Trigonometric Functions

pr04-445-568.
I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 445
CHAPTER
Trigonometric
Functions 4
H AVE YOU HAD DAYS WHERE
your physical, intellectual, and
emotional potentials were all
at their peak? Then there are
those other days when we feel we should
not even bother getting out of bed. Do
our potentials run in oscillating cycles
like the tides? Can they be described
mathematically? In this chapter, you will
encounter functions that enable us to
model phenomena that occur in cycles.
WHAT A DAY! IT STARTED WHEN YOU

added two miles to your morning run.
You’ve experienced a feeling of peak
physical well-being ever since. College
was wonderful: You actually enjoyed
two difficult lectures and breezed
through a math test that had you
worried. Now you’re having dinner with
a group of old friends. You experience
the warmth from bonds of friendship
filling the room.
Graphs of functions showing a
person’s biorhythms, the physical,
intellectual, and emotional cycles we
experience in life, are presented in
Exercises 75–82 of Exercise Set 4.5.
445
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 446
446 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions
SECTION 4.1 Angles and Radian Measure

Objectives
❶ Recognize and use the
vocabulary of angles.
❷ Use degree measure.
❸ Use radian measure.
❹ Convert between degrees
and radians.
❺ Draw angles in standard
position.
❻ Find coterminal angles.
❼ Find the length of a circular
arc.
❽ Use linear and angular
speed to describe motion
on a circular path.
The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art was constructed in 1995 to illustrate how
art and architecture can enrich one another. The exterior involves geometric shapes,
symmetry, and unusual facades. Although there are no windows, natural light
streams in through a truncated cylindrical skylight that crowns the building. The
architect worked with a scale model of the museum at the site and observed how
light hit it during different times of the day. These observations were used to cut the
cylindrical skylight at an angle that maximizes sunlight entering the interior.
Angles play a critical role in creating modern architecture. They are also
fundamental in trigonometry. In this section, we begin our study of trigonometry by
looking at angles and methods for measuring them.
❶ Recognize and use the

vocabulary of angles.
Angles
The hour hand of a clock suggests a ray, a part of a line that has only one endpoint
and extends forever in the opposite direction. An angle is formed by two rays that
have a common endpoint. One ray is called the initial side and the other the
Ray terminal side.
A rotating ray is often a useful way to think about angles. The ray in Figure 4.1
rotates from 12 to 2. The ray pointing to 12 is
Ray the initial side and the ray pointing to 2 is the C A
u
terminal side. The common endpoint of an
angle’s initial side and terminal side is the
Terminal side Initial side
vertex of the angle. B
Figure 4.2 shows an angle. The arrow Vertex
near the vertex shows the direction and the
amount of rotation from the initial side to the Figure 4.2 An angle; two rays with a
Figure 4.1 Clock with hands terminal side. Several methods can be used to common endpoint
forming an angle name an angle. Lowercase Greek letters, such as a (alpha), b (beta), g (gamma),
and u (theta), are often used.
An angle is in standard position if
• its vertex is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system and

• its initial side lies along the positive x-axis.
The angles in Figure 4.3 at the top of the next page are both in standard position.
When we see an initial side and a terminal side in place, there are two kinds
of rotation that could have generated the angle. The arrow in Figure 4.3(a) indicates
that the rotation from the initial side to the terminal side is in the counterclockwise
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 447
Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 447
y y
Initial side along

a positive x-axis
Terminal side Vertex
x x
Vertex Terminal side

Initial side along
positive x-axis u
Figure 4.3 Two angles in standard

(a) a in standard position; (b) u in standard position;
position
a positive u negative
direction. Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation. Thus, angle a

y is positive. By contrast, the arrow in Figure 4.3(b) shows that the rotation from the
initial side to the terminal side is in the clockwise direction. Negative angles are
b generated by clockwise rotation. Thus, angle u is negative.
When an angle is in standard position, its terminal side can lie in a quadrant.
x We say that the angle lies in that quadrant. For example, in Figure 4.3(a), the termi-
nal side of angle a lies in quadrant II. Thus, angle a lies in quadrant II. By contrast,
in Figure 4.3(b), the terminal side of angle u lies in quadrant III. Thus, angle u lies in
quadrant III.
Must all angles in standard position lie in a quadrant? The answer is no. The
terminal side can lie on the x-axis or the y-axis. For example, angle b in Figure 4.4
has a terminal side that lies on the negative y-axis. An angle is called a quadrantal
Figure 4.4 b is a quadrantal angle if its terminal side lies on the x-axis or the y-axis. Angle b in Figure 4.4 is an
angle. example of a quadrantal angle.
❷ Use degree measure. Measuring Angles Using Degrees

Angles are measured by determining the amount of rotation from the initial side to
the terminal side. One way to measure angles is in degrees, symbolized by a small,
raised circle °. Think of the hour hand of a clock. From 12 noon to 12 midnight, the
hour hand moves around in a complete circle. By definition, the ray has rotated
through 360 degrees, or 360°. Using 360° as the amount of rotation of a ray back
1
onto itself, a degree, 1°, is 360 of a complete rotation.
Figure 4.5 shows that certain angles have special names. An acute angle mea-
sures less than 90° [see Figure 4.5(a)]. A right angle, one quarter of a complete rota-
tion, measures 90° [Figure 4.5(b)]. Examine the right angle—do you see a small
square at the vertex? This symbol is used to indicate a right angle. An obtuse angle
measures more than 90°, but less than 180° [Figure 4.5(c)]. Finally, a straight angle,
one-half a complete rotation, measures 180° [Figure 4.5(d)].
A complete 360° rotation
u 180
90
u
(a) Acute angle (b) Right angle (c) Obtuse angle (d) Straight angle
(0 u 90) (~ rotation) (90 u 180) (q rotation)
Figure 4.5 Classifying angles by their degree measurement
We will be using notation such as u = 60° to refer to an angle u whose measure

is 60°. We also refer to an angle of 60° or a 60° angle, rather than using the more
precise (but cumbersome) phrase an angle whose measure is 60°.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 448
Technology
Fractional parts of degrees are measured in minutes and seconds. One minute, written 1¿,
1 1
is 60 degree: 1¿ = 60 °.
1 1
One second, written 1–, is 3600 degree: 1– = 3600 °.
For example,
31°47¿12–
= a31 + b
47 12 °
+
60 3600
L 31.787°.
Many calculators have keys for changing an angle from degree-minute-second notation
1D°M¿S–2 to a decimal form and vice versa.
❸ Use radian measure. Measuring Angles Using Radians

Another way to measure angles is in radians. Let’s first define an angle measuring
Terminal side 1 radian. We use a circle of radius r. In Figure 4.6, we’ve constructed an angle whose
vertex is at the center of the circle. Such an angle is called a central angle. Notice
that this central angle intercepts an arc along the circle measuring r units. The radius
r r of the circle is also r units. The measure of such an angle is 1 radian.
r Definition of a Radian
1 radian Initial side One radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle that intercepts an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Figure 4.6 For a 1-radian angle, The radian measure of any central angle is the length of the intercepted arc
the intercepted arc and the radius divided by the circle’s radius. In Figure 4.7(a), the length of the arc intercepted by
are equal.
angle b is double the radius, r. We find the measure of angle b in radians by dividing
the length of the intercepted arc by the radius.
length of the intercepted arc 2r

b = = = 2
radius r
Thus, angle b measures 2 radians.
r r
r g
b r r
r r
(a) b 2 radians (b) g 3 radians
Figure 4.7 Two central angles measured in radians
In Figure 4.7(b), the length of the intercepted arc is triple the radius, r. Let us
find the measure of angle g:
length of the intercepted arc 3r

g = = = 3.
radius r
Thus, angle g measures 3 radians.

pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 449
Radian Measure s
Consider an arc of length s on a circle of
u
radius r. The measure of the central angle, u, that
r
intercepts the arc is
r
s
u = radians.
r
EXAMPLE 1 Computing Radian Measure

A central angle, u, in a circle of radius 6 inches intercepts an arc of length 15 inches.
What is the radian measure of u?
15 inch Solution Angle u is shown in Figure 4.8. The radian measure of a central angle is
es
the length of the intercepted arc, s, divided by the circle’s radius, r. The length of the
u
intercepted arc is 15 inches: s = 15 inches. The circle’s radius is 6 inches:
r = 6 inches. Now we use the formula for radian measure to find the radian
measure of u.
6 inches
s 15 inches
u = = = 2.5
r 6 inches
Thus, the radian measure of u is 2.5.
Figure 4.8
In Example 1, notice that the units (inches) cancel when we use the formula
Study Tip for radian measure. We are left with a number with no units. Thus, if an angle u has a
Before applying the formula for measure of 2.5 radians, we can write u = 2.5 radians or u = 2.5. We will often
radian measure, be sure that the include the word radians simply for emphasis. There should be no confusion as to
same unit of length is used for whether radian or degree measure is being used. Why is this so? If u has a degree
the intercepted arc, s, and the measure of, say, 2.5°, we must include the degree symbol and write u = 2.5°, and not
radius, r.
u = 2.5.
Check
Point 1 A42 central angle, u, in a circle of radius 12 feet intercepts an arc of length
feet. What is the radian measure of u?
❹ Convert between degrees and

radians.
Relationship between Degrees and Radians
How can we obtain a relationship between degrees and radians? We compare the
number of degrees and the number of radians in one complete rotation, shown in
s = 2pr
Figure 4.9. We know that 360° is the amount of rotation of a ray back onto itself. The
length of the intercepted arc is equal to the circumference of the circle. Thus, the
1 rotation radian measure of this central angle is the circumference of the circle divided by the
circle’s radius, r. The circumference of a circle of radius r is 2pr. We use the formula
r for radian measure to find the radian measure of the 360° angle.
s the circle’s circumference 2p r
u = = = = 2p
r r r
Figure 4.9 A complete Because one complete rotation measures 360° and 2p radians,
rotation
360° = 2p radians.
Dividing both sides by 2, we have
180° = p radians.
Dividing this last equation by 180° or p gives the conversion rules in the box on the
next page.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 450
Study Tip Conversion between Degrees and Radians

The unit you are converting to Using the basic relationship p radians = 180°,
appears in the numerator of the p radians
conversion factor. 1. To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by .
180°
180°
2. To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by .
p radians
Angles that are fractions of a complete rotation are usually expressed in radian
measure as fractional multiples of p, rather than as decimal approximations.
p
For example, we write u = rather than using the decimal approximation u L 1.57.
2
EXAMPLE 2 Converting from Degrees to Radians

Convert each angle in degrees to radians:
a. 30° b. 90° c. -135°.
p radians
Solution To convert degrees to radians, multiply by . Observe how the
180°
degree units cancel.
a. 30° = 30 ° # p radians =
30p p
radians = radians
180 ° 180 6
b. 90° = 90 ° # p radians =
90p p
radians = radians
180 ° 180 2
p radians 135p 3p
c. –135=–135 ° =– radians =– radians
180 ° 180 4
Divide the numerator and
denominator by 45.
Check
Point 2 Convert
a. 60°
each angle in degrees to radians:
b. 270° c. -300°.
EXAMPLE 3 Converting from Radians to Degrees

Convert each angle in radians to degrees:
p 5p
a. radians b. - radians c. 1 radian.
3 3
180°
Solution To convert radians to degrees, multiply by . Observe how the
p radians
radian units cancel.
p p radians # 180° 180°
a. radians = = = 60°
Study Tip 3 3 p radians 3
In Example 3(c), we see that 5p 5 p radians # 180° 5 # 180°
b. - radians = - = - = -300°
1 radian is approximately 57°. 3 3 p radians 3
Keep in mind that a radian is 180° 180°
much larger than a degree. c. 1 radian = 1 radian # = L 57.3°
p radians p
Check
Point 3 Convert
p
each angle in radians to degrees:
4p
a. radians b. - radians c. 6 radians.
4 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 451
❺ Draw angles in standard

position.
Drawing Angles in Standard Position
Although we can convert angles in radians to degrees, it is helpful to “think in
radians” without having to make this conversion. To become comfortable with
radian measure, consider angles in standard position: Each vertex is at the origin
and each initial side lies along the positive x-axis. Think of the terminal side of the
angle revolving around the origin. Thinking in radians means determining what part
of a complete revolution or how many full revolutions will produce an angle whose
radian measure is known. And here’s the thing: We want to do this without having to
convert from radians to degrees.
Figure 4.10 is a starting point for learning to think in radians. The figure illus-
trates that when the terminal side makes one full revolution, it forms an angle
whose radian measure is 2p. The figure shows the quadrantal angles formed by 34 of
a revolution, 12 of a revolution, and 14 of a revolution.
1 revolution ! revolution q revolution ~ revolution

3p p
2p radians ! 2p 2 radians q 2p p radians ~ 2p 2 radians
y y y y
3p p p
2 2
2p
x x x x
Figure 4.10 Angles formed by revolutions of terminal sides
EXAMPLE 4 Drawing Angles in Standard Position

Draw and label each angle in standard position:
p 5p 3p 9p
a. u= b. a= c. b=– d. g= .
4 4 4 4
theta alpha beta gamma
Solution Because we are drawing angles in standard position, each vertex is at the
origin and each initial side lies along the positive x-axis.
p
a. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the terminal
4
y p
side counterclockwise. Because 2p is a full-circle revolution, we can express as
Terminal side a fractional part of 2p to determine the necessary rotation: 4
p 1
Initial side = 2p
ud
4 8
x
p is 1 of a complete
4 8
Vertex revolution of 2p radians.
p
We see that u = is obtained by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise
4
1
Figure 4.11 for of a revolution. The angle lies in quadrant I and is shown in Figure 4.11.
8
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 452
5p
b. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the terminal
4
side counterclockwise. Here are two ways to determine the necessary rotation:
Method 1 Method 2
5p 5 5p p
= 2p 4
=p+ .
4
y 4 8
5p is 5 of a complete p is 1 of a
4 8 p is a half-circle 4 8
revolution of 2p radians. revolution. complete revolution.
ah Initial side 5p

Method 1 shows that a = is obtained by rotating the terminal side
x 4
5 5p
counterclockwise for of a revolution. Method 2 shows that a = is
Vertex 8 4
obtained by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise for half of a revolu-
Terminal side 1
tion followed by a counterclockwise rotation of of a revolution. The angle
4
Figure 4.12 lies in quadrant III and is shown in Figure 4.12.
3p
c. An angle of - is a negative angle. It is obtained by rotating the terminal
4
side clockwise. We use ` - ` , or
3p 3p
, to determine the necessary rotation.
4 4
Method 1 Method 2
3p 2p p p p
3p 3 = + = +
y = 2p 4 4 4 2 4
4 8
3p is 3 of a complete p is a quarter-circle p is 1 of a
4 8 2 4 8
revolution of 2p radians. revolution. complete revolution.
Vertex Initial side
3p
x Method 1 shows that b = - is obtained by rotating the terminal side
4
3 3p
b = −f clockwise for of a revolution. Method 2 shows that b = - is obtained by
8 4
1
rotating the terminal side clockwise for of a revolution followed by a clock-
Terminal side 4
1
wise rotation of of a revolution. The angle lies in quadrant III and is shown
8
Figure 4.13 in Figure 4.13.
9p
d. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the terminal
4
side counterclockwise. Here are two methods to determine the necessary rotation:
Method 1 Method 2
y 9p 9 9p p
= 2p 4
=2p+ .
4
4 8
Terminal side
9p is 9 , or 1 1 , complete 2p is a full-circle p is 1 of a
4 8 8 revolution. 4 8
revolutions of 2p radians. complete revolution.
Initial side
x 9p
Method 1 shows that g = is obtained by rotating the terminal side
4
g, 1 9p
Vertex counterclockwise for 1 revolutions. Method 2 shows that g = is obtained
8 4
by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise for a full-circle revolution
1
followed by a counterclockwise rotation of of a revolution. The angle lies in
quadrant I and is shown in Figure 4.14. 8
Figure 4.14
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 453
Check
Point 4 Draw andplabel each angle3pin standard position:7p 13p
a. u = - b. a = c. b = - d. g = .
4 4 4 4
Figure 4.15 illustrates the degree and radian measures of angles that you will
commonly see in trigonometry. Each angle is in standard position, so that the initial
side lies along the positive x-axis. We will be using both degree and radian measure
for these angles.
p 3p
2p 90 , 2 4p 270 , 2
120 , 3 p
60 , 3 240 , 3 5p
300 , 3
3p 5p
135 , 4 p
45 , 4 225 , 4 315 , 4
7p
5p p
150 , 6 30 , 6 7p
210 , 6 11p
330 , 6
180 , p 0 , 0 180 , p 0 , 0
11p 5p p
7p
210 , 6 330 , 6 150 , 6 30 , 6
7p p
5p
225 , 4 315 , 4 3p
135 , 4 45 , 4
p
p 60 , 3
5p 2p
4p
240 , 3 3p 300 , 3 120 , 3
270 , 2 90 , 2
Figure 4.15 Degree and radian measures of selected positive and negative angles
Study Tip
When drawing the angles in
Table 4.1 and Figure 4.15, it is Table 4.1 describes some of the positive angles in Figure 4.15 in terms of
helpful to first divide the revolutions of the angle’s terminal side around the origin.
rectangular coordinate system into
eight equal sectors:
y
Table 4.1
Radian Measure Degree Measure

Terminal Side of Angle of Angle
1 revolution
8 1 1 # p 1 #
revolution 2p = 360° = 30°
x 12 12 6 12
1 1# p 1#
8 8 4 8
1 1# p 1#
6 6 3 6
1 1# p 1#
or 12 equal sectors: revolution 2p = 360° = 90°
4 4 2 4
y
1 1# 2p 1#
3 3 3 3
1 1# 1#
1 revolution 2p = p 360° = 180°
12
revolution 2 2 2
x 2 2# 4p 2#
3 3 3 3
3 3# 3p 3#
4 4 2 4
7 7# 7p 7#
Perhaps we should call this study 8 8 4 8
tip “Making a Clone of Arc.” 1 revolution 1 # 2p = 2p 1 # 360° = 360°
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 454
❻ Find coterminal angles. Coterminal Angles

Two angles with the same initial and terminal sides but possibly different rotations
are called coterminal angles.
Every angle has infinitely many coterminal angles. Why? Think of an angle in
standard position. If the rotation of the angle is extended by one or more complete
rotations of 360° or 2p, clockwise or counterclockwise, the result is an angle with
the same initial and terminal sides as the original angle.
Coterminal Angles
Increasing or decreasing the degree measure of an angle in standard position by
an integer multiple of 360° results in a coterminal angle. Thus, an angle of u° is
coterminal with angles of u° ; 360°k, where k is an integer.
Increasing or decreasing the radian measure of an angle by an integer
multiple of 2p results in a coterminal angle. Thus, an angle of u radians is
coterminal with angles of u ; 2pk, where k is an integer.
Two coterminal angles for an angle of u° can be found by adding 360° to u° and
subtracting 360° from u°.
EXAMPLE 5 Finding Coterminal Angles

Assume the following angles are in standard position. Find a positive angle less than
360° that is coterminal with each of the following:
a. a 420° angle b. a -120° angle.
Solution We obtain the coterminal angle by adding or subtracting 360°. The
requirement to obtain a positive angle less than 360° determines whether we should
add or subtract.
a. For a 420° angle, subtract 360° to find a positive coterminal angle.
420° - 360° = 60°
A 60° angle is coterminal with a 420° angle. Figure 4.16(a) illustrates that these
angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
b. For a -120° angle, add 360° to find a positive coterminal angle.
-120° + 360° = 240°
A 240° angle is coterminal with a -120° angle. Figure 4.16(b) illustrates that
these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
y y
60 240
x x
420 120
(a) Angles of 420 and 60 (b) Angles of 120 and 240 Figure 4.16 Pairs of coterminal
are coterminal. are coterminal. angles
Check
Point 5 Find a positive angle less than 360° that is coterminal with each of the
following:
a. a 400° angle b. a -135° angle.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 455
Two coterminal angles for an angle of u radians can be found by adding 2p

to u and subtracting 2p from u.

Assume the following angles are in standard position. Find a positive angle less than
2p that is coterminal with each of the following:
17p p
a. a angle b. a - angle.
6 12
Solution We obtain the coterminal angle by adding or subtracting 2p. The
requirement to obtain a positive angle less than 2p determines whether we should
add or subtract.
17p 5
a. For a , or 2 p, angle, subtract 2p to find a positive coterminal angle.
6 6
17p 17p 12p 5p
- 2p = - =
6 6 6 6
5p 17p
A angle is coterminal with a angle. Figure 4.17(a) illustrates that these
6 6
angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
p
b. For a - angle, add 2p to find a positive coterminal angle.
12
p p 24p 23p
- + 2p = - + =
12 12 12 12
23p p
A angle is coterminal with a - angle. Figure 4.17(b) illustrates that
12 12
these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
y y
l
23p
12
x p
x
12
17p
6
17p 5p p 23p
(a) Angles of 6 and 6 (b) Angles of 12 and 12
are coterminal. are coterminal.
Figure 4.17 Pairs of coterminal angles
Check
Point 6 Find a positive angle less than 2p that is coterminal with each of the
following:
13p p
a. a angle b. a - angle.
5 15
To find a positive coterminal angle less than 360° or 2p, it is sometimes

necessary to add or subtract more than one multiple of 360° or 2p.

Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal with each of the following:
22p 17p
a. a 750° angle b. a angle c. a - angle.
3 6
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 456
Solution
a. For a 750° angle, subtract two multiples of 360°, or 720°, to find a positive
coterminal angle less than 360°.
750° - 360° # 2 = 750° - 720° = 30°
A 30° angle is coterminal with a 750° angle.
Discovery 22p 1
Make a sketch for each part of b. For a , or 7 p, angle, subtract three multiples of 2p, or 6p, to find a
3 3
Example 7 illustrating that the
positive coterminal angle less than 2p.
coterminal angle we found and
the given angle have the same 22p 22p 22p 18p 4p
initial and terminal sides. - 2p # 3 = - 6p = - =
3 3 3 3 3
4p 22p
A angle is coterminal with a angle.
3 3
17p 5
c. For a - , or -2 p angle, add two multiples of 2p, or 4p, to find a positive
6 6
coterminal angle less than 2p.
17p 17p 17p 24p 7p
- + 2p # 2 = - + 4p = - + =
6 6 6 6 6
7p 17p
A angle is coterminal with a - angle.
6 6
Check
Point 7 Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal with each of
the following:
17p 25p
a. an 855° angle b. a angle c. a - angle.
3 6
❼ Find the length

of a circular arc.
The Length of a Circular Arc
s
We can use the radian measure formula, u = , to find the length of the arc of a circle.
r
How do we do this? Remember that s represents the length of the arc intercepted by the
central angle u. Thus, by solving the formula for s, we have an equation for arc length.
The Length of a Circular Arc

Let r be the radius of a circle and u the s = arc length
nonnegative radian measure of a central angle of
the circle. The length of the arc intercepted by
the central angle is u
s = ru.
r
EXAMPLE 8 Finding the Length of a Circular Arc

A circle has a radius of 10 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central
angle of 120°.
Solution The formula s = ru can be used only when u is expressed in radians.
p radians
Thus, we begin by converting 120° to radians. Multiply by .
180°
120° = 120 ° # p radians =

120p
radians =
2p
radians
180 ° 180 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 457
Now we can use the formula s = ru to find the length of the arc. The circle’s radius
Study Tip is 10 inches: r = 10 inches. The measure of the central angle, in radians, is
The unit used to describe the 2p 2p
length of a circular arc is : u = . The length of the arc intercepted by this central angle is
3 3
the same unit that is given
s = ru = 110 inches2a b =
in the circle’s radius. 2p 20p
inches L 20.94 inches.
3 3
Check
Point 8 Aa central
circle has a radius of 6 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by
angle of 45°. Express arc length in terms of p. Then round your
answer to two decimal places.
❽ Use linear and angular speed

to describe motion on a
circular path.
Linear and Angular Speed
A carousel contains four circular rows of animals. As the carousel revolves, the
animals in the outer row travel a greater distance per unit of time than those in the
inner rows. These animals have a greater linear speed than those in the inner rows. By
contrast, all animals, regardless of the row, complete the same number of revolutions
per unit of time. All animals in the four circular rows travel at the same angular speed.
Using v for linear speed and v (omega) for angular speed, we define these two
kinds of speeds along a circular path as follows:
Definitions of Linear and Angular Speed

If a point is in motion on a circle of radius r through an angle of u radians in
time t, then its linear speed is
s
v = ,
t
where s is the arc length given by s = ru, and its angular speed is
u
v = .
t
The hard drive in a computer rotates at 3600 revolutions per minute.This angular
speed, expressed in revolutions per minute, can also be expressed in revolutions per
second, radians per minute, and radians per second. Using 2p radians = 1 revolution,
we express the angular speed of a hard drive in radians per minute as follows:
3600 revolutions per minute
3600 revolutions # 2p radians 7200p radians
= =
1 minute 1 revolution 1 minute
= 7200p radians per minute.
We can establish a relationship between the two kinds of speed by dividing
both sides of the arc length formula, s = ru, by t:
s ru u
= =r .
t t t
This expression defines This expression defines

linear speed. angular speed.
Thus, linear speed is the product of the radius and the angular speed.
Linear Speed in Terms of Angular Speed

The linear speed, v, of a point a distance r from the center of rotation is given by
v = rv,
where v is the angular speed in radians per unit of time.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 458
EXAMPLE 9 Finding Linear Speed

A wind machine used to gener-
ate electricity has blades that
are 10 feet in length (see
10 feet
Figure 4.18). The propeller is
rotating at four revolutions per
second. Find the linear speed,
in feet per second, of the tips
of the blades.
Solution We are given v, the
angular speed.
v = 4 revolutions per second
We use the formula v = rv to
find v, the linear speed. Before
applying the formula, we must
express v in radians per second. Figure 4.18
4 revolutions # 2p radians 8p radians 8p

v = = or
1 second 1 revolution 1 second 1 second
The angular speed of the propeller is 8p radians per second. The linear speed is
8p 80p feet
v = rv = 10 feet # = .
1 second second
The linear speed of the tips of the blades is 80p feet per second, which is
approximately 251 feet per second.
Check
Point 9 Long before iPods that hold thousands of songs and play them with su-
perb audio quality, individual songs were delivered on 75-rpm and 45-rpm
circular records. A 45-rpm record has an angular speed of 45 revolutions
per minute. Find the linear speed, in inches per minute, at the point where
the needle is 1.5 inches from the record’s center.
EXERCISE SET 4.1

Practice Exercises 19. -225° 20. -270°
In Exercises 1–6, the measure of an angle is given. In Exercises 21–28, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
Classify the angle as acute, right, obtuse, or straight.
p p 2p
1. 135° 2. 177° 3. 83.135° 21. 22. 23.
p 2 9 3
4. 87.177° 5. p 6.
2 3p 7p 11p
In Exercises 7–12, find the radian measure of the central angle of 24. 25. 26.
4 6 6
a circle of radius r that intercepts an arc of length s.
27. -3p 28. -4p
Radius, r Arc length, s
7. 10 inches 40 inches In Exercises 29–34, convert each angle in degrees to radians.
Round to two decimal places.
8. 5 feet 30 feet
29. 18° 30. 76° 31. -40°
9. 6 yards 8 yards
10. 8 yards 18 yards 32. -50° 33. 200° 34. 250°
11. 1 meter 400 centimeters In Exercises 35–40, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
12. 1 meter 600 centimeters Round to two decimal places.
In Exercises 13–20, convert each angle in degrees to radians. 35. 2 radians 36. 3 radians
Express your answer as a multiple of p. p p
37. radians 38. radians
13. 45° 14. 18° 15. 135° 13 17
16. 150° 17. 300° 18. 330° 39. -4.8 radians 40. -5.2 radians
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 459
In Exercises 41–56, use the circle shown in the rectangular y

coordinate system to draw each angle in standard position. State
the quadrant in which the angle lies. When an angle’s measure is
A
given in radians, work the exercise without converting to degrees.
y B
C
x
D F
x E
77. A 78. B
79. D 80. F
81. E 82. C
7p 4p 3p In Exercises 83–86, find the positive radian measure of the angle

41. 42. 43. that the second hand of a clock moves through in the given time.
6 3 4
7p 2p 5p 83. 55 seconds 84. 35 seconds
44. 45. - 46. -
4 3 6 85. 3 minutes and 40 seconds
5p 7p 16p 86. 4 minutes and 25 seconds
47. - 48. - 49.
4 4 3
14p
50. 51. 120° 52. 150°
3 Application Exercises
53. -210° 54. -240° 55. 420° 87. The minute hand of a clock moves from 12 to 2 o’clock, or 16
56. 405° of a complete revolution. Through how many degrees does it
move? Through how many radians does it move?
In Exercises 57–70, find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that 88. The minute hand of a clock moves from 12 to 4 o’clock, or 13
is coterminal with the given angle. of a complete revolution. Through how many degrees does it
57. 395° 58. 415° 59. -150° move? Through how many radians does it move?
60. -160° 61. -765° 62. -760° 89. The minute hand of a clock is 8 inches long and moves from
12 to 2 o’clock. How far does the tip of the minute hand
19p 17p 23p move? Express your answer in terms of p and then round to
63. 64. 65.
6 5 5 two decimal places.
25p p p 90. The minute hand of a clock is 6 inches long and moves from
66. 67. - 68. -
6 50 40 12 to 4 o’clock. How far does the tip of the minute hand
move? Express your answer in terms of p and then round to
31p 38p
69. - 70. - two decimal places.
7 9
91. The figure shows a highway sign that warns of a railway
In Exercises 71–74, find the length of the arc on a circle of radius crossing. The lines that form the cross pass through the
r intercepted by a central angle u. Express arc length in terms of circle’s center and intersect at right angles. If the radius of
p. Then round your answer to two decimal places. the circle is 24 inches, find the length of each of the four arcs
formed by the cross. Express your answer in terms of p and
Radius, r Central angle, U then round to two decimal places.
71. 12 inches u = 45°
72. 16 inches u = 60°
73. 8 feet u = 225°
74. 9 yards u = 315°
In Exercises 75–76, express each angular speed in radians

per second.
75. 6 revolutions per second 76. 20 revolutions per second
Practice Plus
Use the circle shown in the rectangular coordinate 92. The radius of a wheel rolling on the ground is 80 centimeters.
system to solve Exercises 77–82. Find two angles, in radians, If the wheel rotates through an angle of 60°, how many cen-
between -2p and 2p such that each angle’s terminal side passes timeters does it move? Express your answer in terms of p
through the origin and the given point. and then round to two decimal places.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 460
How do we measure the distance between two points, A and B, on 104. Explain the difference between positive and negative angles.
Earth? We measure along a circle with a center, C, at the center of What are coterminal angles?
Earth. The radius of the circle is equal to the distance from C to
105. Explain what is meant by one radian.
the surface. Use the fact that Earth is a sphere of radius equal to
approximately 4000 miles to solve Exercises 93–96. 106. Explain how to find the radian measure of a central angle.
107. Describe how to convert an angle in degrees to radians.
108. Explain how to convert an angle in radians to degrees.
A 109. Explain how to find the length of a circular arc.
4000 miles
110. If a carousel is rotating at 2.5 revolutions per minute, explain
u C how to find the linear speed of a child seated on one of the
animals.
B p
111. The angular velocity of a point on Earth is radians per
12
hour. Describe what happens every 24 hours.
112. Have you ever noticed that we use the vocabulary of angles
in everyday speech? Here is an example:
93. If two points, A and B, are 8000 miles apart, express angle u
in radians and in degrees. My opinion about art museums took a 180° turn after
visiting the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
94. If two points, A and B, are 10,000 miles apart, express angle
u in radians and in degrees. Explain what this means. Then give another example of the
vocabulary of angles in everyday use.
95. If u = 30°, find the distance between A and B to the nearest
mile.
96. If u = 10°, find the distance between A and B to the nearest Technology Exercises
mile.
In Exercises 113–116, use the keys on your calculator or
p graphing utility for converting an angle in degrees, minutes, and
97. The angular speed of a point on Earth is radians per hour.
12 seconds 1D°M¿S–2 into decimal form, and vice versa.
The Equator lies on a circle of radius approximately 4000
miles. Find the linear velocity, in miles per hour, of a point
on the Equator. In Exercises 113–114, convert each angle to a decimal in degrees.
Round your answer to two decimal places.
98. A Ferris wheel has a radius of 25 feet. The wheel is rotating 113. 30°15¿10– 114. 65°45¿20–
at two revolutions per minute. Find the linear speed, in feet
per minute, of a seat on this Ferris wheel.
In Exercises 115–116, convert each angle to D°M¿S– form.
99. A water wheel has a radius of 12 feet. The wheel is rotating Round your answer to the nearest second.
at 20 revolutions per minute. Find the linear speed, in feet 115. 30.42° 116. 50.42°
per minute, of the water.
100. On a carousel, the outer row of animals is 20 feet from the
center. The inner row of animals is 10 feet from the center.
The carousel is rotating at 2.5 revolutions per minute. What
is the difference, in feet per minute, in the linear speeds of
the animals in the outer and inner rows? Round to the
Critical Thinking Exercises
nearest foot per minute. 117. If u = 32 , is this angle larger or smaller than a right angle?
118. A railroad curve is laid out on a circle. What radius should
be used if the track is to change direction by 20° in a dis-
Writing in Mathematics tance of 100 miles? Round your answer to the nearest mile.
119. Assuming Earth to be a sphere of radius 4000 miles, how
101. What is an angle?
many miles north of the Equator is Miami, Florida, if it is
102. What determines the size of an angle? 26° north from the Equator? Round your answer to the
103. Describe an angle in standard position. nearest mile.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 461
Section 4.2 • Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 461
SECTION 4.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle

Objectives
❶ Use a unit circle to define
trigonometric functions of
real numbers.
❷ Recognize the domain and
range of sine and cosine
functions.
❸ Find exact values of the
trigonometric functions
at p .
4
❹ Use even and odd
trigonometric functions.
❺ Recognize and use
There is something comforting in the repetition of some of nature’s patterns. The
fundamental identities.
ocean level at a beach varies between high and low tide approximately every 12
❻ Use periodic properties.
hours. The number of hours of daylight oscillates from a maximum on the summer
❼ Evaluate trigonometric solstice, June 21, to a minimum on the winter solstice, December 21. Then it increases
functions with a calculator. to the same maximum the following June 21. Some believe that cycles, called
biorhythms, represent physical, emotional, and intellectual aspects of our lives. In
this chapter, we study six functions, the six trigonometric functions, that are used to
model phenomena that occur again and again.
Calculus and the Unit Circle

The word trigonometry means measurement of triangles. Trigonometric functions,
with domains consisting of sets of angles, were first defined using right triangles. By
contrast, problems in calculus are solved using functions whose domains are sets of
real numbers. Therefore, we introduce the trigonometric functions using unit circles
and radians, rather than right triangles and degrees.
A unit circle is a circle of radius 1, with its center at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system. The equation of this unit circle is x2 + y2 = 1. Figure 4.19 shows a
unit circle in which the central angle measures t radians.
y
1 s
t
x
(1, 0)
x2 + y2 = 1 Figure 4.19 Unit circle with a central

angle measuring t radians
We can use the formula for the length of a circular arc, s = ru, to find the length of
the intercepted arc.
s=ru=1 t=t
The radius of a The radian measure of

unit circle is 1. the central angle is t.
Thus, the length of the intercepted arc is t. This is also the radian measure of the
central angle. Thus, in a unit circle, the radian measure of the central angle is equal
to the length of the intercepted arc. Both are given by the same real number t.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 462
In Figure 4.20, the radian measure of the angle and the length of the intercepted
arc are both shown by t. Let P = 1x, y2 denote the point on the unit circle that has arc
length t from 11, 02. Figure 4.20(a) shows that if t is positive, point P is reached by
moving counterclockwise along the unit circle from 11, 02. Figure 4.20(b) shows that if
t is negative, point P is reached by moving clockwise along the unit circle from 11, 02.
For each real number t, there corresponds a point P = 1x, y2 on the unit circle.
y y
P = (x, y) x2 + y2 = 1
t
t (1, 0)
x x
(1, 0) t
t
x2 + y2 = 1 P = (x, y)
Figure 4.20 (a) t is positive. (b) t is negative.
❶ Use a unit circle to define

real numbers.
The Six Trigonometric Functions
We begin the study of trigonometry by defining the six trigonometric functions. The
inputs of these functions are real numbers, represented by t in Figure 4.20. The out-
puts involve the point P = 1x, y2 on the unit circle that corresponds to t and the
coordinates of this point.
The trigonometric functions have names that are words, rather than single
letters such as f, g, and h. For example, the sine of t is the y-coordinate of point P on
the unit circle:
sin t=y.
Input is the real Output is the y-coordinate of

number t. a point on the unit circle.
The value of y depends on the real number t and thus is a function of t. The
expression sin t really means sin1t2, where sine is the name of the function and t, a
real number, is an input.
y For example, a point P = 1x, y2 on the unit circle corresponding to a real
3p
number t is shown in Figure 4.21 for p 6 t 6 . We see that the coordinates of
2
P = 1x, y2 are x = - and y = - . Because the sine function is the y-coordinate
t 3 4
t 5 5
x
of P, the value of this trigonometric function at the real number t is
(1, 0)
4
sin t = - .
5
(
P = − 35 , − 45 ) x2 + y2 = 1 Here are the names of the six trigonometric functions, along with their
abbreviations.
Figure 4.21
Name Abbreviation Name Abbreviation
sine sin cosecant csc
cosine cos secant sec
tangent tan cotangent cot
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/27/06 3:04 PM Page 463
Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions in Terms of a Unit Circle

If t is a real number and P = 1x, y2 is a point on the unit circle that corresponds
to t, then
1
sin t = y csc t = , y Z 0
y
1
cos t = x sec t = , x Z 0
x
y x
tan t = , x Z 0 cot t = , y Z 0.
x y
Because this definition expresses function values in terms of coordinates of a

point on a unit circle, the trigonometric functions are sometimes called the
circular functions. Observe that the function values in the second column in the box
are the reciprocals of the corresponding function values in the first column.
EXAMPLE 1 Finding Values of the Trigonometric Functions

y In Figure 4.22, t is a real number equal to the length of the intercepted arc of an
1 23
(
P = − 21 , 3
2 ) angle that measures t radians and P = a - , b is the point on the unit circle that
2 2
t corresponds to t. Use the figure to find the values of the trigonometric functions at t.
t
Solution The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to t has coordinates
x
1 23 23
a- , b. We use x = - and y =
O (1, 0) 1
to find the values of the trigonometric
2 2 2 2
functions. Because radical expressions are usually written without radicals in the
x2 + y2 = 1 denominators, we simplify by rationalizing denominators where appropriate.
Figure 4.22
3 1 1 2 2 3 2 3
sin t=y= csc t= = = = =
2 y 3 3 3 3 3
2
Rationalize denominators
1 1 1
cos t=x= – sec t= = =–2 We are multiplying by 1 and
2 x 1 not changing function values.
–
2
3 1
y x –
2 2 1 1 3 3
tan t= = =–3 cot t= = =– =– =–
x 1 y 3 3 3 3 3
–
2 2
Check
Point 1 Use the figure on the right to find
the values of the trigonometric
y
functions at t. 2(
P = 3 , 21 )
t
t
x
O (1, 0)
x2 + y2 = 1
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 464

p
y Use Figure 4.23 to find the values of the trigonometric functions at t = .
2
P = (0, 1) p
Solution The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to t = has coordinates
p 2
10, 12. We use x = 0 and y = 1 to find the values of the trigonometric functions at .
2 p
p
2 2
x
(1, 0) p p 1 1
sin =y=1 csc = = =1
2 2 y 1
p p 1 1
x2 + y2 = 1 cos =x=0 sec p and sec = =
2 2 2 x 0
tan p are
2
p y 1 undefined. p x 0
Figure 4.23 tan = x= cot = y = =0
2 0 2 1
Check
Point 2 Use the figure on the right to find the
values of the trigonometric functions
y
at t = p. p
P = (−1, 0)
p
x2 + y2 = 1
❷ Recognize the domain and

range of sine and cosine
functions.
Domain and Range of Sine and Cosine Functions
The domain and range of each trigonometric function can be found from the unit
circle definition. At this point, let’s look only at the sine and cosine functions,
sin t = y and cos t = x.
Figure 4.24 shows the sine function at t as the y-coordinate of a point along the
unit circle:
y
y=sin t. y = sin t
(0, 1)
(x, y)
The domain is associated with t,
the angle’s radian measure and the 1 t
intercepted arc’s length. t
x
The range is associated with y,
the point's second coordinate.
(0, 1)
Because t can be any real number, the domain of

the sine function is 1- q , q 2, the set of all real Figure 4.24
numbers. The radius of the unit circle is 1 and the
dashed horizontal lines in Figure 4.24 show that y cannot be less than -1 or greater
than 1. Thus, the range of the sine function is 3-1, 14, the set of all real numbers from
-1 to 1, inclusive.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 465
Figure 4.25 shows the cosine function at t as y

the x-coordinate of a point along the unit circle:
x = cos t
x=cos t. (x, y)
The domain is associated with t, 1 t

the angle’s radian measure and the t
x
intercepted arc’s length. (1, 0) (1, 0)
The range is associated with x,
the point's first coordinate.
Because t can be any real number, the domain of

the cosine function is 1- q , q 2. The radius of Figure 4.25
the unit circle is 1 and the dashed vertical lines in
Figure 4.25 show that x cannot be less than -1 or greater than 1. Thus, the range of
the cosine function is 3-1, 14.
The Domain and Range of the Sine and Cosine Functions

The domain of the sine function and the cosine function is 1- q , q 2, the set of
all real numbers. The range of these functions is 3-1, 14, the set of all real num-
bers from -1 to 1, inclusive.
P
❸ Find exact values of the
p
trigonometric functions at .
4
Exact Values of Trigonometric Functions at t
Trigonometric functions at t =
p
occur frequently. How do we use the unit circle to
4
4 p
find values of the trigonometric functions at t = ? Look at Figure 4.26. We must
4
find the coordinates of point P = 1a, b2 on the unit circle that correspond to t = .
y p
4
x2 + y2 = 1
1 Can you see that P lies on the line y = x? Thus, point P has equal x- and
P = (a, b)
d
y-coordinates: a = b. We find these coordinates as follows:
d
x
−1 x2 + y2 = 1 This is the equation of the unit circle.
Point P 1a, b2 lies on the unit circle. Thus, its
1
a 2 + b2 = 1
coordinates satisfy the circle’s equation.
−1
y=x
a2 + a2 = 1 Because a b, substitute a for b in the
previous equation.
Figure 4.26 2a2 = 1 Add like terms.
a2 = 12 Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
1
a = 2 2 Because a>0, take the positive square root of
both sides.
1 1 1 p
We see that a = = . Because a = b, we also have b = . Thus, if t = ,
A2 22 22 4
1 1
point P = ¢ , ≤ is the point on the unit circle that corresponds to t. Let’s
22 22
rationalize the denominator on each coordinate:
1 1 2 2
= = .
2 2 2 2
We are multiplying by 1 and not

1
changing the value of .
2
22 22 p
We use ¢ , ≤ to find the values of the trigonometric functions at t = .
2 2 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 466

P
at t
4
p p p
Find sin , cos , and tan .
4 4 4
p
Solution The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to t = has coordinates
4
22 22 22 22
¢ , ≤ . We use x = and y = to find the values of the three
2 2 2 2
p
4
22
p 22 p 22 p y 2
sin = y = cos = x = tan = = = 1
4 2 4 2 4 x 22
2
p p p
Check
Point 3 Find csc
4
, sec , and cot .
4 4
p
, it is a good idea
Because you will often see the trigonometric functions at
4
to memorize the values shown in the following box. In the next section, you will
learn to use a right triangle to obtain these values.
P
Trigonometric Functions at
4
p 22 p
sin = csc = 22
4 2 4
p 22 p
cos = sec = 22
4 2 4
p p
tan = 1 cot = 1
4 4
❹ Use even and odd

Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions
We have seen that a function is even if f1-t2 = f1t2 and odd if f1-t2 = -f1t2. We
can use Figure 4.27 to show that the cosine function is an even function and the sine
y function is an odd function. By definition, the coordinates of the points P and Q in
Figure 4.27 are as follows:
P: 1cos t, sin t2
x2 + y2 = 1
P
Q: 1cos1-t2, sin1-t22.
t
x In Figure 4.27, the x-coordinates of P and Q are the same. Thus,
O
−t cos1-t2 = cos t.
Q
This shows that the cosine function is an even function. By contrast, the
y-coordinates of P and Q are negatives of each other. Thus,
sin1-t2 = -sin t.
Figure 4.27
This shows that the sine function is an odd function.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 467
This argument is valid regardless of the length of t. Thus, the arc may terminate
in any of the four quadrants or on any axis. Using the unit circle definition of the
trigonometric functions, we obtain the following results:
Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions

The cosine and secant functions are even.
cos1-t2 = cos t sec1-t2 = sec t
The sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent functions are odd.
sin1-t2 = -sin t csc1-t2 = -csc t
tan1-t2 = -tan t cot1-t2 = -cot t
EXAMPLE 4 Using Even and Odd Functions

to Find Values of Trigonometric Functions
Find the value of each trigonometric function:
b b. tan a - b.
p p
a. cosa -
4 4
Solution
22
b = cos = b = -tan = -1
p p p p
a. cosa - b. tana -
4 4 2 4 4
Check
Point 4 Find the value of each trigonometric function:
b b. sin a - b.
p p
a. seca -
4 4
❺ Recognize and use

fundamental identities.
Fundamental Identities
Many relationships exist among the six trigonometric functions. These relationships
are described using trigonometric identities. Trigonometric identities are equations
that are true for all real numbers for which the trigonometric expressions in the
equations are defined. For example, the definitions of the cosine and secant
functions are given by
1
cos t = x and sec t = , x Z 0.
x
Substituting cos t for x in the equation on the right, we see that
1
sec t = , cos t Z 0.
cos t
This identity is one of six reciprocal identities.
Reciprocal Identities
1 1
sin t = csc t =
csc t sin t
1 1
cos t = sec t =
sec t cos t
1 1
tan t = cot t =
cot t tan t
Two other relationships that follow from the definitions of the trigonometric
functions are called the quotient identities.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/27/06 3:05 PM Page 468
Quotient Identities
sin t cos t
tan t = cot t =
cos t sin t
If sin t and cos t are known, a quotient identity and three reciprocal identities
make it possible to find the value of each of the four remaining trigonometric functions.
EXAMPLE 5 Using Quotient and Reciprocal Identities

2 221
Given sin t = and cos t = , find the value of each of the four remaining
5 5
Solution We can find tan t by using the quotient identity that describes tan t as
the quotient of sin t and cos t.
2
sin t 5 2 5 2 2 21 221
tan t= = = = = =
cos t 21 5 21 21 21 21 21
5
Rationalize the denominator.
We use the reciprocal identities to find the value of each of the remaining three
functions.
1 1 5
csc t = = =
sin t 2 2
5
1 1 5 5 21 521
sec t= = = = =
cos t 21 21 21 21 21
5
Rationalize the denominator.
1 1 221 2 2221
cot t = = = We found tan t . We could use tan t ,
tan t 2 2 221 21
221 but then we would have to rationalize the denominator.
2 25
Check
Point 5 Given sin t =
3
and cos t =
3
remaining trigonometric functions.
, find the value of each of the four
Other relationships among trigonometric functions follow from the equation

of the unit circle
x2 + y 2 = 1.
Because cos t = x and sin t = y, we see that
1cos t22 + 1sin t22 = 1.
We will eliminate the parentheses in this identity by writing cos2 t instead of 1cos t22
and sin2 t instead of 1sin t22. With this notation, we can write the identity as
cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
or
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1. The identity usually appears in this form.
Two additional identities can be obtained from x2 + y2 = 1 by dividing both sides

by x2 and y2, respectively. The three identities are called the Pythagorean identities.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 469
Pythagorean Identities
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 1 + tan2 t = sec2 t 1 + cot2 t = csc2 t
EXAMPLE 6 Using a Pythagorean Identity

3 p
Given that sin t = and 0 … t 6 , find the value of cos t using a trigonometric
5 2
identity.
Solution We can find the value of cos t by using the Pythagorean identity
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1.
3 2
a b + cos2 t = 1
3
We are given that sin t .
5 5
9 3 3 2 32
Square : a b 2
9
+ cos2 t = 1 .
25 5 5 5 25
9 9
cos2 t = 1 - Subtract from both sides.
25 25
16 9 25 9 16
cos2 t = Simplify: 1 .
25 25 25 25 25
16 4 P
cos t = = Because 0 ◊ t< , cos t, the x-coordinate of
A 25 5 2
a point on the unit circle, is positive.
4
Thus, cos t = .
5
1 p
Check
Point 6 Given that sin t =
2
trigonometric identity.
and 0 … t 6 , find the value of cos t using a
2
❻ Use periodic properties. Periodic Functions

Certain patterns in nature repeat again and again. For example, the ocean level at a
beach varies from low tide to high tide and then back to low tide approximately
every 12 hours. If low tide occurs at noon, then high tide will be around 6 P.M. and
low tide will occur again around midnight, and so on infinitely. If f1t2 represents the
ocean level at the beach at any time t, then the level is the same 12 hours later. Thus,
f1t + 122 = f1t2.
The word periodic means that this tidal behavior repeats infinitely. The period,
12 hours, is the time it takes to complete one full cycle.
Definition of a Periodic Function

A function f is periodic if there exists a positive number p such that
f1t + p2 = f1t2
for all t in the domain of f. The smallest positive number p for which f is
periodic is called the period of f.
The trigonometric functions are used to model periodic phenomena. Why? If

we begin at any point P on the unit circle and travel a distance of 2p units along
the perimeter, we will return to the same point P. Because the trigonometric
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/27/06 2:43 PM Page 470
functions are defined in terms of the coordinates of that point P, we obtain the
following results:
Periodic Properties of the Sine and Cosine Functions

sin1t + 2p2 = sin t and cos1t + 2p2 = cos t
The sine and cosine functions are periodic functions and have period 2p.
y Like the sine and cosine functions, the secant and cosecant functions have
period 2p. However, the tangent and cotangent functions have a smaller period.
its
Figure 4.28 shows that if we begin at any point P1x, y2 on the unit circle and travel
un a distance of p units along the perimeter, we arrive at the point Q1-x, -y2. The
tangent function, defined in terms of the coordinates of a point, is the same at 1x, y2
p
P(x, y)
t p
and 1-x, -y2.
t
t
x
Tangent function y –y Tangent function

at (x, y) x = –x p radians later
Q(x, y)
Figure 4.28 tan at P = tan at Q We see that tan1t + p2 = tan t. The same observations apply to the cotangent
function.
Periodic Properties of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions

tan1t + p2 = tan t and cot1t + p2 = cot t
The tangent and cotangent functions are periodic functions and have period p.
EXAMPLE 7 Using Periodic Properties

Find the value of each trigonometric function:
b.
9p 5p
a. sin b. tana -
4 4
Solution
=sin a +2p b =sin =

9p p p 2
a. sin
4 4 4 2
sin (t + 2p) = sin t
b. tan a– b =– tan =– tan a +pb =– tan =– 1

5p 5p p p
4 4 4 4
The tangent function is tan (t + p) = tan t

odd: tan (−t) = −tan t.
Check
Point 7 Find the5pvalue of each trigonometric function:
b.
9p
a. cot b. cosa -
4 4
Why do the trigonometric functions model phenomena that repeat indefinitely?

By starting at point P on the unit circle and traveling a distance of 2p units, 4p units,
6p units, and so on, we return to the starting point P. Because the trigonometric
functions are defined in terms of the coordinates of that point P, if we add (or sub-
tract) multiples of 2p to t, the values of the trigonometric functions of t do not
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 471
change. Furthermore, the values for the tangent and cotangent functions of t do not
change if we add (or subtract) multiples of p to t.
Repetitive Behavior of the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Functions

For any integer n and real number t,
sin1t + 2pn2 = sin t, cos1t + 2pn2 = cos t, and tan1t + pn2 = tan t.
❼ Evaluate trigonometric
functions with a calculator.
Using a Calculator to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions
We used a unit circle to find values of the trigonometric functions at
p
. These are
4
exact values. We can find approximate values of the trigonometric functions using a
calculator.
The first step in using a calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions is to
set the calculator to the correct mode, degrees or radians. The domains of the
trigonometric functions in the unit circle are sets of real numbers. Therefore, we use
the radian mode.
Most calculators have keys marked SIN , COS , and TAN . For example, to
find the value of sin 1.2, set the calculator to the radian mode and enter 1.2 SIN on
most scientific calculators and SIN 1.2 ENTER on most graphing calculators.
Consult the manual for your calculator.
To evaluate the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions, use the key for the
respective reciprocal function, SIN , COS , or TAN , and then use the reciprocal
key. The reciprocal key is 1>x on many scientific calculators and x -1 on many
p
graphing calculators. For example, we can evaluate sec using the following
12
reciprocal relationship:
p 1
sec = .
12 p
cos
12
Using the radian mode, enter one of the following keystroke sequences:
Many Scientific Calculators
p , 12 = COS 1>x
Many Graphing Calculators
1 COS 1 p , 12 2 2 x -1 ENTER .
p
Rounding the display to four decimal places, we obtain sec L 1.0353.
12
EXAMPLE 8 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

with a Calculator
Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places:
p
a. cos b. cot 1.2.
4
Solution
Scientific Calculator Solution
Function Mode Keystrokes Display, rounded to
four decimal places
p
a. cos Radian p , 4 = COS 0.7071
4
b. cot 1.2 Radian 1.2 TAN 1>x 0.3888
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 472
Graphing Calculator Solution

Function Mode Keystrokes Display, rounded to
four decimal places
p
a. cos Radian COS ( p , 4 ) ENTER 0.7071
4
b. cot 1.2 Radian ( TAN 1.2 ) x -1 ENTER 0.3888
Check
Point 8 Use a calculator
p
to find the value to four decimal places:
a. sin b. csc 1.5.

4
EXERCISE SET 4.2

Practice Exercises 4. y
In Exercises 1–4, a point P1x, y2 is shown on the unit

circle corresponding to a real number t. Find the values of the
P ( − 2
2
, 2
2 )
t
trigonometric functions at t.
1. t
y
x
O
(
15 8
P − 17 , 17 ) t
(1, 0)
x
O (1, 0)
In Exercises 5–18, the unit circle has been divided into twelve
equal arcs, corresponding to t-values of
p p p 2p 5p 7p 4p 3p 5p 11p
0, , , , , , p, , , , , , and 2p.
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
2.
Use the 1x, y2 coordinates in the figure to find the value of each
y
trigonometric function at the indicated real number, t, or state that

t the expression is undefined.
t y
x
O (1, 0) (− 1 3
2
, 2 ) (0, 1)
( 1 3
2
, 2 )
u
(
P −
5
, − 12
)
( − 3
2
, 21 ) k
( 3
2
, 21 )
13 13
x
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
3. y
(− 3
2
, − 21 ) ( 3
2
, − 21 )
(0, −1)
(− 1
2
, − 3
2 ) ( 1
2
, − 3
2 )
x p p 5p
O t (1, 0) 5. sin 6. sin 7. cos
t 6 3 6
2p
8. cos 9. tan p 10. tan 0
3
P ( 2
2
, − 2
2 ) 11. csc
7p
12. csc
4p
13. sec
11p
6 3 6
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 473
5p 3p 3p 5p 9p
14. sec 15. sin 16. cos 45. cot ¢ - ≤ 46. tan ¢ - ≤
3 2 2 4 4
3p 3p
17. sec 18. tan p p
2 2 47. -tan ¢ + 15p ≤ 48. -cot ¢ + 17p ≤
4 4
In Exercises 19–24, p p
49. sin ¢ - - 1000p ≤ 50. sin ¢ - - 2000p ≤
a. Use the unit circle shown for Exercises 5–18 to find the 4 4
value of the trigonometric function.
p p
b. Use even and odd properties of trigonometric functions 51. cos ¢ - - 1000p ≤ 52. cos ¢ - - 2000p ≤
and your answer from part (a) to find the value of the same 4 4
trigonometric function at the indicated real number. In Exercises 53–60, the unit circle has been divided into eight
p p equal arcs, corresponding to t-values of
19. a. cos 20. a. cos
6 3 p p 3p 5p 3p 7p
0, , , , p, , , , and 2p.
4 2 4 4 2 4
b b
p p
a. Use the 1x, y2 coordinates in the figure to find the value of
b. cosa- b. cosa-
6 3
the trigonometric function.
5p 2p
21. a. sin 22. a. sin b. Use periodic properties and your answer from part (a) to
6 3
find the value of the same trigonometric function at the
b b
5p 2p indicated real number.
b. sina- b. sina-
6 3 y
5p 11p
23. a. tan 24. a. tan
3 6
(0, 1)
b. tana-
5p
b b. tana-
11p
b
(− 2
2
, 2
2 ) f
( 2
2
, 2
2 )
3 6
d
In Exercises 25–28, sin t and cos t are given. Use identities to find x
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
tan t, csc t, sec t, and cot t. Where necessary, rationalize
denominators.
25. sin t =
8
, cos t =
15
26. sin t =
3
, cos t =
4 (− 2
2
, − 2
2 ) (0, −1)
( 2
2
, − 2
2 )
17 17 5 5
1 2 22 2 25
27. sin t = , cos t = 28. sin t = , cos t =
3 3 3 3 3p 3p
53. a. sin 54. a. cos
p 4 4
In Exercises 29–32, 0 … t 6 and sin t is given. Use the 11p 11p
2 b. sin b. cos
Pythagorean identity sin t + cos2 t = 1 to find cos t.
2 4 4
p p
6 7 55. a. cos 56. a. sin
29. sin t = 30. sin t = 2 2
7 8
9p 9p
239 221 b. cos
2
b. sin
31. sin t = 32. sin t = 2
8 5 p
57. a. tan p 58. a. cot
2
In Exercises 33–38, use an identity to find the value of each
b. tan 17p 15p
expression. Do not use a calculator. b. cot
2
33. sin 1.7 csc 1.7 34. cos 2.3 sec 2.3
7p 7p
p p p p 59. a. sin 60. a. cos
35. sin2 + cos2 36. sin2
+ cos2 4 4
6 6 3 3 47p 47p
b. sin b. cos
2 p 2 p 2 p 2 p 4 4
37. sec - tan 38. csc - cot
3 3 6 6
In Exercises 61–70, use a calculator to find the value of the
In Exercises 39–52, find the exact value of each trigonometric trigonometric function to four decimal places.
function. Do not use a calculator. 61. sin 0.8 62. cos 0.6
9p 9p 63. tan 3.4 64. tan 3.7
39. cos 40. csc
4 4 65. csc 1 66. sec 1
9p 9p p 3p
41. sin ¢- ≤ 42. sec ¢ - ≤ 67. cos 68. sin
4 4 10 10
5p 5p p p
43. tan 44. cot 69. cot 70. cot
4 4 12 18
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 474
Practice Plus low for emotional well-being, and 0 representing feeling

neither emotionally high nor low.
In Exercises 71–80, let a. Find E corresponding to t = 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35. Describe
sin t = a, cos t = b, and tan t = c. what you observe.
Write each expression in terms of a, b, and c. b. What is the period of the emotional cycle?
71. sin1-t2 - sin t 72. tan1-t2 - tan t 84. The height of the water, H, in feet, at a boat dock t hours after
73. 4 cos1-t2 - cos t 74. 3 cos1-t2 - cos t 6 A.M. is given by
p
75. sin1t + 2p2 - cos1t + 4p2 + tan1t + p2 H = 10 + 4 sin t.
6
76. sin1t + 2p2 + cos1t + 4p2 - tan1t + p2 a. Find the height of the water at the dock at 6 A.M., 9 A.M.,
77. sin1-t - 2p2 - cos1-t - 4p2 - tan1-t - p2 noon, 6 P.M., midnight, and 3 A.M.
78. sin1-t - 2p2 + cos1-t - 4p2 - tan1-t - p2 b. When is low tide and when is high tide?
79. cos t + cos1t + 1000p2 - tan t - tan1t + 999p2 - sin t + c. What is the period of this function and what does this
4 sin1t - 1000p2 mean about the tides?
80. -cos t + 7 cos1t + 1000p2 + tan t + tan1t + 999p2 +
sin t + sin1t - 1000p2
Writing in Mathematics
Application Exercises 85. Why are the trigonometric functions sometimes called
circular functions?
81. The number of hours of daylight, H, on day t of any given
86. Define the sine of t.
year (on January 1, t = 1) in Fairbanks, Alaska, can be
modeled by the function 87. Given a point on the unit circle that corresponds to t, explain
how to find tan t.
H1t2 = 12 + 8.3 sin c 1t - 802 d.
2p
88. What is the range of the sine function? Use the unit circle to
365 explain where this range comes from.
a. March 21, the 80th day of the year, is the spring equinox. 89. Explain how to use the unit circle to find values of the
Find the number of hours of daylight in Fairbanks on p
this day. 4
b. June 21, the 172nd day of the year, is the summer solstice, 90. What do we mean by even trigonometric functions? Which of
the day with the maximum number of hours of daylight. the six functions fall into this category?
To the nearest tenth of an hour, find the number of hours 91. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the
of daylight in Fairbanks on this day. reciprocal identities.
c. December 21, the 355th day of the year, is the winter 92. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the quotient
solstice, the day with the minimum number of hours of identities.
daylight. Find, to the nearest tenth of an hour, the number 93. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the
of hours of daylight in Fairbanks on this day. Pythagorean identities
82. The number of hours of daylight, H, on day t of any given 94. What is a periodic function? Why are the sine and cosine
year (on January 1, t = 1) in San Diego, California, can be functions periodic?
modeled by the function 95. Explain how you can use the function for emotional
H1t2 = 12 + 2.4 sin c 1t - 802 d.
2p fluctuations in Exercise 83 to determine good days for having
365 dinner with your moody boss.
a. March 21, the 80th day of the year, is the spring equinox. 96. Describe a phenomenon that repeats infinitely. What is its
Find the number of hours of daylight in San Diego on period?
this day.
b. June 21, the 172nd day of the year, is the summer solstice,
the day with the maximum number of hours of daylight. Critical Thinking Exercises
Find, to the nearest tenth of an hour, the number of hours 3p
97. If p 6 t 6 , which of the following is true?
of daylight in San Diego on this day. 2
c. December 21, the 355th day of the year, is the winter a. sin t 7 0 and tan t 7 0.
solstice, the day with the minimum number of hours of b. sin t 6 0 and tan t 6 0.
daylight. To the nearest tenth of an hour, find the number c. tan t 7 0 and cot t 7 0.
of hours of daylight in San Diego on this day. d. tan t 6 0 and cot t 6 0.
83. People who believe in biorhythms claim that there are three 98. If f1x2 = sin x and f1a2 = 14 , find the value of
cycles that rule our behavior—the physical, emotional, and f1a2 + f1a + 2p2 + f1a + 4p2 + f1a + 6p2.
mental. Each is a sine function of a certain period. The func-
99. If f1x2 = sin x and f1a2 = 14 , find the value of
tion for our emotional fluctuations is
f1a2 + 2f1-a2.
p
E = sin t, 100. The seats of a Ferris wheel are 40 feet from the wheel’s cen-
14
where t is measured in days starting at birth. Emotional ter. When you get on the ride, your seat is 5 feet above the
fluctuations, E, are measured from -1 to 1, inclusive, with 1 ground. How far above the ground are you after rotating
17p
representing peak emotional well-being, -1 representing the through an angle of radians? Round to the nearest foot.
4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/27/06 2:44 PM Page 475
Section 4.3 • Right Triangle Trigonometry 475
SECTION 4.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry

Objectives
❶ Use right triangles to
evaluate trigonometric
functions.
❷ Find function values for
30° a b, 45° a b, and

p p
6 4
60° a b.
p
3 In the last century, Ang Rita
❸ Use equal cofunctions of Sherpa climbed Mount Everest

ten times, all without the use of
complements. bottled oxygen.
❹ Use right triangle
trigonometry to solve
applied problems.
Mountain climbers have forever been fascinated by reaching the top of Mount
Everest, sometimes with tragic results. The mountain, on Asia’s Tibet-Nepal
border, is Earth’s highest, peaking at an incredible 29,035 feet. The heights of
mountains can be found using trigonometric functions. Remember that the word
trigonometry means measurement of triangles. Trigonometry is used in navigation,
building, and engineering. For centuries, Muslims used trigonometry and the stars
to navigate across the Arabian desert to Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet
Muhammad, the founder of Islam. The ancient Greeks used trigonometry to
record the locations of thousands of stars and worked out the motion of the
Moon relative to Earth. Today, trigonometry is used to study the structure of
DNA, the master molecule that determines how we grow from a single cell to a
complex, fully developed adult.
❶ Use right triangles to

functions.
Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions
We have seen that in a unit circle, the radian measure of a central angle is equal to
the measure of the intercepted arc. Thus, the value of a trigonometric function at the
real number t is its value at an angle of t radians
p
Figure 4.29(a) shows a central angle that measures radians and an intercepted
3
p p
arc of length . Interpret as the measure of the central angle. In Figure 4.29(b),
3 3
we construct a right triangle by dropping a line segment from point P perpendicular
to the x-axis.
y y
P = (x, y) P = (x, y)
1 u 1 p
y or 60˚
u 3
x x
x
x2 + y2 = 1 x2 + y2 = 1
(a) (b)
Figure 4.29 Interpreting trigonometric functions using a unit circle and a right triangle
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/27/06 3:10 PM Page 476
y p
Now we can think of , or 60°, as the measure of an acute angle in the right
3
triangle in Figure 4.29(b). Because sin t is the second coordinate of point P and cos t
P = (x, y)
is the first coordinate of point P, we see that
1 p
y 3
or 60˚ This is the length of the side opposite
y the 60° angle in the right triangle.
x p
x sin =sin 60°=y=
3 1 This is the length of the hypotenuse
in the right triangle.
x2 + y2 = 1
This is the length of the side adjacent
to the 60° angle in the right triangle.
(b) p x
cos =cos 60°=x= .
3 1 This is the length of the hypotenuse
Figure 4.29(b) (repeated)
in the right triangle.
In solving certain kinds of problems, it is helpful to interpret trigonometric

functions in right triangles, where angles are limited to acute angles. Figure 4.30
shows a right triangle with one of its acute angles labeled u. The side opposite the
right angle, the hypotenuse, has length c. The other sides of the triangle are
described by their position relative to the acute angle u. One side is opposite u. The
length of this side is a. One side is adjacent to u. The length of this side is b.
Length of the
hypotenuse
B
Length of the
c side opposite u
a
u
A C
b
Length of the side adjacent to u

Figure 4.30
Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions

See Figure 4.30. The six trigonometric functions of the acute angle U are defined as follows:
length of side opposite angle u a length of hypotenuse c
sin u = = csc u = =
length of hypotenuse c length of side opposite angle u a
length of side adjacent to angle u b length of hypotenuse c
cos u = = sec u = =
length of hypotenuse c length of side adjacent to angle u b
length of side opposite angle u a length of side adjacent to angle u b
tan u = = cot u = =
length of side adjacent to angle u b length of side opposite angle u a
Each of the trigonometric functions of the acute angle u is positive. Observe that the
ratios in the second column in the box are the reciprocals of the corresponding
ratios in the first column.
Study Tip
The word
SOHCAHTOA (pronounced: so-cah-tow-ah)
is a way to remember the right triangle definitions of the three basic trigonometric functions,
sine, cosine, and tangent.
S 3
OH C 3
AH T 3
OA
opp adj opp
æ hyp æ hyp æ adj
Sine Cosine Tangent
“Some Old Hog Came Around Here and Took Our Apples.”
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 477
Figure 4.31 shows four right triangles of varying sizes. In each of the triangles,
u is the same acute angle, measuring approximately 56.3°. All four of these similar
triangles have the same shape and the lengths of corresponding sides are in the
same ratio. In each triangle, the tangent function has the same value for the angle
u: tan u = 32 .
6
4.5
a3
1.5
u u u u
Figure 4.31 A particular acute angle b2 4 1 3

always gives the same ratio of opposite a 3 6 3 1.5 3 4.5 3
tan u b
2
tan u 4
2
tan u 1
2
tan u 3 2
to adjacent sides.
In general, the trigonometric function values of U depend only on the size of

angle U and not on the size of the triangle.

B Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u in Figure 4.32.
c
a5 Solution We need to find the values of the six trigonometric functions of u.
u However, we must know the lengths of all three sides of the triangle (a, b, and c) to
A C evaluate all six functions. The values of a and b are given. We can use the Pythagorean
b 12
Theorem, c2 = a2 + b2, to find c.
Figure 4.32
a=5 b = 12
c2=a2+b2=52+122=25+144=169
c = 2169 = 13
Now that we know the lengths of the three sides of the triangle, we apply the defin-
itions of the six trigonometric functions of u. Referring to these lengths as opposite,
adjacent, and hypotenuse, we have
Study Tip
opposite 5 hypotenuse 13
The function values in the sin u = = csc u = =
second column are reciprocals of hypotenuse 13 opposite 5
those in the first column. You can adjacent 12 hypotenuse 13
obtain these values by cos u = = sec u = =
hypotenuse 13 adjacent 12
exchanging the numerator and
denominator of the opposite 5 adjacent 12
corresponding ratios in the first tan u = = cot u = = .
adjacent 12 opposite 5
column.
Check
Point 1 Find the value of each of the six trigonometric
functions of u in the figure.
B
c
a3
u
A C
b4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 478

B Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u in Figure 4.33.
c=3
a=1
u
Solution We begin by finding b.
A C
b
a 2 + b2 = c 2 Use the Pythagorean Theorem.
Figure 4.33
12 + b2 = 32 Figure 4.33 shows that a 1 and c 3.
2
1 + b = 9 12 1 and 32 9.
2
b = 8 Subtract 1 from both sides.
b = 28 = 222 Take the principal square root and simplify:
#
28 24 2 2422 222.
Now that we know the lengths of the three sides of the triangle, we apply the
definitions of the six trigonometric functions of u.
opposite 1 hypotenuse 3
sin u = = csc u = = = 3
hypotenuse 3 opposite 1
adjacent 222 hypotenuse 3

cos u = = sec u = =
hypotenuse 3 adjacent 222
opposite 1 adjacent 222
tan u = = cot u = = = 222
adjacent 222 opposite 1
We can simplify the values of tan u and sec u by rationalizing the denominators:
1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 32 32
tan u= = = = sec u= = = = .
22 22 2 22 4 22 22 2 22 4
We are multiplying by 1 and We are multiplying by 1 and

1 3
not changing the value of . not changing the value of .
22 22
Check
Point 2 Find the value of each of the six
trigonometric functions of u in c5
B
a1
the figure. Express each value in u
simplified form. A C
b
❷ Find function values for

30°a b , 45°a b, and
p
6
p
4
Function Values for Some Special Angles
p
In Section 4.2, we used the unit circle to find values of the trigonometric functions at .
p 4
60°a b .
p
How can we find the values of the trigonometric functions at , or 45°, using a
3 4
right triangle? We construct a right triangle with a 45° angle, as shown in Figure 4.34
at the top of the next page. The triangle actually has two 45° angles. Thus, the
triangle is isosceles—that is, it has two sides of the same length. Assume that each
leg of the triangle has a length equal to 1. We can find the length of the hypotenuse
using the Pythagorean Theorem.
1length of hypotenuse22 = 12 + 12 = 2
length of hypotenuse = 22
With Figure 4.34, we can determine the trigonometric function values for 45°.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 479
EXAMPLE 3 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 45°

2 Use Figure 4.34 to find sin 45°, cos 45°, and tan 45°.
1
Solution We apply the definitions of these three trigonometric functions. Where
45 appropriate, we simplify by rationalizing denominators.
1 length of side opposite 45 1 1 2 2
sin 45= = = =
Figure 4.34 An
length of hypotenuse 2 2 2 2
isosceles right triangle
Rationalize denominators
length of side adjacent to 45 1 1 2 2

cos 45= = = =
length of hypotenuse 2 2 2 2
length of side opposite 45 1
tan 45= = =1
length of side adjacent to 45 1
Check
Point 3 Use Figure 4.34 to find csc 45°, sec 45°, and cot 45°.
When you worked Check Point 3, did you actually use Figure 4.34 or did you
use reciprocals to find the values?
csc 45=2 sec 45=2 cot 45=1
Take the reciprocal Take the reciprocal Take the reciprocal

of sin 45° = 1 . of cos 45° = 1 . of tan 45° = 1 .
2 2 1
Notice that if you use reciprocals, you should take the reciprocal of a function value
before the denominator is rationalized. In this way, the reciprocal value will not
contain a radical in the denominator. p
Two other angles that occur frequently in trigonometry are 30°, or radian,
6
p
and 60°, or radian, angles. We can find the values of the trigonometric functions of
3
30° and 60° by using a right triangle. To form this right triangle, draw an equilateral
triangle—that is a triangle with all sides the same length. Assume that each side has a
length equal to 2. Now take half of the equilateral triangle. We obtain the right trian-
gle in Figure 4.35.This right triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2 and a leg of length 1.
30
The other leg has length a, which can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem.
2 a2 + 12 = 22
3
a2 + 1 = 4
a2 = 3
60 a = 23
1
With the right triangle in Figure 4.35, we can determine the trigonometric functions
Figure 4.35 30°–60°–90° triangle for 30° and 60°.
EXAMPLE 4 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 30° and 60°

Use Figure 4.35 to find sin 60°, cos 60°, sin 30°, and cos 30°.
Solution We begin with 60°. Use the angle on the lower left in Figure 4.35.
length of side opposite 60° 23
sin 60° = =
length of hypotenuse 2
length of side adjacent to 60° 1
cos 60° = =
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 480
To find sin 30° and cos 30°, use the angle on the upper right in Figure 4.35.
length of side opposite 30° 1

30 sin 30° = =
2
length of side adjacent to 30° 23
3 cos 30° = =
60
1
Figure 4.35 (repeated) Check

Point 4 Use Figure 4.35 to find tan 60° and tan 30°. If a radical appears in a
denominator, rationalize the denominator.
Because we will often use the function values of 30°, 45°, and 60°, you should
learn to construct the right triangles shown in Figures 4.34 and 4.35. With sufficient
practice, you will memorize the values in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles

P P P
U 30° 45° 60°
6 4 3
1 22 23
sin U
2 2 2
23 22 1
cos U
2 2 2
23
tan U 1 23
3
❸ Use equal cofunctions of

complements.
Trigonometric Functions and Complements
p
Two positive angles are complements if their sum is 90° or . For example, angles of
2
70° and 20° are complements because 70° + 20° = 90°.
In Section 4.2, we used the unit circle to establish fundamental trigonometric
c 90 − u identities. Another relationship among trigonometric functions is based on angles that
a
are complements. Refer to Figure 4.36. Because the sum of the angles of any triangle is
u 180°, in a right triangle the sum of the acute angles is 90°. Thus, the acute angles are
complements. If the degree measure of one acute angle is u, then the degree measure of
the other acute angle is 190° - u2. This angle is shown on the upper right in Figure 4.36.
b
Figure 4.36 Let’s use Figure 4.36 to compare sin u and cos190° - u2.
length of side opposite u a

sin u = =
length of hypotenuse c
length of side adjacent to 190° - u2 a

cos190° - u2 = =
length of hypotenuse c
Thus, sin u = cos190° - u2. If two angles are complements, the sine of one equals
the cosine of the other. Because of this relationship, the sine and cosine are called
cofunctions of each other. The name cosine is a shortened form of the phrase
complement’s sine.
Any pair of trigonometric functions f and g for which
f1u2 = g190° - u2 and g1u2 = f190° - u2
are called cofunctions. Using Figure 4.36, we can show that the tangent and
cotangent are also cofunctions of each other. So are the secant and cosecant.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 481
Cofunction Identities
The value of a trigonometric function of u is equal to the cofunction of the
complement of u. Cofunctions of complementary angles are equal.
sin u = cos190° - u2 cos u = sin190° - u2
tan u = cot190° - u2 cot u = tan190° - u2
sec u = csc190° - u2 csc u = sec190° - u2
p
If u is in radians, replace 90° with .
2
EXAMPLE 5 Using Confuction Identities

Find a cofunction with the same value as the given expression:
p
a. sin 72° b. csc .
3
Solution Because the value of a trigonometric function of u is equal to the
cofunction of the complement of u, we need to find the complement of each angle.
p
We do this by subtracting the angle’s measure from 90° or its radian equivalent, .
2
a. sin 72=cos(90-72)=cos 18
We have a function and

its cofunction.
=sec a - b =sec a - b =sec

p p p 3p 2p p
b. csc
3 2 3 6 6 6
We have a cofunction Perform the subtraction using the
and its function. least common denominator, 6.
Check
Point 5 a.Findsina46°
cofunction with the same value as the given expression:
p
b. cot .
12
❹ Use right triangle

trigonometry to solve applied
problems.
Applications
Many applications of right triangle trigonometry involve the angle made with an
imaginary horizontal line. As shown in Figure 4.37, an angle formed by a horizontal
line and the line of sight to an object that is above the horizontal line is called the
angle of elevation. The angle formed by a horizontal line and the line of sight to an
object that is below the horizontal line is called the angle of depression. Transits and
sextants are instruments used to measure such angles.
r
erve
Observer
ve obs
located ht abo
here eo f sig
Lin
Angle of elevation
Horizontal
Lin Angle of depression

e of
sigh
t be
low
obs
erve
r
Figure 4.37
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 482
EXAMPLE 6 Problem Solving Using an Angle of Elevation

Sighting the top of a building, a surveyor measured the angle of elevation to be 22°.
The transit is 5 feet above the ground and 300 feet from the building. Find the
building’s height.
Solution The situation is illustrated in Figure 4.38. Let a be the height of the
portion of the building that lies above the transit. The height of the building is the
transit’s height, 5 feet, plus a. Thus, we need to identify a trigonometric function that
will make it possible to find a. In terms of the 22° angle, we are looking for the side
a h
Transit ht
of sig
Line 22° 5 feet
300 feet
Figure 4.38
opposite the angle. The transit is 300 feet from the building, so the side adjacent to
the 22° angle is 300 feet. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side,
and a known adjacent side, we select the tangent function.
Length of side opposite the 22° angle

a
tan 22=
300 Length of side adjacent to the 22° angle
a = 300 tan 22° Multiply both sides of the equation by 300.

a L 121 Use a calculator in the degree mode.
The height of the part of the building above the transit is approximately 121 feet.
Thus, the height of the building is determined by adding the transit’s height, 5 feet,
to 121 feet.
h L 5 + 121 = 126
The building’s height is approximately 126 feet.
Check
Point 6 The irregular blue shape in
Figure 4.39 represents a
lake. The distance across the
lake, a, is unknown. To find
this distance, a surveyor
took the measurements B
shown in the figure. What is
the distance across the lake?
a
24°
A
750 yd C
Figure 4.39
If two sides of a right triangle are known, an appropriate trigonometric function

can be used to find an acute angle u in the triangle. You will also need to use an inverse
trigonometric key on a calculator. These keys use a function value to display the acute
angle u. For example, suppose that sin u = 0.866. We can find u in the degree mode by
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 483
using the secondary inverse sine key, usually labeled SIN -1 . The key SIN -1 is not a
button you will actually press. It is the secondary function for the button labeled SIN .
Many Scientific Calculators:

.866 2nd SIN
Pressing 2nd SIN
accesses the inverse Many Graphing Calculators:
sine key, SIN−1 .
2nd SIN .866 ENTER
The display should show approximately 59.99, which can be rounded to 60. Thus,
if sin u = 0.866, then u L 60°.
EXAMPLE 7 Determining the Angle of Elevation

A building that is 21 meters tall casts a shadow 25 meters long. Find the angle of
elevation of the sun to the nearest degree.
Solution The situation is illustrated in Figure 4.40. We are asked to find u.

We begin with the tangent function.
side opposite u 21
tan u = =
side adjacent to u 25
We use a calculator in the degree mode to find u.
Many Scientific Calculators:

( 21÷25 ) 2nd TAN
Pressing 2nd TAN
accesses the inverse Many Graphing Calculators:
tangent key, TAN−1 .
2nd TAN ( 21÷25 ) ENTER
The display should show approximately 40. Thus, the angle of elevation of the sun is
approximately 40°.
21 m Angle of elevation
25 m
Figure 4.40
Check
Point 7 Aangle
flagpole that is 14 meters tall casts a shadow 10 meters long. Find the
of elevation of the sun to the nearest degree.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 484
The Mountain Man

In the 1930s, a National Geographic team headed by Brad Washburn
used trigonometry to create a map of the 5000-square-mile region of
the Yukon, near the Canadian border. The team started with aerial
photography. By drawing a network of angles on the photographs,
the approximate locations of the major mountains and their rough
heights were determined. The expedition then spent three months on
foot to find the exact heights. Team members established two base
points a known distance apart, one directly under the mountain’s
peak. By measuring the angle of elevation from one of the base
points to the peak, the tangent function was used to determine the
peak’s height. The Yukon expedition was a major advance in the way
maps are made.
EXERCISE SET 4.3

Practice Exercises 8. C
In Exercises 1–8, use the Pythagorean Theorem to find 24

the length of the missing side of each right triangle. Then find the u
value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u. B A
25
1. B 2. B In Exercises 9–20, use the given triangles to evaluate each
expression. If necessary, express the value without a square
root in the denominator by rationalizing the denominator.
6
9
u
u A C
8
A C 30
12
3. B 4. B 2
17 45 3
2
u 1
29 C A
15
45 60
1 1
u
C A 9. cos 30° 10. tan 30°
21
5. 11. sec 45° 12. csc 45°
B
p p
26 13. tan 14. cot
10 3 3
u
A p p p p
C 15. sin - cos 16. tan + csc
4 4 4 6
6. B p p p p p p
41 17. sin cos - tan 18. cos sec - cot
3 4 4 3 3 3
u
A p p p p p p
C 40 19. 2 tan + cos tan 20. 6 tan + sin sec
3 4 6 4 3 6
7. B
35
In Exercises 21–28, find a cofunction with the same value as the
A given expression.
u
21. sin 7° 22. sin 19°
21
23. csc 25° 24. csc 35°
p p
C 25. tan 26. tan
9 7
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 485
2p 3p 47. csc 37° sec 53° - tan 53° cot 37°

27. cos 28. cos
5 8 48. cos 12° sin 78° + cos 78° sin 12°
In Exercises 29–34, find the measure of the side of the right In Exercises 49–50, express each exact value as a single fraction.
triangle whose length is designated by a lowercase letter. Round Do not use a calculator.
49. If f1u2 = 2 cos u - cos 2u, find fa b.
answers to the nearest whole number. p
29. 6
B 30. B
50. If f1u2 = 2 sin u - sin , find fa b.

u p
2 3
a
1 p
a 51. If u is an acute angle and cot u = , find tana - ub.
37 4 2
A
, find csc a - ub.
b 250 cm C 1 p
52. If u is an acute angle and cos u =
61 3 2
A
b 10 cm C
31. B 32. B Application Exercises

13 m 53. To find the distance across a lake, a surveyor took the
220 in.
a measurements shown in the figure. Use these measure-
ments to determine how far it is across the lake. Round to
34 34 the nearest yard.
A C A C
b
33. B
c
16 m B
23
C A
a=?
34. B 40°
A 630 yd C
23 yd
54. At a certain time of day, the angle of elevation of the sun
is 40°. To the nearest foot, find the height of a tree whose
shadow is 35 feet long.
44
A C
b
In Exercises 35–38, use a calculator to find the value of the acute

angle u to the nearest degree.
35. sin u = 0.2974 36. cos u = 0.8771
h
37. tan u = 4.6252 38. tan u = 26.0307
40°
In Exercises 39–42, use a calculator to find the value of the acute
angle u in radians, rounded to three decimal places. 35 ft
39. cos u = 0.4112 40. sin u = 0.9499 55. A tower that is 125 feet tall casts a shadow 172 feet long. Find
41. tan u = 0.4169 42. tan u = 0.5117 the angle of elevation of the sun to the nearest degree.
Practice Plus
In Exercises 43–48, find the exact value of each
expression. Do not use a calculator.
p
tan 125 ft
3 1 1 2
43. - 44. -
2 p p p
sec cot csc u
6 4 6
45. 1 + sin2 40° + sin2 50° 46. 1 - tan2 10° + csc2 80° 172 ft
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 486
56. The Washington Monument is 555 feet high. If you stand one
quarter of a mile, or 1320 feet, from the base of the monu-
ment and look to the top, find the angle of elevation to the
nearest degree.
61. If you are given the lengths of the sides of a right triangle,
describe how to find the sine of either acute angle.
Washington 62. Describe one similarity and one difference between the
Monument
definitions of sin u and cos u, where u is an acute angle of a
right triangle.
555 ft 63. Describe the triangle used to find the trigonometric
functions of 45°.
u
64. Describe the triangle used to find the trigonometric
1320 ft functions of 30° and 60°.
65. Describe a relationship among trigonometric functions that
is based on angles that are complements.
57. A plane rises from take-off and flies at an angle of 10° with 66. Describe what is meant by an angle of elevation and an angle
the horizontal runway. When it has gained 500 feet, find the of depression.
distance, to the nearest foot, the plane has flown. 67. Stonehenge, the famous “stone circle” in England, was built
between 2750 B.C. and 1300 B.C. using solid stone blocks
weighing over 99,000 pounds each. It required 550 people to
pull a single stone up a ramp inclined at a 9° angle. Describe
how right triangle trigonometry can be used to determine the
B
distance the 550 workers had to drag a stone in order to raise
c=? it to a height of 30 feet.
500 ft
10°
A C
58. A road is inclined at an angle of 5°. After driving 5000 feet

along this road, find the driver’s increase in altitude. Round
to the nearest foot.
5000 ft B
a=?
5°
A C Technology Exercises
68. Use a calculator in the radian mode to fill in the values in the
sin u
59. A telephone pole is 60 feet tall. A guy wire 75 feet long is following table. Then draw a conclusion about as u
u
attached from the ground to the top of the pole. Find the approaches 0.
angle between the wire and the pole to the nearest degree.
U 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001

sin U
sin U
u U
60 ft
75 ft 69. Use a calculator in the radian mode to fill in the values in the
cos u - 1
following table. Then draw a conclusion about
u
as u approaches 0.
U 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001

cos U
60. A telephone pole is 55 feet tall. A guy wire 80 feet long is
cos U 1
attached from the ground to the top of the pole. Find the
angle between the wire and the pole to the nearest degree. U
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 487
Section 4.4 • Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 487
71. Explain why the sine or cosine of an acute angle cannot be

greater than or equal to 1.
Critical Thinking Exercises 72. Describe what happens to the tangent of an acute angle as
70. Which one of the following is true? the angle gets close to 90°. What happens at 90°?
tan 45° 73. From the top of a 250-foot lighthouse, a plane is sighted over-
a. = tan 3° head and a ship is observed directly below the plane. The
tan 15°
angle of elevation of the plane is 22° and the angle of depres-
b. tan2 15° - sec2 15° = -1
sion of the ship is 35°. Find a. the distance of the ship from
c. sin 45° + cos 45° = 1 the lighthouse; b. the plane’s height above the water. Round
d. tan2 5° = tan 25° to the nearest foot.
SECTION 4.4 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

Objectives
❶ Use the definitions of
any angle.
❷ Use the signs of the
❸ Find reference angles.
❹ Use reference angles to
functions.
Cycles govern many aspects of life—heartbeats, sleep patterns, seasons, and

tides all follow regular, predictable cycles. Because of their periodic nature,
trigonometric functions are used to model phenomena that occur in cycles. It is
helpful to apply these models regardless of whether we think of the domains of
trigonometric functions as sets of real numbers or sets of angles. In order to
understand and use models for cyclic phenomena from an angle perspective, we
need to move beyond right triangles.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 488
❶ Use the definitions of

any angle.
Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
In the last section, we evaluated trigonometric functions of acute angles, such as that
shown in Figure 4.41(a). Note that this angle is in standard position. The point
P = 1x, y2 is a point r units from the origin on the terminal side of u. A right
triangle is formed by drawing a line segment from P = 1x, y2 perpendicular to the
x-axis. Note that y is the length of the side opposite u and x is the length of the side
adjacent to u.
y y y y
u
P (x, y) u
x x
P (x, y) x x
r y y
r r
y y r
u P (x, y)
u
x x
x x
P (x, y)
(a) u lies in (b) u lies in (c) u lies in (d) u lies in

Figure 4.41 quadrant I. quadrant II. quadrant III. quadrant IV.
Figures 4.41(b), (c), and (d) show angles in standard position, but they are not
acute. We can extend our definitions of the six trigonometric functions to include such
angles, as well as quadrantal angles. (Recall that a quadrantal angle has its terminal side
on the x-axis or y-axis; such angles are not shown in Figure 4.41.) The point P = 1x, y2
may be any point on the terminal side of the angle u other than the origin, 10, 02.
Study Tip Definitions of Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

If u is acute, we have the right Let u be any angle in standard position and let P = 1x, y2 be a point on the
triangle shown in Figure 4.41(a). terminal side of u. If r = 3x2 + y2 is the distance from 10, 02 to 1x, y2, as shown in
In this situation, the definitions Figure 4.41, the six trigonometric functions of U are defined by the following ratios:
in the box are the right triangle
y r
definitions of the trigonometric sin u= csc u= , y 0
r y
functions. This should make it
easier for you to remember the x r
cos u= sec u= , x 0
six definitions. r x
y x
tan u= , x 0 cot u= , y 0.
x y
The ratios in the second column

are the reciprocals of the
corresponding ratios in the
first column.
Because the point P = 1x, y2 is any point on the terminal side of u other than
the origin, 10, 02, r = 3x2 + y2 cannot be zero. Examine the six trigonometric
functions defined above. Note that the denominator of the sine and cosine functions
is r. Because r Z 0, the sine and cosine functions are defined for any real value of
the angle u. This is not true for the other four trigonometric functions. Note that
y r
the denominator of the tangent and secant functions is x: tan u = and sec u = .
x x
These functions are not defined if x = 0. If the point P = 1x, y2 is on the y-axis,
then x = 0. Thus, the tangent and secant functions are undefined for all quadrantal
angles with terminal sides on the positive or negative y-axis. Likewise, if P = 1x, y2
is on the x-axis, then y = 0, and the cotangent and cosecant functions are undefined:
x r
cot u = and csc u = . The cotangent and cosecant functions are undefined for
y y
all quadrantal angles with terminal sides on the positive or negative x-axis.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 489

Let P = 1-3, -52 be a point on the terminal side of u. Find each of the six
trigonometric functions of u.
y Solution The situation is shown in Figure 4.42.We need values for x, y, and r to eval-
uate all six trigonometric functions. We are given the values of x and y. Because
P = 1-3, -52 is a point on the terminal side of u, x = -3 and y = -5. Furthermore,
5
r = 3x2 + y2 = 41-322 + 1-522 = 29 + 25 = 234.

u
Now that we know x, y, and r, we can find the six trigonometric functions of u.
x
−5 5 Where appropriate, we will rationalize denominators.
r y -5 5 # 234 5234 r 234 234
sin u = = = - = - csc u = = = -
r 234 234 234 34 y -5 5
−5 x -3 3 # 234 3234 r 234 234
cos u = = = - = - sec u = = = -
r 234 234 234 34 x -3 3
P = (−3, − 5)
y -5 5 x -3 3
tan u = = = cot u = = =
x = −3 y = −5 x -3 3 y -5 5
Figure 4.42
P = 11, -32 be a point on the terminal side of u. Find each of the six
Check
Point 1 Let
How do we find the values of the trigonometric functions for a quadrantal
angle? First, draw the angle in standard position. Second, choose a point P on the
angle’s terminal side. The trigonometric function values of u depend only on the size
of u and not on the distance of point P from the origin. Thus, we will choose a point
that is 1 unit from the origin. Finally, apply the definitions of the appropriate
EXAMPLE 2 Trigonometric Functions of Quadrantal Angles

Evaluate, if possible, the sine function and the tangent function at the following four
quadrantal angles:
p 3p
y x=1 y=0 a. u = 0° = 0 b. u = 90° = c. u = 180° = p d. u = 270° = .
2 2
Solution
u = 0 P = (1, 0)
a. If u = 0° = 0 radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the positive
x-axis. Let us select the point P = 11, 02 with x = 1 and y = 0. This point is
x
−1 1
r=1 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 4.43 shows values of x, y, and r
corresponding to u = 0° or 0 radians. Now that we know x, y, and r, we can
Figure 4.43 apply the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
y 0
sin 0° = sin 0 = = = 0
r 1
y 0
tan 0° = tan 0 = = = 0
x 1
p
b. If u = 90° = radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the positive
2
y-axis. Let us select the point P = 10, 12 with x = 0 and y = 1. This point is
y
x=0 y=1 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 4.44 shows values of x, y, and r
p
corresponding to u = 90° or . Now that we know x, y, and r, we can apply
1 P = (0, 1) 2
the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
r=1
u = 90 p y 1
x sin 90° = sin = = = 1
−1 1 2 r 1
p y 1
tan 90° = tan = =
Figure 4.44 2 x 0
Because division by 0 is undefined, tan 90° is undefined.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 490
y c. If u = 180° = p radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the negative
x-axis. Let us select the point P = 1-1, 02 with x = -1 and y = 0. This point
x = −1 y=0 is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 4.45 shows values of x, y, and r
1 corresponding to u = 180° or p. Now that we know x, y, and r, we can apply
u = 180 the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
P = (−1, 0)
x y 0
−1 1 sin 180° = sin p = = = 0
r 1
r=1 y 0
tan 180° = tan p = = = 0
x -1
Figure 4.45
3p
d. If u = 270° = radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the
2
negative y-axis. Let us select the point P = 10, -12 with x = 0 and y = -1.
y
u = 270 This point is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 4.46 shows values of x, y,
x
3p
−1 1
and r corresponding to u = 270° or . Now that we know x, y, and r, we can
2
r=1 apply the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
−1 P = (0, −1) 3p y -1
sin 270° = sin = = = -1
2 r 1
x=0 y = −1 3p y -1
tan 270° = tan = =
2 x 0
Figure 4.46
Because division by 0 is undefined, tan 270° is undefined.
Discovery
Try finding tan 90° and tan 270°
with your calculator. Describe
Check
Point 2 Evaluate, if possible, the cosine function and the cosecant function at the
following four quadrantal angles:
what occurs. p
a. u = 0° = 0 b. u = 90° =
2
3p
c. u = 180° = p d. u = 270° = .
2
❷ Use the signs of the

y
The Signs of the Trigonometric Functions
In Example 2, we evaluated trigonometric functions of quadrantal angles. However,
we will now return to the trigonometric functions of nonquadrantal angles. If U is
not a quadrantal angle, the sign of a trigonometric function depends on the quad-
Quadrant II Quadrant I rant in which U lies. In all four quadrants, r is positive. However, x and y can be
sine and All
cosecant functions
positive or negative. For example, if u lies in quadrant II, x is negative and y is
positive positive
y r
positive. Thus, the only positive ratios in this quadrant are and its reciprocal, .
x r y
These ratios are the function values for the sine and cosecant, respectively. In short,
Quadrant III Quadrant IV if u lies in quadrant II, sin u and csc u are positive. The other four trigonometric
tangent and cosine and
cotangent secant functions are negative.
positive positive Figure 4.47 summarizes the signs of the trigonometric functions. If u lies in
quadrant I, all six functions are positive. If u lies in quadrant II, only sin u and csc u
are positive. If u lies in quadrant III, only tan u and cot u are positive. Finally, if u lies
Figure 4.47 The signs of the
trigonometric functions
in quadrant IV, only cos u and sec u are positive. Observe that the positive functions
in each quadrant occur in reciprocal pairs.
Study Tip
Your author’s high school trig teacher showed him this sentence to remember the signs of the trig functions:
All Students Take Calculus.
All trig functions Sine and its Tangent and its Cosine and its
are positive in reciprocal, cosecant, reciprocal, cotangent, reciprocal, secant,
QI. are positive in QII. are positive in QIII. are positive in QIV.
The sentence isn’t true anymore, so you may prefer these memory devices:
All Snakes Tease Chickens.
A Smart Trig Class.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 491
EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Quadrant in Which an Angle Lies

If tan u 6 0 and cos u 7 0, name the quadrant in which angle u lies.
Solution When tan u 6 0, u lies in quadrant II or IV. When cos u 7 0, u lies in
quadrant I or IV. When both conditions are met (tan u 6 0 and cos u 7 0), u must
lie in quadrant IV.
Check
Point 3 If sin u 6 0 and cos u 6 0, name the quadrant in which angle u lies.
Given tan u = - 23 and cos u 7 0, find cos u and csc u.
Solution Because the tangent is negative and the cosine is positive, u lies in quad-
rant IV. This will help us to determine whether the negative sign in tan u = - 23
y
should be associated with the numerator or the denominator. Keep in mind that in
5 quadrant IV, x is positive and y is negative. Thus,
In quadrant IV, y is negative.
u r = 13
x
2 y –2
tan u=– = = .
−5 5 3 x 3
(See Figure 4.48.) Thus, x = 3 and y = -2. Furthermore,
P = (3, − 2) r = 3x2 + y2 = 432 + 1-222 = 29 + 4 = 213.

−5
x=3 y = −2
Now that we know x, y, and r, we can find cos u and csc u.
x 3 3 # 213 3213 r 213 213
Figure 4.48 tan u = - 23 cos u = = = = csc u = = = -
r 213 213 213 13 y -2 2
and cos u 7 0
Given tan u = - 13 and cos u 6 0, find sin u and sec u.

Check
Point 4
In Example 4, we used the quadrant in which u lies to determine whether a
negative sign should be associated with the numerator or the denominator. Here’s a
situation, similar to Example 4, where negative signs should be associated with both
the numerator and the denominator:
3
tan u = and cos u 6 0.
5
Because the tangent is positive and the cosine is negative, u lies in quadrant III. In
quadrant III, x is negative and y is negative. Thus,
y We see that x = −5
3 –3 and y = −3.
tan u= = = .
5 x –5
❸ Find reference angles. Reference Angles

We will often evaluate trigonometric functions of positive angles greater than 90°
and all negative angles by making use of a positive acute angle. This positive acute
angle is called a reference angle.
Definition of a Reference Angle

Let u be a nonacute angle in standard position that lies in a quadrant. Its
reference angle is the positive acute angle u¿ formed by the terminal side of u
and the x-axis.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 492
Figure 4.49 shows the reference angle for u lying in quadrants II, III, and IV.
Notice that the formula used to find u¿, the reference angle, varies according to the
quadrant in which u lies. You may find it easier to find the reference angle for a
given angle by making a figure that shows the angle in standard position. The acute
angle formed by the terminal side of this angle and the x-axis is the reference angle.
y y y
u u
u u
x x x
u
u
Figure 4.49 Reference angles, u¿, for

positive angles, u, in quadrants II, III, If 90 u 180, If 180 u 270, If 270 u 360,
and IV then u 180 u. then u u 180. then u 360 u.
EXAMPLE 5 Finding Reference Angles

Find the reference angle, u¿, for each of the following angles:
5p
a. u = 345° b. u = c. u = -135° d. u = 2.5.
6
Solution y
a. A 345° angle in standard position is shown

in Figure 4.50. Because 345° lies in quadrant u 345
x
IV, the reference angle is u 15
u¿ = 360° - 345° = 15°.

