values in equation 3
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Substituting value of k’ from equation 4 in

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fig. shows variation of current i with respect to time

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From the graph, H is clear that current is exponentially decaying. At point P

on graph. The current value is (0.363) times its maximum value. The
characteristics of decay are determined by values R and L which are two
parameters of network.
The voltage across inductor is given by

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4. TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUITS

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In the preceding lesson, our discussion focused extensively on dc circuits having

resistances with either inductor () or capacitor () (i.e., single storage element) but
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not both. Dynamic response of such first order system has been studied and
discussed in detail. The presence of resistance, inductance, and capacitance in the
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dc circuit introduces at least a second order differential equation or by two

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simultaneous coupled linear first order differential equations. We shall see in next
section that the complexity of analysis of second order circuits increases
significantly when compared with that encountered with first order circuits. Initial
conditions for the circuit variables and their derivatives play an important role
and this is very crucial to analyze a second order dynamic system.

Response of a series R-L-C circuit

Consider a series RLcircuit as shown in fig.11.1, and it is excited with a dc
voltage source C−−sV.
Applying around the closed path for ,

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et
The current through the capacitor can be written as Substituting the current
‘’expression in eq.(11.1) and rearranging the terms,

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The above equation is a 2nd-order linear differential equation and the parameters
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associated with the differential equation are constant with time. The complete
solution of the above differential equation has two components; the transient
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response and the steady state response. Mathematically, one can write the
complete solution as
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Since the system is linear, the nature of steady state response is same as that of
forcing function (input voltage) and it is given by a constant value. Now, the first
part of the total response is completely dies out with time while and it is defined
as a transient or natural response of the system. The natural or transient response

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(see Appendix in Lesson-10) of second order differential equation can be

obtained from the homogeneous equation (i.e., from force free system) that is
expressed by

and solving the roots of this equation (11.5) on that associated with transient part
of the complete solution (eq.11.3) and they are given below.

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The roots of the characteristic equation are classified in three groups
depending upon the values of the parameters ,,RLand of the circuit
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Case-A (overdamped response): That the roots are distinct with negative real
parts. Under this situation, the natural or transient part of the complete solution is
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written as
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and each term of the above expression decays exponentially and ultimately
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reduces to zero as and it is termed as overdamped response of input free system.

A system that is overdamped responds slowly to any change in excitation. It may
be noted that the exponential term t→∞11tAeαtakes longer time to decay
its value to zero than the term21tAeα. One can introduce a factorξ that provides
an information about the speed of system response and it is defined by damping
ratio

RLC Circuit:

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pz
Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each
other across ac supply as shown in fig.
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The ac supply is given by, V = Vm sin wt

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The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1. Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR
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2. Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL

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3. Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of

three drops are,
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(i) VR is in phase with current I

(ii) VL leads I by 900

(iii) Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

4. Vc lags current by 900

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5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition

(1800 out of phase)

6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to get supply voltage.

The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of VL and Vc

which ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.
Let us consider different cases:
Case(i): XL > Xc
When X L > Xc
Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc
So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I.
Hence I lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of VL and Vc i.e. (V L -
Vc). The circuit is said to be inductive in nature.
From voltage triangle,

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If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф )
i.e I lags V by angle ф
Case(ii): XL < Xc
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When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc
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Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said
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to be capacitive in nature
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Form voltage triangle

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i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such

a case, the circuit is purely resistive in nature.

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Impedance:

In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by, Z = R + j X

X = XL –Xc = Total reactance of the circuit
If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive
If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
Tan фL - =Xc[(X)∕R]
Cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = 2 √+(X L(R-Xc ) 2)
Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

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Power and power triangle:
The average power consumed by circuit is,
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Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power
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consumed by L) + (Average power consumed by C)

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Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI

V = V Cos ф P = VI Cos ф
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Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed
as
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P = Voltage x Component in phase with voltage

Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI

P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active po Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф

5. CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO PORT NETWORKS IN TERMS OF

Z,Y AND H PARAMETERS.

