9 Translation of Music

Lucile Desblache
University of Roehampton, London

Introduction and Definitions

Music is transcultural by nature. For most people, the transla-

tion of music evokes the translation of the lyrics of songs. But
music translation is much broader in scope. Music plays a
vital role in the construction of meaning in cultural products,
their translation and dissemination. Conversely, translation in
its broadest sense is crucial in the making of musical process-
es and products. Both terms of music and translation can be
treacherous to delineate and their definitions change with
time and context. Translation Studies scholars have spilled
much ink on the notion of translation, but have only agreed
that it can be defined diversely. It is most frequently defined
in relation to its mode (written or oral), state of being (process
or product), category (interlinguistic, intralinguistic and in-
tersemiotic, as expressed canonically by Jakobson [1959/2012]),
subject field (literary, audiovisual, technical…), or according
to the paradigm it refers to (linguistic, cultural, social…).
Music is even more challenging to define universally. Some
human societies do not have a word corresponding accurately
to the Western concept of music. Even within Western con-
fines, the notion of music is wide-ranging and varies depend-
ing on whether it refers to acts of composition, performance,
310 Lucile Desblache

listeners’ experience, genre (pop song, symphony…) or style (classical,

baroque, jazz…). Historically, attempts to pin down the universals of
music have not been very successful. For instance, in Diderot and
D’Alembert’s Encyclopedia, music is defined as “the science of sounds, as
they are capable of pleasantly affecting the ear, or the art of arranging and
managing sounds in such a way that from their consonance, from their
order, and from their relative durations, pleasant sensations are pro-
duced” (Diderot and D’Alembert [1765/2011]). Yet for the contemporary
philosopher Jacques Attali, this definition is invalid as music “constitutes
the audible waveband of the vibrations and signs that make up society”
(Attali 1977/2006: 4). However, a working definition is needed and for
the purpose of this chapter, music will be understood as a combination of
organized sounds—primarily non-semantic—meant to be listened to.
It is the combined notion of “music translation” that shall be consid-
ered here. Music translation involves the transfer or mediation of some
elements of a musical text to enhance its meaning for its intended audi-
ence. This may concern vocal music (music which is sung, most of the
time with words), but also instrumental music and texts about music, for
which the phrase “music-linked translation” (Mateo, quoting Golombs
2012: 115) is perhaps more suitable.
The reality and practice of such translation are extremely wide-rang-
ing. From translating the lyrics of songs interlinguistically to mediating
musical content across styles, genres, senses and cultures, different types
of transfer are aimed at audiences who can benefit from them. This trans-
lation process may be initiated because these audiences are not familiar
with what they are listening to and welcome contextual information, or
because music is made more accessible to them. It can be mediated in a
different mode, in the form of information given to the deaf and hard-of-
hearing about the music played in a film, for instance. Music translation
can involve the transfer of semantic texts belonging to a multimodal con-
text, but it can also require mediation at a musical level, primarily or ex-
clusively. In this case, instead of making music familiar as mentioned, it
generally uses familiar content to give music a new meaning. To take a
few examples, Jacques Loussier and his trio reinterpret Bach in a jazz
style, James Last, “the most commercially successful bandleader”
(Denselow 2015) of the post–Second World War era, turned any music,
from ABBA to Vivaldi, into his own easy-listening pieces, and fusion
singer Susheela Raman recreates South Indian music for 21st century
Translation of Music 311

global audiences. These musical mediations can include the transfer of

words but take place primarily at a musical level. For instance, when
Martin Luther chose to use secular songs as a basis for some of his
hymns, he intended to re-appropriate an existing repertoire as the
common ground for a new musical and spiritual message. Such transla-
tion does not happen at lexical level—all words used by Luther are new
words, they are not translated—but at musical level, as existing music is
used and altered to give a new meaning to songs already familiar to the
intended audience.
For some musicians, such as Igor Stravinsky or Elliott Carter, music
is a self-sufficient form of creation and expresses nothing but itself. Such
formalists1 do not deny that it can be inspired by other art forms, natural
phenomena, living beings, emotions or events. Nevertheless, they argue
that it is the listeners who project extra-musical meaning on to it:

