Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Foreign Languages Department

Translation Seminar II
2018-II- Year 2019

ADVANCES OF THE PROJECT FOR TRANSLATION SEMINAR II

Karen Triana Martinez

● RESEARCH QUESTION
Is it the use of the Dynamic Translation Model(DTM) proposed by Sergio Bolaños effective to
achieve a formal and connotative equivalence in the translation from Spanish into English of
the poem 'Canción der boga ausente' written by Candelario Obeso?

● GENERAL OBJECTIVE
To determine whether the use of the Dynamic Translation Model(DTM) is effective to achieve
a formal and connotative equivalence in the translation from Spanish into English of the poem
'Canción der boga ausente' written by Candelario Obeso.

● SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To identify which are the main elements of vocabulary,sound pattern and meaning of the
poem that could cause problems at the moment of translating.
2. To apply the DTM to solve the problems that might be encountered in the process of
translating the poem.
3. To asses the translation resulting from the application of the DTM in terms of the formal and
connotative equivalence.

● EXPECTED RESULTS
1. To deliver an approach to the translation from Spanish to English of the poem ‘Canción der
boga ausente’ written by Candelario Obeso using the DTM.
2. To attain both a formal and connotative equivalence in the translation of the poem
3. To have an organized and precise series of items that are particularly helpful to translate that
particular kind of poem and consequently, this would be useful for other students who want to
embark on the poetry translation of the same kind as the one written by Candelario Obeso, or
similar ones.

● JUSTIFICATION
As this is a poem characterized under the literary stream called «Black poetry», which in
Colombia arises thanks to Candelario Obeso, it has special features of content and form that
make its translation a real challenge. Thus, this research project seeks to set the bases for further
research on how to cope with the challenges that exist at the moment of translating this kind of
poetry that embodies the proudness and vindication of a race that has been discriminated for so
many years, and that therefore it needs to be translated also to convey that sense of
identity,proudness and vindication.

On the other hand, talking about my personal motivations to choose this topic,when I was
admitted to the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, I had the thought of specializing on literary
translation. However, I never pictured myself translating poetry, maybe the hardest literary
genre to translate, but the commencement of this research project is the opportunity I find to
venture on this translation area.

Finally, the importance of research on the translation of this particular poem 'Canción der boga
ausente',which is the most famous and known Candelario Obeso's poem, lies on the desire to
contribute and raise the interest on making the author's work visible-through the translation of
his writings-both among the academic community of the program interested on the fields of
poetry and translation, and the English speaking community interested in this kind of poetry.

● STATE OF THE ART

Even when various databases were consulted, the search for studies related to the research
question stated here was not so fruitful. There were 3 repositories that were consulted from the
Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, and Universidad de los Andes.
Moreover, databases and journals such as Dialnet, JSTOR, the International Journal of
Linguistics, and the International Journal for Teacher of English were also consulted.
Finally,the catalogues from the libraries of the Universidad Nacional and the Luis Ángel
Arango were revised. Although it was not possible to find studies directly related to the
question stated in this case; thanks to the literature review made until this point, two translations
of the poem “Cancion der Boga Ausente” were found. These two translations can give light on
two different approaches. The first translation was published in 1972 in the book “Black Poetry
of the Americas(A Bilingual Anthology)” by Hortensia Ruiz del Vizo. Another translation
made by Stephanos Stephanides is found in “The Colombian Reader: History,Culture and
Politics”

BLACK POETRY OF THE AMERICAS (A BILINGUAL ANTHOLOGY) (1972)

Ruiz del Vizo, Hortensia.

“Black Poetry of the Americas (A Bilingual Anthology)” is a book written by Hortensia Ruiz
del Vizo, a cuban professor at Bennett College who taught Afro-Spanish Literature, and gave
workshops about Afro-American and Afro-Spanish History and Literature.Her students and
coworkers encouraged her to gather the work done during the courses and seminars she taught.
Between those works, the translation of the poem “Canción der boga ausente” it is found.
Hortensia Ruiz del Vizo states explicitly that the approach for the translation of the poems
included in the anthology “is more concerned with making literal translations than with making
poetical translations.”(Ruiz del Vizo,1972)

“SONG OF THE ABSENT ROWER

What a sad night,

The night how sad it is;
There is not star in the sky.
Row, row.

the negress love,

While I work in the sea
soaked in sweat for her,
What she doing? What she doing;

Perhaps she sighting with pain

for her loved mulatto,
Perhaps she not remember me…
Cry! Cry!