The purpose of this appendix is to study methods of characterizing and analyzing

two-port networks. A port is a terminal pair where energy can be supplied or
extracted. A two-port network is a four-terminal circuit in which the terminals
are paired to form an input port and an output port. Figure W2–1 shows the

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customary way of defining the port voltages and currents. Note that the reference
marks for the port variables comply with the passive sign convention.

The linear circuit connecting the two ports is

Assumed to be in the zero state and to be free of any independent sources. In

other words, there is no initial energy stored in the circuit and the box in Figure
W2–1 contains only resistors, capacitors, inductors, mutual inductance, and
dependent sources. A four-terminal network qualifies as a two-port if the net
current entering each terminal pair is zero. This means that the current exiting the
lower port terminals in Figure W2–1 must be equal to the currents entering the
upper terminals.

One way to meet this condition is to always connect external sources and loads
between the input terminal pair or between the output terminal pair. The first task

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is to identify circuit parameters that characterize a two-port. In the two port

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approach the only available variables are the port voltages V1 and V2, and the
port currents I1 and I2. A set of two-port parameters is defined by expressing two
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of these four-port variables in terms of the other two variables. In this appendix
we study the four ways in Table W2–1.
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TWO-PORT PARAMETERS

Note that each set of parameters is defined by two equations, one for each
of the two dependent port variables. Each equation involves a sum of two terms,
one for each of the two independent port variables. Each term involves a
proportionality because the two-port is a linear circuit and superposition applies.
The names given the parameters indicate their dimensions (impedance and

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admittance), a mixture of dimensions (hybrid), or their original application

(transmission lines). With double-subscripted parameters, the first subscript
indicates the port at which the dependent variable appears and the second
subscript the port at which the independent variable appears.

Regardless of their dimensions, all two-port parameters are network

functions. In general, the parameters are functions of the complex frequency
variable and s-domain circuit analysis applies. For sinusoidalsteady-state
problems, we replace s by j and use phasor circuit analysis. For purely resistive
circuits, the two-port parameters are real constants and we use resistive circuit
analysis. Before turning to specific parameters, it is important to specify the
objectives of two-port network analysis. Briefly, these objectives are:

1. Determine two-port parameters of a given circuit.

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Use two-port parameters to find port variable responses for specified input

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sources and output loads.
In principle, the port variable responses can be found by applying node or
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mesh analysis to the internal circuitry connecting the input and output ports. So
why adopt the two-port point of view? Why not use straightforward circuit
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analysis?
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There are several reasons. First, two-port parameters can be determined

experimentally without resorting to circuit analysis. Second, there are
applications in power systems and microwave circuits in which input and output
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ports are the only places that signals can be measured or observed. Finally, once
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two-port parameters of a circuit are known, it is relatively simple to find port

variable responses for different input sources and/or different output loads.
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put ports are the only places that signals can be measured or observed.
Finally, once two-port parameters of a circuit are known, it is relatively simple to
find port variable responses for different input sources and/or different output
loads.

IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS

The impedance parameters are obtained by expressing the port voltages V1

and V2 in terms of the port currents I1 and I2.

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The network functions z11, z12, z21, and z22 are called the impedance
parameters or simply the z-parameters. The matrix form of these equations are

where the matrix [z] is called the impedance matrix of a two-port network. To
measure or compute the impedance parameters, we apply excitation at one port
and leave the other port open-circuited. When we drive port 1 with port 2 open
(I2), the expressions in Eq. (W2–1) reduce to one term each, and yield the
definitions of z11 and z21.

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Conversely, when we drive port 2 with port 1 open (I1=0), the expressions in
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Eq. (W2–1) reduce to one term each that define z12and z22 as
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All of these parameters are impedances with dimensions of ohms. A two-

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port is said to be reciprocal when the open-circuit voltage measured at one port
due to a current excitation at the other port is unchanged when the measurement
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and excitation ports are interchanged. A two-port that fails this test is said to be
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nonreciprocal. Circuits containing resistors, capacitors, and inductors (including

mutual inductance) are always reciprocal. Adding dependent sources to the mix
usually makes the two-port nonreciprocal. If a two-port is reciprocal, then
z12 z21. To prove this we apply an excitation I1 Ix at the input port and observe
that Eq. (W2–1) gives the open circuit (I2) voltage at the output port as
V2OC z21Ix. Reversing the excitation and observation ports, we find that an
excitation I2 Ix produces an open-circuit (I1) voltage at the input port of
V 1OC z12Ix. Reciprocity requires that V1OC
V2OC, which can only happen if z12 z21.

ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS

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The admittance parameters are obtained by expressing the port currents I1 and
I2 in terms of the port voltages V1 and V2. The resulting two-port i–v
relationships are

The network functions y11, y12, y21, and y22 are called the admittance
parameters or simply the y-parameters. In matrix form these equations are

where the matrix [y ] is called the admittance matrix of a two-port network. To

measure or compute the admittance parameters, we apply excitation at one port

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and short circuit the other port. When we drive at port 1 with port 2 shorted (V2=
0), the expressions in Eq. (W2–5) reduce to one term each that define y11 and

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y21 as pz
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Conversely, when we drive at port 2 with port 1 shorted (V1= 0), the expressions
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in Eq. (W2– 5) reduce to one term each that define y22 and y12 as
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All of these network functions are admittances with dimensions of

Siemens. If a two-port is reciprocal, then y12 y21. This can be proved using the
same process applied to the z-parameters.

The admittance parameters express port currents in terms of port voltages,

whereas the impedance parameters express the port voltages in terms of the port
currents. In effect these parameters are inverses. To see this mathematically, we
multiply Eq. (W2–2) by [z] 1, the inverse of the impedance matrix.

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HYBRID PARAMETERS

The hybrid parameters are defined in terms of a mixture of port variables.

Specifically, these parameters express V1 and I2 in terms of I1 and V2. The
resulting two-port i–v relationships are

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pz
Where h11, h12, h21, and h22 are called the hybrid parameters or simply the h-
parameters. In matrix form these equations are
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Where the matrix [h ] is called the h-matrix of a two-port network. The h-

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parameters can be measured or calculated as follows. When we drive at port 1

with port 2 shorted (V2= 0), the expressions in Eq. (W2–9) reduce to one term
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each, and yield the definitions of h11 and h21.

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When we drive at port 2 with port 1 open (I1=0), the expressions in Eq. (W2–9)
reduce to one term each, and yield the definitions of h12 and h22.

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These network functions have a mixture of dimensions: h11 is impedance in

ohms, h22 is admittance in Siemens, and h21 and h12 are dimensionless transfer
functions. If a two-port is reciprocal, then h12h21. This can be proved by the
same method applied to the z-parameters.

AC through pure resistance:

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure resistance ‘R’ ohms

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across voltage

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V = VmSinwt
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According to ohms law,

i = V∕R = (VmSinwt)∕R
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i = (Vm∕R) Sin(wt)
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This is equation giving instantaneous value of current

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i = ImSin(wt+ф)
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Im = Vm∕R and ф= 0
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It is in phase with the voltage applied. There is no phase different between

two.
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“In purely resistive circuit, the current and the voltage applied are in phase
with each other “

Ac through purely resistive circuit:

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Power:

The instantaneous power in a.c circuit can be obtained by taking

product of the instantaneous value of current and voltage.

P= VxI

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= Vm Sin(wt) x Im Sin(wt)

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= VmIm Sin2wt
=(VmIm∕2 )x(1-coswt)
pz
P= (VmIm∕2) – (VmIm∕2)coswt
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Instantaneous power consists of two components: 1- Constant power

component (VmIm∕2)
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2- Fluctuating component [(VmIm∕2)coswt ]having frequency, double

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the frequency of applied voltage.

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The average value of fluctuating cosine component of double frequency is zero,

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overone complete cycle. So, average power consumption over one cycle is equal
to constant power component i.e. VmIm∕2.
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Pavg = VmIm∕2 = (Vm∕√2) x (Im∕√2)

Pavg = Vrms x Irms watts

Pavg = VxI watts =I2R watt

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AC through pure inductance:

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Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure, inductance of L
henries connected across a voltage given by the equation.