… I consider that music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express
anything at all, whether a feeling, an attitude of mind, a psychological mood,
a phenomenon of nature, etc.… If, as is nearly always the case, music appears
to express something, this is only an illusion and not a reality. (Stravinsky
1936: 83)

(a) The Intertwining of Music and Translation

If music is self-mediated, it should, by essence, not require translation
and not be affected by it. However, its versatile capacity for translation is
inseparable from its ability to accommodate human projections, which
leads to extra-musical interpretations. There are also other reasons why
translation and music are interdependent.
First, like every other cultural product or practice, music’s evolution
depends on exchanges, interactions and transformations, which include
translations in the linguistic and/or cultural sense of the word. Most his-
torians, musicians and musicologists now agree that while the ability to
appreciate and make music is a universal human feature—except for the

1 For the opposition between“formalists”who defend the impenetrable essence of music

and“referentialists”for whom the function of music is to lead to extra-musical outlets and
associations, see Meyer (1956/2008).
312 Lucile Desblache

5% of humans who are amusic and unable to hear music meaningfully—

and while musical experiences can connect people from different cultures,
music does not use a universal language. This perception of the universal
mirrors ideas exposed by Western post-structuralist, postmodern and
postcolonial thinkers since the mid-20th century, who deconstructed the
concept of universality, showing that it only reflects the values of domi-
nant states and individuals in order to consolidate their power.
Yet because music is more immaterial and more pervasive than other
art forms, its reach can be universal: songs and other music from all
countries, generations, styles, can be heard at the touch of a click or
button anywhere at any time. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the
immediacy with which musical products can travel and are distributed
has led to a paradox. Music has become both an instrument of diversi-
ty—playing a key role in the expression of collective and individual
ethnic, political and artistic identities—and an instrument of hegemony—
as the philosopher Theodor Adorno (1941) has argued, the commodifica-
tion of music also entailed its standardization. Some argue that the digital
era, facilitating the production and dissemination of marginalized music,
has weakened this standardization phenomenon and allows music to be a
direct articulation of creativity. Admittedly, musical exchanges and cre-
ative outputs have never been so diverse since the beginning of the 21st
century. This in turn has consequences as regards different forms of
translation, whether interlinguistic, intercultural or intersemiotic. How-
ever, translation can also be the facilitator of hegemony. As with other
types of texts, music translation can thus be the guardian of dominant
discourses as well as a liberating instrument for the voices of the periph-
eries. An ambivalent example of this is the “gentrification” of rock: while
Black musicians were the creators of the rock’n roll style after the Second
World War, their work was marginalized while being translated into
White mainstream products by artists such as Elvis Presley.
The term of “cultural translation”, which has acquired several mean-
ings since the 1990s, can be used here, not in the postcolonial sense de-
fined by Homi Bhabha (1994/2004) but rather in the ethnographic sense
of an act of mediation intending to make aspects of a source culture
meaningful to (a) target audience(s). For instance, Tropicália, an early
fusion movement started in the 1960s by artists such as Caetano Veloso
and Gilberto Gil, revolutionized Brazilian music, opening it to different
styles and cultural influences while introducing Brazilian music to
Translation of Music 313

Western audiences. Translation, whether in its literal meaning or broader

sense is also contributing creatively to giving power to end-users. From
the point of view of music listeners and viewers, fan-translation or crowd
translation of songs to the “cover” of existing music, audiences and com-
posers alike have been encouraged into different forms of translation pro-
vision since the beginning of the 21st century. This involves translating
all or some aspects of the source content, most frequently, the words
linked to it, but not exclusively.
A second reason for musical and translational interrelations is that
music responds to extra-musical stimulation and interacts meaningfully
with all other art forms. Although it can exist independently, some art
forms, such as dance, are nearly unthinkable without music. In pop
music video clips, the choreography of a song is often used to translate
its narrative for instance. In some cultures, music is dependent on an-
other art: music and poetry are thus inseparable in ancient and tradi-
tional Persian music. When used in combination with different art
forms, music acquires contextual and extra-musical meaning while keep-
ing its exclusive musical significance when performed on its own. Some
would argue that it is not always the case. For instance, will John Barry’s
title music for the James Bond films ever be listened to in exclusively
musical ways, free from its filmic references? Does it not always trigger
the suspense, the excitement and the fun associated with Ian Fleming’s
hero and his adventures? Yet even the most enthusiastic referentialist
would have to admit that no extra-musical meaning can be objectively
associated to a musical piece. A listener of Debussy’s La Mer who is un-
aware of the composition’s title will not automatically link it to the sea,
as several surveys involving listeners have shown (Science Blogs 2009).2
Nevertheless, even though no semantic message can be conveyed musi-
cally, music can give fresh meaning to other art forms, as the power of a
good film soundtrack attests. Numerous silent films have been rescored
with the aim of producing hybrid products, both faithful to the original
as regards the film itself but remediated musically for a new public. The