The women like bulls

A misfortune in this land;
With art you get the fish
Out of the sea, out of the sea!...

With art the iron is bent,

the poison snake killed…
The pain is sharp and steady;
There is nothing,there is nothing!

What a dark night,

the night how dark it is;
Absence is also dark
Row,row!...”

(Ruiz del Vizo, p.92)

THE COLOMBIA READER: HISTORY,CULTURE AND POLITICS(2017)

Farnsworth-Alvear,A., Palacios,M., y Gómez López,A.M

This book is a compilation of various documents,songs,poetries, that delve into different

aspects of Colombian culture: economy,religion,art and history. The collection includes a
translation by Stephanos Stephanides. He is a Cypriot author, poet, translator,
critic,ethnographer, and documentary filmmaker.

In contrast to the translation approach of Ruiz del Vizo, Stephanides seems to be more focused
on achieving a more natural and poetical translation,opting for not translating some words that
might not have an equivalent in English, such as zambo and mapaná.

“Song of the Absent Rower

To Mr. Rufino Cuervo and Mr.Miguel A.Caro

How sad the night is

Tonight,the night is so sad
A sky without a single star
Row on, row on!

For the black woman of my soul,

I soak in sweat
As I toil away at sea,
What wills he do? What will she do?

Will she sigh in woe

For her beloved zambo
Will she even remember me…
Weep on,weep on!
Women are like everything
In this wretched land;
With art fish are hauled out
From the sea, out from the sea!

With art iron is molten,

The mapaná snake is tamed
Sorrows faithful and firm
They are no more, they are no more!

How dark the night is tonight,

Tonight how dark is the night,
It is as dark as absence,
Row on, row on!”

(Stephanides, n.p.)

● THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Candelario Obeso(1849-1884) was a poet from the coast of Colombia(Mompox,Bolivar) who

was salient in its time because of the way in which he wrote his poetry. The way in which he
wrote resembled the way people from the cost spoke, specifically people from
Mompox(Bolivar).Although Obeso is considered as the Father of Colombian Black Poetry, he
has remained as an invisible character in colombian history, probably due to the stigmatization
that has always been associated to black race. Nevertheless, Candelario Obeso managed to
relate to the literary elite(comprising white people mainly), and he managed to spread a new
way of writing poetry in Colombia. This was dialect poetry, a poetry that vindicated black race
by reflecting on the paper the depiction of the sounds and expressions belonging to the lower
classes of the coast: the bogas and the fishers.

At that time, black dialect was used by white writers to make fun of the expressions black
community used when talking; instead Candelario Obeso ennobles black dialect and magnifies
it through poetry, and he gives it an important place among other poetries that were more
popular in the literary elite. Obeso most recognizable work is Cantos Populares de mi Tierra,
a compilation of poems written in black dialect that show all the potential and purpose of
vindicating the speech of Mompox inhabitants.

Canción der Boga Ausente is one of the poems included in Cantos Populares de mi Tierra, and
it is the piece of poetry that it is going to be translated in this academic work. In order to
translate Obeso, it is important to be aware of the challenges of understanding and translating
dialect poetry. Therefore, in the theoretical framework key concepts to give answers to the
research question will be explained.

1.Dialect

For the development of this work, the term “dialect” is understood as both a diatopical linguistic
variation,and a sociolinguistic variation. Dialect as a diatopical variation is defined as:
“Modalidad adoptada por una lengua en un cierto territorio,dentro del cual está limitada por
una serie de isoglosas”(Montes,1980,p.246). On the other hand, dialect as a sociolinguistic
variation is a different use of the language by a certain social group or sociocultural stratum.

Why is that the two variants have to be taken into account? The reason is that in this paper the
two dialects compared -one in Spanish, and one in English- so as to achieve the translation of
the poem are permeated by each one of the variations, or for both variations. The dialect present
in Canción der Boga Ausente is known as Black Spanish; and the black dialect present in the
poems of Paul Laurence Dunbar, an American writer with whom somehow the translation of
the poem from Spanish to English will be guided, is known as African American Vernacular
English (AAVE). Here below, these two linguistic variations will be explained in more detail.