Figure 4.50
5p p 3p
b. Because lies between = and
6 2 6 y
6p 5p
p = ,u = lies in quadrant II. The u 6
5p
6 6 u 6
p
angle is shown in Figure 4.51. The reference x
angle is
5p 6p 5p p Figure 4.51
u¿ = p - = - = .
6 6 6 6
c. A -135° angle in standard position is y

Discovery shown in Figure 4.52. The figure indicates
that the positive acute angle formed by the x
Solve part (c) by first finding a u 45
positive coterminal angle for terminal side of u and the x-axis is 45°. The u 135
-135° less than 360°. Use the reference angle is
positive coterminal angle to find
the reference angle. u¿ = 45°. Figure 4.52
p
d. The angle u = 2.5 lies between L 1.57 y
2
and p L 3.14. This means that u = 2.5 is in
u 2.5
quadrant II, shown in Figure 4.53. The refer- u 0.64
x
ence angle is
u¿ = p - 2.5 L 0.64. Figure 4.53

pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 493
Check
Point 5 Find the reference angle, u¿,7pfor each of the following angles:
a. u = 210° b. u = c. u = -240° d. u = 3.6.
4
Finding reference angles for angles that are greater than 360° 12p2 or less than
-360° 1-2p2 involves using coterminal angles. We have seen that coterminal angles
have the same initial and terminal sides. Recall that coterminal angles can be obtained
by increasing or decreasing an angle’s measure by an integer multiple of 360° or 2p.
Finding Reference Angles for Angles Greater Than 360° (2P)

or Less Than 360° (2P)
1. Find a positive angle a less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal with the given angle.
2. Draw a in standard position.
3. Use the drawing to find the reference angle for the given angle.The positive
acute angle formed by the terminal side of a and the x-axis is the reference angle.
EXAMPLE 6 Finding Reference Angles

Find the reference angle for each of the following angles:
8p 13p
a. u = 580° b. u = c. u = - .
3 6
Solution
y
a. For a 580° angle, subtract 360° to find a positive
a 220
coterminal angle less than 360°.
x
580° - 360° = 220° a 40
Figure 4.54 shows a = 220° in standard
position. Because 220° lies in quadrant III, the
reference angle is Figure 4.54
a¿ = 220° - 180° = 40°.
8p 2 y
b. For an , or 2 p angle, subtract 2p to find a
3 3
2p
a 3
p a 3
8p 8p 6p 2p
- 2p = - = x
3 3 3 3
2p
Figure 4.55 shows a = in standard position. Figure 4.55
3
2p
Because lies in quadrant II, the reference angle is
3
2p 3p 2p p
a¿ = p - = - = .
3 3 3 3
13p 1 y
c. For a - , or -2 p angle, add 4p to find a
6 6
Discovery positive coterminal angle less than 2p. a 6
11p
x
Solve part (c) using the coter- a 6
p
13p 13p 24p 11p
minal angle formed by adding - + 4p = - + =
2p, rather than 4p, to the given 6 6 6 6
angle. 11p Figure 4.56
Figure 4.56 shows a = in standard position.
6
11p
Because lies in quadrant IV, the reference angle is
6
11p 12p 11p p
a¿ = 2p - = - = .
6 6 6 6
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 494
Check
Point 6 Find the reference angle for15peach of the following11pangles:
a. u = 665° b. u = c. u = - .
4 3
❹ Use reference angles to

functions.
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Using Reference Angles
The way that reference angles are defined makes them useful in evaluating
Using Reference Angles to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions

The values of the trigonometric functions of a given angle, u, are the same as
the values of the trigonometric functions of the reference angle, u¿, except
possibly for the sign. A function value of the acute reference angle, u¿, is always
positive. However, the same function value for u may be positive or negative.
For example, we can use a reference angle, u¿, to obtain an exact value for tan 120°.
The reference angle for u = 120° is u¿ = 180° - 120° = 60°. We know the exact value
of the tangent function of the reference angle: tan 60° = 23 . We also know that the
value of a trigonometric function of a given angle, u, is the same as that of its reference
angle, u¿, except possibly for the sign. Thus, we can conclude that tan 120° equals - 23
or 23.
What sign should we attach to 23? A 120° angle lies in quadrant II, where
only the sine and cosecant are positive. Thus, the tangent function is negative for a
120° angle. Therefore,
Prefix by a negative sign to

show tangent is negative in
quadrant II.
tan 120=–tan 60=–3.
The reference angle

for 120° is 60°.
In the previous section, we used two right triangles to find exact trigonometric
values of 30°, 45°, and 60°. Using a procedure similar to finding tan 120°, we can now
find the exact function values of all angles for which 30°, 45°, or 60° are reference
angles.
A Procedure for Using Reference Angles

to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions
The value of a trigonometric function of any angle u is found as follows:
1. Find the associated reference angle, u¿, and the function value for u¿.
2. Use the quadrant in which u lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the
function value in step 1.
Discovery
Draw the two right triangles
EXAMPLE 7 Using Reference Angles to Evaluate
involving 30°, 45°, and 60°.
Indicate the length of each side. Trigonometric Functions
Use these lengths to verify the Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric
function values for the reference functions:
angles in the solution to
b.
Example 7. 4p p
a. sin 135° b. cos c. cota-
3 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 495
Solution
a. We use our two-step procedure to find sin 135°.
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U œ , and sin U œ . Figure 4.57 shows 135° lies
y
in quadrant II. The reference angle is
u¿ = 180° - 135° = 45°.
22
135 The function value for the reference angle is sin 45° = .
45 2
x
Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the
function value in step 1. The angle u = 135° lies in quadrant II. Because the sine
Figure 4.57 Reference angle is positive in quadrant II, we put a + sign before the function value of the refer-
for 135°
ence angle. Thus,
The sine is positive
in quadrant II.
2
sin 135=±sin 45= .
2
The reference angle
for 135° is 45°.
4p
b. We use our two-step procedure to find cos .
3
y Step 1 Find the reference angle, U œ , and cos U œ . Figure 4.58 shows that
4p
4p
u = lies in quadrant III. The reference angle is
3
3
4p 4p 3p p
x u¿ = - p = - = .
p
3 3 3 3
3
The function value for the reference angle is
p 1
cos = .
3 2
Figure 4.58 Reference angle
4p Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the
for
3 4p
function value in step 1. The angle u = lies in quadrant III. Because only the
3
tangent and cotangent are positive in quadrant III, the cosine is negative in
this quadrant. We put a - sign before the function value of the reference
angle. Thus,
The cosine is negative
in quadrant III.
4p p 1
cos =–cos =– .
3 3 2
The reference angle

for 4p is p.
3 3
b.
p
y c. We use our two-step procedure to find cota-
3
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U œ , and cot U œ . Figure 4.59 shows that
x p p
p u = - lies in quadrant IV. The reference angle is u¿ = . The function value
3 p
3 3 3
p 23
for the reference angle is cot = .
3 3
Figure 4.59 Reference p
p function value in step 1. The angle u = - lies in quadrant IV. Because only
angle for - 3
3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 496
the cosine and secant are positive in quadrant IV, the cotangent is negative in
this quadrant. We put a - sign before the function value of the reference
angle. Thus,
The cotangent is
negative in quadrant IV.
cot a– b =–cot =–
p p 3
.
3 3 3
The reference angle

for − p is p.
3 3
Check
Point 7 Use reference angles to find the exact value of the following trigonometric
functions:
b.
5p p
a. sin 300° b. tan c. seca-
4 6
In our final example, we use positive coterminal angles less than 2p to find the
reference angles.
EXAMPLE 8 Using Reference Angles to Evaluate

Trigonometric Functions
Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric
functions:
b.
14p 17p
a. tan b. seca-
3 4
Solution
14p
a. We use our two-step procedure to find tan .
3
14p
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U œ , and tan U œ . Because the given angle,
3
2
or 4 p, exceeds 2p, subtract 4p to find a positive coterminal angle less than 2p.
3
14p 14p 12p 2p
u = - 4p = - =
3 3 3 3
2p
y Figure 4.60 shows u = in standard position. The angle lies in quadrant II.
3
The reference angle is
2p 2p 3p 2p p
p 3
u¿ = p - = - = .
3 3 3 3 3
x
p
The function value for the reference angle is tan = 23.
3
2p
Figure 4.60 Reference angle for
3 Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the
2p
function value in step 1. The coterminal angle u = lies in quadrant II.
3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 497
Because the tangent is negative in quadrant II, we put a - sign before the
function value of the reference angle. Thus,
The tangent is negative

in quadrant II.
14p 2p p
tan =tan =–tan =–3 .
3 3 3
The reference angle

for 2p is p.
3 3
b.
17p
b. We use our two-step procedure to find seca-
4
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U œ , and sec U œ . Because the given angle,
17p 1
- or -4 p, is less than -2p, add 6p (three multiples of 2p) to find a
4 4
17p 17p 24p 7p

u = - + 6p = - + =
4 4 4 4
7p
y Figure 4.61 shows u = in standard position. The angle lies in quadrant IV.
4
The reference angle is
7p
4
x 7p 8p 7p p
p u¿ = 2p - = - = .
4 4 4 4 4
p
The function value for the reference angle is sec = 22.
Figure 4.61 Reference angle for
7p 4
4
7p
function value in step 1. The coterminal angle u = lies in quadrant IV.
4
Because the secant is positive in quadrant IV, we put a + sign before the
function value of the reference angle. Thus,
The secant is
positive in quadrant IV.
sec a– b =sec
17p 7p p
=± sec =2 .
4 4 4
The reference angle

for 7p is p.
4 4
Check
Point 8 Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following
trigonometric functions:
b. sin a- b.
17p 22p
a. cos
6 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 498
Study Tip
Evaluating trigonometric functions like those in Example 8 and Check Point 8 involves using a number of concepts, including
finding coterminal angles and reference angles, locating special angles, determining the signs of trigonometric functions in specific
quadrants, and finding the trigonometric functions of special angles a30° = , 45° = , and 60° = b. To be successful in
p p p
6 4 3
trigonometry, it is often necessary to connect concepts. Here’s an early reference sheet showing some of the concepts you should
have at your fingertips (or memorized).
Degree and Radian Measures of Special and Quadrantal Angles

p 3p
2p 90 , 2 4p 270 , 2
120 , 3 p
60 , 3 240 , 3 5p
300 , 3
3p 5p
135 , 4 p
45 , 4 225 , 4 7p
315 , 4
5p p
150 , 6 30 , 6 7p
210 , 6 330 , 6
11p
180 , p 0 , 0 180 , p 0 , 0
11p 5p p
7p
210 , 6 330 , 6 150 , 6 30 , 6
7p p
5p
225 , 4 315 , 4 3p
135 , 4 45 , 4
p
4p
240 , 3 3p 300 , 3
5p 2p
120 , 3 p 60 , 3
270 , 2
90 , 2
Special Right Triangles and Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles Signs of the Trigonometric
Functions
2 P P P y
1 U 30° 45° 60°
6 4 3
45 Quadrant II Quadrant I
1 22 23 sine and All
1 sin U
2 2 2 cosecant functions
positive positive
23 22 1
cos U x
2 2 2
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
30 23 tangent and cosine and
2 tan U 1 23
3 3 cotangent secant
positive positive
60
1
Trigonometric Functions of Quadrantal Angles Using Reference Angles to

Evaluate Trigonometric Functions
P 3P
U 0° 0 90° 180° P 270° sin u= sin u
2 2
cos u= cos u
sin U 0 1 0 -1
cos U 1 0 -1 0
tan u= tan u
tan U 0 undefined 0 undefined
+ or − in determined by the
quadrant in which u lies and the sign
of the function in that quadrant.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 499
EXERCISE SET 4.4

Practice Exercises In Exercises 61–86, use reference angles to find the exact value of
each expression. Do not use a calculator.
In Exercises 1–8, a point on the terminal side of angle u
61. cos 225° 62. sin 300° 63. tan 210°
is given. Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric
functions of u. 64. sec 240° 65. tan 420° 66. tan 405°
1. 1-4, 32 2. 1-12, 52 3. 12, 32 2p 3p 7p
67. sin 68. cos 69. csc
4. 13, 72 5. 13, -32 6. 15, -52 3 4 6
7. 1-2, -52 8. 1-1, -32 70. cot

7p
71. tan
9p
72. tan
9p
4 4 2
In Exercises 9–16, evaluate the trigonometric function at the
b
p
quadrantal angle, or state that the expression is undefined. 73. sin1-240°2 74. sin1-225°2 75. tana-
4
9. cos p 10. tan p 11. sec p
b
p
76. tana- 77. sec 495° 78. sec 510°
3p 3p 6
12. csc p 13. tan 14. cos
2 2 19p 13p 23p
p p 79. cot 80. cot 81. cos
15. cot 16. tan 6 3 4
2 2
b b
35p 17p 11p
82. cos 83. tana- 84. tana-
In Exercises 17–22, let u be an angle in standard position. 6 6 4
Name the quadrant in which u lies.
b b
17p 35p
85. sina- 86. sina-
17. sin u 7 0, cos u 7 0 18. sin u 6 0, cos u 7 0 3 6
19. sin u 6 0, cos u 6 0 20. tan u 6 0, sin u 6 0
21. tan u 6 0, cos u 6 0 22. cot u 7 0, sec u 6 0 Practice Plus
In Exercises 87–92, find the exact value of each expres-
In Exercises 23–34, find the exact value of each of the remaining
sion. Write the answer as a single fraction. Do not use a calculator.
p p 3p
23. cos u = - 35 , u in quadrant III 87. sin cos p - cos sin
3 3 2
24. sin u = - 12
13 , u in quadrant III p p
5 88. sin cos 0 - sin cos p
25. sin u = 13 , u in quadrant II 4 6
26. cos u = 45 , u in quadrant IV 11p 5p 11p 5p

89. sin cos + cos sin
8
4 6 4 6
27. cos u = 17 , 270° 6 u 6 360°
17p 5p 17p 5p
28. cos u = 1 90. sin cos + cos sin
3, 270° 6 u 6 360° 3 4 3 4
29. tan u = - 23 , sin u 7 0 30. tan u = - 13 , sin u 7 0
b - cosa- b
3p 15p 5p
91. sin tana-
31. tan u = 4 5 2 4 3
3, cos u 6 0 32. tan u = 12 , cos u 6 0
b + cosa- b
3p 8p 5p
33. sec u = -3, tan u 7 0 34. csc u = -4, tan u 7 0 92. sin tana-
2 3 6
In Exercises 35–60, find the reference angle for each angle.
35. 160° 36. 170° 37. 205° In Exercises 93–98, let
38. 210° 39. 355° 40. 351° f1x2 = sin x, g1x2 = cos x, and h1x2 = 2x.
7p 5p 5p Find the exact value of each expression. Do not use a calculator.
41. 42. 43.
4 4 6
+ b + fa b + fa b
4p p 4p p
5p 93. fa
44. 45. -150° 46. -250° 3 6 3 6
7
+ b + ga b + ga b
47. -335° 48. -359° 49. 4.7 5p p 5p p
94. ga
50. 5.5 51. 565° 52. 553° 6 6 6 6
95. 1h g2a b 96. 1h f2a b

17p 11p 23p 17p 11p
53. 54. 55.
6 4 4 3 4
17p 11p 17p 5p 3p
56. 57. - 58. - 97. the average rate of change of f from x1 = to x2 =
3 4 6 4 2
25p 13p 3p
59. - 60. - 98. the average rate of change of g from x1 = to x2 = p
6 3 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 500
In Exercises 99–104, find two values of u, 0 … u 6 2p, that

satisfy each equation.
22 1
99. sin u = 100. cos u = 105. If you are given a point on the terminal side of angle u,
2 2
explain how to find sin u.
106. Explain why tan 90° is undefined.
22 1 107. If cos u 7 0 and tan u 6 0, explain how to find the
101. sin u = - 102. cos u = -
2 2 quadrant in which u lies.
108. What is a reference angle? Give an example with your
description.
23 109. Explain how reference angles are used to evaluate trigono-
103. tan u = - 23 104. tan u = -
3 metric functions. Give an example with your description.
CHAPTER 4
MID-CHAPTER CHECK POINT
What You Know: We learned to use radians to 8. Use the point shown on the unit circle to find each of the six
measure angles: One radian (approximately 57°) is the trigonometric functions at t.
measure of the central angle that intercepts an arc equal in y
length to the radius of the circle. Using 180° = p radians,
p x2 + y2 = 1
we converted degrees to radians (multiply by ) and t
180°
180° t
radians to degrees (multiply by ). We defined the six
p
x
trigonometric functions using coordinates of points along (1, 0)
the unit circle, right triangles, and angles in standard
position. Evaluating trigonometric functions using refer- 3 4
ence angles involved connecting a number of concepts, (
P 5, 5 )
including finding coterminal and reference angles,
locating special angles, determining the signs of the 9. Use the triangle to find each of the six trigonometric
trigonometric functions in specific quadrants, and finding functions of u.
the function values at special angles. Use the important
B
Study Tip on page 498 as a reference sheet to help connect
these concepts.
In Exercises 1–2, convert each angle in degrees to radians. 6

Express your answer as a multiple of p. 5
1. 10° 2. -105°
u
In Exercises 3–4, convert each angle in radians to degrees. A C
5p 13p
3. 4. - 10. Use the point on the terminal side of u to find each of the six
12 20
In Exercises 5–7, y
a. Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal
with the given angle.
b. Draw the given angle in standard position. u
x
c. Find the reference angle for the given angle.
11p 19p P (3, 2)
5. 6. - 7. 510°
3 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 501
Section 4.5 • Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 501
In Exercises 11–12, find the exact value of the remaining In Exercises 16–26, find the exact value of each expression.
trigonometric functions of u. Do not use a calculator.
3 3 16. tan 30° 17. cot 120°
11. tan u = - , cos u 6 0 12. cos u = , sin u 6 0 11p
4 7 18. cos 240° 19. sec
6
b
In Exercises 13–14, find the measure of the side of the right p p 2p
20. sin2 + cos2 21. sina -
triangle whose length is designated by a lowercase letter. Round 7 7 3
the answer to the nearest whole number.
b
22p
13. 22. csca 23. cos 495°
B 3
b
17p p
24. tana - 25. sin2 - cos p
6 2
a
5p 5p
26. cosa + 2pnb + tana + npb, n is an integer.
6 6
41 27. A circle has a radius of 40 centimeters. Find the length of the
A C arc intercepted by a central angle of 36°. Express the answer
60 cm
in terms of p. Then round to two decimal places.
28. A merry-go-round makes 8 revolutions per minute. Find the
14. B linear speed, in feet per minute, of a horse 10 feet from the
c 72 center. Express the answer in terms of p. Then round to one
250 m decimal place.
A 29. A plane takes off at an angle of 6°. After traveling for one
C
mile, or 5280 feet, along this flight path, find the plane’s
height, to the nearest tenth of a foot, above the ground.
and u is acute, find cota - u b.
1 p 30. A tree that is 50 feet tall casts a shadow that is 60 feet long.
15. If cos u =
6 2 Find the angle of elevation, to the nearest degree, of the sun.
SECTION 4.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

Objectives
❶ Understand the graph of
y = sin x.
❷ Graph variations of
y = sin x.
❸ Understand the graph of
y = cos x.
❹ Graph variations of
y = cos x.
❺ Use vertical shifts of sine
and cosine curves.
❻ Model periodic behavior.
Take a deep breath and relax. Many relaxation exercises involve slowing down our
breathing. Some people suggest that the way we breathe affects every part of our
lives. Did you know that graphs of trigonometric functions can be used to analyze
the breathing cycle, which is our closest link to both life and death?
In this section, we use graphs of sine and cosine functions to visualize their prop-
erties. We use the traditional symbol x, rather than u or t, to represent the independent
variable. We use the symbol y for the dependent variable, or the function’s value at x.
Thus, we will be graphing y = sin x and y = cos x in rectangular coordinates. In all
graphs of trigonometric functions, the independent variable, x, is measured in radians.

y = sin x.
The Graph of y sin x
The trigonometric functions can be graphed in a rectangular coordinate system by
plotting points whose coordinates satisfy the function. Thus, we graph y = sin x by
listing some points on the graph. Because the period of the sine function is 2p,
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 502
we will graph the function on the interval 30, 2p4. The rest of the graph is made up
of repetitions of this portion.
Table 4.3 lists some values of 1x, y2 on the graph of y = sin x, 0 … x … 2p.
Table 4.3 Values of (x, y) on the graph of y sin x
P P P 2P 5P 7P 4P 3P 5P 11P
x 0 P 2P
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
y=sin x 0
1 3 1
3 1 0 –
1 –
3 –1 –
3 –
1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
As x increases As x increases As x increases As x increases

from 0 to p , from p to p, from p to 3p , from 3p to 2p,
2 2 2 2
y increases y decreases y decreases y increases
from 0 to 1. from 1 to 0. from 0 to −1. from −1 to 0.
In plotting the points obtained in Table 4.3, we will use the approximation
23
L 0.87. Rather than approximating p, we will mark off units on the x-axis in
2
terms of p. If we connect these points with a smooth curve, we obtain the graph
shown in Figure 4.62. The figure shows one period of the graph of y = sin x.
y y = sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2p
x
k u q p w 2p
−1
Figure 4.62 One period of the graph
of y = sin x Period: 2p
We can obtain a more complete graph of y = sin x by continuing the portion

shown in Figure 4.62 to the left and to the right. The graph of the sine function,
called a sine curve, is shown in Figure 4.63. Any part of the graph that corresponds
to one period 12p2 is one cycle of the graph of y = sin x.
y
y = sin x
1
The range is −2p

x
−1 ≤ y ≤ 1. 2p 4p
−1
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle
Figure 4.63 The graph of y = sin x period: 2p period: 2p period: 2p
The graph of y = sin x allows us to visualize some of the properties of the sine
function.
• The domain is 1- q , q 2, the set of all real numbers. The graph extends
indefinitely to the left and to the right with no gaps or holes.
• The range is 3-1, 14, the set of all real numbers between -1 and 1, inclusive.
The graph never rises above 1 or falls below -1.
• The period is 2p. The graph’s pattern repeats in every interval of length 2p.
• The function is an odd function: sin1-x2 = -sin x. This can be seen by
observing that the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 503
Graphing Variations of y sin x

To graph variations of y = sin x y Maximum at 41 period
by hand, it is helpful to find
❷ Graph variations
of y = sin x.
x-intercepts, maximum points, and
minimum points. One complete
cycle of the sine curve includes three
1
x-intercepts
x
x-intercepts, one maximum point, x-intercept p 2p
q w
and one minimum point. The graph
of y = sin x has x-intercepts at the
−1
beginning, middle, and end of its full
period, shown in Figure 4.64. The Minimum at 43 period
1
curve reaches its maximum point 4
of the way through the period. It Figure 4.64 Key points in graphing the sine function
reaches its minimum point 34 of the
way through the period. Thus, key points in graphing sine functions are obtained by
dividing the period into four equal parts. The x-coordinates of the five key points are
as follows:
x1=value of x where the cycle begins

period
x2=x1+
4
Add
period “quarter-periods”
x3=x2+ to find
4
successive
period values of x.
x4=x3+
4
period
x5=x4+ .
4
y The y-coordinates of the five key points are obtained by evaluating the given
function at each of these values of x.
2 y = 2 sin x The graph of y = sin x forms the basis for graphing functions of the form
y = A sin x.
1 y = sin x For example, consider y = 2 sin x, in which A = 2. We can obtain the graph of
y = 2 sin x from that of y = sin x if we multiply each y-coordinate on the graph of
y = sin x by 2. Figure 4.65 shows the graphs. The basic sine curve is stretched and
2p ranges between -2 and 2, rather than between -1 and 1. However, both y = sin x
x
q p w and y = 2 sin x have a period of 2p.
In general, the graph of y = A sin x ranges between - ƒ A ƒ and ƒ A ƒ . Thus, the
−1 range of the function is - ƒ A ƒ … y … ƒ A ƒ . If ƒ A ƒ 7 1, the basic sine curve is stretched,
as in Figure 4.65. If ƒ A ƒ 6 1, the basic sine curve is shrunk. We call ƒ A ƒ the amplitude
of y = A sin x. The maximum value of y on the graph of y = A sin x is ƒ A ƒ , the
−2 amplitude.
Figure 4.65 Comparing the graphs Graphing Variations of y sin x

of y = sin x and y = 2 sin x
1. Identify the amplitude and the period.
2. Find the values of x for the five key points—the three x-intercepts, the
maximum point, and the minimum point. Start with the value of x where the
period
cycle begins and add quarter-periods—that is, —to find successive
values of x. 4
3. Find the values of y for the five key points by evaluating the function at
each value of x from step 2.
4. Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function.
5. Extend the graph in step 4 to the left or right as desired.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 504
EXAMPLE 1 Graphing a Variation of y sin x

1 1
Determine the amplitude of y = 2 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and y = 2 sin x for
0 … x … 2p.
Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = 12 sin x is of the
form y = A sin x with A = 12 . Thus, the amplitude is ƒ A ƒ = 12 . This means that the
maximum value of y is 12 and the minimum value of y is - 12 . The period for both
y = 12 sin x and y = sin x is 2p.
Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. We need to find the three
x-intercepts, the maximum point, and the minimum point on the interval 30, 2p4.
To do so, we begin by dividing the period, 2p, by 4.
period 2p p
= =
4 4 2
We start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Now we add quarter-
p
periods, , to generate x-values for each of the key points. The five x-values are
2
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2
Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
Value of y :
1
Value of x y= sin x Coordinates of key point
2
1 1
0 y= sin 0= 0=0 (0, 0)
2 2
maximum
a , b
p 1 p 1 1 p 1
y= sin = 1= point
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
p y= sin p= 0=0 (p, 0)
2 2
3p 1 3p 1 1
a ,– b
y= sin = (–1)=– 3p 1
minimum
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 point
1 1
y 2p y= sin 2p= 0=0 (2p, 0)
2 2
y = sin x
1
y = 21 sin x
There are x-intercepts at 0, p, and 2p. The maximum and minimum points are
2p indicated by the voice balloons.
x
q p w Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = 12 sin x are shown in
−1 Figure 4.66. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the figure shows one
complete cycle of y = 12 sin x. Also shown is the graph of y = sin x. The graph of
Figure 4.66 The graphs of y = sin x
and y = 1
sin x, 0 … x … 2p
y = 12 sin x is the graph of y = sin x vertically shrunk by a factor of 12 .
2
Check
Point 1 Determine the amplitude of y = 3 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and
y = 3 sin x for 0 … x … 2p.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 505
EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Variation of y sin x

Determine the amplitude of y = -2 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and y = -2 sin x
for -p … x … 3p.
Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = -2 sin x is of the
form y = A sin x with A = -2. Thus, the amplitude is ƒ A ƒ = ƒ -2 ƒ = 2. This means
that the maximum value of y is 2 and the minimum value of y is -2. Both y = sin x
and y = -2 sin x have a period of 2p.
Step 2 Find the x-values for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period,
2p, by 4.
period 2p p
= =
4 4 2
p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, ,
2
the five x-values for the key points are
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2
Although we will be graphing on 3-p, 3p4, we select x1 = 0 rather than x1 = -p.

Knowing the graph’s shape on 30, 2p4 will enable us to continue the pattern and
extend it to the left to -p and to the right to 3p.
Value of y :
Value of x y=–2 sin x Coordinates of key point
0 y=–2 sin 0 = –2 0=0 (0, 0)

minimum
a , –2b
p p p
y=–2 sin =–2 1=–2 point
2 2 2
p y=–2 sin p=–2 0=0 (p, 0)
3p 3p
a , 2b
y=–2 sin =–2(–1)=2 3p
maximum
y 2 2 2 point
y = −2 sin x
2 2p y=–2 sin 2p=–2 0=0 (2p, 0)
y = sin x
1
There are x-intercepts at 0, p, and 2p. The minimum and maximum points are
x indicated by the voice balloons.
q p w 2p
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
−1
cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = -2 sin x are shown in
Figure 4.67. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the dark red portion
−2
shows one complete cycle of y = -2 sin x. Also shown in dark blue is one complete
Figure 4.67 The graphs of y = sin x cycle of the graph of y = sin x. The graph of y = -2 sin x is the graph of y = sin x
and y = -2 sin x, 0 … x … 2p reflected about the x-axis and vertically stretched by a factor of 2.
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the left or right as desired. The dark red and
dark blue portions of the graphs in Figure 4.67 are from 0 to 2p. In order to graph for
-p … x … 3p, continue the pattern of each graph to the left and to the right. These
extensions are shown by the lighter colors in Figure 4.68 at the top of the next page.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 506
y
y = −2 sin x
2
y = sin x
1
3p
x
−p −q q p w 2p r
−1
Figure 4.68 The graphs of y = sin x −2

and y = -2 sin x, -p … x … 3p
Determine the amplitude of y = - 12 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and

Check
Point 2 y = - 12 sin x for -p … x … 3p.
Now let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A sin Bx, where
Study Tip B is the coefficient of x and B 7 0. How do such graphs compare to those of func-
If B 6 0 in y = A sin Bx, use tions of the form y = A sin x? We know that y = A sin x completes one cycle from
sin 1-u2 = -sin u to rewrite the x = 0 to x = 2p. Thus, y = A sin Bx completes one cycle as Bx increases from 0 to
equation before obtaining its 2p. Set up an inequality to represent this and solve for x to determine the values of
graph. x for which y = sin Bx completes one cycle.
0 … Bx … 2p y sin Bx completes one cycle as Bx
increases from 0 to 2P.
2p
0 … x … Divide by B, where B 7 0, and solve for x.
B
2p 2p
This means that y = A sin Bx completes one cycle from 0 to . The period is .
B B
The graph of y = A sin Bx is the graph of y = A sin x horizontally shrunk by a
1 1
factor of if B 7 1 and horizontally stretched by a factor of if 0 6 B 6 1.
B B
Amplitudes and Periods y

The graph of y = A sin Bx has
y = A sin Bx
amplitude = ƒ A ƒ
2p
B
2p x
period = .
B
Amplitude: A
2p
Period: B
EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Function of the Form y A sin Bx

Determine the amplitude and period of y = 3 sin 2x. Then graph the function for
0 … x … 2p.
Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = 3 sin 2x is of the
form y = A sin Bx with A = 3 and B = 2.
amplitude: ƒAƒ = ƒ3ƒ = 3
2p 2p
period: = = p
B 2
The amplitude, 3, tells us that the maximum value of y is 3 and the minimum value of
y is -3. The period, p, tells us that the graph completes one cycle from 0 to p.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 507
Step 2 Find the x-values for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period of
y = 3 sin 2x, p, by 4.
period p
=
4 4
p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, ,
4
p p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = ,
4 4 4 4 2
p p 3p 3p p
x4 = + = , x5 = + = p.
2 4 4 4 4
Value of y :
Value of x y=3 sin 2x Coordinates of key point
0 y=3 sin (2 0)
(0, 0)
=3 sin 0=3 0=0
y=3 sin a2 b
p maximum
a , 3b
p 4 p point
4 p 4
=3 sin =3 1=3
2
y=3 sin a2 b
p
a , 0b
p p
2
2 2
=3 sin p=3 0=0
y=3 sin a2 b
3p
a , –3b
3p 4 3p
minimum
4 3p 4 point
=3 sin =3(–1)=–3
y 2
y = 3 sin 2x y=3 sin (2 p)
3 p (p, 0)
=3 sin 2p=3 0=0
In the interval 30, p4, there are x-intercepts at 0,

p
x , and p. The maximum and
d q f p 2
minimum points are indicated by the voice balloons.
−3 Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = 3 sin 2x are shown in
Figure 4.69. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the blue portion shows
Figure 4.69 The graph of one complete cycle of y = 3 sin 2x from 0 to p. The graph of y = 3 sin 2x is the
y = 3 sin 2x, 0 … x … p
graph of y = sin x vertically stretched by a y
factor of 3 and horizontally shrunk by a y = 3 sin 2x
3
Technology 1
factor of .
The graph of y = 3 sin 2x in a 2
2p
c0, 2p, d by 3-4, 4, 14 viewing
p x
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the left p
2 d q f
or right as desired. The blue portion of the
rectangle verifies our hand-
graph in Figure 4.69 is from 0 to p. In order to
drawn graph in Figure 4.70. −3
graph for 0 … x … 2p, we continue this por-
tion and extend the graph another full period
to the right. This extension is shown in black Figure 4.70
in Figure 4.70.
Determine the amplitude and period of y = 2 sin 12 x. Then graph the

Check
Point 3 function for 0 … x … 8p.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 508
Now let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A sin1Bx - C2,
where B 7 0. How do such graphs compare to those of functions of the form
2p
y = A sin Bx? In both cases, the amplitude is ƒ A ƒ and the period is . One
B
complete cycle occurs if Bx - C increases from 0 to 2p. This means that we can find
an interval containing one cycle by solving the following inequality:
0 … Bx - C … 2p. y A sin1Bx - C2 completes one cycle as
Bx C increases from 0 to 2P.
C … Bx … C + 2p Add C to all three parts.
C C 2p Divide by B, where B 7 0, and solve for x.

x +
B B B
This is the x-coordinate This is the x-coordinate

on the left where the on the right where the cycle
cycle begins. ends. 2p is the period.
B
The voice balloon on the left indicates that the graph of y = A sin1Bx - C2 is the
C C
graph of y = A sin Bx shifted horizontally by . Thus, the number is the phase
shift associated with the graph. B B
The Graph of y A sin1Bx C2

The graph of y = A sin1Bx - C2 is obtained by horizontally shifting the y y = A sin (Bx − C)
graph of y = A sin Bx so that the starting point of the cycle is shifted from
C C C
x = 0 to x = . If 7 0, the shift is to the right. If 6 0, the shift is to Amplitude: A
B B B
C x
the left. The number is called the phase shift.
B Starting point: x = C
B
amplitude = ƒ A ƒ
2p
period = 2p
B Period: B
EXAMPLE 4 Graphing a Function

of the Form y A sin1Bx C2
b. Then
2p
Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 4 sina 2x -
3
graph one period of the function.
Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude, the period, and the phase shift. We must first
identify values for A, B, and C.
The equation is of the form
y = A sin (Bx − C).
y=4 sin a2x- b

2p
3
2p
Using the voice balloon, we see that A = 4, B = 2, and C = .
3
The maximum y is 4 and
amplitude: |A|=|4|=4 the minimum is −4.
2p 2p Each cycle is
period: = =p of length p.
B 2
2p
C 3 2p 1 p A cycle starts at x = p.
phase shift: = = = 3
B 2 3 2 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 509
Step 2 Find the x-values for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period, p, by 4.
period p
=
4 4
p p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = . Adding quarter-periods, ,
3 4
Study Tip the five x-values for the key points are
p p p 4p 3p 7p
You can speed up the additions x1 = , x2 = + = + = ,
on the right by first writing 3 3 4 12 12 12
the starting point, p3 , and the 7p p 7p 3p 10p 5p
x3 = + = + = = ,
quarter-period, p4 , with a 12 4 12 12 12 6
common denominator, 12. 5p p 10p 3p 13p
x4 = + = + = ,
starting point 6 4 12 12 12
p 4p 13p p 13p 3p 16p 4p
= = x5 = + = + = = .
3 12 12 4 12 12 12 3
quarter-period
=
p
=
3p Study Tip
4 12 You can check your computations for the x-values for the five key points. The difference
between x5 and x1 , or x5 - x1 , should equal the period.
4p p 3p
x5 - x1 = - = = p
3 3 3
Because the period is p, this verifies that our five x-values are correct.
Value of y :
y=4 sin a2x- b