2 Several surveys have questioned audiences on whether they could link music to specific
themes. Responses all seem negative. In the particular one referred to here, listeners were
wrong about the extra-musical reference stated in the title of a composition in 72% of cases.
314 Lucile Desblache

remakes of some classic films often keep the original soundtrack though,
and contribute to reconstructing its authenticity. For example, Gus Van
Sant’s remake of Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1998) reuses Bernard Her-
rmann’s original score, although rearranged by Danny Elfman and re-
corded in stereo. Nevertheless, as 21st century audiences demand more
novelty, rescoring films is a common way of remediating them and
making them contemporary to audiences. Moreover, the niche area of
live rescoring is emerging with live music giving a new creative dimen-
sion to classic or cult movies. The band Asian Dub Foundation has thus
given musical performances of Matthieu Kassovitz’s La Haine in 2001,
Gillo Pontecorvo’s The Battle of Algiers in 2004 and George Lucas’s
THX1138 in 2015.
A third reason for the interdependence of translation and music is
that the very act of hearing or listening to music and making it meaning-
ful implies, like any act of communication, a form of translation. In the
West, the notion of composing, recording and interpreting music is es-
sential to the musical act of creation: a composer hears music internally,
he or she encodes it in ways that will be decipherable by performers.
Moreover, any performer interprets music and most listeners construe
the meaning of external sounds, be they musical or not. The very acts of
encoding music by means of a written language and its deciphering imply
multiple interpretations. Reading music is not undertaken in a linear way
as for most texts based exclusively on words, but in simultaneous ones, so
that the wide range of musical parameters necessary to make music
meaningful (such as pitch, dynamics, rhythm, timbre, tempo, emotional
tone…) is included in the deciphering of the text. This implies a complex
interpretative process. In non-Western music, the borders between com-
poser and interpreter are much looser and the written encoding of the
musical text, when it exists, is just meant to be a reminder, a starting
point for the musical performance, as in jazz improvisation. Music and
the various texts that relate to it can also require translation in the most
commonly accepted sense of the word. In spite of Western composers’ ef-
forts to use a global language for musical terms relating to tempo, style
and even mood (often Italian or Latin with phrases such as a capella, al-
legro moderato, accelerando, affettuoso…), this is not always the case and
some of these indications may need to be translated. Other paratexts may
also be crucial to the main musical text, such as editor’s notes, pieces’
titles… In addition, vocal music relies on words and a semantic message
Translation of Music 315

which leads to various forms of translation, as is discussed in the“Musical

Translation”section below.
A fourth reason for the interrelation of music and translation resides
in music’s intrinsic nature as an art of transmission through repetition and
variation. This, in turn, relates to the notion and practice of translation as
an instrument of diffusion of knowledge and emotion, which is part of
human evolution, or at least, human history. There seems little doubt that
“the sound of the wild determined the first music” (Hendy 2014: 23) and
that creating sounds analogous to natural sounds played an important part
in early musical development. Yet the human purpose of mimicking
sounds has not been so much to imitate as to capture the subject of inspi-
ration, be it material (e.g. birds) or immaterial (e.g. wind). Imagination
also corrupts reproduction in human enterprises, and altering the original
sound listened to was as inevitable in prehistory as it is today, because an
exact equivalent is always impossible, but also, out of playfulness. For a
large proportion of scientists, in prehistory, music preceded articulated
language in human communication. Some argue that musical abilities de-
clined in societies where articulated language developed. The cognitive ar-
chaeologist Steven Mithen (2005) thus considers that the musical abilities
of The Singing Neanderthals were most likely inhibited by the focus put on
speech by Homo sapiens. Evidence underpinning this argument may still
be considered to be slim, but in any case, in early human (pre)history,
sounds were reshaped and “translated” in order to not merely copy nature,
but to establish a dialogue with its various agents, to master it, or to better
understand the place of humans in the cosmos (Hendy 2014: 27).