1.1. Black Spanish

“Black Spanish” is the linguistic variation Candelario Obeso used to write a great part of his
literary work. Obeso intended to exalt the culture from which he came by writing about the
customs and daily life of his homeland. He did not only wanted to do that by telling the stories
of bogas, montaraces and fishers, but he really devoted his time to exalt in his poetry the
features of a spoken language that reminded him of his African ancestors. However, black
Spanish was not always viewed as a means of ennobling black race, its culture and way of
expressing.

Porras(2011) points that during the Spanish Golden Age,and during the New World, the term
“Black Spanish” was used by literary writers who tried to imitate the speech of African slaves
in a derisive way. They referred to the way slaves spoke Spanish, because in their speech they
exhibited African phonetic traits mixed with Spanish phonetic features. That is why it is said
that the phonetic features of “Black Spanish” have an African origin. However, linguist John
Lipski concluded that African phonetic features are “peculiar solely for certain coastal dialects
of native Spanish”(Porras,2011,p.267), and the other features that might seem African in black
speech are merely imitations.

Cantos Populares de mi Tierra seems to be a sample of coastal dialect that has real African
origins and that it is real “Black Spanish” because it exhibits “distinguishable traits not just of
Colombian Caribbean(...),but mainly of a type of vernacular Spanish,including
phonetic,morpho-syntactic, and lexico-semantic traits of probable African affiliation”.
(Porras,2011,p.270)

Some of the linguistic features identified in Cantos Populares de mi Tierra, therefore also
identifiable in Canción der Boga Ausente, belong to three Spanish dialects: Caribbean Spanish,
Rural Spanish and Black Vernacular(or Afro-Caribbean Spanish). Some of the features of each
of the dialects are cited below:

“Caribbean Spanish(CS):

- Deletion/ aspiration of syllable/word final /-s/ and /-r/

- Word final nasalization of /-n/
- Assimilation/Gemination of syllable-final pre-consonantal plosives

Rural Spanish(RS):

- Deletion of d in syllable internal position(also occurs in popular Andalusian)

- Aspiration of h at the word initial position.
- Metathesis and lost of consonants and syllables
- Archaic lexical items

Afro-Caribbean Spanish(ACS):

- Neutralization of /d/-/r/ and /r/-/rr/

- Neutralization of /r/ and /l/ (typically in Cantos,l to r)
- Massive elimination of word final consonants,specially /s/ and /r/
- Lack of agreement in Subject-Verb
- Preferential elimination of final /s/ in the verbal suffix -mos.”

(Porras,2011,p.271-272)

It is important to note that black speech is not only characterised by its phonetic features, but
also for being a vehicle for identity expression.
2. Equivalent effect

One of the objectives of this research is to know whether is possible to achieve formal and
connotative equivalence in the translation of the poem Cancion der Boga Ausente. That is why
first it is necessary to know how equivalence is understood in the world of translation.
Therefore, in this occasion, equivalence will be understood as an essential criterion to assess
the effectiveness and value of the resulting translation(Newmark,1998). Nevertheless, it is
important to know that there is no just one type of equivalence, but that theorists have set
typologies such as formal and connotative equivalence, which are the two types of equivalence
desirable for this work.

Dorothy Kenny(2009)stated in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies that

connotative equivalence is when the ST and TT trigger the same or similar associations in the
minds of native speakers of each language. She also defines formal equivalence and says it is
achieved when the ST and TT have similar phonological and orthographic features.

3. Dynamic Translation Model(DTM)

The Dynamic Translation Model(DTM) has been chosen as the main guideline to develop the
translation of the poem Canción der Boga Ausente because this model conceives translation as
a communicative process, and in each phase it takes into account key linguistic and
extralinguistic features and actors that must be studied so as to achieve a successful translation.
The DTM proposal allows the translator to find a way to translate texts that for other theorists
are untranslatable because of their dialectal marks.