Value of x 2P Coordinates of key point
3
y=4 sin a2 - b
p 2p
a , 0b
p p
3 3
3 3
=4 sin 0=4 0=0
y=4 sin a2 - b
7p 2p
12 3
maximum
a , 4b
7p 7p
=4 sin a - b
7p 2p point
12 6 3 12
3p p
=4 sin =4 sin =4 1=4
6 2
y=4 sin a2 - b
5p 2p
6 3
a , 0b
5p 5p
=4 sin a - b
5p 2p
6 3 3 6
3p
=4 sin =4 sin p=4 0=0
3
y=4 sin a2 - b
13p 2p
12 3
a , –4b
13p 13p
=4 sin a - b
13p 4p
12 6 6 12 minimum
point
9p 3p
=4 sin =4 sin =4(–1)=–4
6 2
y=4 sin a2 - b
4p 2p
a , 0b
4p 3 3 4p
3 6p 3
=4 sin =4 sin 2p=4 0=0
3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 510
The key points a , 0b, a , 0b, and a , 0b indicate that in the interval c , d,
p 5p 4p p 4p
3 6 3 3 3
p 5p 4p
there are x-intercepts at , , and . The voice balloons on the previous page
3 6 3
indicate that a , 4 b is a maximum point and a
7p 13p
, -4b is a minimum point.
12 12
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function. The key points, a , 0b, a , 4b, a , 0b, a
p 7p 5p 13p
, -4b,
3 12 6 12
and a , 0b, and the graph of y = 4 sina2x - b are shown in Figure 4.71.
4p 2p
3 3
y
4
3
(
y = 4 sin 2x − 2p
3 )
2
1
x
7p 13p
−1 u 12
l 12
o
−2
−3
−4
Figure 4.71
the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 3 sina2x - b.

p
Check
Point 4 Determine
Then graph one period of the function. 3
❸ Understand the graph

of y = cos x.
The Graph of y cos x
We graph y = cos x by listing some points on the graph. Because the period of the
cosine function is 2p, we will concentrate on the graph of the basic cosine curve on
the interval 30, 2p4. The rest of the graph is made up of repetitions of this portion.
Table 4.4 lists some values of 1x, y2 on the graph of y = cos x.
Table 4.4 Values of (x, y) on the graph of y cos x
P P P 2P 5P 7P 4P 3P 5P 11P
x 0 P 2P
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
y=cos x 1
3 1 0 –
1 –
3 –1 – 3 – 1 0
1 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
As x increases As x increases As x increases As x increases

from 0 to p , from p to p, from p to 3p , from 3p to 2p,
2 2 2 2
y decreases y decreases y increases y increases
from 1 to 0. from 0 to −1. from −1 to 0. from 0 to 1.
y
Plotting the points in Table 4.4 and connecting
1
them with a smooth curve, we obtain the graph
y = cos x
shown in Figure 4.72. The portion of the graph in
dark blue shows one complete period. We can ob-
The range is
x tain a more complete graph of y = cos x by ex-
−1 ≤ y ≤ 1. −p p 2p
−w −q q w r tending this dark blue portion to the left and to
the right.
−1
Period: 2p Figure 4.72 The graph of y = cos x

pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 511
The graph of y = cos x allows us to visualize some of the properties of the

cosine function.
• The domain is 1- q , q 2, the set of all real numbers. The graph extends indef-
initely to the left and to the right with no gaps or holes.
• The range is 3-1, 14, the set of all real numbers between -1 and 1, inclusive.
The graph never rises above 1 or falls below -1.
• The period is 2p. The graph’s pattern repeats in every interval of length 2p.
• The function is an even function: cos1-x2 = cos x. This can be seen by
observing that the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Take a second look at Figure 4.72. Can you see that the graph of y = cos x is
p
the graph of y = sin x with a phase shift of - ? If you trace along the curve from
2
p 3p
x = - to x = , you are tracing one complete cycle of the sine curve. This can
2 2
be expressed as an identity:
b.
p
cos x = sinax +
2
Because of this similarity, the graphs of sine functions and cosine functions are
called sinusoidal graphs.
❹ Graph variations
of y = cos x.
Graphing Variations of y cos x
We use the same steps to graph variations of y = cos x as we did for graphing vari-
ations of y = sin x. We will continue finding key points by dividing the period into
four equal parts. Amplitudes, periods, and phase shifts play an important role when
graphing by hand.
Study Tip The Graph of y A cos Bx y

The graph of y = A cos Bx has y = A cos Bx
If B 6 0 in y = A cos Bx, use
cos 1-u2 = cos u to rewrite the amplitude = ƒ A ƒ
equation before obtaining its Amplitude: A
2p
graph period = .
B x
2p
B
2p
Period: B
EXAMPLE 5 Graphing a Function of the Form y A cos Bx

p
Determine the amplitude and period of y = -3 cos x. Then graph the function
for -4 … x … 4. 2
Solution
p
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = -3 cos x is of
p 2
the form y = A cos Bx with A = -3 and B = .
2

amplitude: |A|=|–3|=3 the minimum is −3.
2p 2p 2 Each cycle is of length 4.

period: = =2p =4
B p p
2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 512
Step 2 Find the x-values for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period, 4, by 4.
period 4
= = 1
4 4
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, 1,
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + 1 = 1, x3 = 1 + 1 = 2, x4 = 2 + 1 = 3, x5 = 3 + 1 = 4.
Value of y :
P
Value of x y=–3 cos x Coordinates of key point
2
y=–3 cos a
p minimum
0 0b (0, –3) point
2
=–3 cos 0=–3 1=–3
y=–3 cos a
p
1b
1 2 (1, 0)
p
=–3 cos =–3 0=0
2
y=–3 cos a
p
2 2b (2, 3)
maximum
2 point
=–3 cos p=–3(–1)=3
y=–3 cos a
p
3b
3 2 (3, 0)
3p
=–3 cos =–3 0=0
2
y=–3 cos a
p
4b minimum
4 2 (4, –3)
point
=–3 cos 2p=–3 1=–3
In the interval 30, 44, there are x-intercepts at 1 and 3. The minimum and maximum
points are indicated by the voice balloons.
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a
Technology smooth curve and graph one complete cycle y
p
The graph of y = -3 cos x in a of the given function. The five key points y = −3 cos p2 x
2 3
3-4, 4, 14 by 3-4, 4, 14 viewing p
for y = -3 cos x are shown in Figure 4.73. 2
rectangle verifies our hand- 2
By connecting the points with a smooth 1
drawn graph in Figure 4.73.
curve, the blue portion shows one complete x
−4 −2 2 4
p −1
cycle of y = -3 cos x from 0 to 4.
2 −2
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the −3
left or right as desired. The blue portion of
the graph in Figure 4.73 is for x from 0 to 4. Figure 4.73
In order to graph for -4 … x … 4, we con-
tinue this portion and extend the graph another full period to the left. This extension
is shown in black in Figure 4.73.
Check
Point 5 Determine the amplitude and period of y = -4 cos px. Then graph the
function for -2 … x … 2.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 513
Finally, let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A cos1Bx - C2.
C
Graphs of these functions shift the graph of y = A cos Bx horizontally by .
B
The Graph of y A cos1Bx C2

The graph of y = A cos1Bx - C2 is obtained by horizontally shifting the graph of
y = A cos Bx so that the starting point of the cycle is shifted from x = 0 to
C C
x = . If 7 0, the shift is to the y
B B y = A cos (Bx − C)
C
right. If 6 0, the shift is to the left.
B Amplitude: A
C
The number is called the phase x
shift. B
C
Starting point: x = B
amplitude = ƒ A ƒ
2p
period = . Period:
2p
B B
EXAMPLE 6 Graphing a Function of the Form

y A cos1Bx C2
1
Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 2 cos14x + p2. Then graph
one period of the function.
Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude, the period, and the phase shift. We must first iden-
tify values for A, B, and C. To do this, we need to express the equation in the form
y = A cos1Bx - C2. Thus, we write y = 12 cos14x + p2 as y = 12 cos34x - 1-p24.
Now we can identify values for A, B, and C.
The equation is of the form

y = A cos (Bx − C).
1
y= cos [4x-(–p)]
2
Using the voice balloon, we see that A = 12 , B = 4, and C = -p.

1 1 2
amplitude: |A|= 2 2 = the minimum is − 1 .
2 2 2
2p 2p p Each cycle is of length p .

period: = = 2
B 4 2
C p A cycle starts at x = − p.
phase shift: =– 4
B 4
Step 2 Find the x-values for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period,
p
, by 4.
2 p
period 2 p
= =
4 4 8
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 514
p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = - . Adding quarter-periods,
4
p
, the five x-values for the key points are
8
p p p 2p p p p p
x1 = - , x2 = - + = - + = - , x3 = - + = 0,
4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8
p p p p 2p p
x4 = 0 + = , x5 = + = = .
8 8 8 8 8 4
Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. Take a few minutes and use
your calculator to evaluate the function at each value of x from step 2. Show that the
Technology key points are
The graph of
a– , b, a– , 0b , a 0, – b , a , 0 b , and a , b .
1 p 1 p 1 p p 1
y = cos14x + p2
2 4 2 8 2 8 4 2
in a c - , , d by 3-1, 1, 14
p p p
maximum x-intercept minimum x-intercept maximum
4 4 8 point at − p point at p point
viewing rectangle verifies our 8 8
hand-drawn graph in Figure 4.74.
1 y
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a y= 2 cos (4x + p)
smooth curve and graph one complete cycle q
of the given function. The key points and
the graph of y = 12 cos14x + p2 are shown x
in Figure 4.74. −d − p8 p
8
d
−q
Figure 4.74
3
Check
Point 6 Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y =
Then graph one period of the function.
2 cos12x + p2.
❺ Use vertical shifts of sine and

cosine curves.
Vertical Shifts of Sinusoidal Graphs
We now look at sinusoidal graphs of
y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D and y = A cos1Bx - C2 + D.
The constant D causes vertical shifts in the graphs of y = A sin1Bx - C2 and
y = A cos1Bx - C2. If D is positive, the shift is D units upward. If D is negative, the
shift is D units downward. These vertical shifts result in sinusoidal graphs oscillating
about the horizontal line y = D rather than about the x-axis. Thus, the maximum y
is D + ƒ A ƒ and the minimum y is D - ƒ A ƒ .
EXAMPLE 7 A Vertical Shift

1
Graph one period of the function y = 2 cos x - 1.
1
Solution The graph of y = - 1 is the graph of y = 12 cos x shifted one unit
2 cos x
1
downward. The period of y = 2 cos x
is 2p, which is also the period for the vertically
shifted graph. The key points on the interval 30, 2p4 for y = 12 cos x - 1 are found
2p p
by first determining their x-coordinates. The quarter-period is , or . The cycle
4 2
begins at x = 0. As always, we add quarter-periods to generate x-values for each of
the key points. The five x-values are
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 515
The values of y for the five key points and their coordinates are determined as
follows.
Value of y:
1 Coordinates of
Value of x y cos x 1 key point
2
a0, - b
1 1
0 y = cos 0 - 1
2 2
1# 1
= 1 - 1 = -
2 2
a , -1b
p 1 p p
y = cos - 1
2 2 2 2
1#
= 0 - 1 = -1
2
ap, - b
1 3
p y = cos p - 1
2 2
1-12 - 1 = -
1 3
=
2 2
a
3p 1 3p 3p
y = cos - 1 , -1b
2 2 2 2
1#
= 0 - 1 = -1
2
a2p, - b
1 1
2p y = cos 2p - 1
2 2
1# 1
= 1 - 1 = -
2 2
y
1
The five key points for y = cos x - 1 are
2
shown in Figure 4.75. By connecting the x
q p w 2p
points with a smooth curve, we obtain one
period of the graph. −q
−1
−w
y = 21 sin x − 1
Figure 4.75
Check
Point 7 Graph one period of the function y = 2 cos x + 1.
❻ Model periodic behavior. Modeling Periodic Behavior

Our breathing consists of alternating periods of inhaling and exhaling. Each
complete pumping cycle of the human heart can be described using a sine function.
Our brain waves during deep sleep are sinusoidal. Viewed in this way, trigonometry
becomes an intimate experience.
Some graphing utilities have a SINe REGression feature. This feature gives
the sine function in the form y = A sin1Bx + C2 + D of best fit for wavelike data.
At least four data points must be used. However, it is not always necessary to use
technology. In our next example, we use our understanding of sinusoidal graphs to
model the process of breathing.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 516
EXAMPLE 8 A Trigonometric Breath of Life

The graph in Figure 4.76 shows one complete normal breathing cycle. The cycle
consists of inhaling and exhaling. It takes place every 5 seconds. Velocity of air flow
is positive when we inhale and negative when we exhale. It is measured in liters per
second. If y represents velocity of air flow after x seconds, find a function of the form
y = A sin Bx that models air flow in a normal breathing cycle.
Velocity of Air Flow in a

Normal Breathing Cycle
y
0.6 Inhaling
Velocity of Air Flow
(liters per second)
5
x
Time
(seconds)
Exhaling
−0.6
Period: 5 seconds Figure 4.76
Solution We need to determine values for A and B in the equation y = A sin Bx.
A, the amplitude, is the maximum value of y. Figure 4.76 shows that this maximum
value is 0.6. Thus, A = 0.6.
The value of B in y = A sin Bx can be found using the formula for the period:
2p
period = . The period of our breathing cycle is 5 seconds. Thus,
B
2p
5 = Our goal is to solve this equation for B.
B
5B = 2p Multiply both sides of the equation by B.
2p
B = . Divide both sides of the equation by 5.
5
2p
We see that A = 0.6 and B = . Substitute these values into y = A sin Bx. The
5
breathing cycle is modeled by
2p
y = 0.6 sin x.
5
Check
Point 8 Find an equation of the form
y = A sin Bx that produces the
y
graph shown in the figure on the 4

right.
x
−d d q
−4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 517
EXAMPLE 9 Modeling a Tidal Cycle

Figure 4.77 shows that the depth of water at a boat dock varies with the tides.The depth
is 5 feet at low tide and 13 feet at high tide. On a certain day, low tide occurs at 4 A.M. and
high tide at 10 A.M. If y represents the depth of the water, in feet, x hours after midnight,
use a sine function of the form y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D to model the water’s depth.
y
Solution We need to determine values for A, B, C, and D in the equation
y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D. We can find these values using Figure 4.77. We begin with D.
13 To find D, we use the vertical shift. Because the water’s depth ranges from a
Depth of Water
9 minimum of 5 feet to a maximum of 13 feet, the curve oscillates about the middle
value, 9 feet. Thus, D = 9, which is the vertical shift.
5
At maximum depth, the water is 4 feet above 9 feet. Thus, A, the amplitude, is
x 4: A = 4.
4 10 16 22 To find B, we use the period. The blue portion of the graph shows that one
The Number of Hours after Midnight
complete tidal cycle occurs in 19 - 7, or 12 hours. The period is 12. Thus,
Figure 4.77 2p
12 = Our goal is to solve this equation for B.
B
12B = 2p Multiply both sides by B.
2p p
B = = . Divide both sides by 12.
12 6
To find C, we use the phase shift. The blue portion of the graph shows that the
C
starting point of the cycle is shifted from 0 to 7. The phase shift, , is 7.
B
C C
7 = The phase shift of y A sin1Bx C2 is .
B B
C P
7 = From above, we have B .
p 6
6
7p P
= C Multiply both sides of the equation by .
6 6
p 7p
We see that A = 4, B = , C = , and D = 9. Substitute these values into
6 6
y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D. The water’s depth, in feet, x hours after midnight is
modeled by
b + 9.
p 7p
y = 4 sina x -
6 6
Technology
We can use a graphing utility to verify that the High tide:
model in Example 9 Low tide: 13 feet at
5 feet at 10 A.M.
b + 9
p 7p 4 A.M.
y = 4 sina x - High tide
6 6
15 Low tide
is correct. The graph of the function is shown in a
30, 28, 44 by 30, 15, 54viewing rectangle.
10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Check
Point 9 Aof region that is 30° north of the Equator averages a minimum of 10 hours
daylight in December. Hours of daylight are at a maximum of 14 hours
in June. Let x represent the month of the year, with 1 for January, 2 for
February, 3 for March, and 12 for December. If y represents the number of
hours of daylight in month x, use a sine function of the form
y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D to model the hours of daylight.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 518
EXERCISE SET 4.5

Practice Exercises 49. y = -3 cos a2x - b b
p p
50. y = -4 cosa 2x -
2 2
In Exercises 1–6, determine the amplitude of each
function. Then graph the function and y = sin x in the same 51. y = 2 cos12px + 8p2 52. y = 3 cos12px + 4p2
rectangular coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p.
1. y = 4 sin x 2. y = 5 sin x In Exercises 53–60, use a vertical shift to graph one period of the
1 1 function.
3. y = 3 sin x 4. y = 4 sin x
5. y = -3 sin x 6. y = -4 sin x 53. y = sin x + 2 54. y = sin x - 2
55. y = cos x - 3 56. y = cos x + 3
In Exercises 7–16, determine the amplitude and period of each
1
function. Then graph one period of the function. 57. y = 2 sin 2x + 1 58. y = 2 cos 12 x + 1
7. y = sin 2x 8. y = sin 4x 59. y = -3 cos 2px + 2 60. y = -3 sin 2px + 2
9. y = 3 sin 12 x 10. y = 2 sin 14 x
11. y = 4 sin px 12. y = 3 sin 2px Practice Plus
13. y = -3 sin 2px 14. y = -2 sin px In Exercises 61–66, find an equation for each graph.
15. y = -sin 23 x 16. y = -sin 43 x
61. y
In Exercises 17–30, determine the amplitude, period, and phase
3
shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function.
18. y = sin ax - b
p
17. y = sin1x - p2
2
x
− 2p 2p 4p 6p
20. y = sin a2x - b
p
19. y = sin12x - p2
2
−3
22. y = 3 sin a2x - b
p
21. y = 3 sin12x - p2
2
62.
b
1 p 1 y
23. y = 2 sinax + 24. y = 2 sin1x + p2
2
3
25. y = -2 sin a 2x + b b
p p
26. y = -3 sina 2x +
2 2
27. y = 3 sin1px + 22 28. y = 3 sin12px + 42 x
− 3p −p p 3p 5p
29. y = -2 sin12px + 4p2 30. y = -3 sin12px + 4p2
In Exercises 31–34, determine the amplitude of each function. −3

Then graph the function and y = cos x in the same rectangular
coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p. 63. y
31. y = 2 cos x 32. y = 3 cos x
33. y = -2 cos x 34. y = -3 cos x
2
function. Then graph one period of the function. x
−q q p w
35. y = cos 2x 36. y = cos 4x
−2
37. y = 4 cos 2px 38. y = 5 cos 2px
39. y = -4 cos 12 x 40. y = -3 cos 13 x
p p 64.
41. y = - 12 cos x 42. y = - 12 cos x y
3 4
shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function. 2
b b
p p
43. y = cosax - 44. y = cosax + x
2 2 −q q p w
45. y = 3 cos12x - p2 46. y = 4 cos12x - p2 −2
cosa3x + b
1 p 1
47. y = 2 48. y = 2 cos12x + p2
2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 519
65. y In Exercises 67–70, graph one period of each function.
67. y = ` 2 cos ` 68. y = ` 3 cos `

x 2x
3
2 3
70. y = - ` 2 sin `
px
69. y = - ƒ 3 sin px ƒ
x 2
−3 −1 1 3 5
In Exercises 71–74, graph f, g, and h in the same rectangular
−3 coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p. Obtain the graph of h by
adding or subtracting the corresponding y-coordinates on the
66. graphs of f and g.
y
71. f1x2 = -2 sin x, g1x2 = sin 2x, h1x2 = 1f + g21x2
3
72. f1x2 = 2 cos x, g1x2 = cos 2x, h1x2 = 1f + g21x2
73. f1x2 = sin x, g1x2 = cos 2x, h1x2 = 1f - g21x2

x
−2
74. f1x2 = cos x, g1x2 = sin 2x, h1x2 = 1f - g21x2
2 4 6
−3
Application Exercises
In the theory of biorhythms, sine functions are used to measure a person’s potential. You can obtain your biorhythm chart
online by simply entering your date of birth, the date you want your biorhythm chart to begin, and the number of months you
wish to be included in the plot. Shown below is your author’s chart, beginning January 25, 2006, when he was 22,188 days old. We all
have cycles with the same amplitudes and periods as those shown here. Each of our three basic cycles begins at birth. Use the biorhythm
chart shown to solve Exercises 75–82. The longer tick marks correspond to the dates shown.
y
100% Emotional Physical Intellectual
potential 1
Plus
Zero x
Minus
−1
1/25/06
1/30/06
2/05/06
2/10/06
2/15/06
2/20/06
2/25/06
3/05/06
3/10/06
3/15/06
3/20/06
3/25/06
3/30/06
75. What is the period of the physical cycle? March and September. Let x represent the number of
76. What is the period of the emotional cycle? months after June and let y represent the number of hours of
daylight in month x. Make a graph that displays the informa-
77. What is the period of the intellectual cycle? tion from June of one year to June of the following year.
78. For the period shown, what is the worst day in February for 84. A clock with an hour hand that is 15 inches long is hanging
your author to run in a marathon? on a wall. At noon, the distance between the tip of the hour
79. For the period shown, what is the best day in March for your hand and the ceiling is 23 inches. At 3 P.M., the distance is
author to meet an online friend for the first time? 38 inches; at 6 P.M., 53 inches; at 9 P.M., 38 inches; and at
80. For the period shown, what is the best day in February for midnight the distance is again 23 inches. If y represents the
your author to begin writing this trigonometry chapter? distance between the tip of the hour hand and the ceiling x
hours after noon, make a graph that displays the information
81. If you extend these sinusoidal graphs to the end of the year, for 0 … x … 24.
is there a day when your author should not even bother get-
ting out of bed? 85. The number of hours of daylight in Boston is given by
1x - 792 + 12,
2p
82. If you extend these sinusoidal graphs to the end of the year, y = 3 sin
are there any days where your author is at near-peak physi- 365
cal, emotional, and intellectual potential? where x is the number of days after January 1.
83. Rounded to the nearest hour, Los Angeles averages 14 hours a. What is the amplitude of this function?
of daylight in June, 10 hours in December, and 12 hours in b. What is the period of this function?
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 520
c. How many hours of daylight are there on the longest day of 93. Describe a general procedure for obtaining the graph of
the year? y = A sin1Bx - C2.
d. How many hours of daylight are there on the shortest day
of the year? 94. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
cosine curve.
e. Graph the function for one period, starting on January 1.
86. The average monthly temperature, y, in degrees Fahrenheit, for 95. Describe a relationship between the graphs of y = sin x
and y = cos x.
b + 40,
p 2p
Juneau, Alaska, can be modeled by y = 16 sina x -
6 3 96. Describe the relationship between the graphs of
where x is the month of the year 1January = 1, y = A cos1Bx - C2 and y = A cos1Bx - C2 + D.
February = 2, Á December = 122. Graph the function for
1 … x … 12. What is the highest average monthly temperature? 97. Biorhythm cycles provide interesting applications of
In which month does this occur? sinusoidal graphs. But do you believe in the validity of bio-
rhythms? Write a few sentences explaining why or why not.
87. The figure shows the depth of water at the end of a boat dock.
The depth is 6 feet at low tide and 12 feet at high tide. On a cer-
tain day, low tide occurs at 6 A.M. and high tide at noon. If y rep-
resents the depth of the water x hours after midnight, use a Technology Exercises
cosine function of the form y = A cos Bx + D to model the
98. Use a graphing utility to verify any five of the sine curves
water’s depth.
that you drew by hand in Exercises 7–30. The amplitude,
y period, and phase shift should help you to determine
appropriate range settings.
12 99. Use a graphing utility to verify any five of the cosine curves
Depth (feet)
that you drew by hand in Exercises 35–52.

9
100. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the sinusoidal
6
curves with vertical shifts that you drew in Exercises 53–60.
3
x In Exercises 101–104, use a graphing utility to graph two periods

6 12 18 24 of the function.
The Number of Hours after Midnight
102. y = -2 cos a2px - b
p
101. y = 3 sin12x + p2
88. The figure shows the depth of water at the end of a boat dock. 2
The depth is 5 feet at high tide and 3 feet at low tide. On a cer-
103. y = 0.2 sin a
p
tain day, high tide occurs at noon and low tide at 6 P.M. If y rep- x + pb 104. y = 3 sin12x - p2 + 5
10
resents the depth of the water x hours after noon, use a cosine
function of the form y = A cos Bx + D to model the water’s 105. Use a graphing utility to graph y = sin x and
depth. 3 5
in a c -p, p, d by 3-2, 2, 14 viewing
x x p
y = x - +
y 6 120 2
rectangle. How do the graphs compare?
6
106. Use a graphing utility to graph y = cos x and
5
Depth (feet)
x2 x4
in a c -p, p, d by 3-2, 2, 14 viewing
p
4 y = 1 - +
2 24 2
3
rectangle. How do the graphs compare?
2
1
107. Use a graphing utility to graph
x
2 4 6 8 10 12 sin 2x sin 3x sin 4x
y = sin x + + +
The Number of Hours after Noon 2 3 4
in a c -2p, 2p, d by 3-2, 2, 14 viewing rectangle. How do

p
2
Writing in Mathematics these waves compare to the smooth rolling waves of the
basic sine curve?
89. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
108. Use a graphing utility to graph
sine curve.
90. What is the amplitude of the sine function? What does this tell sin 3x sin 5x
you about the graph? y = sin x - +
9 25
91. If you are given the equation of a sine function, how do you
in a c -2p, 2p, d by 3-2, 2, 14 viewing rectangle. How do
determine the period? p
92. What does a phase shift indicate about the graph of a sine 2
function? How do you determine the phase shift from the these waves compare to the smooth rolling waves of the
function’s equation? basic sine curve?
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 521
Section 4.6 • Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 521
109. The data show the average monthly temperatures for Wash-
ington, D.C.
a. Use your graphing utility to draw a scatter plot of the Critical Thinking Exercises
data from x = 1 through x = 12. 111. Determine the range of each of the following functions.
b. Use the SINe REGression feature to find the sinusoidal Then give a viewing rectangle, or window, that shows two
function of the form y = A sin1Bx + C2 + D that best periods of the function’s graph.
a. f1x2 = 3 sin ax + b - 2
fits the data. p
6
c. Use your graphing utility to draw the sinusoidal function
b. g1x2 = sin 3a x + b - 2
p
of best fit on the scatter plot.
6
112. Write the equation for a cosine function with amplitude p,
x Average Monthly period 1, and phase shift -2.
Month Temperature, °F
In Chapter 5, we will prove the following identities:
1 (January) 34.6
1 1
2 (February) 37.5 sin2 x = - cos 2x
2 2
3 (March) 47.2 2 1 1
cos x = + cos 2x.
4 (April) 56.5 2 2
5 (May) 66.4 Use these identities to solve Exercises 113–114.
6 (June) 75.6 113. Use the identity for sin2 x to graph one period of y = sin2 x.
7 (July) 80.0 114. Use the identity for cos2 x to graph one period of y = cos2 x.
8 (August) 78.5
9 (September) 71.3 Group Exercise
10 (October) 59.7 115. This exercise is intended to provide some fun with bio-
11 (November) 49.8 rhythms, regardless of whether you believe they have any
12 (December) 39.4 validity. We will use each member’s chart to determine
biorhythmic compatibility. Before meeting, each group
Source: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration member should go online and obtain his or her biorhythm
chart. The date of the group meeting is the date on which
110. Repeat Exercise 109 for data of your choice. The data can your chart should begin. Include 12 months in the plot. At
involve the average monthly temperatures for the region the meeting, compare differences and similarities among
where you live or any data whose scatter plot takes the the intellectual sinusoidal curves. Using these comparisons,
form of a sinusoidal function. each person should find the one other person with whom he
or she would be most intellectually compatible.
SECTION 4.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions

Objectives
y = tan x.
y = tan x.
❸ Understand the graph of
y = cot x.
❹ Graph variations of
y = cot x.
❺ Understand the graphs of
y = csc x and y = sec x.
❻ Graph variations of
y = csc x and y = sec x. Recent advances in our understanding of climate have changed global warming
from a subject for a disaster movie (the Statue of Liberty up to its chin in water) to
a serious scientific and policy issue. Global warming is related to the burning of
fossil fuels, which adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In the 21st century, we
will see whether our use of fossil fuels will add enough carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere to change it (and our climate) in significant ways. In this section’s
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 522
exercise set, you will see how trigonometric graphs reveal interesting patterns in
carbon dioxide concentration from 1990 through 2005. In the section itself,
trigonometric graphs will reveal patterns involving the tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant functions.

y = tan x.
The Graph of y tan x
The properties of the tangent function discussed in Section 4.2 will help us deter-
mine its graph. Because the tangent function has properties that are different from
sinusoidal functions, its graph differs significantly from those of sine and cosine.
Properties of the tangent function include the following:
• The period is p. It is only necessary to graph y = tan x over an interval of
length p. The remainder of the graph consists of repetitions of that graph at
intervals of p.
• The tangent function is an odd function: tan1-x2 = -tan x. The graph is
symmetric with respect to the origin.
p
• The tangent function is undefined at . The graph of y = tan x has a vertical
2
p
asymptote at x = .
2
We obtain the graph of y = tan x using some points on the graph and origin
symmetry. Table 4.5 lists some values of 1x, y2 on the graph of y = tan x on the
interval c0, b.
p
2
Table 4.5 Values of (x, y) on the graph of y tan x
P P P 5P 17 P 89 P P
x 0 (75) (85) (89) 1.57
6 4 3 12 36 180 2
y=tan x 0
3 ≠0.6 1 3≠1.7 3.7 11.4 57.3 1255.8 undefined
3
As x increases from 0 to p, y increases slowly at first, then more and more rapidly.
2
The graph in Figure 4.78(a) is based on our observation that as x increases from 0
p
to , y increases slowly at first, then more and more rapidly. Notice that y increases
2 p
without bound as x approaches . As the figure shows, the graph of y = tan x has a
2
p
vertical asymptote at x = .
2
y y
4 Vertical 4
asymptote
x = − p2
2 2
x x
q −q q
−2 −2
Vertical Vertical
asymptote asymptote
−4 x = p2 −4 x = p2
Figure 4.78 Graphing the tangent

(a) y tan x, 0 ≤ x < q (b) y tan x, −q < x < q
function
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 523
The graph of y = tan x can be completed on the interval a - , b by using

p p
2 2
origin symmetry. Figure 4.78(b) shows the result of reflecting the graph in Figure
4.78(a) about the origin. The graph of y = tan x has another vertical asymptote at
p p
x = - . Notice that y decreases without bound as x approaches - .
2 2
Because the period of the tangent function is p, the graph in Figure 4.78(b)
shows one complete period of y = tan x. We obtain the complete graph of
y = tan x by repeating the graph in Figure 4.78(b) to the left and right over
intervals of p. The resulting graph and its main characteristics are shown in the
following box:
The Tangent Curve: The Graph of y tan x and Its Characteristics

Characteristics
• Period: p
y • Domain: All real numbers except odd
p
multiples of
2
4
• Range: All real numbers
p
2
• Vertical asymptotes at odd multiples of
2
• An x-intercept occurs midway between each
x pair of consecutive asymptotes.
−r −2p − w −p −q q p w 2p r
• Odd function with origin symmetry
−2
1 3
• Points on the graph and of the way between
−4 4 4
consecutive asymptotes have y-coordinates of
-1 and 1, respectively.
y = tan x.
Graphing Variations of y tan x
We use the characteristics of the tangent curve to graph tangent functions of the
form y = A tan1Bx - C2.
Graphing y A tan1Bx C2
y = A tan (Bx − C) 1. Find two consecutive asymptotes by finding an interval

containing one period:
p p
- 6 Bx - C 6 .
2 2
Bx − C = − p2 y-coordinate Bx − C = p
is A.
2 A pair of consecutive asymptotes occur at
p p
Bx - C = - and Bx - C = .
x 2 2
y-coordinate is −A. 2. Identify an x-intercept, midway between the
x-intercept
midway between consecutive asymptotes.
asymptotes 1 3
3. Find the points on the graph and of the way
4 4
between the consecutive asymptotes. These points have
y-coordinates of -A and A, respectively.
4. Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function.
Add additional cycles to the left or right as needed.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 524
EXAMPLE 1 Graphing a Tangent Function

x
Graph y = 2 tan for -p 6 x 6 3p.
2
Solution Refer to Figure 4.79 as you read each step.
Step 1 Find two consecutive asymptotes. We do this by finding an interval
containing one period.
p x p
- 6 6 Set up the inequality
2 2 2 P P
<variable expression in tangent< .
2 2
-p 6 x 6 p Multiply all parts by 2 and solve for x.
An interval containing one period is 1-p, p2. Thus, two consecutive asymptotes
occur at x = -p and x = p.
Step 2 Identify an x-intercept, midway between the consecutive asymptotes.
Midway between x = -p and x = p is x = 0. An x-intercept is 0 and the graph
passes through 10, 02.
y
1 3
Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between the consecutive
4 4
4 y = 2 tan x asymptotes. These points have y-coordinates of A and A. Because A, the coefficient
2
x
of the tangent in y = 2 tan is 2, these points have y-coordinates of -2 and 2.
2 2
The graph passes through a - , -2b and a , 2b.
p p
x 2 2
−p p 2p 3p
Step 4 Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the two
−2
consecutive asymptotes, x = -p and x = p, an x-intercept of 0, and points midway
between the x-intercept and asymptotes with y-coordinates of -2 and 2. We graph one
−4 x
period of y = 2 tan from -p to p. In order to graph for -p 6 x 6 3p, we
2
continue the pattern and extend the graph another full period to the right. The
Figure 4.79 The graph is shown for two graph is shown in Figure 4.79.
full periods.
p 3p
Check
Point 1 Graph y = 3 tan 2x for -
4
6 x 6
4
.
EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Tangent Function
b.
p
Graph two full periods of y = tanax +
4
b is the graph of y = tan x shifted

p
Solution The graph of y = tanax +
4
y
p
horizontally to the left units. Refer to Figure 4.80 as you read each step.
4
y = tan (x + p4 )
4 containing one period.
p p p P P
2 - 6 x + 6 Set up the inequality <variable expression in tangent< .
2 4 2 2 2
p p p p P
x - - 6 x 6 - Subtract from all parts and solve for x.
−f −d d f h 2 4 2 4 4
3p p P P 2P P 3P
−2 Simplify:
- 6 x 6 2 4 4 4 4
4 4
P P 2P P P
−4 and .
2 4 4 4 4
An interval containing one period is a - , b. Thus, two consecutive asymptotes