(b) Hybridity and Un/translatability

Music is a hybrid art by nature, as it requires, absorbs and shapes differ-
ent types of languages, including semantic language. In today’s global
context of instant interchanges and transmissions, this mercurial art form
necessarily depends on hybridity, and perhaps more so than with other
art forms, it is hybridity that gives music its distinctive flavour. For in-
stance, the form of blues was born of fusion between African and Euro-
pean folk songs and is instantly recognizable. Similarly, contemporary
Thai pop music chooses to embrace some markers of Western modernity
(using the verse-chorus song form for example) while keeping markers of
Thai identity (such as the use of Thai instruments and rhythmic
316 Lucile Desblache

patterns). This musical convergence is a successful strategy of identity

construction and global dissemination (Ware 2011).
The notion of textual hybridity also implies a process which is in
motion, unfinished and incomplete. There is an element of desired un-
translatability in the translation of musical texts, governed by the necessi-
ty to allow space for the expression of emotions, of dissent or resistance.
The concept of untranslatability is not understood here in relation to ide-
ology, resistance, desire to protect foreignness but simply as the accep-
tance that “explicitation” in music is often not needed or desirable. The
pleasure of music also consists in deciphering its message internally. Not
everything can or should be translated in musical texts. Indeed, for a
piece to be recognized, some elements need to stay unchanged. Music
translation is therefore essentially incomplete and can be considered a
“hybrid translation” in the sense understood by Sherry Simon of “a trans-
lation deliberately unfinished” (Simon 2011: 50).
Like translation, music has always had an interesting and conflictual
relationship with the notion of authenticity. Until it could be recorded
and reproduced, a musical piece needed to be interpreted in a fashion
unique to its arranger(s) and/or perfomer(s). But in the digital age, when
technology has made the recording of musical ideas and performances
possible, the notion of an original can be redundant, as a piece of music
can be reproduced ad libitum. Unlike artwork, which values its original
over its copies, a digital recording has the same value when reproduced.
Yet it is this very technology of reproduction which allows standard ref-
erences to be available in ways that were not a century ago, and which
musicians can choose to depart from or retain, partially or entirely.

Musical Translations

In spite of their partial untranslatability, musical texts, for the most part,
require some degree of translation, which can make them (more) meaning-
ful musically, linguistically, culturally, modally, sensorially. One of the char-
acteristics of these translations, common to media translation, is that they
are “partial”, in the sense that while taking the whole text into consider-
ation, they choose to transfer one or several aspects of this text while
others are left untouched. For instance, the literal translation of the lyrics of
a song will aim to add a level of semantic comprehension while the listener
Translation of Music 317

enjoys the original experience of the song on all other levels. Similarly, the
audio description of an opera will mediate the visual context of the piece,
in order to allow blind listeners to make sense of the opera as a whole.
Scholars have only started to provide useful models of translation
that can be applied in different contexts. Some areas, such as opera and
song translation (Gorlée 2005; Kaindl 2005; Low 2005, 2010, 2013; Mateo
2012; Susam-Sarajeva 2008) or the transnational circulation of vocal
music (Bohlman 2011; Evans 2008; Kaindl 2013; Fernández 2015) have
been explored extensively, while others are neglected. Leaving more met-
aphorical notions of translation behind, this section gives an overview of
current practices of music translation, considering what is translated, in
what areas, using which platforms, which translation types, strategies and
approaches. Although, as discussed above, many aspects of music, includ-
ing genre, form or style can be translated, we shall focus on transfers
which include words. This means considering the “partial” translation
that is most often needed in music: that of the lyrics in vocal music,
whether for a general or specialist audience, and of audio description for
the blind. Target texts can also be created to mediate a musical text that
does not include words: for the purpose of cultural transference or acces-
sibility for audiences with special needs for instance.