The Dynamic Translation Model(DTM) is a proposal developed and published in 2001 by

Sergio Bolaños Cuéllar that consists of describing “the key factors that partake in the process
of translation.It is a communicative model that includes the participants in the translational
process: initiator or client, translator, original author, and target audience.”(Bolaños,2016).
Sergio Bolaños talks about the DTM again in 2004 to make a proposal for the translation of
texts with dialectal marks. In his proposal he states that the DTM allows the translator to follow
the three fundamental phases of the translation process in order to complete the task of
translating the dialectal text:“ 1)comprehension of the source text(ST); 2) translation into the
target text(TT), and 3) assessment(critical) of the resulting product.”(Bolaños, 2004,p.335)1

- Comprehension of the source text

During this phase, the translator should identify characteristic elements of the source text such
as the period in which the text was written, the historic and economic context, the predominant
literary stream in that time. Once the type of text is identified, it is time to understand the
narrative structure of the text through the recognition of elements such as the type of narrator,
the linguistic variety, the idiomatic expressions and dialectal marks.

1
Translation made by me.
Regarding the dialectal variation, the translator should understand the dialectal distribution of
the source text and its connotation in order to evaluate similar varieties in the target text that
can be used as a guide to translate. After this, the translator should study how the text is built
so he can understand all the parts that conform it.

Following this process of identification, the translator can determine the possible translation
problems that might arise in a general and specific level.

- Translation into the target text

Now that the translator has done the task of getting acquainted with the original text and finding
the dialectal distribution, it is time to find a similar dialectal distribution in the target text in
order to establish a point of comparison among each variety of each language. It is during this
step that the translator has to identify the connotative potential of the two languages. That is to
say that the expressions and concepts present in the source text should be reproducible in the
target text by using a linguistic variation that triggers similar connotations to the ones that the
original text evoques.

Bolaños says that in the process described in the previous paragraph, the translator develops
what is called competencia traductora(Bolaños,2004,p.338), which is the ability to identify a
translation problem, describe it ,explain it, and then suggest possible solutions.

- Assessment of the resulting product

In the case of the translation of texts with dialectal marks, the assessment should consist of
determining if the readers of the target text perceive that the particular dialectal expressions
trigger similar connotations to the ones in the original text.

In order to achieve an objective assessment, the translator can design a data collection tool
that allows to verify if the translation did generated the seme thoughts in the readers of the
target text.

● TRANSLATION PROCESS AND RESULTS

As it was said in the theoretical framework, the DTM is the main guideline to develop the
translation of this poem. Thus, the translation process was made following the three phases
necessary to achieve a translation with connotative and formal equivalence.

First,it was important to know the extralinguistic and linguistic features that characterized the
text. Canción der Boga Ausente is a dialect poem written by Candelario Obeso at the end of
XIX century, however the value of Obeso’s poetry was not recognized until the XX century.
Obeso lived in a time of great changes for Colombia: the time of the regeneration. Artists and
intellectuals were looking for ennobling cultural elements that could be symbols of national
identity. Certainly, the literary elite was also working on that task, but as in that time racism
was still a latent behavior, there were no black writers representing the black community that
was obviously part of the construction of the country. Candelario Obeso was one of the
fortunate black writers that could make his way into the white elite of the country capital. He
was part of the first generations living in freedom after slavery abolition in Colombia, however
he was still associated to the stigma of being black.

Obeso was not afraid of praising his regional language and exalting his African traditions, that
is why he decided to write most of his poetry in black Spanish, in contrast to the standard
Spanish. This act of writing in a dialectal variation that most of the intellectuals considered
bad Spanish was a kind of revolution because for Candelario Obeso black Spanish was the rule
and not the exception.

This linguistic variety was spoken in the coast of Colombia, in Mompox. In his poetry, Obeso
specifically depicted the speech of the bogas, characters that were of great importance in the
history of the economic growth of the country because they were in charge of the transport of
merchandise and passengers from the coast to the interior of Colombia.