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V = Vm Sinwt
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Pure inductance has zero ohmic resistance its internal resistance is
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zero. The coil has pure inductance of h henries (H).

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When alternating current ‘i’ flows through inductance ‘L’. It sets up

an alternating magnetic field around the inductance. This changing flux
links the coil and due to self inductance emf gets induced in the coil. This
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emf opposes the applied voltage.

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The self induced emf in the coil is given by Self induced emf e= -L
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di∕dt
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At all instants, applied voltage V is equal and opposite to self induced emf
e

V = -e = - (-L di∕dt)
V = L di∕dt
Vm Sinwt = L di∕dt
di = (Vm∕ L) Sinwt dt
i = ∫di = ∫(Vm∕ L) Sinwt dt
=(Vm∕L)[-coswt∕w]

i= -(Vm∕wL) Sin ((π∕2)-wt) ⇨coswt = Sin (wt-π∕2)

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i= -(Vm∕wL) Sin (wt-π∕2) ⇨Sin ((π∕2)-wt) =-Sin(wt-π∕2)

i = Im Sin (wt- π∕2)
Where, Im = Vm∕wL =Vm∕XL

XL =wL = 2πfL Ω

The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely

sinusoidal and having angle of - π∕2 radians i.e. 90o. This means current
lags voltage applied by 90o
Concepts of Induction Reactance:

Im = Vm∕XL Where, XL = wL = 2πfL Ω

XL = Induction Reactance

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Inductive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by the
inductance of circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.

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Note:
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If frequency is zero, which is so for dc voltage, the inductive
reactance is zero. Therefore it is said that inductance offers zero reactance
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for dc or steady current.

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Power:
P = VxI
= Vm Sinwt x Im sin(wt- π∕2)
.p
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= -VmImSin(wt) Cos(wt) [∵ sin(wt- π∕2)=-Cos(wt)]

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P = (-VmIm∕2) x Sin(2wt) [∵2sinwt Coswt = Sin2wt]

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The average value of Sine curve over a complete cycle is always

zero. Pav =0∫2πSin (2wt) d(wt)

AC through pure capacitance:

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Consider a simple circuit consisting of pure capacitor of c farads,

connected across a voltage given by equation,

V = Vm Sinwt

The current I charge the capacitor C. The instantaneous charge ‘q’

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on the plates of capacitor is given by

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q= CV pz
q = CVm sinwt

Current i = rate of flow of charge ‘q’ i = dq∕dt = d(CVmSinwt)∕dt

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i = CVm d(Sinwt)∕dt
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i = Vm∕(1∕wc) Sin(wt+π∕2) i = Im Sin(wt+π∕2)

Where, Im =Vm∕Xc
.p

Xc = 1∕wc = 1∕(2πfc) Ω
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The above equation clearly shows that current is purely sinusoidal

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and having phase angle of π∕2 radians +900

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This means current leads voltage applied by 900. The positive sign
indicates leading nature of the current.

Concepts of reactive capacitance:

Im=Vm∕Xc And Xc=1∕wC = 1∕(2πfc) Ω
Xc = Capacitive reactance

Capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by the

capacitance of the circuit to flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.

Power:

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The expression for instantaneous power can be obtained by taking

the product of instantaneous voltage and current

P = Vxi =Vm Sin(wt) x Im Sin(wt+ π∕2)

= VmIm Sin(wt) Cos(wt)
P = (VmIm∕2) Sin(2wt)
Pavg = Pav =0∫2π(VmIm∕2) Sin (2wt) d(wt) = 0

Drawing of the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit energized by a

sinusoidal voltage showing the relative position of current, component
voltage and applied voltage for the following case

a) When XL > Xc
b) When XL < Xc

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c) When XL = Xc.

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RLC Circuit: pz
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Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each

other across ac supply as shown in fig.