3p p
Figure 4.80 The graph is shown for two 4 4
3p p
full periods. occur at x = - and x = .
4 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 525
3p p 2p
- + -
4 4 4 2p p
x-intercept = = = - = -
2 2 8 4
and the graph passes through a - , 0b.

p p
An x-intercept is -
4 4
1 3
Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between the consecutive
4 4
asymptotes. These points have y-coordinates of A and A. Because A, the coeffi-
cient of the tangent in y = tanax + b is 1, these points have y-coordinates of -1
p
4
and 1. They are shown as blue dots in Figure 4.80.
3p p
consecutive asymptotes, x = - and x = , to graph one full period of
4 4
y = tan ax + b from -
p 3p p
to . We graph two full periods by continuing the
4 4 4
pattern and extending the graph another full period to the right. The graph is shown
in Figure 4.80.
2 Graph two full periods of y = tanax - 2 b.

p
Check
Point
❸ Understand the graph

of y = cot x.
The Graph of y cot x
Like the tangent function, the cotangent function, y = cot x, has a period of p. The
graph and its main characteristics are shown in the following box:
The Cotangent Curve: The Graph of y cot x and Its Characteristics
y Characteristics
• Period: p
• Domain: All real numbers except integral multiples of p
• Range: All real numbers
• Vertical asymptotes at integral multiples of p
1
x • An x-intercept occurs midway between each pair of consecutive
−p −q q p w 2p asymptotes.
−1
• Odd function with origin symmetry
1 3
• Points on the graph and of the way between consecutive
4 4
asymptotes have y-coordinates of 1 and -1, respectively.
❹ Graph variations
of y = cot x.
Graphing Variations of y cot x
We use the characteristics of the cotangent curve to graph cotangent functions of
the form y = A cot1Bx - C2.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 526
Graphing y A cot1Bx C2
y = A cot(Bx − C) 1. Find two consecutive asymptotes by finding an interval containing

one full period:
y-coordinate
0 6 Bx - C 6 p.
is A. A pair of consecutive asymptotes occur at
Bx − C = 0 Bx − C = p
Bx - C = 0 and Bx - C = p.
x
2. Identify an x-intercept, midway between the consecutive
asymptotes.
x-intercept
midway between
1 3
3. Find the points on the graph and of the way between the
asymptotes 4 4
consecutive asymptotes. These points have y-coordinates of A and -A,
y-coordinate respectively.
is −A.
4. Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. Add
additional cycles to the left or right as needed.
EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Cotangent Function

Graph y = 3 cot 2x.
Solution Refer to Figure 4.81 as you read each step.
containing one period.
0 6 2x 6 p Set up the inequality 0<variable expression in cotangent <P.
p
0 6 x 6 Divide all parts by 2 and solve for x.
2
An interval containing one period is a0, b. Thus, two consecutive asymptotes
p
p 2
y occur at x = 0 and x = .
2
p p p
Midway between x = 0 and x = is x = . An x-intercept is and the graph
3 2 4 4
passes through a , 0b.
p
4
1 3
x Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between consecutive asymptotes.
d q 4 4
These points have y-coordinates of A and A. Because A, the coefficient of the
−3 cotangent in y = 3 cot 2x is 3, these points have y-coordinates of 3 and -3. They are
shown as blue dots in Figure 4.81.
p
Figure 4.81 The graph of consecutive asymptotes, x = 0 and x = , to graph one full period of y = 3 cot 2x.
2
y = 3 cot 2x
This curve is repeated to the left and right, as shown in Figure 4.81.
1 p
Check
Point 3 Graph y =
2
cot x.
2
❺ Understand the graphs of

y = csc x and y = sec x.
The Graphs of y csc x and y sec x
We obtain the graphs of the cosecant and secant curves by using the reciprocal identities
1 1
csc x = and sec x = .
sin x cos x
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 527
1
The identity csc x = tells us that the value of the cosecant function
sin x
y = csc x at a given value of x equals the reciprocal of the corresponding value of
the sine function, provided that the value of the sine function is not 0. If the value of
sin x is 0, then at each of these values of x, the cosecant function is not defined. A
vertical asymptote is associated with each of these values on the graph of y = csc x.
We obtain the graph of y = csc x by taking reciprocals of the y-values in the
graph of y = sin x. Vertical asymptotes of y = csc x occur at the x-intercepts of
y = sin x. Likewise, we obtain the graph of y = sec x by taking the reciprocal of
y = cos x. Vertical asymptotes of y = sec x occur at the x-intercepts of y = cos x.
The graphs of y = csc x and y = sec x and their key characteristics are shown in the
following boxes. We have used dashed red lines to graph y = sin x and y = cos x
first, drawing vertical asymptotes through the x-intercepts.
The Cosecant Curve: The Graph of y csc x and Its Characteristics

y Characteristics
• Period: 2p
y = csc x • Domain: All real numbers except integral multiples
y = sin x of p
−q 1 w • Range: All real numbers y such that y … -1 or

x y Ú 1 : 1- q , -14 ´ 31, q 2
−2p −w −p q p 2p
−1
• Vertical asymptotes at integral multiples of p
• Odd function, csc1-x2 = -csc x, with origin
y = csc x symmetry
The Secant Curve: The Graph of y sec x and Its Characteristics
y Characteristics
• Period: 2p
• Domain: All real numbers except odd multiples

y = sec x p
y = cos x of
1 2
x • Range: All real numbers y such that y … -1 or
y Ú 1 : 1- q , -14 ´ 31, q 2
−2p −w −p −q q p w 2p
−1
y = sec x
p
• Vertical asymptotes at odd multiples of
2
• Even function, sec1-x2 = sec x, with y-axis
symmetry
❻ Graph variations of y = csc x

and y = sec x.
Graphing Variations of y csc x and y sec x
We use graphs of functions involving the corresponding reciprocal functions to obtain
graphs of cosecant and secant functions. To graph a cosecant or secant curve, begin by
graphing the function where cosecant or secant is replaced by its reciprocal function.
For example, to graph y = 2 csc 2x, we use the graph of y = 2 sin 2x. Likewise, to
x x
graph y = -3 sec , we use the graph of y = -3 cos .
2 2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 528
y Figure 4.82 illustrates how we use a sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve.
Notice that
• x-intercepts on the red sine curve correspond to vertical asymptotes of the
Minimum on
sine, relative
blue cosecant curve.
maximum on • A maximum point on the red sine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a
1 cosecant
continuous portion of the blue cosecant curve.
x
q p 2p • A minimum point on the red sine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a
−1
continuous portion of the blue cosecant curve.
Maximum on
sine, relative
minimum on
cosecant EXAMPLE 4 Using a Sine Curve to Obtain a Cosecant Curve
Use the graph of y = 2 sin 2x in Figure 4.83 to obtain the graph of y = 2 csc 2x.
x-intercepts correspond to vertical asymptotes.
y
Figure 4.82
y = 2 sin 2x
2
x
−p −q q p
−2
Figure 4.83
Solution We begin our work in Figure 4.84 by showing the given graph, the graph
of y = 2 sin 2x, using dashed red lines. The x-intercepts of y = 2 sin 2x correspond
to the vertical asymptotes of y = 2 csc 2x. Thus, we draw vertical asymptotes
through the x-intercepts, shown in Figure 4.84. Using the asymptotes as guides, we
sketch the graph of y = 2 csc 2x in Figure 4.84.
x
−p −q q p
−2
Figure 4.84 Using a sine

curve to graph y = 2 csc 2x
y
b,
p y = sin (x + p4 )
Check
Point 4 Use the graph of y = sinax +
4
shown on the right, to obtain the
1
graph of y = csc ax + b.
p f j
4 x
9p
−d d h 4
−1
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 529
We use a cosine curve to obtain a secant curve in exactly the same way we
used a sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve. Thus,
• x-intercepts on the cosine curve correspond to vertical asymptotes on the
secant curve.
• A maximum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a
continuous portion of the secant curve.
• A minimum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a
continuous portion of the secant curve.
EXAMPLE 5 Graphing a Secant Function

x
Graph y = -3 sec for -p 6 x 6 5p.
2
x
Solution We begin by graphing the function y = -3 cos , where secant has
2
been replaced by cosine, its reciprocal function.This equation is of the form
y = A cos Bx with A = -3 and B = 12 .

amplitude: |A|=|–3|=3 the minimum is −3.
2p 2p Each cycle, including

period: = 1 =4p asymptotes, is of length 4p.
B
2
4p
We use quarter-periods, , or p, to find the x-values for the five key points.
4
Starting with x = 0, the x-values are 0, p, 2p, 3p, and 4p. Evaluating the function at
each of these values of x, the key points are
10, -32, 1p, 02, 12p, 32, 13p, 02, and 14p, -32.
x
We use these key points to graph y = -3 cos from 0 to 4p, shown using a dashed
2
red line in Figure 4.85. In order to graph for -p … x … 5p, extend the dashed red
graph p units to the left and p units to the right. Now use this dashed red graph to
obtain the graph of the corresponding secant function, its reciprocal function. Draw
vertical asymptotes through the x-intercepts. Using these asymptotes as guides, the
x
graph of y = -3 sec is shown in blue in Figure 4.85.
2
y
6
y = −3 sec x
2
4
2 y = −3 cos x
2
x
−p p 2p 3p 4p 5p
−2
y = −3 sec x
2
−4
Figure 4.85 Using a cosine curve to

−6 x
graph y = -3 sec
2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 530
3p 3p
Check
Point 5 Graph y = 2 sec 2x for -
4
6 x 6
4
.
The Six Curves of Trigonometry

Table 4.6 summarizes the graphs of the six trigonometric functions. Below each of
the graphs is a description of the domain, range, and period of the function.
Table 4.6 Graphs of the Six Trigonometric Functions
y y y
y = sin x y = cos x
1 1
4
x x 2 y = tan x
−q q w −p p 2p
−p
x
p 2p
−1 −1
−2
−4
Domain: all real Domain: all real Domain: all real numbers
numbers: 1- q , q 2 numbers: 1- q , q 2 except odd multiples of
p
Range: 3-1, 14 Range: 3-1, 14

2
Range: all real numbers
Period: 2p Period: 2p
Period: p
y 1 1
y = csc x = y = sec x =
y sin x y cos x
4 y = cot x
4 4
2
2 2
x
−q q w x x
q −p p 2p
−2
−4
Domain: all real numbers Domain: all real numbers Domain: all real numbers
except integral multiples except integral multiples p
except odd multiples of
of p of p 2
Range: 1- q , -14 ´ 31, q 2
Range: all real numbers Range: 1- q , -14 ´ 31, q 2
Period: 2p
Period: p Period: 2p
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 531
EXERCISE SET 4.6

Practice Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, the graph of a tangent function is given.
Select the equation for each graph from the following options:
b, y = tan1x + p2, y = -tan x, y = -tanax - b .

p p
y = tanax +
2 2
1. y 2. y 3. y 4. y
4 4 4 4
2 2 2
x x x x
−q q p −q q p −q q p −q q p
−2 −2 −2
−4 −4 −4
In Exercises 5–12, graph two periods of the given tangent function.

x x 1
5. y = 3 tan 6. y = 2 tan 7. y = tan 2x 8. y = 2 tan 2x
4 4 2
b
1 1 p
9. y = -2 tan x 10. y = -3 tan x 11. y = tan1x - p2 12. y = tanax -
2 2 4
In Exercises 13–16, the graph of a cotangent function is given. Select the equation for each graph from the following options:
b, b.
p p
y = cotax + y = cot1x + p2, y = -cot x, y = -cotax -
2 2
13. y 14. y 15. y 16. y
4 4 4
2 2 2
x x x x
−q q p −q q p −q q p −q q p
−2 −2 −2
−4 −4 −4
In Exercises 17–24, graph two periods of the given cotangent function.

1 1
17. y = 2 cot x 18. y = cot x 19. y = cot 2x 20. y = 2 cot 2x
2 2
b b
p p p p
21. y = -3 cot x 22. y = -2 cot x 23. y = 3 cota x + 24. y = 3 cotax +
2 4 2 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 532
In Exercises 25–28, use each graph to obtain the graph of the Practice Plus
corresponding reciprocal function, cosecant or secant. Give the
equation of the function for the graph that you obtain. In Exercises 45–52, graph two periods of each
function.
25. y
b + 1 46. y = 2 cotax + b - 1
p p
45. y = 2 tanax -
1 y = − 21 sin x
2
6 6
47. y = sec a2x + b - 1 b + 1

p p
48. y = csca2x -
−4p 2 2
x
−p p 4p 49. y = csc ƒ x ƒ 50. y = sec ƒ x ƒ
51. y = ƒ cot 12 x ƒ 52. y = ƒ tan 12 x ƒ
−1
26. In Exercises 53–54, let f1x2 = 2 sec x, g1x2 = -2 tan x, and

y
p
h1x2 = 2x - .
3 y = 3 sin 4x 2
53. Graph two periods of
−d q y = 1f h21x2.
x
− p8 p
d
3p 54. Graph two periods of
y = 1g h21x2.
8 8
−3 In Exercises 55–58, use a graph to solve each equation for

-2p … x … 2p.
27. y
55. tan x = -1 56. cot x = -1
2 57. csc x = 1 58. sec x = 1
1
y= 2 cos 2px
x
−1 1
59. An ambulance with a rotating beam of light is parked 12 feet
−2
from a building. The function
28. y d = 12 tan 2pt
y = −3 cos p2 x
3 describes the distance, d, in feet, of the rotating beam of light
from point C after t seconds.
a. Graph the function on the interval 30, 24.
x b. For what values of t in 30, 24 is the function undefined?
−4 −2 2 4
What does this mean in terms of the rotating beam of light
in the figure shown?
−3
B
In Exercises 29–44, graph two periods of the given cosecant or
secant function.
29. y = 3 csc x 30. y = 2 csc x
d
1 x 3 x
31. y = csc 32. y = csc
2 2 2 4
33. y = 2 sec x 34. y = 3 sec x 2pt
x x
35. y = sec 36. y = sec C
3 2 12 feet
1 A
37. y = -2 csc px 38. y = - csc px
2
1 3
39. y = - sec px 40. y = - sec px
2 2
b
p
41. y = csc1x - p2 42. y = cscax -
2
b
p
43. y = 2 sec1x + p2 44. y = 2 secax +
2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 533
60. The angle of elevation from the top of a house to a jet flying activity when awake, during dreaming sleep, and during non-
2 miles above the house is x radians. If d represents the hori- dreaming sleep.
zontal distance, in miles, of the jet from the house, express d
During During
in terms of a trigonometric function of x. Then graph the
dreaming non-dreaming
function for 0 6 x 6 p. Awake sleep sleep
61. Your best friend is marching with a band and has asked you
to film him. The figure below shows that you have set your-
self up 10 feet from the street where your friend will be pass-
ing from left to right. If d represents your distance, in feet,
Human Brain Activity
from your friend and x is the radian measure of the angle
shown, express d in terms of a trigonometric function of x.Then
p p Technology Exercises
graph the function for - 6 x 6 . Negative angles
2 2 In working Exercises 73–76, describe what happens at the
indicate that your marching buddy is on your left. asymptotes on the graphing utility. Compare the graphs in the
connected and dot modes.
73. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the tangent curves
74. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the cotangent
curves that you drew by hand in Exercises 17–24.
75. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the cosecant
curves that you drew by hand in Exercises 29–44.
d 10 feet 76. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the secant curves
x
In Exercises 77–82, use a graphing utility to graph each function. Use
a range setting so that the graph is shown for at least two periods.
x
In Exercises 62–64, sketch a reasonable graph that models the 77. y = tan 78. y = tan 4x
4
given situation. x
79. y = cot 2x 80. y = cot
62. The number of hours of daylight per day in your hometown 2
over a two-year period 1 1
81. y = tan px 82. y = tan1px + 12
63. The motion of a diving board vibrating 10 inches in each 2 2
direction per second just after someone has dived off In Exercises 83–86, use a graphing utility to graph each pair of
64. The distance of a rotating beam of light from a point on a functions in the same viewing rectangle. Use a range setting so
wall (See the figure for Exercise 59.) that the graphs are shown for at least two periods.
x x
83. y = 0.8 sin and y = 0.8 csc
2 2
p p
Writing in Mathematics 84. y = -2.5 sin x and y = -2.5 csc x
3 3
65. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
85. y = 4 cos a2x - b and y = 4 seca2x - b
p p
tangent curve.
6 6
66. If you are given the equation of a tangent function, how do
b and y = -3.5 secapx - b
you find a pair of consecutive asymptotes? p p
86. y = -3.5 cosapx -
67. If you are given the equation of a tangent function, how do 6 6
you identify an x-intercept? 87. Carbon dioxide particles in our atmosphere trap heat and
68. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic raise the planet’s temperature. The resultant gradually
cotangent curve. increasing temperature is called the greenhouse effect.
69. If you are given the equation of a cotangent function, how do Carbon dioxide accounts for about half of global warming.
you find a pair of consecutive asymptotes? The function
70. Explain how to determine the range of y = csc x from the y = 2.5 sin 2px + 0.0216x2 + 0.654x + 316
graph. What is the range? models carbon dioxide concentration, y, in parts per million,
1
71. Explain how to use a sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve. where x = 0 represents January 1960; x = 12 , February 1960;
Why can the same procedure be used to obtain a secant x = 12 , March 1960; Á , x = 1, January 1961; x = 13
2
12 ,
curve from a cosine curve? February 1961; and so on. Use a graphing utility to graph the
72. Scientists record brain activity by attaching electrodes to the function in a [30, 45, 5] by [310, 420, 5] viewing rectangle.
scalp and then connecting these electrodes to a machine. The Describe what the graph reveals about carbon dioxide
brain activity recorded with this machine is shown in the concentration from 1990 through 2005.
three graphs at the top of the next column. Which trigono-
88. Graph y = sin in a 3-0.2, 0.2, 0.014 by 3-1.2, 1.2, 0.014
1
metric functions would be most appropriate for describing x
the oscillations in brain activity? Describe similarities and viewing rectangle. What is happening as x approaches 0 from
differences among these functions when modeling brain the left or the right? Explain this behavior.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 534
In Exercises 91–92, write the equation for a cosecant function

satisfying the given conditions.
Critical Thinking Exercises 91. period: 3p; range: 1- q , -24 ´ 32, q 2
In Exercises 89–90, write an equation for each blue graph. 92. period: 2; range: 1 - q , -p4 ´ 3p, q 2
89. y 90. y 93. Determine the range of the following functions. Then give a
viewing rectangle, or window, that shows two periods of the
function’s graph.
4 4
a. f1x2 = sec a3x + b b
p 1
b. g1x2 = 3 sec pax +
2 2
2 2
o 94. For x 7 0, what effect does 2 -x in y = 2 -x sin x have on the
x x graph of y = sin x? What kind of behavior can be modeled
2p 8p
u i i 3 by a function such as y = 2 -x sin x?
−2 −2
−4 −4
SECTION 4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Objectives
❶ Understand and use the
inverse sine function.
❷ Understand and use the
inverse cosine function.
❸ Understand and use the
inverse tangent function.
❹ Use a calculator to
evaluate inverse
❺ Find exact values of
composite functions with
inverse trigonometric
functions.
In 2005, director George Lucas pulled out all the stops and completed the epic Star
Wars odyssey with Revenge of the Sith. The movie is being shown at a local theater,
where you can experience the stunning force of its 2151 visual-effect shots
(Source: Time) on a large screen. Where in the theater should you sit to maximize
the visual impact of the director’s fantastic galactic visions? In this section’s exercise
set, you will see how an inverse trigonometric function can enhance your movie-
going experiences.
Study Tip
Here are some helpful things to remember from our earlier discussion of inverse functions.
• If no horizontal line intersects the graph of a function more than once, the function is
one-to-one and has an inverse function.
• If the point 1a, b2 is on the graph of f, then the point 1b, a2 is on the graph of the
inverse function, denoted f -1. The graph of f -1 is a reflection of the graph of f about
the line y = x.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 535
Section 4.7 • Inverse Trigonometric Functions 535
❶ Understand and use

the inverse sine function.
The Inverse Sine Function
Figure 4.86 shows the graph of y = sin x. Can you see that every horizontal line that
can be drawn between -1 and 1 intersects the graph infinitely many times? Thus,
the sine function is not one-to-one and has no inverse function.
In Figure 4.87, we have taken a portion of the sine curve, restricting the
p p
domain of the sine function to - … x … . With this restricted domain, every
2 2
horizontal line that can be drawn between -1 and 1 intersects the graph exactly
once. Thus, the restricted function passes the horizontal line test and is one-to-one.
y y y = sin x, − p2 ≤ x ≤ p2
1 y = sin x 1
x x
−w −p −q q p w 2p r −q q
−1 −1
Figure 4.86 The horizontal line test shows that the sine function is not one-to- Figure 4.87 The restricted sine function passes the
one and has no inverse function. horizontal line test. It is one-to-one and has an inverse
function.
p p
On the restricted domain - … x … , y = sin x has an inverse function.
2 2
The inverse of the restricted sine function is called the inverse sine function. Two
notations are commonly used to denote the inverse sine function:
y = sin-1 x or y = arcsin x.
In this book, we will use y = sin-1 x. This notation has the same symbol as the
inverse function notation f -11x2.
The Inverse Sine Function

The inverse sine function, denoted by sin-1, is the inverse of the restricted sine
p p
function y = sin x, - … x … . Thus,
2 2
y = sin-1 x means sin y = x,
p p
where - … y … and -1 … x … 1. We read y = sin-1 x as “y equals the
2 2
inverse sine at x.”
Study Tip
1 1
The notation y = sin-1 x does not mean y = . The notation y = , or the
sin x sin x
reciprocal of the sine function, is written y = 1sin x2 and means y = csc x.
-1
Inverse sine function Reciprocal of sine function
1
y=sin–1 x y=(sin x)–1= =csc x
sin x
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 536
y = sin x One way to graph y = sin-1 x is to take points on the graph of the restricted
− p2 ≤
x ≤ p2 sine function and reverse the order of the coordinates. For example, Figure 4.88
shows that a - , -1b, 10, 02, and a , 1b are on the graph of the restricted sine
y p p
(q, 1) 2 2
1
function. Reversing the order of the coordinates gives a -1, - b, 10, 02, and
p
−q (0, 0) 2
x
a 1, b. We now use these three points to sketch the inverse sine function. The
q
p
2
−1
Domain: [−q, q] graph of y = sin-1 x is shown in Figure 4.89.
(−q, −1) Range: [−1, 1] Another way to obtain the graph of y = sin-1 x is to reflect the graph of the
Figure 4.88 The restricted sine
restricted sine function about the line y = x, shown in Figure 4.90. The red graph is
function the restricted sine function and the blue graph is the graph of y = sin-1 x.
y y y=x
(1, q)
q (1, q) q
1 (q, 1)
y = sin−1 x y = sin−1 x y = sin x
(0, 0)
x x
−1 1 −q −1 1 q
Domain: [−1, 1] (−q, −1) −1

Range: [−q, q]
(−1, −q) −q −q
(−1, −q)
Figure 4.89 The graph of the inverse Figure 4.90 Using a reflection to obtain
sine function the graph of the inverse sine function
Exact values of sin-1 x can be found by thinking of sin1 x as the angle in the
interval c , d whose sine is x. For example, we can use the two points on the
P P
2 2
blue graph of the inverse sine function in Figure 4.90 and write
p p
sin–1(–1)=– and sin–1 1= .
2 2
The angle whose The angle whose
sine is −1 is − p. sine is 1 is p.
2 2
Because we are thinking of sin-1 x in terms of an angle, we will represent such an

angle by u.
Finding Exact Values of sin1 x

1. Let u = sin-1 x.
p p
2. Rewrite u = sin-1 x as sin u = x, where - … u … .
2 2
3. Use the exact values in Table 4.7 to find the value of u in c - , d that
p p
2 2
satisfies sin u = x.
P P
Table 4.7 Exact Values for sin U, ◊ U ◊
2 2
P P P P P P P P
U 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2
23 22 1 1 22 23
sin U -1 - - - 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 537
EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Sine Function

22
Find the exact value of sin-1 .
2
Solution
Step 1 Let U sin1 x. Thus,
22
u = sin-1 .
2
p p 22
We must find the angle u, - … u … , whose sine equals .
2 2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U sin1 x as sin U x, where ◊ U ◊ . Using the
2 2
22
definition of the inverse sine function, we rewrite u = sin-1 as
2
22 p p
sin u = , where - … u … .
2 2 2
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 4.7 to find the value of U in c , d that
P P
2 2
satisfies sin U x. Table 4.7 on the previous page shows that the only angle in the
22 p
interval c - , d that satisfies sin u =
p p p
is . Thus, u = . Because u, in step 1,
2 2 2 4 4
22
represents sin-1 , we conclude that
2
22 22 P
The angle in c , d whose sine is
p P P
sin-1 = . is .
2 4 2 2 2 4
23
Check
Point 1 Find the exact value of sin-1
2
.
EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Sine Function
Find the exact value of sin-1 a - b.

1
2
Solution
Step 1 Let U sin1 x. Thus,
u = sin-1 a - b.
1
2
p p 1
We must find the angle u, - … u … , whose sine equals - .
2 2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U sin1 x as sin U x, where ◊ U ◊ . We rewrite
2 2
u = sin-1 a - b and obtain
1
2
1 p p
sin u = - , where - … u … .
2 2 2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 538
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 4.7 to find the value of U in c , d that
P P
2 2
satisfies sin U x. Table 4.7 on page 536 shows that the only angle in the interval
c - , d that satisfies sin u = - is - . Thus,
p p 1 p
2 2 2 6
sin-1 a - b = -
1 p
2 6
22
a- b.
Check
2 Find the exact value of sin
-1
Point 2
Some inverse sine expressions cannot be evaluated. Because the domain of the
inverse sine function is 3-1, 14, it is only possible to evaluate sin-1 x for values of x
in this domain. Thus, sin-1 3 cannot be evaluated. There is no angle whose sine is 3.
❷ Understand and use the

inverse cosine function.
The Inverse Cosine Function
Figure 4.91 shows how we restrict the domain of the cosine function so that it
becomes one-to-one and has an inverse function. Restrict the domain to the interval
30, p4, shown by the dark blue graph. Over this interval, the restricted cosine
function passes the horizontal line test and has an inverse function.
y
y = cos x
1 0≤x≤p
x
−2p −w −p −q q p w 2p
Figure 4.91 y = cos x is one-to-one on −1

the interval 30, p4.
The Inverse Cosine Function

The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos-1, is the inverse of the restricted
cosine function y = cos x, 0 … x … p. Thus,
y = cos-1 x means cos y = x,
where 0 … y … p and -1 … x … 1.
y One way to graph y = cos-1 x is to take points y

(0, 1) y = cos x on the graph of the restricted cosine function and
1 0≤x≤p (−1, p) p
reverse the order of the coordinates. For example,
(q, 0) p
Figure 4.92 shows that 10, 12, a , 0b, and 1p, -12
p
x
2 (0, q)
q
are on the graph of the restricted cosine function. q
y = cos−1 x
−1 Reversing the order of the coordinates gives
(p, −1)
11, 02, a0, b, and 1-1, p2.
p
Domain: [0, p] (1, 0)
Range: [−1, 1]
2 x
−1 1
We now use these three points to sketch the
Figure 4.92 The restricted inverse cosine function. The graph of y = cos-1 x is Domain: [−1, 1]
cosine function Range: [0, p]
shown in Figure 4.93. You can also obtain this graph
by reflecting the graph of the restricted cosine func- Figure 4.93 The graph of the
tion about the line y = x. inverse cosine function
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 539
Exact values of cos-1 x can be found by thinking of cos1 x as the angle in the
interval 30, P4 whose cosine is x.
Finding Exact Values of cos1 x

1. Let u = cos-1 x.
2. Rewrite u = cos-1 x as cos u = x, where 0 … u … p.
3. Use the exact values in Table 4.8 to find the value of u in 30, p4 that satisfies
cos u = x.
Table 4.8 Exact Values for cos U, 0 ◊ U ◊ P

P P P P 2P 3P 5P
U 0 P
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
23 22 1 1 22 23
cos U 1 0 - - - -1
2 2 2 2 2 2
EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Exact Value

of an Inverse Cosine Function
23
Find the exact value of cos-1 a - b.
2
Solution
Step 1 Let U cos1 x. Thus,
23
u = cos-1 a - b.
2
23
We must find the angle u, 0 … u … p, whose cosine equals - .
2
Step 2 Rewrite U cos1 x as cos U x, where 0 ◊ U ◊ P. We obtain
23
cos u = -
, where 0 … u … p.
2
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 4.8 to find the value of U in 30, P4 that satisfies
cos U x. The table shows that the only angle in the interval 30, p4 that satisfies
23 5p 5p
cos u = - is . Thus, u = and
2 6 6
The angle in 70, P8 whose cosine is -

23
cos-1 a - b =
5p 23 5P
. is .
2 6 2 6
Find the exact value of cos-1 a - b.