The main dialectal marks were identified in the spelling of the text, since Candelario Obeso
wanted to transfer the sounds of black speech to the paper, and these were reflected in the
spelling. The dialectal marks identified belong to three Spanish dialects that characterized black
Spanish:

- Caribbean Spanish: The words ‘sujpirará’, ejgraciá’, and ‘ejcura’ show aspiration
of s. This is a phonemic feature of Caribbean Spanish.
- Andalusian Spanish: ‘er’ and ‘arma’ show r instead of l (‘er cielo’ instead of ‘el
cielo’, and ‘arma’ instead of alma)
- Rural Spanish: the word ‘bañao’ shows deletion of d, and the word ‘jembra’ show
aspiration of h at the word initial position.
- African-Caribbean Spanish(Bantu): change of d to r in ‘suró’, and similar words.
This is a feature deemed to be of African (Bantu) origin by linguists such as Lipski.
This feature was also first noted by the famous Colombian philologist, R. J. Cuervo.
(Porras,2011,p. 274)
- African: the sound in ‘acte’ and similar words is also deemed to be of African origin.
- Afro-Caribbean Spanish: the phonetic change of r instead of l, like in the case of
‘doriente’ (doliente).

After identifying these features, the second step was to find a similar dialect in the target text,
a linguistic variation with similar linguistic and extralinguistic characteristics. The dialect
chosen was African American Vernacular English (AAVE) , specifically the one used in the
poems of the American black poet Paul Laurence Dunbar(1802-1906). Dunbar was born in
Dayton, Ohio, and he was also part of one of the first generations living in freedom after slavery
abolition in the USA. In his poems, he incorporated stories of plantation life and he decided to
use dialect in his poetry in order to represent the folk and oral traditions of his race.
The main features of AAVE that were used in the development of the translation are mainly
related to phonology and grammar:
- The sound of the th can change to “t”, “d” in initial position; and to “f” and “v” in
intervocalic and word final position depending on the context.
- There is no rhoticity in word final position, or before a consonant.
- Consonant simplification or absence, usually in word final position.For example,
must→ /mʌs/
- Velar nasal shifted to alveolar point of articulations. For instance “She’s comin’
tomorrow”
- There is an absence of the “-s” mark in the verbs when formulating present tense
sentences.
- Use of “ain’t” as a preverbal negative for present tense.

The characteristics of AAVE that were applied to achieve a formal equivalence are shown in
the following table:

Source Text Line Translation AAVE Feature Applied.

Canción der Boga Ausente Song o’ de Absent Black Oarsman Deletion of the letter “f” in “of”,
and change of “th” for “d”.

No hai en er Cielo una etrella Dere ain’t no star in de sky Double negation with “ain’t” and
change of “th” for “d”

Remá,remá. Oa’,oa’. Deletion of the “r” sound at the

end of the word.(No rhoticity)

La negra re mi arma mía. De negress o’ de soul o’ mine. Use of just one possessive at the
end of the sentence,and the
deletion of “f’’ in the preposition
“of”.

Mientrá yo brego en la má As I wu’k at sea No rhoticity

Bañao en suró por ella Drippin’ in sweat fo’ her Deletion of the final “g” in
“dripping”.

Doriente sujpirará Sufferin’ she sigh Deletion of final “g” in

“suffering”, and omission of the
mark of third person ‘-s’ in the
verb “sigh”.

Con acte se saca er peje Wif art the fish is taken Change of the “th” sound in the
word “with” for the sound “f”
because it is in word final
 position

Cojtante y ficme laj pena Constant an’ steady are sorrows Consonant absence in “and”

Now, in the following table the problems that were found at the semantic level are listed:

Term in Spanish and definition Translation to Translation Strategy and Justification

English

Boga: The existence of the bogas dates Black oarsman There are three words that could have been
back to the XIX century. The bogas chosen to translate the word boga: rower,
were black men who were in charge of paddler and oarsman. However, there is
the transport of products and just one term that has a similar connotative
passengers through the Magdalena meaning to the word in the original text:
river. They were tall and strong men oarsman.
who were associated to trading
dynamics in the countryside and the To conclude this I based my decision on
river. They were not slaves,but they the definitions of online Cambridge
worked for a wage. Dictionary, and the results of Google
Images,Flickr and other platforms for
photographers when searching for the
results of each word. Rower and paddler
are mostly related to people who like
rowing as a sport. In contrast, when
searching for images of oarsman, the
results were more related to a countryside
man who has to row canoes because that is
how he makes a living.

Moreover, I added the word black because

solely the word oarsman does not trigger
the image of a black man, and it is
important to state it explicitly in the
translation because bogas were only black
men.

Negra: a black woman. In the text, Negress It was difficult to translate this term since
this term is used as an expression of the translation of negra to black woman
affection to refer to the beloved does not convey the affection and
person. It is not a pejorative term. informality of the word in Spanish.