The ac supply is given by,

V = Vm sin wt

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The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1) Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR
2) Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL
3) Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of
three drops are,
1. VR is in phase with current I
2. VL leads I by 900
3. Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

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4. Vc lags current by 900

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5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition
(1800 out of phase)
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6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to getsupply voltage.
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The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of VL and Vc

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which ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.

Let us consider different cases:
Case(i): XL > Xc
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When X L > Xc
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Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc

So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I.
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Hence I lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of V L and Vc i.e. (VL - Vc).
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The circuit is said to be inductive in nature.

From voltage triangle,
V = √ (VR2 + (VL – Vc) 2) = √ ((IR) 2 + (IXL – IXc) 2)
V = I √ (R2 + (XL – Xc) 2)
V = IZ
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc) 2 )
If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф)

i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(ii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc

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Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to
be capacitive in nature Form voltage triangle

i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

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So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such a

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case, the circuit is purely resistive in nature.
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Impedance:
In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
ee

Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit
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If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive

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If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive

If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
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Tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]

Cos ф = [R∕Z]
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Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)
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Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

Power and power triangle:

The average power consumed by circuit is,

Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power

consumed by L) + (Average power consumed by C)

Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI

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V = V Cos ф
P = VI Cos ф
Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed as

P = Voltage x Component in phase with voltage

Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI
P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active power

Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф

1. An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a maximum value of 12A

1. Write down value of current for instantaneous values

et
2. Find the value of current after 1∕360 second
3. Time taken to reach 9.6A for the first time.

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In the above cases assume that time is reckoned as zero when current wave
is passing through zero and increase in positive direction.
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Solution:
Given:
F = 60Hz
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Im = 12A
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W = 2πf = 2π x 60 = 377 rad∕sec

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(i). Equation of instantaneous value is i = Im Sin wt

w

i = 12 Sin 377t
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(ii). t = 1∕360sec
i = 12 Sin (377∕360) = 12 Sin 1.0472 = 10.3924 A
i = 10.3924 A

(iii). i = 9.6 A

9.6 = 12 Sin 377t Sin377t = 0.8 377t = 0.9272

2. A 50 Hz, t = 2.459 x 10-3sec alternating voltage of 150V (rms) is applied

independently

a. Resistance of 10Ω
b. Inductance of 0.2H

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c. Capacitance of 50uF

Find the expression for the instantaneous current in each case. Draw
the phasor diagram in each case.

Solution:
Given ,
F = 50Hz
V = 150 V

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Im = Vm∕R = 212.13∕10 = 21.213
ф =0
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For pure resistive current circuit phase different ф

i = Im Sin wt = Im Sin 2πft

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i = 21.213 Sin (100 πt) A

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Phasor diagram: Case (ii):

L = 0.2H
w

XL = wL =2πfL XL = 2π x 50 x0.2
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XL = 62.83 Ω
Im = Vm∕XL = 212.13∕62.83 = 3.37A
w

Ф A = -900 = π∕2 rad

In pure Inductive circuit, I lags V by 90 degree i= Im Sin (wt - ) A

i = 3.37 Sin Ф (wt - Ф) A

i = 3.37 Sin (100 πt - π∕2) A

Phasor diagram

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Case(iii):
C= 50uf

Xc = 1∕wC = 1∕2πfC

Xc = 1∕(2π x 50x 50 x 10-6) = 63.66Ω

et
Im = Vm∕Xc = 212.13∕63.66 = 3.33 A

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In pure capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 900
pz
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= 90o = π∕2 rad
ad

i = Im Sin (wt +ф ) A
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i = 3.33 Sin (wt +ф ) A

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i = 3.33 Sin (100 πt + π∕2) A

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Phasor Diagram:

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3. An alternating current i= 414 Sin (2π x 50 x t) A is passed through a series

circuit of a resistance of 100 ohm and an inductance of 0.31831 H. find the
expression for the instantaneous values of voltage across,
a. The resistance ,
b. Inductance
c. Capacitance
Solution:

Given

et
i = 414 Sin (2π x 50 t) A
R = 100 Ω

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L = 0.31831 H
XL = 2π x 50 x 0.31831 = 100 Ω
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(i) Voltage across Resistance:
ee