1
Check
Point 3 2
❸ Understand and use the

inverse tangent function.
The Inverse Tangent Function
Figure 4.94 at the top of the next page shows how we restrict the domain of the
tangent function so that it becomes one-to-one and has an inverse function. Restrict
the domain to the interval a - , b, shown by the solid blue graph. Over this
p p
2 2
interval, the restricted tangent function passes the horizontal line test and has an
inverse function.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 540
y = tan x, − p2 < x < p2

y
2p −p p 2p
x
−w −q q w
−3
Figure 4.94 y = tan x is one-to-
one on the interval a - , b.
p p
2 2
The Inverse Tangent Function

The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan-1, is the inverse of the restricted
p p
tangent function y = tan x, - 6 x 6 . Thus,
2 2
y = tan-1 x means tan y = x,
p p
where - 6 y 6 and - q 6 x 6 q .
2 2
We graph y = tan-1 x by taking points on the graph of the restricted function

and reversing the order of the coordinates. Figure 4.95 shows that a - , -1 b,
p
4
10, 02, and a , 1b are on the graph of the restricted tangent function. Reversing the
p
4
order gives a -1, - b, 10, 02, and a1, b. We now use these three points to graph
p p
4 4
the inverse tangent function. The graph of y = tan-1 x is shown in Figure 4.96.
Notice that the vertical asymptotes become horizontal asymptotes for the graph of
the inverse function.
y
y = tan x, − p2 < x < p2
y
( p4 , 1) y = tan−1 x
1
q
x
−q q (
−1, −p4 )
(−p4 , −1) −1 1
x
(1, p4 )
−q
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
Domain: −q, q( ) Range: −q, q ( )
Range: (−∞, ∞)
Figure 4.95 The restricted tangent function Figure 4.96 The graph of the inverse
tangent function
Exact values of tan-1 x can be found by thinking of tan1 x as the angle in the
interval a , b whose tangent is x.
P P
2 2
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 541
Finding Exact Values of tan1 x

1. Let u = tan-1 x.
p p
2. Rewrite u = tan-1 x as tan u = x, where - 6 u 6 .
2 2
3. Use the exact values in Table 4.9 to find the value of u in a - , b that
p p
2 2
satisfies tan u = x.
P P
Table 4.9 Exact Values for tan U, <U<
2 2
P P P P P P P P
U 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2
23 23
tan U undef. - 23 -1 - 0 1 23 undef.
3 3
EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Exact Value

of an Inverse Tangent Function
Find the exact value of tan-1 23 .
Solution
Step 1 Let U tan1 x. Thus,
u = tan-1 23.
p p
We must find the angle u, - 6 u 6 , whose tangent equals 23.
2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U tan1 x as tan U x, where <U< . We obtain
2 2
p p
tan u = 23 , where - 6 u 6 .
2 2
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 4.9 to find the value of U in a , b that
P P
2 2
satisfies tan U x. The table shows that the only angle in the interval a - , b
p p
2 2
p p
that satisfies tan u = 23 is . Thus, u = and
3 3
The angle in a , b whose tangent is 23 is .
p P P P
tan 23 = .
-1
3 2 2 3
Study Tip
Do not confuse the domains of the restricted trigonometric functions with the intervals on
which the nonrestricted functions complete one cycle.
Interval on Which Nonrestricted

Trigonometric Domain of
Function’s Graph Completes
Function Restricted Function
One Period
p p Period: 2p
y=sin x B– , R [0, 2p]
2 2
y=cos x [0, p] [0, 2p] Period: 2p
a– , b a– , b
p p p p
y=tan x Period: p
2 2 2 2
These domain restrictions are the range for y = sin−1 x,

y = cos−1 x, and y = tan−1x, respectively.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 542
1-12.
Check
4 Find the exact value of tan
-1
Point
Table 4.10 summarizes the graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric func-
tions. Below each of the graphs is a description of the function’s domain and range.
Table 4.10 Graphs of the Three Basic Inverse Trigonometric Functions

y y y
q p q
y = sin−1 x y = tan−1 x
x q x
−1 1 y = cos−1 x −2 −1 1 2
−q x −q
−1 1
Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: (−∞, ∞)
Range: [−q, q] Range: [0, p] (
Range: −q, q )
❹ Use a calculator to evaluate

functions.
Using a Calculator to Evaluate Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Calculators give approximate values of inverse trigonometric functions. Use the
secondary keys marked SIN -1 , COS-1 , and TAN -1 . These keys are not buttons
that you actually press. They are the secondary functions for the buttons labeled
SIN , COS , and TAN , respectively. Consult your manual for the location of this
feature.
EXAMPLE 5 Calculators and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places of each function:
b. tan-11-9.652.
1
a. sin-1
4
Solution
Scientific Calculator Solution
Display, rounded
Function Mode Keystrokes to four places
1
a. sin-1 Radian 1 , 4 = 2nd SIN 0.2527
4
b. tan 1-9.652
-1
Radian 9.65 +> - 2nd TAN -1.4675
Graphing Calculator Solution

Display, rounded
Function Mode Keystrokes to four places
2nd SIN 1 1 , 4 2 ENTER

1
a. sin-1 Radian 0.2527
4
b. tan 1-9.652
-1
Radian 2nd TAN 1-2 9.65 ENTER -1.4675
Check
Point 5 Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places of each function:
a. cos
1
b. tan 1-35.852.
-1 -1
3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 543
What happens if you attempt to evaluate an inverse trigomometric function at

a value that is not in its domain? In real number mode, most calculators will display
an error message. For example, an error message can result if you attempt to
approximate cos-1 3. There is no angle whose cosine is 3. The domain of the inverse
cosine function is 3-1, 14 and 3 does not belong to this domain.
❺ Find exact values of

composite functions with
Composition of Functions Involving
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
functions. In our earlier discussion of functions and their inverses, we saw that
f(f –1(x))=x and f –1(f(x))=x.
x must be in the x must be in the

domain of f −1. domain of f.
We apply these properties to the sine, cosine, tangent, and their inverse functions to
obtain the following properties:
Inverse Properties
The Sine Function and Its Inverse
sin1sin-1 x2 = x for every x in the interval 3-1, 14
sin-11sin x2 = x for every x in the interval c - , d

p p
2 2
The Cosine Function and Its Inverse
cos1cos-1 x2 = x for every x in the interval 3-1, 14
cos 1cos x2 = x
-1
for every x in the interval 30, p4
The Tangent Function and Its Inverse

tan1tan-1 x2 = x for every real number x
tan-11tan x2 = x for every x in the interval a - , b

p p
2 2
The restrictions on x in the inverse properties are a bit tricky. For example,
sin–1 a sin b= .
p p
4 4
sin−1(sin x) = x for x in − p , p .
2 2
Observe that p is in this interval.
4
Can we use sin-11sin x2 = x to find the exact value of sin-1 asin b? Is

5p 5p
in the
4 4
interval c - , d? No. Thus, to evaluate sin-1 asin b, we must first find sin
p p 5p 5p
.
2 2 4 4
5p is in quadrant III,
4
where the sine is negative.
sin
5p p
=–sin =–
2
4 4 2
The reference angle
for 5p is p.
4 4
We evaluate sin-1 asin b as follows:

5p
4
22
sin-1 asin b = sin-1 a - b = -
5p p
If necessary, see Table 4.7 on page 536.
4 2 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 544
To determine how to evaluate the composition of functions involving inverse

trigonometric functions, first examine the value of x. You can use the inverse prop-
erties in the box shown on the previous page only if x is in the specified interval.
EXAMPLE 6 Evaluating Compositions

of Functions and Their Inverses
Find the exact value, if possible:
b. sin-1 asin b
3p
a. cos1cos-1 0.62 c. cos1cos-1 1.52.
2
Solution
a. The inverse property cos1cos-1 x2 = x applies for every x in 3-1, 14. To
evaluate cos1cos-1 0.62, observe that x = 0.6. This value of x lies in 3-1, 14,
which is the domain of the inverse cosine function. This means that we can use
the inverse property cos1cos-1 x2 = x. Thus,
cos1cos-1 0.62 = 0.6.
b. The inverse property sin-11sin x2 = x applies for every x in c - , d. To

p p
2 2
evaluate sin-1 asin b, observe that x =

3p 3p
. This value of x does not lie in
2 2
c - , d. To evaluate this expression, we first find sin

p p 3p
.
2 2 2
sin-1 asin b = sin-11-12 = -

3p
The angle in c - , d whose sine is -1 is - .
p P P P
2 2 2 2 2
c. The inverse property cos1cos-1 x2 = x applies for every x in 3-1, 14. To

attempt to evaluate cos1cos-1 1.52, observe that x = 1.5. This value of x does
not lie in 3-1, 14, which is the domain of the inverse cosine function. Thus, the
expression cos1cos-1 1.52 is not defined because cos-1 1.5 is not defined.
Check
Point 6 Find the exact value, if possible:
a. cos1cos 0.72-1
b. sin 1sin p2 -1
c. cos3cos-11-1.224.
We can use points on terminal sides of angles in standard position to find exact
values of expressions involving the composition of a function and a different inverse
function. Here are two examples:
cot Bsin–1 a– bR .
1
cos a tan–1 b
5
12 3
Inner part involves the Inner part involves the

angle in Q− p , p R angle in − p , p
2 2 2 2
whose tangent is 5 . whose sine is − 1 .
12 3
The inner part of each expression involves an angle. To evaluate such expressions,
we represent such angles by u. Then we use a sketch that illustrates our representa-
tion. Examples 7 and 8 show how to carry out such evaluations.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 545
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating a Composite Trigonometric Expression
b.
5
Find the exact value of cosatan-1
12
Solution We let u represent the angle in a - , b whose tangent is . Thus,

p p 5
2 2 12
5
u = tan-1 .
12
Using the definition of the inverse tangent function, we can rewrite this as
5 p p
tan u = , where - 6 u 6 .
12 2 2
Because tan u is positive, u must be an angle in a0, b. Thus, u is a first-quadrant

p
y
2
r = 13 (12, 5) angle. Figure 4.97 shows a right triangle in quadrant I with
y=5
u
x Side opposite u, or y
5
tan u = .
x = 12 12 Side adjacent to u, or x
The hypotenuse of the triangle, r, or the distance from the origin to 112, 52, is found
Figure 4.97 Representing
5
tan u = 12
using r = 3x2 + y2.
r = 3x2 + y2 = 312 2 + 52 = 2144 + 25 = 2169 = 13
We use the values for x and r to find the exact value of cos atan-1 b.
5
12
b = cos u =
5 side adjacent to u, or x 12
cosatan-1 =
12 hypotenuse, or r 13
-1 3
b.
Check
Point 7 Find the exact value of sinatan 4
EXAMPLE 8 Evaluating a Composite Trigonometric Expression
Find the exact value of cotcsin-1 a - b d.

1
3
Solution We let u represent the angle in c - , d whose sine is - . Thus,

p p 1
2 2 3
u = sin-1 a - b
1 1 p p
y and sin u = - , where - … u … .
3 3 2 2
Because sin u is negative in sin u = - , u must be an angle in c - , 0b. Thus, u is a

1 p
x
u 3 2
r=3 negative angle that lies in quadrant IV. Figure 4.98 shows angle u in quadrant IV
P = (22, −1) with
In quadrant IV, y is negative.
x = 22 y = −1
1 y –1
Figure 4.98 Representing sin u =– = = .
sin u = - 13 3 r 3
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 546
y
Thus, y = -1 and r = 3. The value of x can be found using r = 3x2 + y2 or
x2 + y 2 = r2.
u
x
x2 + 1-122 = 32 Use x 2 y 2 r 2 with y 1 and r 3.
2
r=3 x + 1 = 9 Square 1 and square 3.
P = (22, −1) 2
x = 8 Subtract 1 from both sides.
x = 28 = 24 # 2 = 222 Use the square root property. Remember
x = 22 y = −1
that x is positive in quadrant IV.
We use values for x and y to find the exact value of cotcsin-1 a - b d.

Figure 4.98 (repeated) 1
3
2 22
cotcsin-1 a - b d = cot u =
1 x
= = -222
3 y -1
Find the exact value of coscsin-1 a - b d.

1
Check
Point 8 2
Some composite functions with inverse trigonometric functions can be

simplified to algebraic expressions. To simplify such an expression, we represent the
inverse trigonometric function in the expression by u. Then we use a right triangle.
EXAMPLE 9 Simplifying an Expression Involving sin1 x

If 0 6 x … 1, write cos1sin-1 x2 as an algebraic expression in x.
Solution We let u represent the angle in c - , d whose sine is x. Thus,

p p
2 2
p p
u = sin-1 x and sin u = x, where - … u … .
2 2
Because 0 6 x … 1, sin u is positive. Thus, u is a first-quadrant angle and can be rep-
resented as an acute angle of a right triangle. Figure 4.99 shows a right triangle with
Side opposite u
1 x
x sin u =x= .
1 Hypotenuse
u The third side, a in Figure 4.99, can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem.
a = 1 x2 a2 + x2 = 12 Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to the right triangle
in Figure 4.99.
Figure 4.99
Representing
a2 = 1 - x2 Subtract x 2 from both sides.
sin u = x a = 31 - x2 Use the square root property and solve for a.
Remember that side a is positive
We use the right triangle in Figure 4.99 to write cos1sin-1 x2 as an algebraic
expression.
side adjacent to u 31 - x2
cos1sin-1 x2 = cos u = = = 31 - x2
hypotenuse 1
Check
9 If x 7 0, write sec1tan x2 as an algebraic expression in x.
-1
Point
The inverse secant function, y = sec -1 x, is used in calculus. However, inverse

cotangent and inverse cosecant functions are rarely used. Two of these remaining
inverse trigonometric functions are briefly developed in the exercise set that
follows.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 547
EXERCISE SET 4.7

Practice Exercises In Exercises 47–62, use a sketch to find the exact value of each
expression.
47. cos A sin-1 45 B 48. sin A tan-1 24 B
In Exercises 1–18, find the exact value of each 7
expression.
1 49. tan A cos-1 13
5
B 50. cot A sin-1 13
5
B
51. tan C sin-1 A - 35 B D 52. cos C sin-1 A - 45 B D
1. sin-1 2. sin-1 0
2
22 23
54. cos A sin-1 12 B
22
b
3. sin-1 4. sin-1
2 2 53. sinacos-1
2
55. sec C sin-1 A - 14 B D 56. sec C sin-1 A - 12 B D
23
5. sin-1 a - b 6. sin-1 a - b
1
2 2
23 22 57. tan C cos-1 A - 13 B D 58. tan C cos-1 A - 14 B D
7. cos-1 8. cos-1
2 2 23 22
59. cscccos-1 a - bd 60. sec csin-1 a - bd
22 23
9. cos a - b 10. cos a - b
-1 -1 2 2
2 2
61. cosctan-1 a - b d 62. sinctan-1 a - b d
2 3
11. cos-1 0 12. cos-1 1 3 4
23
13. tan-1 14. tan-1 1 In Exercises 63–72, use a right triangle to write each expression as an
3 algebraic expression. Assume that x is positive and that the given
15. tan-1 0 16. tan-11-12 inverse trigonometric function is defined for the expression in x.
63. tan1cos-1 x2 64. sin1tan-1 x2
A - 23 B
23
17. tan-1
18. tan a -
-1
b 65. cos1sin-1 2x2 66. sin1cos-1 2x2
3
67. cosa sin-1 b 68. secacos-1 b

1 1
In Exercises 19–30, use a calculator to find the value of each
expression rounded to two decimal places. x x
b b
19. sin-1 0.3 20. sin-1 0.47 x x
69. cotatan-1 70. cotatan-1
21. sin-11-0.322 22. sin-11-0.6252
23 22
x 3x2 - 9
-1 3 -1 4 71. sec ¢ sin-1 ≤ 72. cot ¢ sin-1 ≤
23. cos 24. cos x
8 9 3x2 + 4
73. a. Graph the restricted secant function, y = sec x, by
25 27
restricting x to the intervals c0, b and a , p d.
25. cos-1 26. cos-1 p p
7 10
2 2
27. tan-11-202 28. tan-11-302 b. Use the horizontal line test to explain why the restricted
29. tan-1 A - 2473 B 30. tan-1 A - 25061 B
secant function has an inverse function.
c. Use the graph of the restricted secant function to graph
In Exercises 31–46, find the exact value of each expression, if y = sec -1 x.
possible. Do not use a calculator. 74. a. Graph the restricted cotangent function, y = cot x, by
31. sin1sin -1
0.92 32. cos1cos -1
0.572 restricting x to the interval 10, p2.
b. Use the horizontal line test to explain why the restricted
33. sin-1 asin b 34. cos-1 acos b
p 2p cotangent function has an inverse function.
3 3
c. Use the graph of the restricted cotangent function to
graph y = cot-1 x.
35. sin-1 asin b 36. cos-1 acos b
5p 4p
6 3
37. tan1tan-1 1252 38. tan1tan-1 3802 Practice Plus

The graphs of y = sin-1 x, y = cos-1 x, and
39. tan-1 ctana - bd 40. tan-1 ctana - bd
p p y = tan x are shown in Table 4.10 on page 542. In Exercises
-1
6 3 75–84, use transformations (vertical shifts, horizontal shifts,

reflections, stretching, or shrinking) of these graphs to graph each
41. tan-1 atan b 42. tan-1 atan b
2p 3p function. Then use interval notation to give the function’s domain
3 4 and range.
43. sin-11sin p2 44. cos-11cos 2p2

p p
75. f1x2 = sin-1 x + 76. f1x2 = cos-1 x +
2 2
45. sin1sin-1 p2 46. cos1cos-1 3p2 77. g1x2 = cos-11x + 12 78. g1x2 = sin-11x + 12
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 548
79. h1x2 = -2 tan-1 x 80. h1x2 = -3 tan-1 x The formula
81. f1x2 = sin-11x - 22 - 82. f1x2 = cos-11x - 22 -

p p 21.634
u = 2 tan-1
2 2 x
x x gives the viewing angle, u, in radians, for a camera whose lens is
83. g1x2 = cos-1 84. g1x2 = sin-1
2 2 x millimeters wide. Use this formula to solve Exercises 95–96.
In Exercises 85–92, determine the domain and the range of each
function.
85. f1x2 = sin1sin-1 x2 86. f1x2 = cos1cos-1 x2
87. f1x2 = cos 1cos x2
-1
88. f1x2 = sin-11sin x2
89. f1x2 = sin-11cos x2 90. f1x2 = cos-11sin x2
91. f1x2 = sin -1
x + cos -1
x 92. f1x2 = cos-1 x - sin-1 x
u
95. Find the viewing angle, in radians and in degrees (to the
93. Your neighborhood movie theater has a 25-foot-high screen
nearest tenth of a degree), of a 28-millimeter lens.
located 8 feet above your eye level. If you sit too close to the
screen, your viewing angle is too small, resulting in a distorted 96. Find the viewing angle, in radians and in degrees (to the
picture. By contrast, if you sit too far back, the image is quite nearest tenth of a degree), of a 300-millimeter telephoto lens.
small, diminishing the movie’s visual impact. If you sit x feet For years, mathematicians were challenged by the following
back from the screen, your viewing angle, u, is given by problem: What is the area of a region under a curve between two
33 8 values of x? The problem was solved in the seventeenth century
u = tan-1 - tan-1 .
x x with the development of integral calculus. Using calculus, the area
1
of the region under y = 2 , above the x-axis, and between
x + 1
x = a and x = b is tan-1 b - tan-1 a. Use this result, shown in the
25 feet 1
figure, to find the area of the region under y = 2 , above the
x + 1
x-axis, and between the values of a and b given in Exercises 97–98.
u
8 feet y
x
Area is tan−1 b − tan−1 a.
1
y=
x2 + 1
Find the viewing angle, in radians, at distances of 5 feet,

10 feet, 15 feet, 20 feet, and 25 feet.
x
33 8 −2 a b 2
94. The function u = tan-1 - tan-1 , described in Exercise 93,
x x
is graphed below in a 30, 50, 104 by 30, 1, 0.14 viewing rectan- 97. a = 0 and b = 2 98. a = -2 and b = 1
gle. Use the graph to describe what happens to your viewing
angle as you move farther back from the screen. How far back
from the screen, to the nearest foot, should you sit to maximize
your viewing angle? Verify this observation by finding the Writing in Mathematics
viewing angle one foot closer to the screen and one foot
farther from the screen for this ideal viewing distance. 99. Explain why, without restrictions, no trigonometric function
has an inverse function.
u
100. Describe the restriction on the sine function so that it has
1 an inverse function.
101. How can the graph of y = sin-1 x be obtained from the
graph of the restricted sine function?
102. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the
graph of y = sin-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and
range in your description.
0 x 103. Describe the restriction on the cosine function so that it has
0 10 20 30 40 50 an inverse function.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 549
Section 4.8 • Applications of Trigonometric Functions 549
104. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the 111. y = cos-1 x and y = cos-11x - 12
graph of y = cos-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and 112. y = tan-1 x and y = -2 tan-1 x
113. y = sin-1 x and y = sin-11x + 22 + 1
105. Describe the restriction on the tangent function so that it
has an inverse function. 114. Graph y = tan-1 x and its two horizontal asymptotes in a
3-3, 3, 14 by c -p, p, d viewing rectangle. Then change
106. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the p
graph of y = tan-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and 2
the range setting to 3-50, 50, 54 by c -p, p, d. What do
p
107. If sin a sin b = , is sin-1 a sin b =
p p 5p 5p 2
-1
? Explain your you observe?
3 3 6 6
answer. 115. Graph y = sin-1 x + cos-1 x in a 3-2, 2, 14 by 30, 3, 14
viewing rectangle. What appears to be true about the sum of
108. Explain how a right triangle can be used to find the exact the inverse sine and inverse cosine for values between -1
value of sec A sin-1 45 B . and 1, inclusive?
109. Find the height of the screen and the number of feet that it
is located above eye level in your favorite movie theater.
Modify the formula given in Exercise 93 so that it applies to
your theater. Then describe where in the theater you should Critical Thinking Exercises
sit so that a movie creates the greatest visual impact. 116. Solve y = 2 sin-11x - 52 for x in terms of y.
p
117. Solve for x: 2 sin-1 x = .
Technology Exercises 4
In Exercises 110–113, graph each pair of functions in the 1 p
118. Prove that if x 7 0, tan-1 x + tan-1 = .
same viewing rectangle. Use your knowledge of the domain and x 2
range for the inverse trigonometric functions to select an appro- 119. Derive the formula for u, your viewing angle at the movie
priate viewing rectangle. How is the graph of the second equation theater, in Exercise 93. Hint : Use the figure shown and
in each exercise related to the graph of the first equation? represent the acute angle on the left in the smaller right
110. y = sin-1 x and y = sin-1 x + 2 triangle by a. Find expressions for tan a and tan 1a + u2.
SECTION 4.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions

Objectives
❶ Solve a right triangle.
❷ Solve problems involving
bearings.
❸ Model simple harmonic
motion.
In the late 1960s, popular musicians were searching for new sounds. Film composers
were looking for ways to create unique sounds as well. From these efforts, synthesiz-
ers that electronically reproduce musical sounds were born. From providing the
backbone of today’s most popular music to providing the strange sounds for the
most experimental music, synthesizers are at the forefront of music technology.
If we did not understand the periodic nature of sinusoidal functions, the
synthesizers used in almost all forms of music would not exist. In this section, we
look at applications of trigonometric functions in solving right triangles and in mod-
eling periodic phenomena such as sound.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 550
❶ Solve a right triangle.
B
Solving Right Triangles
Solving a right triangle means finding the missing lengths of its sides and the
measurements of its angles. We will label right triangles so that side a is opposite
c angle A, side b is opposite angle B, and side c, the hypotenuse, is opposite right angle
a C. Figure 4.100 illustrates this labeling.
When solving a right triangle, we will use the sine, cosine, and tangent
A C
b functions, rather than their reciprocals. Example 1 shows how to solve a right
triangle when we know the length of a side and the measure of an acute angle.
Figure 4.100 Labeling
right triangles
B
EXAMPLE 1 Solving a Right Triangle
Solve the right triangle shown in Figure 4.101, rounding lengths to two decimal
c places.
a
Solution We begin by finding the measure of angle B. We do not need a trigono-
34.5°
metric function to do so. Because C = 90° and the sum of a triangle’s angles is 180°,
A C
b = 10.5 we see that A + B = 90°. Thus,
Figure 4.101 Find B, a,
and c. B = 90° - A = 90° - 34.5° = 55.5°.
Now we need to find a. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side,
and a known adjacent side, we use the tangent function.
Side opposite the 34.5° angle

a
tan 34.5=
10.5 Side adjacent to the 34.5° angle
Now we multiply both sides of this equation by 10.5 and solve for a.
a = 10.5 tan 34.5° L 7.22
Finally, we need to find c. Because we have a known angle, a known adjacent side,
and an unknown hypotenuse, we use the cosine function.
Side adjacent to the 34.5° angle

10.5
cos 34.5=
c Hypotenuse
Now we multiply both sides of this equation by c and then solve for c.
Discovery
There is often more than one c cos 34.5° = 10.5 Multiply both sides by c.
correct way to solve a right
triangle. In Example 1, find a 10.5
c = L 12.74 Divide both sides by cos 34.5° and solve for c.
using angle B = 55.5°. Find c cos 34.5°
using the Pythagorean Theorem.
In summary, B = 55.5°, a L 7.22, and c L 12.74.
Check
Point 1 Inrounding
Figure 4.100, let A = 62.7° and a = 8.4. Solve the right triangle,
lengths to two decimal places.
Trigonometry was first developed to measure heights and distances that were
inconvenient or impossible to measure directly. In solving application problems,
begin by making a sketch involving a right triangle that illustrates the problem’s
conditions. Then put your knowledge of solving right triangles to work and find the
required distance or height.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 551
EXAMPLE 2 Finding a Side of a Right Triangle

From a point on level ground 125 feet from the base of a tower, the angle of eleva-
tion is 57.2°. Approximate the height of the tower to the nearest foot.
Solution A sketch is shown in Figure 4.102, where a represents the height of the
tower. In the right triangle, we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side, and a
known adjacent side. Therefore, we use the tangent function.
t
igh

a a
s
tan 57.2=
of
125
ne
Side adjacent to the 57.2° angle

Li
Now we multiply both sides of this equation by 125 and solve for a.
57.2°
125 ft a = 125 tan 57.2° L 194

The tower is approximately 194 feet high.
Figure 4.102 Determining
height without using direct
measurement
Check
Point 2 From a point on level ground 80 feet from the base of the Eiffel Tower, the
angle of elevation is 85.4°. Approximate the height of the Eiffel Tower to
the nearest foot.
Example 3 illustrates how to find the measure of an acute angle of a right

triangle if the lengths of two sides are known.
EXAMPLE 3 Finding an Angle of a Right Triangle

A kite flies at a height of 30 feet when 65 feet of string is out. If the string is in a
straight line, find the angle that it makes with the ground. Round to the nearest
tenth of a degree.
Solution A sketch is shown in Figure 4.103, where A represents the angle the
string makes with the ground. In the right triangle, we have an unknown angle, a
known opposite side, and a known hypotenuse. Therefore, we use the sine function.
Side opposite A
30
sin A=
65 Hypotenuse
30
A = sin-1 L 27.5°
65
c = 65 ft
a = 30 ft
A b C
Figure 4.103 Flying a kite
The string makes an angle of approximately 27.5° with the ground.
Check
Point 3 Ayards
guy wire is 13.8 yards long and is attached from the ground to a pole 6.7
above the ground. Find the angle, to the nearest tenth of a degree,
that the wire makes with the ground.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 552
EXAMPLE 4 Using Two Right Triangles to Solve a Problem

You are taking your first hot-air balloon ride. Your friend is standing on level ground,
100 feet away from your point of launch, making a video of the terrified look on your
rapidly ascending face. How rapidly? At one instant, the angle of elevation from the
video camera to your face is 31.7°. One minute later, the angle of elevation is 76.2°.
How far did you travel, to the nearest tenth of a foot, during that minute?
Solution A sketch that illustrates the problem is shown in Figure 4.104. We need
to determine b - a, the distance traveled during the one-minute period. We find a
using the small right triangle. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite
side, and a known adjacent side, we use the tangent function.
b a
tan 31.7=
100 Side adjacent to the 31.7° angle
a = 100 tan 31.7° L 61.8

We find b using the tangent function in the large right triangle.
b
76.2° tan 76.2=
a 100 Side adjacent to the 76.2° angle
Your 31.7°
friend b = 100 tan 76.2° L 407.1
100 ft
The balloon traveled 407.1 - 61.8, or approximately 345.3 feet, during the minute.
Figure 4.104 Ascending in a hot-air
balloon
Check
Point 4 You are standing on level ground 800 feet from Mt. Rushmore, looking at
the sculpture of Abraham Lincoln’s face. The angle of elevation to the bot-
tom of the sculpture is 32° and the angle of elevation to the top is 35°. Find
the height of the sculpture of Lincoln’s face to the nearest tenth of a foot.
Trigonometry and Bearings

❷ Solve problems involving
bearings.
In navigation and surveying problems, the term bearing is used to specify the
location of one point relative to another. The bearing from point O to point P is
the acute angle, measured in degrees, between ray OP and a north-south line.
Figure 4.105 illustrates some examples of bearings. The north-south line and the
east-west line intersect at right angles.
N N N
Study Tip The bearing The bearing The bearing
N 40° E
The bearing from O to P can also from O to P 40° N 65° W from O to P from O to P
is N 40° E. 65° is N 65° W. is S 70° E.
be described using the phrase P
“the bearing of P from O.” P
W E W E W P E
O O O
70° S 70° E
Figure 4.105 An illustration of three

bearings S S S
(a) (b) (c)
Each bearing has three parts: a letter (N or S), the measure of an acute angle, and a
letter (E or W). Here’s how we write a bearing:
• If the acute angle is measured from the north side of the north-south line, then
we write N first. [See Figure 4.105(a).] If the acute angle is measured from the
south side of the north-south line, then we write S first. [See Figure 4.105(c).]
• Second, we write the measure of the acute angle.
• If the acute angle is measured on the east side of the north-south line, then we
write E last. [See Figure 4.105(a)]. If the acute angle is measured on the west side
of the north-south line, then we write W last. [See Figure 4.105(b).]
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 553
EXAMPLE 5 Understanding Bearings

Use Figure 4.106 to find each of the following:
a. the bearing from O to B
b. the bearing from O to A.
N We need this
angle for the Solution
bearing from
40°
O to A. a. To find the bearing from O to B, we need the acute angle between the ray OB
B A and the north-south line through O. The measurement of this angle is given to
20° be 40°. Figure 4.106 shows that the angle is measured from the north side of
W E
O the north-south line and lies west of the north-south line. Thus, the bearing
75° from O to B is N 40° W.
C D
25°
b. To find the bearing from O to A, we need the acute angle between the ray OA
and the north-south line through O. This angle is specified by the voice balloon
S
in Figure 4.106. Because of the given 20° angle, this angle measures 90° - 20°, or
70°.This angle is measured from the north side of the north-south line.This angle
Figure 4.106 Finding bearings is also east of the north-south line. Thus, the bearing from O to A is N 70° E.
Check
Point 5 Use Figure 4.106 to find each of the following:
a. the bearing from O to D
b. the bearing from O to C.
EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Bearing of a Boat

A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 25 miles on a bearing of N 42° E.
Figure 4.107 shows that the captain then turns the boat 90°clockwise and travels
N 18 miles on a bearing of S 48° E. At that time:
N a. How far is the boat, to the nearest tenth of a mile, from the harbor entrance?
18 mi b. What is the bearing, to the nearest tenth of a degree, of the boat from the harbor
25 mi 48° entrance?
42°
Solution
u c
a. The boat’s distance from the harbor entrance is represented by c in Figure
4.107. Because we know the length of two sides of the right triangle, we find c
S using the Pythagorean Theorem. We have
S c2 = a2 + b2 = 252 + 182 = 949
Figure 4.107 Finding a boat’s bearing c = 2949 L 30.8.
from the harbor entrance The boat is approximately 30.8 miles from the harbor entrance.
b. The bearing of the boat from the harbor entrance means the bearing from the
entrance to the boat. Look at the north-south line passing through the harbor
entrance on the left in Figure 4.107. The acute angle from this line to the ray on
which the boat lies is 42° + u. Because we are measuring the angle from the
north side of the line and the boat is east of the harbor, its bearing from the
harbor entrance is N142° + u2E. To find u, we use the right triangle shown in
Figure 4.107 and the tangent function.
side opposite u 18
tan u =
Study Tip side adjacent to u
=
25
When making a diagram showing 18
bearings, draw a north-south line u = tan-1
25
through each point at which a
change in course occurs. The We can use a calculator in degree mode to find the value of u: u L 35.8°. Thus,
north side of the line lies above 42° + u = 42° + 35.8° = 77.8°. The bearing of the boat from the harbor
each point. The south side of the entrance is N 77.8° E.
line lies below each point.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 554
Check
Point 6 You leave the entrance to a system of hiking trails and hike 2.3 miles on a
bearing of S 31° W. Then the trail turns 90° clockwise and you hike 3.5
miles on a bearing of N 59° W. At that time:
a. How far are you, to the nearest tenth of a mile, from the entrance to the
trail system?
b. What is your bearing, to the nearest tenth of a degree, from the
❸
entrance to the trail system?
Model simple harmonic
motion.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Because of their periodic nature, trigonometric functions are used to model
phenomena that occur again and again. This includes vibratory or oscillatory
motion, such as the motion of a vibrating guitar string, the swinging of a pendulum,
or the bobbing of an object attached to a spring. Trigonometric functions are also
used to describe radio waves from your favorite FM station, television waves from
your not-to-be-missed weekly sitcom, and sound waves from your most-prized CDs.
To see how trigonometric functions are used to model vibratory motion,
4 consider this: A ball is attached to a spring hung from the ceiling. You pull the ball
down 4 inches and then release it. If we neglect the effects of friction and air
d = 0 is the
rest position. resistance, the ball will continue bobbing up and down on the end of the spring.
These up-and-down oscillations are called simple harmonic motion.
0 To better understand this motion, we use a d-axis, where d represents distance.
This axis is shown in Figure 4.108. On this axis, the position of the ball before you
pull it down is d = 0. This rest position is called the equilibrium position. Now you
d-axis
−4 pull the ball down 4 inches to d = -4 and release it. Figure 4.109 shows a sequence
of “photographs” taken at one-second time intervals illustrating the distance of the
Figure 4.108 Using a d-axis to ball from its rest position, d.
describe a ball’s distance from its The curve in Figure 4.109 shows how the ball’s distance from its rest position
rest position
changes over time. The curve is sinusoidal and the motion can be described using a
cosine or a sine function.
d=4
d=0
d = −4
Figure 4.109 A sequence of
“photographs” showing the bobbing
t 10
t 11
t 12
t0
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7
t8
t9
ball’s distance from the rest position,

taken at one-second intervals
Simple Harmonic Motion

An object that moves on a coordinate axis is in simple harmonic motion if its
distance from the origin, d, at time t is given by either
d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt.
The motion has amplitude ƒ a ƒ , the maximum displacement of the object from its
2p
rest position. The period of the motion is , where v 7 0. The period gives
v
the time it takes for the motion to go through one complete cycle.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 555
In describing simple harmonic motion, the equation with the cosine function,
Diminishing Motion d = a cos vt, is used if the object is at its greatest distance from rest position, the
with Increasing Time origin, at t = 0. By contrast, the equation with the sine function, d = a sin vt, is
used if the object is at its rest position, the origin, at t = 0.
Due to friction and other resistive
forces, the motion of an oscillating
object decreases over time. The EXAMPLE 7 Finding an Equation for an Object
function in Simple Harmonic Motion
d = 3e -0.1t cos 2t A ball on a spring is pulled 4 inches below its rest position and then released. The
models this type of motion. The period of the motion is 6 seconds. Write the equation for the ball’s simple harmonic
graph of the function is shown in a motion.
t = 30, 10, 14 by d = 3-3, 3, 14 Solution We need to write an equation that describes d, the distance of the ball
viewing rectangle. Notice how the
from its rest position, after t seconds. (The motion is illustrated by the “photo”
sequence in Figure 4.109 on page 554.) When the object is released 1t = 02, the
amplitude is decreasing with time
as the moving object loses energy.
ball’s distance from its rest position is 4 inches down. Because it is down 4 inches, d
is negative: When t = 0, d = -4. Notice that the greatest distance from rest posi-
tion occurs at t = 0. Thus, we will use the equation with the cosine function,
d = a cos vt,
to model the ball’s simple harmonic motion.
Now we determine values for a and v. Recall that ƒ a ƒ is the maximum
displacement. Because the ball is initially below rest position, a = -4.
The value of v in d = a cos vt can be found using the formula for the period.
2p
period = = 6 We are given that the period of the motion is 6 seconds.
v
2p = 6v Multiply both sides by V.
2p p
v = = Divide both sides by 6 and solve for V.
6 3
p
We see that a = -4 and v = . Substitute these values into d = a cos vt.
3
The equation for the ball’s simple harmonic motion is
p
d = -4 cos t.
3
Modeling Music
Sounds are caused by vibrating
objects that result in variations in
Check
Point 7 Areleased.
ball on a spring is pulled 6 inches below its rest position and then
The period for the motion is 4 seconds. Write the equation for
pressure in the surrounding air. the ball’s simple harmonic motion.
Areas of high and low pressure
moving through the air are The period of the harmonic motion in Example 7 was 6 seconds. It takes 6 sec-
modeled by the harmonic motion onds for the moving object to complete one cycle. Thus, 61 of a cycle is completed
formulas. When these vibrations every second. We call 16 the frequency of the moving object. Frequency describes the
reach our eardrums, the eardrums’
number of complete cycles per unit time and is the reciprocal of the period.
vibrations send signals to our
brains which create the sensation
of hearing. Frequency of an Object in Simple Harmonic Motion
French mathematician John An object in simple harmonic motion given by
Fourier (1768–1830) proved that
all musical sounds—instrumental d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt
and vocal—could be modeled by has frequency f given by
sums involving sine functions. v
Modeling musical sounds with f = , v 7 0.
2p
sinusoidal functions is used by
Equivalently,
synthesizers to electronically pro-
1
duce sounds unobtainable from f = .
ordinary musical instruments. period
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 556
EXAMPLE 8 Analyzing Simple Harmonic Motion

Figure 4.110 shows a mass on a smooth table attached to a spring. The mass moves
in simple harmonic motion described by
p
d = 10 cos t,
6
with t measured in seconds and d in centimeters. Find a. the maximum displacement,

b. the frequency, and c. the time required for one cycle.
d-axis
Figure 4.110 A mass attached to a spring, moving in

simple harmonic motion
Solution We begin by identifying values for a and v.