In this case I decided to review the

translation made by Hortensia Ruiz del
Vizo and I found that she decided to use the
word negress. When searching for the
meaning, it is not possible to find so much
information. However, among the few
results, I could find that negress was the
 female form of the word negro. However,
negress is no longer in use.

The strategy I decided to apply here is the

use of an archaism that serves for the
purpose of attaining the equivalence
between the terms since both negra and
negress are informal expressions and
trigger the same image of a black female..

Zambo: a Latin-American of mixed Zambo The same term is maintained in the

indigenous and African ancestry. translation because both in Spanish and
English the word to refer to a person with
those racial characteristics is zambo.
However, I decided to add a translator’s
note to clarify the meaning since the word
has different connotations.

Arte(Acte): a skill or special ability. Art I consider I had to include the term arte in
this chart because the connotation in the
poem is different from the general meaning
that people use to give to art. In the text, art
is not a form of expression, but a virtue, an
ability to develop any special task.

Mapaná: It is a venomous snake Mapaná The same term is maintained because this
found in South America. is the name with which the snake of the
kind Bothrops atrox is known in Colombia.
So, it is a term delimited in a specific
geographical region, thus it is not known in
other countries. Moreover, this snake only
inhabits in south american ecosystems. For
this reason, I also decided to add a TN
because the readers of the target text might
not have an image in her mind when
reading the word mapaná.

Finally, the last table shows the comparison between the ST and the TT:

CANCIÓN DER BOGA AUSENTE SONG O’ DE ABSENT BLACK

OARSMAN (BOGA)
Qué trite que etá la noche, How sad is de night,
La noche qué trite etá; De night how sad is
No hay en er cielo una etrella Dere ain’t no star in de sky
Remá, remá. Oa’, oa’.

La negra re mi arma mía, De negress o’ de soul o’ mine

Mientra yo brego en la má, As I wu'k at sea
Bañao en suró por ella, Drippin’ in sweat fo’ her
¿Qué hará? ¿Qué hará? What she doin’? What she doin’?

Tar vé por su zambo amao Perhaps fo’ her beloved zambo2

Doriente sujpirará, Sufferin’ she sigh
O tar vé ni me recuerda... Perhaps she ain’t even remember me
¡Llorá! ¡Llorá! Cry, cry!

La jembras son como toro De women are like all

Lo r'eta tierra ejgraciá; in dis misfortune land;
Con acte se saca er peje wif art de fish is taken
Der má, der má. out o’ de sea,out o’ de sea.

Con acte se abranda er jierro, Wif art de iron is softened

Se roma la mapaná... de mapaná3 is tamed
Cojtante y ficme? laj pena! constant an’ steady are sorrows
No hay má, no hay má!... Dere’s no mo’, dere’s no mo’!

Qué ejcura que etá la noche, How dark is de night,

La noche quéejcura etá; De night how dark is
Asina ejcura é la ausencia So dark is de absence
Bogá,bogá! Oa’, oa’.

2
TN: a Latin-American of mixed indigenous and African ancestry.
3
TN: It is a venomous snake that inhabits in South American tropical lowlands.
● BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Miami,Estados Unidos: Ediciones Universal.

- Baker, M & Saldanha, G (2009)Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.

Retrieved from www.ketabnak.com

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Obeso's "Cantos populares de mi tierra" and Paul Laurence Dunbar's "Lyrics of Lowly
Life". Afro-Hispanic Review.15 (2), 26-36.

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(DTM): Default Equivalence Position, Equivalence Range, Initiator's Instructions, and
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the Case of Candelario Obeso(online). The Journal of Pan African Studies. 4(5), 262-
283. Retrieved from www.jstor.org
- Wheat,V. (1996). Nineteenth Century Dialect Poetry and Racial Pride: Candelario
Obeso’s Cantos Populares de mi Tierra and Paul Laurence Dunbar’s Lyrics of Lowly
Life. (online). Afro Hispanic Review. Retrieved from www.jstor.org

- Wolfram,W.(n.d.)The grammar of urban African American Vernacular English.

Retrieved from
faculty.winthrop.edu/kosterj/ENGL507/assignments/WolframUrban_AAE.pdf