VR = iR = 1.414 sin (2π x 50 t) x 100

ad

VR = 141.4 Sin (2π x 50 t) V

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(ii) Voltage across Inductance:

VL = i XL = 1.414 Sin (2π x 50 t + 900) x 100

VL = 141.4 Sin (2π x 50 t + 900) V

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et
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4. The wave form of the voltage and current of a circuit are given by
pz
e= 120 Sin (314 t)
i= 10 Sin (314 t + π∕6)
ee

Calculate the value of resistance, capacitance which is connected in series to

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form the circuit. Also, Draw wave forms for current, voltage and phasor
diagram. Calculate power consumed by the circuit.
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Solution:
w
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et
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pz
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5. A resistance of 120 Ω and a capacitive reactance of 250Ω are connected in

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series across a AC voltage source. If a current 0.9 A is flowing in the circuit

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find out,
(i). Power factor
(ii). Supply voltage
(iii). Voltage across resistance and capacitance
(iv). Active power and reactive power
Solution:
Given :
R = 120Ω

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et
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pz
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6. A series circuit consisting of 25 Ω resistor, 64mH inductor and 80uF

capacitor to a 110V, 50Hz, Single phase supply as shown in fig. Calculate
.p

the current, Voltage across individual element and overall p.f of the circuit.
Draw a neat phasor diagram showing
w
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et
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pz
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.p
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7. A series circuit having pure resistance of 40 , pure inductance of 50.07mH

and a capacitance is connected across a 400V, 50Hz Ac supply. This R, L, C
combination draws a current of 10A. Calculate

1. Power factor of circuit

2. Capacitor value

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Solution:

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pz
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1) What is time constant? Explain time constant in case of series RL circuit.

Or
2) A series RL circuit with initial current I0 in the inductor is connected to a
dc voltage V at t = 0. Derive the expression for instantaneous current through
the Inductor for t>0.
Or
3) Explain in brief about the step response of series RL circuits.

The response or the output of the series RL and RC circuits driven dc

excitations is called step response of the network.

Consider that a dc voltage is applied to any general network through a switch k

as shown
in fig.

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Initially switch k is kept open for very long time. So no voltage is applied to
the network. Thus the voltage at input-terminals of network is zero. So we can
write voltage across terminals A and B V

(l) is zero. When the switch k is closed at t=0, the dc voltage v gets applied to the
network. The voltage across terminals A and B suddenly or instantaneously rises
to voltage V. the variation of voltage across terminals +1 and B against time t as

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shown in fig (b).

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In fig (b) it is observed that at t=0, there is a step of V volts. Such signal
or function is called step function. We can define step function as
pz
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When the magnitude of the voltage applied is 1 volt then the function is called
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unit step function.

When the circuits are driven by driving sources, then such circuits are called
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driven circuits. When the circuits are without such driving sources, then such
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circuits are called undriven circuits or

source free circuits.
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Step response of Driver series RL circuit:-

Consider a series RL circuit.

At t=0-, switch k is about to close but not fully closed. As voltage is not applied
to the circuit, current in the circuit will be zero.

In this current through inductor can not change instantaneously.

Let initial current through inductor can be represented as I0. in above case I0 is
zero. Assume that switch k is closed at t =0.

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pz
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.p
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pz
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.p
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From above fig (a) shows variation of current I with respect to

time (t) i.e. current increases exponentially with respect to time. The rising current

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produces rising flux, which induces emf in coil. According to Lens’s law, the self
induced emf opposes the flow of current. Because of this induced emf and its
opposition, the current in the coil don’t reach its max value.

The point p shown on graph indicates that current in circuit rises to 0.632
time’s maximum value of current in steady state.

“the time required for the current to rise to the 0.632 of its final value is known
as time constant of given RL circuit. The time constant is denoted by z”. Thus
for series RL circuit, time constant is

The initial rate of rise of current is large up to first time constant. At later

et
stage, the rate of rise of current reduces.

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Theoretically I reach maximum value after infinite time.
Voltage across inductor L is given by
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