p
d=10 cos t
6
The form of this equation is

d = a cos vt
with a = 10 and v = p .
6
a. The maximum displacement from the rest position is the amplitude. Because
a = 10, the maximum displacement is 10 centimeters.
b. The frequency, f, is
p
v 6 p # 1 1
f = = = = .
2p 2p 6 2p 12
1
The frequency is 12 cycle (or oscillation) per second.
c. The time required for one cycle is the period.
2p 2p 6
period = = = 2p# = 12
v p p
6
The time required for one cycle is 12 seconds. This value can also be obtained
by taking the reciprocal of the frequency in part (b).
p
Check
Point 8 An object moves in simple harmonic motion described by d = 12 cos
where t is measured in seconds and d in centimeters. Find a. the maximum
4
t,
displacement, b. the frequency, and c. the time required for one cycle.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 557
Resisting Damage of Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion from an earthquake caused
this highway in Oakland, California, to collapse. By
studying the harmonic motion of the soil under the
highway, engineers learn to build structures that can
resist damage.
EXERCISE SET 4.8

Practice Exercises In Exercises 17–20, an object is attached to a coiled spring. In
Exercises 17–18, the object is pulled down (negative direction
In Exercises 1–12, solve the right triangle shown in the from the rest position) and then released. In Exercises 19–20, the
figure. Round lengths to two decimal places and express angles to object is initially at its rest position. After that, it is pulled down
the nearest tenth of a degree. and then released. Write an equation for the distance of the object
B from its rest position after t seconds.
c Distance from rest
a position at t 0 Amplitude Period
17. 6 centimeters 6 centimeters 4 seconds
A C 18. 8 inches 8 inches 2 seconds
b
19. 0 3 inches 1.5 seconds
1. A = 23.5°, b = 10 2. A = 41.5°, b = 20 20. 0 5 centimeters 2.5 seconds
3. A = 52.6°, c = 54 4. A = 54.8°, c = 80 In Exercises 21–28, an object moves in simple harmonic motion
5. B = 16.8°, b = 30.5 6. B = 23.8°, b = 40.5 described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds
and d in inches. In each exercise, find the following:
7. a = 30.4, c = 50.2 8. a = 11.2, c = 65.8 a. the maximum displacement
9. a = 10.8, b = 24.7 10. a = 15.3, b = 17.6 b. the frequency
11. b = 2, c = 7 12. b = 4, c = 9 c. the time required for one cycle.
p
21. d = 5 cos t 22. d = 10 cos 2pt
Use the figure shown to solve Exercises 13–16. 2
p
23. d = -6 cos 2pt 24. d = -8 cos t
N 2
25. d = 12 sin 2t 26. d = 13 sin 2t
2p 3p
A 27. d = -5 sin t 28. d = -4 sin t
B 3 2
75°
60° Practice Plus
W E
O 35° In Exercises 29–36, find the length x to the nearest
C
80° whole number.
D
29.
13. Find the bearing from O to A. x

40
500
14. Find the bearing from O to B.
25
15. Find the bearing from O to C.
16. Find the bearing from O to D.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 558
30. In Exercises 37–40, an object moves in simple harmonic motion

described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds
and d in inches. In each exercise, graph one period of the equa-
x
20 100 tion. Then find the following:
8 a. the maximum displacement
b. the frequency
c. the time required for one cycle
31. d. the phase shift of the motion.
x
Describe how (a) through (d) are illustrated by your graph.
37. d = 4 cosapt - b 38. d = 3 cosapt + b

p p
2 2
+ b - b
pt p 1 pt p
39. d = -2 sina 40. d = - sina
28 4 2 2 4 2
25
600
41. The tallest television transmitting tower in the world is in
32. North Dakota. From a point on level ground 5280 feet (one
x mile) from the base of the tower, the angle of elevation is
21.3°. Approximate the height of the tower to the nearest foot.
42. From a point on level ground 30 yards from the base of a
building, the angle of elevation is 38.7°. Approximate the
40 height of the building to the nearest foot.
28 43. The Statue of Liberty is approximately 305 feet tall. If the angle
of elevation from a ship to the top of the statue is 23.7°, how far,
400
to the nearest foot, is the ship from the statue’s base?
44. A 200-foot cliff drops vertically into the ocean. If the angle of
33. elevation from a ship to the top of the cliff is 22.3°, how far
off shore, to the nearest foot, is the ship?
45. A helicopter hovers 1000 feet above a small island. The figure
shows that the angle of depression from the helicopter to point
300
P on the coast is 36°. How far off the coast, to the nearest foot,
is the island?
64 34
36°
x
1000 ft
34.
500
20 48 P
d
x
35. 46. A police helicopter is flying at 800 feet.A stolen car is sighted at
an angle of depression of 72°. Find the distance of the stolen car,
x to the nearest foot, from a point directly below the helicopter.
20 40
400
72°
36.
800 ft
x
38
43
100 d
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 559
47. A wheelchair ramp is to be built beside the steps to the 57. A jet leaves a runway whose bearing is N 35° E from the con-
campus library. Find the angle of elevation of the 23-foot ramp, trol tower. After flying 5 miles, the jet turns 90° and flies on a
to the nearest tenth of a degree, if its final height is 6 feet. bearing of S 55° E for 7 miles. At that time, what is the bear-
ing of the jet from the control tower?
48. A building that is 250 feet high casts a shadow 40 feet long.
Find the angle of elevation, to the nearest tenth of a degree, 58. A ship leaves port with a bearing of S 40° W. After traveling 7
of the sun at this time. miles, the ship turns 90° and travels on a bearing of N 50° W for
11 miles.At that time, what is the bearing of the ship from port?
49. A hot-air balloon is rising vertically. From a point on level
ground 125 feet from the point directly under the passenger 59. An object in simple harmonic motion has a frequency of 12
compartment, the angle of elevation to the ballon changes oscillation per minute and an amplitude of 6 feet. Write an
from 19.2° to 31.7°. How far, to the nearest tenth of a foot, equation in the form d = a sin vt for the object’s simple har-
does the balloon rise during this period? monic motion.
60. An object in simple harmonic motion has a frequency of 14

oscillation per minute and an amplitude of 8 feet. Write an
equation in the form d = a sin vt for the object’s simple
harmonic motion.
61. A piano tuner uses a tuning fork. If middle C has a frequency

of 264 vibrations per second, write an equation in the form
d = sin vt for the simple harmonic motion.
?
62. A radio station, 98.1 on the FM dial, has radio waves with a
frequency of 98.1 million cycles per second. Write an
31.7° equation in the form d = sin vt for the simple harmonic
19.2° motion of the radio waves.
125 ft
50. A flagpole is situated on top of a building. The angle of

elevation from a point on level ground 330 feet from the 63. What does it mean to solve a right triangle?
building to the top of the flagpole is 63°. The angle of
elevation from the same point to the bottom of the flagpole 64. Explain how to find one of the acute angles of a right triangle
is 53°. Find the height of the flagpole to the nearest tenth of if two sides are known.
a foot.
65. Describe a situation in which a right triangle and a trigono-
51. A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 150 miles metric function are used to measure a height or distance that
on a bearing of N53°E. How many miles north and how many would otherwise be inconvenient or impossible to measure.
miles east from the harbor has the boat traveled?
66. What is meant by the bearing from point O to point P? Give
52. A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 40 miles an example with your description.
on a bearing of S64°E. How many miles south and how many
miles east from the harbor has the boat traveled? 67. What is simple harmonic motion? Give an example with
your description.
53. A forest ranger sights a fire directly to the south. A second
ranger, 7 miles east of the first ranger, also sights the fire. 68. Explain the period and the frequency of simple harmonic
The bearing from the second ranger to the fire is S 28° W. motion. How are they related?
How far, to the nearest tenth of a mile, is the first ranger
from the fire? 69. Explain how the photograph of the damaged highway on
page 557 illustrates simple harmonic motion.
54. A ship sights a lighthouse directly to the south. A second
ship, 9 miles east of the first ship, also sights the lighthouse.
The bearing from the second ship to the lighthouse is S 34° Technology Exercises
W. How far, to the nearest tenth of a mile, is the first ship
from the lighthouse? The functions in Exercises 70–71 model motion in which
the amplitude decreases with time due to friction or other resistive
55. You leave your house and run 2 miles due west followed by forces. Graph each function in the given viewing rectangle. How
1.5 miles due north. At that time, what is your bearing from many complete oscillations occur on the time interval
your house? 0 … x … 10?
70. y = 4e -0.1x cos 2x 30, 10, 14 by 3-4, 4, 14
56. A ship is 9 miles east and 6 miles south of a harbor. What
bearing should be taken to sail directly to the harbor? 71. y = -6e -0.09x cos 2px 30, 10, 14 by 3-6, 6, 14
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 560
73. The angle of elevation to the top of a building changes from

20° to 40° as an observer advances 75 feet toward the build-
Critical Thinking Exercises ing. Find the height of the building to the nearest foot.
72. The figure shows a satellite circling 112 miles above Earth.
When the satellite is directly above point B, angle A
measures 76.6°. Find Earth’s radius to the nearest mile. Group Exercise
112 miles A 74. Music and mathematics have been linked over the centuries.
B Group members should research and present a seminar to the
76.6
class on music and mathematics. Be sure to include the role of
trigonometric functions in the music-mathematics link.
r r
Chapter 4
Summary, Review, and Test
Summary
DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS EXAMPLES
4.1 Angles and Radian Measure
a. An angle consists of two rays with a common endpoint, the vertex.
b. An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side lies along the positive x-axis.
Figure 4.3 on page 447 shows positive and negative angles in standard position.
c. A quadrantal angle is an angle with its terminal side on the x-axis or the y-axis.
1
d. Angles can be measured in degrees. 1° is 360 of a complete rotation.
e. Acute angles measure more than 0° but less than 90°, right angles 90°, obtuse angles more than 90° but less Figure 4.5,
than 180°, and straight angles 180°. p. 447
f. Angles can be measured in radians. One radian is the measure of the central angle when the intercepted arc Ex. 1, p. 449
and radius have the same length. In general, the radian measure of a central angle is the length of the
s
intercepted arc divided by the circle’s radius: u = .
r
p radians
g. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply degrees by . To convert from radians to degrees, Ex. 2, p. 450;
180°
180° Ex. 3, p. 450
multiply radians by .
p radians
h. To draw angles measured in radians in standard position, it is helpful to “think in radians” without having to Ex. 4, p. 451
convert to degrees. See Figure 4.15 on page 453.
i. Two angles with the same initial and terminal sides are called coterminal angles. Increasing or decreasing an Ex. 5, p. 454;
angle’s measure by integer multiples of 360° or 2p produces coterminal angles. Ex. 6, p. 455;
Ex. 7, p. 455
j. The arc length formula, s = ru, is described in the box on page 456. Ex. 8, p. 456
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 561
Summary, Review, and Test 561

s u
k. The definitions of linear speed, v = , and angular speed, v = , are given in the box on page 457.
t t
l. Linear speed is expressed in terms of angular speed by v = rv, where v is the linear speed of a point a Ex. 9, p. 458
distance r from the center of rotation and v is the angular speed in radians per unit of time.
4.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle

a. Definitions of the trigonometric functions in terms of a unit circle are given in the box on page 463. Ex. 1, p. 463;
Ex. 2, p. 464
b. The cosine and secant functions are even: Ex. 4, p. 467

cos1-t2 = cos t, sec1-t2 = sec t.
The other trigonometric functions are odd:

sin1-t2 = -sin t, csc1-t2 = -csc t,
tan1-t2 = -tan t, cot1-t2 = -cot t.
c. Fundamental Identities Ex. 5, p. 468;

1. Reciprocal Identities Ex. 6, p. 469
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin t = and csc t = ; cos t = and sec t = ; tan t = and cot t =
csc t sin t sec t cos t cot t tan t
2. Quotient Identities
sin t cos t
tan t = ; cot t =
cos t sin t
3. Pythagorean Identities
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1; 1 + tan2 t = sec2 t; 1 + cot2 t = csc2 t
d. If f1t + p2 = f1t2, the function f is periodic.The smallest p for which f1t + p2 = f1t2 is the period of f. The Ex. 7, p. 470
tangent and cotangent functions have period p. The other four trigonometric functions have period 2p.
4.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry

a. The right triangle definitions of the six trigonometric functions are given in the box on page 476. Ex. 1, p. 477;
Ex. 2, p. 478
b. Function values for 30°, 45°, and 60° can be obtained using these special triangles. Ex. 3, p. 479;
Ex. 4, p. 479
2
p 3
30° 6 45°
2
1
p
60° 3 45° 4
p
1 1
p
c. Two angles are complements if their sum is 90° or .The value of a trigonometric function of u is equal to Ex. 5, p. 481
2
the cofunction of the complement of u. Cofunction identities are listed in the box on page 481.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 562
4.4 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

a. Definitions of the trigonometric functions of any angle are given in the box on page 488. Ex. 1, p. 489;
Ex. 2, p. 489
b. Signs of the trigonometric functions: All functions are positive in quadrant I. If u lies in quadrant II, sin u Ex. 3, p. 491;
and csc u are positive. If u lies in quadrant III, tan u and cot u are positive. If u lies in quadrant IV, cos u and Ex. 4, p. 491
sec u are positive.
c. If u is a nonacute angle in standard position that lies in a quadrant, its reference angle is the positive acute Ex. 5, p. 492;
angle u¿ formed by the terminal side of u and the x-axis. The reference angle for a given angle can be found Ex. 6, p. 493
by making a sketch that shows the angle in standard position. Figure 4.49 on page 492 shows reference
angles for u in quadrants II, III, and IV.
d. The values of the trigonometric functions of a given angle are the same as the values of the functions Ex. 7, p. 494;
of the reference angle, except possibly for the sign. A procedure for using reference angles to evaluate Ex. 8, p. 496
trigonometric functions is given in the lower box on page 494.
4.5 and 4.6 Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

a. Graphs of the six trigonometric functions, with a description of the domain, range, and period of each
function, are given in Table 4.6 on page 530.
2p
b. The graph of y = A sin1Bx - C2 can be obtained using amplitude = ƒ A ƒ , period = , and phase Ex. 1, p. 504;
B
C Ex. 2, p. 505;
shift = . See the illustration in the box on page 508.
B Ex. 3, p. 506;
Ex. 4, p. 508
2p
c. The graph of y = A cos1Bx - C2 can be obtained using amplitude = ƒ A ƒ , period = , and phase Ex. 5, p. 511;
B
C Ex. 6, p. 513
shift = . See the illustration in the box on page 513.
B
d. The constant D in y = A sin1Bx - C2 + D and y = A cos1Bx - C2 + D causes vertical shifts in the Ex. 7, p. 514
graphs in the preceding items (b) and (c). If D 7 0, the shift is D units upward and if D 6 0, the shift is D
units downward. Oscillation is about the horizontal line y = D.
e. The graph of y = A tan1Bx - C2 is obtained using the procedure in the box on page 523. Consecutive Ex. 1, p. 524;
asymptotes a solve - 6 Bx - C 6 ; consecutive asymptotes occur at Bx - C = - and Bx - C = b

p p p p Ex. 2, p. 524
2 2 2 2
and an x-intercept midway between them play a key role in the graphing process.
f. The graph of y = A cot1Bx - C2 is obtained using the procedure in the box on page 526. Consecutive Ex. 3, p. 526
asymptotes (solve 0 6 Bx - C 6 p; consecutive asymptotes occur at Bx - C = 0 and Bx - C = p)
and an x-intercept midway between them play a key role in the graphing process.
g. To graph a cosecant curve, begin by graphing the corresponding sine curve. Draw vertical asymptotes through Ex. 4, p. 528;
x-intercepts, using asymptotes as guides to sketch the graph. To graph a secant curve, first graph the corre- Ex. 5, p. 529
sponding cosine curve and use the same procedure.
4.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

p p
a. On the restricted domain - … x … , y = sin x has an inverse function, defined in the box on page 535. Ex. 1, p. 537;
2 2 Ex. 2, p. 537
Think of sin-1 x as the angle in c - , d whose sine is x. A procedure for finding exact values of sin-1 x is
p p
2 2
given in the box on page 536.
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 563
Review Exercises 563
b. On the restricted domain 0 … x … p, y = cos x has an inverse function, defined in the box on page 538. Ex. 3, p. 539
Think of cos-1 x as the angle in 30, p4 whose cosine is x. A procedure for finding exact values of cos-1 x is
given in the box on page 539.
p p Ex. 4, p. 541
c. On the restricted domain - 6 x 6 , y = tan x has an inverse function, defined in the box on page 540.
2 2
Think of tan-1 x as the angle in a - , b whose tangent is x. A procedure for finding exact values of
p p
2 2
tan-1 x is given in the box on page 541.
d. Graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric functions, with a description of the domain and range of
each function, are given in Table 4.10 on page 542.
e. Inverse properties are given in the box on page 543. Points on terminal sides of angles in standard position Ex. 6, p. 544;
and right triangles are used to find exact values of the composition of a function and a different inverse Ex. 7, p. 545;
function. Ex. 8, p. 545;
Ex. 9, p. 546
4.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions

a. Solving a right triangle means finding the missing lengths of its sides and the measurements of its angles. Ex. 1, p. 550;
The Pythagorean Theorem, two acute angles whose sum is 90°, and appropriate trigonometric functions are Ex. 2, p. 551;
used in this process. Ex. 3, p. 551;
Ex. 4, p. 552
b. The bearing from point O to point P is the acute angle between ray OP and a north-south line, shown in Ex. 5, p. 553;
Figure 4.105 on page 552. Ex. 6, p. 553
c. Simple harmonic motion, described in the box on page 554, is modeled by d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt, Ex. 7, p. 555;
2p v 1 Ex. 8, p. 556
with amplitude = ƒ a ƒ , period = , and frequency = = .
v 2p period
Study Tip
Much of the essential information in this chapter can be found in three places:
• Study Tip on page 498, showing special angles and how to obtain exact values of trigonometric functions at these angles
• Table 4.6 on page 530, showing the graphs of the six trigonometric functions, with their domains, ranges, and periods
• Table 4.10 on page 542, showing graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric functions, with their domains and ranges.
Make copies of these pages and mount them on cardstock. Use this reference sheet as you work the review exercises until you have
all the information on the reference sheet memorized for the chapter test.
Review Exercises
4.1 In Exercises 5–7, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
1. Find the radian measure of the central angle of a circle of 5p 7p 5p
5. 6. 7. -
radius 6 centimeters that intercepts an arc of length 27 3 5 6
centimeters.
In Exercises 8–12, draw each angle in standard position.
In Exercises 2–4, convert each angle in degrees to radians. 5p 2p 8p
8. 9. - 10.
Express your answer as a multiple of p. 6 3 3
2. 15° 3. 120° 4. 315° 11. 190° 12. -135°
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 564
In Exercises 13–17, find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that 5p 4p

23. sec 24. tan
is coterminal with the given angle. 6 3
13p p
13. 400° 14. -445° 15. 25. sec 26. cot p
4 2
31p 8p
16. 17. -
6 3 227 p
27. If sin t = , 0 … t 6 , use identities to find the
18. Find the length of the arc on a circle of radius 10 feet 7 2
intercepted by a 135° central angle. Express arc length in remaining trigonometric functions.
terms of p. Then round your answer to two decimal places.
19. The angular speed of a propeller on a wind generator is 10.3
revolutions per minute. Express this angular speed in radians In Exercises 28–30 evaluate each expression without using a
per minute. calculator.
p p
20. The propeller of an airplane has a radius of 3 feet. The 28. tan 4.7 cot 4.7 29. sin2 + cos2
17 17
propeller is rotating at 2250 revolutions per minute. Find the
linear speed, in feet per minute, of the tip of the propeller. 30. tan2 1.4 - sec2 1.4
4.2
In Exercises 21–22, a point P1x, y2 is shown on the unit circle 4.3
corresponding to a real number t. Find the values of the 31. Use the triangle to find each of the six trigonometric
trigonometric functions at t. functions of u.
21. y B
t 5
u
t A 8 C
x
(1, 0) In Exercises 32–35, find the exact value of each expression.
Do not use a calculator.
p p p p
32. sin + tan2 33. cos2 - tan2
6 3 4 4
(
P= − 4
5
, − 3
5 )
22. p p p p p p
y 34. 4 cot + cos csc 35. cos ¢- ≤ sin ¢ - ≤ - tan
4 3 6 6 4 4
In Exercises 36–37, find a cofunction with the same value as the

t
given expression.
t p
36. sin 70° 37. cos
x 2
(1, 0)
In Exercises 38–40, find the measure of the side of the right
triangle whose length is designated by a lowercase letter.
Round answers to the nearest whole number.
(
8 15
P = 17 , − 17 ) 38. B
In Exercises 23–26, use the figure shown to find the value of each
trigonometric function at the indicated real number or state that a
the expression is undefined.
23°
y A
100 mm C
(− 1 3
2
, 2 ) (0, 1)
( 1 3
2
, 2 )
u 39. 40.
B B
( − 3
2
, 1
2 ) k
( 3
2
, 21 )
x
(−1, 0) (1, 0) 50 in.
c a
20 cm
(− 3
2
, − 21 ) ( 3
2
, − 21 ) 48°
(0, −1)
A
(− 1
2
, − 3
2 ) ( 1
2
, − 3
2 ) A
61°
C
C
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 565
Review Exercises 565
and u is acute, find tana - u b. b

1 p 11p 2p
41. If sin u = 60. cos 61. cot1-210°2 62. csca-
4 2 6 3
b
42. A hiker climbs for a half mile up a slope whose inclination is p 13p
63. sina- 64. sin 495° 65. tan
17°. How many feet of altitude, to the nearest foot, does the 3 4
hiker gain?
b
22p 35p
66. sin 67. cosa-
43. To find the distance across a lake, a surveyor took the mea- 3 6
surements in the figure shown. What is the distance across
the lake? Round to the nearest meter.
4.5
function. Then graph one period of the function.
68. y = 3 sin 4x 69. y = -2 cos 2x
1 1 p
70. y = 2 cos x 71. y = sin x
2 2 3
x
72. y = -sin px 73. y = 3 cos
32° 3
50 m
shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function.
44. When a six-foot pole casts a four-foot shadow, what is the
angle of elevation of the sun? Round to the nearest whole 74. y = 2 sin1x - p2 75. y = -3 cos1x + p2
degree.
cosa2x + b sina2x + b
3 p 5 p
76. y = 77. y =
2 4 2 2
4.4 p
78. y = -3 sina x - 3pb
In Exercises 45–46, a point on the terminal side of angle u is 3
given. Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric
functions of u, or state that the function is undefined.
45. 1-1, -52 46. 10, -12
In Exercises 79–80, use a vertical shift to graph one period of the
function.
In Exercises 47–48, let u be an angle in standard position. Name 79. y = sin 2x + 1 80. y = 2 cos 13 x - 2
the quadrant in which u lies.
81. The function
47. tan u 7 0 and sec u 7 0
y = 98.6 + 0.3 sin a b

48. tan u 7 0 and cos u 6 0 p 11p
x -
12 12
In Exercises 49–51, find the exact value of each of the remaining models variation in body temperature, y, in °F, x hours after
trigonometric functions of u. midnight.
49. cos u = 25 , sin u 6 0 50. tan u = - 13 , sin u 7 0 a. What is body temperature at midnight?
51. cot u = 3, cos u 6 0 b. What is the period of the body temperature cycle?
c. When is body temperature highest? What is the body
temperature at this time?
In Exercises 52–56, find the reference angle for each angle. d. When is body temperature lowest? What is the body
5p temperature at this time?
52. 265° 53. 54. -410°
8 e. Graph one period of the body temperature function.
17p 11p
55.
6
56. -
3 4.6
In Exercises 82–86, graph two full periods of the given tangent or
cotangent function.
In Exercises 57–67, find the exact value of each expression. Do p
not use a calculator. 82. y = 4 tan 2x 83. y = -2 tan x
4
85. y = -tanax - b
7p p
57. sin 240° 58. tan 120° 59. sec 84. y = tan1x + p2
4 4
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 566
86. y = 2 cot 3x
1 p
87. y = - cot x 4.8
2 2
In Exercises 114–117, solve the right triangle shown in the figure.
88. y = 2 cota x + b
p Round lengths to two decimal places and express angles to the
2 nearest tenth of a degree.
B
In Exercises 89–92, graph two full periods of the given cosecant
or secant function.
c
a
89. y = 3 sec 2px
90. y = -2 csc px A C
b
91. y = 3 sec1x + p2 114. A = 22.3°, c = 10 115. B = 37.4°, b = 6
116. a = 2, c = 7 117. a = 1.4, b = 3.6
92. y = 52 csc1x - p2
118. From a point on level ground 80 feet from the base of a
building, the angle of elevation is 25.6°. Approximate the
height of the building to the nearest foot.
4.7 119. Two buildings with flat roofs are 60 yards apart. The height
In Exercises 93–111, find the exact value of each expression. of the shorter building is 40 yards. From its roof, the angle of
Do not use a calculator. elevation to the edge of the roof of the taller building is 40°.
Find the height of the taller building to the nearest yard.
93. sin-1 1 94. cos-1 1
120. You want to measure the height of an antenna on the top of
a 125-foot building. From a point in front of the building,
23
95. tan-1 1 96. sin-1 a - b you measure the angle of elevation to the top of the build-
2 ing to be 68° and the angle of elevation to the top of the
antenna to be 71°. How tall is the antenna, to the nearest
23
97. cos-1 a - b 98. tan-1 a - b
1 tenth of a foot?
2 3
In Exercises 121–122, use the figures shown to find the bearing
22 from O to A.
99. cosa sin-1 b 100. sin1cos-1 02
2 121. N
23
101. tancsin-1 a - b d 102. tanccos-1 a - bd
1
A
2 2
55°
23
b 104. cosa tan-1 b
3 W E
103. csca tan-1 O
3 4
S
105. sinacos-1 b 106. tancsin-1 a - b d

3 3
122. N
5 5
O
W E
107. tanccos a - b d 108. sinctan a - b d
4
-1 1
-1
55°
5 3
A
109. sin asin b 110. sin asin b

-1 p -1 2p
3 3
S
111. sin-1 acos b

2p
123. A ship is due west of a lighthouse. A second ship is 12 miles
3 south of the first ship.The bearing from the second ship to the
lighthouse is N 64° E. How far, to the nearest tenth of a mile,
is the first ship from the lighthouse?
In Exercises 112–113, use a right triangle to write each expression 124. From city A to city B, a plane flies 850 miles at a bearing of
as an algebraic expression. Assume that x is positive and that the N 58° E. From city B to city C, the plane flies 960 miles at a
given inverse trigonometric function is defined for the expression bearing of S 32° E.
in x. a. Find, to the nearest tenth of a mile, the distance from city
-1 x
b -1 1
b
A to city C.
112. cosa tan 113. secasin
2 x b. What is the bearing from city A to city C?
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 567
Chapter 4 Test 567
In Exercises 125–126, an object moves in simple harmonic motion In Exercises 127–128, an object is attached to a coiled spring. In
described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds Exercise 127, the object is pulled down (negative direction from
and d in centimeters. In each exercise, find: the rest position) and then released. In Exerecise 128, the object is
a. the maximum displacement initially at its rest position. After that, it is pulled down and then
released. Write an equation for the distance of the object from its
b. the frequency
rest position after t seconds.
c. the time required for one cycle.
Distance from rest
p
125. d = 20 cos t 126. d = 1
sin 4t position at t 0 Amplitude Period
2
4
127. 30 inches 30 inches 2 seconds
1
128. 0 4 inch 5 seconds
Chapter 4 Test
1. Convert 135° to exact radian measure. 18. Find the exact value of tan C cos-1 A - 12 B D .
2. Find the length of the arc on a circle of radius 20 feet inter-
19. Write sinacos-1 b as an algebraic expression. Assume that
cepted by a 75° central angle. Express arc length in terms of x
p. Then round your answer to two decimal places. 3
x
x 7 0 and is in the domain of the inverse cosine function.
3. a. Find a positive angle less than 2p that is coterminal with 3
16p
. 20. Solve the right triangle in the figure shown. Round lengths to
3 one decimal place.
16p
b. Find the reference angle for .
3 B
4. If 1-2, 52 is a point on the terminal side of angle u, find the
13
exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u. a
5. Determine the quadrant in which u lies if cos u 6 0 and 21°
A
cot u 7 0. b C
1
6. If cos u = and tan u 6 0, find the exact value of each of the
3
remaining trigonometric functions of u. 21. The angle of elevation of a building from a point on the
ground 30 yards from its base is 37°. Find the height of the
In Exercises 7–12, find the exact value of each expression. Do not building to the nearest yard.
use a calculator.
22. A 73-foot rope from the top of a circus tent pole is anchored
p p p to the flat ground 43 feet from the bottom of the pole. Find
7. tan cos - cos 8. tan 300°
6 3 2 the angle, to the nearest tenth of a degree, that the rope
7p 22p makes with the pole.
9. sin 10. sec
4 3 23. Use the figure to find the bearing from O to P.
b
8p
11. cota -
3 N
7p
12. tana + npb , n is an integer. P
3
W E
13. If sin u = a and cos u = b, represent each of the following in O
10°
terms of a and b.
S
a. sin1-u2 + cos1-u2 b. tan u - sec u
24. An object moves in simple harmonic motion described
In Exercises 14–17, graph one period of each function. by d = -6 cos pt, where t is measured in seconds and d in
inches. Find a. the maximum displacement, b. the frequency,
15. y = -2 cos ax - b
p
14. y = 3 sin 2x and c. the time required for one oscillation.
2
x 25. Why are trigonometric functions ideally suited to model
16. y = 2 tan 17. y = - 12 csc px
2 phenomena that repeat in cycles?
pr04-445-568.I-hr 1/26/06 3:16 PM Page 568
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–4)

15. y = sin a2x + b, from 0 to 2p
Solve each equation or inequality in Exercises 1–6. p
1. x2 = 18 + 3x 2
2. x3 + 5x2 - 4x - 20 = 0 16. y = 2 tan 3x; graph two complete cycles.
3. log2 x + log21x - 22 = 3 17. You invest in a new play. The cost includes an overhead of
4. 2x - 3 + 5 = x $30,000, plus production costs of $2500 per performance. A
sold-out performance brings you $3125. How many sold-out
5. x3 - 4x2 + x + 6 = 0 performances must be played in order for you to break even?
6. ƒ 2x - 5 ƒ … 11
18. Use the exponential growth model A = A 0ekt to solve this
7. If f1x2 = 2x - 6, find f 1x2.
-1
exercise. In 1984, 25,000 cell phones were sold in the United
8. Divide 20x3 - 6x2 - 9x + 10 by 5x + 2. States and by 2003, 70,500,000 cell phones were sold.
(Source: Consumer Electronics Association)
9. Write as a single logarithm and evaluate: log 25 + log 40.
a. Find the exponential function that models the data.
14p
10. Convert radians to degrees. b. By which year will 150,000,000 cell phones be sold in the
9
United States?
11. Find the maximum number of positive and negative real
roots of the equation 3x4 - 2x3 + 5x2 + x - 9 = 0. 19. The rate of heat lost through insulation varies inversely as
the thickness of the insulation. The rate of heat lost through a
In Exercises 12–16, graph each equation. 3.5-inch thickness of insulation is 2200 Btu per hour. What is
x the rate of heat lost through a 5-inch thickness of the same
12. f1x2 = insulation?
x2 - 1
13. 1x - 222 + y2 = 1
20. A tower is 200 feet tall. To the nearest degree, find the angle
of elevation from a point 50 feet from the base of the tower
14. y = 1x - 121x + 222 to the top of the tower.

Trigonometric Functions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trigonometric Functions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trigonometric Functions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

pr04-445-568.

I-hr 1/26/06 3:15 PM Page 445

WHAT A DAY! IT STARTED WHEN YOU

446 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

SECTION 4.1 Angles and Radian Measure

❶ Recognize and use the

• its vertex is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system and

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 447

Initial side along

Vertex Terminal side

Figure 4.3 Two angles in standard

direction. Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation. Thus, angle a

❷ Use degree measure. Measuring Angles Using Degrees

A complete 360° rotation

Figure 4.5 Classifying angles by their degree measurement

We will be using notation such as u = 60° to refer to an angle u whose measure

448 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

❸ Use radian measure. Measuring Angles Using Radians

length of the intercepted arc 2r

Thus, angle b measures 2 radians.

(a) b 2 radians (b) g 3 radians

Figure 4.7 Two central angles measured in radians

length of the intercepted arc 3r

Thus, angle g measures 3 radians.

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 449

EXAMPLE 1 Computing Radian Measure

❹ Convert between degrees and

450 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

Study Tip Conversion between Degrees and Radians

EXAMPLE 2 Converting from Degrees to Radians

EXAMPLE 3 Converting from Radians to Degrees

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 451

❺ Draw angles in standard

1 revolution ! revolution q revolution ~ revolution

Figure 4.10 Angles formed by revolutions of terminal sides

EXAMPLE 4 Drawing Angles in Standard Position

452 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

ah Initial side 5p

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 453

Radian Measure Degree Measure

454 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

❻ Find coterminal angles. Coterminal Angles

EXAMPLE 5 Finding Coterminal Angles

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 455

Two coterminal angles for an angle of u radians can be found by adding 2p

EXAMPLE 6 Finding Coterminal Angles

Figure 4.17 Pairs of coterminal angles

To find a positive coterminal angle less than 360° or 2p, it is sometimes

EXAMPLE 7 Finding Coterminal Angles

456 Chapter 4 • Trigonometric Functions

❼ Find the length

The Length of a Circular Arc

EXAMPLE 8 Finding the Length of a Circular Arc

120° = 120 ° # p radians =

Section 4.1 • Angles and Radian Measure 457

❽ Use linear and angular speed

Definitions of Linear and Angular Speed

This expression defines This expression defines

Linear Speed in Terms of Angular Speed