(a) Listening Spaces

The spatial context in which music is listened to impacts on all agents of
music making and on listeners of course, but it also determines its trans-
lation to some degree. There are unwritten norms of translation provision
in music, as is shown below:

Live Concerts
Recorded music is the primary source of musical consumption, but live
music attendance has strongly increased in the 21st century. Live music
attendance has increased worldwide in spectacular ways in the last two
decades, with a 60% growth in revenue between 2000 and 2013 (Music
Industry Blog 2015). And some streaming companies, who have worked
with recorded music, such as Amazon Prime, now offer some live con-
certs. Since 2012, live music spending has been up 66% (Eventbrite
2016). Since the 1980s, opera houses have been champions of accessibili-
ty, providing interlinguistic (when the opera is sung in a foreign
318 Lucile Desblache

language) or intralinguistic subtitles for all members of the audience, au-

dio-introductions for the blind and in some cases, signed performances
for the deaf. Opera is by tradition a global art form, often co-produced
internationally and aimed at a very international audience. Surtitling the
sung libretto (or subtitling it in the case of live HD cinema performanc-
es) was piloted in Hong Kong in the late 1970s to facilitate the compre-
hension of European opera for Chinese audiences (Chan 2009: 166–172)
and caught on as an efficient way to reach audiences across linguistic,
cultural and sometimes disability barriers. In the case of staged musicals,
a primarily Anglo-American genre, an expansion towards more surtitling
has been visible in the last decade. In Europe, large co-productions pre-
sented on stage are increasingly adapted to be sung in different languag-
es. By contrast, recorded productions often offer a single show in English
with surtitles in the non–English speaking countries. Until the end of the
first decade of the 21st century, surtiting for English-speaking countries
was limited to some performances and provided by disability charities.
The translation of musical live events for special needs audiences is
notoriously neglected. They entail text that can be scripted (for instance
song lyrics that can be known and prepared in advance of the live event)
or unscripted events (off the cuff interviews with performers for
instance). When accessibility provision is made, unscripted events are
usually respoken, while traditionally scripted events are cued in with a
pre-prepared script. With a trend towards more automatic translation, re-
speaking techniques are becoming more prevalent, in the televised re-
transmissison of live events in particular.
Other live musical events have not benefited from such comprehen-
sive translation provision. In the classical field, the tradition of written
programmes available to the audience has survived for centuries. More-
over, publications intended for amateur and professional singers exist,
providing translations, phonetic and stylistic information on the classical
repertoire. This is a reasonably rarefied field but these publications are
relevant for many years and attract a regular readership. For instance,
Pierre Bernac’s The Interpretation of French Song first published in 1970
is still in print in 2017.
In other areas though, translation provision is scant. Popular music
festivals, for instance, generally give little background information on
performance and performers, let alone translations of lyrics. In the UK,
there is presently a move towards access provision at live music events,
Translation of Music 319

particularly in small venues, driven by charities such as Stagetext or Atti-

tude is Everything. Yet in spite of the fact that live concerts are increas-
ingly popular worldwide and primarily driven by songs, it is astonishing
to note that no translation is provided in most cases.

Radio
Some radio portals support multilingual outputs (such as DeliCast where
language and musical genre can be selected and a list of available radios
is offered). Overall though, most radio stations are monolingual and offer
no translations as such. With the rise of global radios such as Apple
Beats1, transmissions in English seem to be given increasing global
power. Nevertheless, radios offer information on music which is aired, its
composers, performers and lyrics writers on their websites and by means
of oral presentation, summaries of song narratives and secondary texts
such as interviews with performers. In 2008, the BBC piloted synchro-
nized subtitles customized for operas on the classical station Radio 3, but
due to budget cuts, this translation project was discontinued.

Listening on the Move: MP3s

Since the late 1970s when the first Walkman players made music portable
for individuals, music listening habits have changed dramatically. Indi-
viduals have, of course, been able to enjoy or play music on their own,
but in the last few decades, devices have allowed them to create their own
listening space and exclude their environment and others from it. In the
age that Daniel Guberman calls the age of “post-fidelity” (2011), sound
quality has been sacrificed to prioritize portability, low cost, durability
and storage. Besides, in an era of media convergence (Jenkins 2006/2008),
music is rarely produced and disseminated without extra-musical ele-
ments, in particular visuals. Perhaps surprisingly, these extra-musical
preferences have not led to the systematic presence of translation related
to digital musical items. Music is also rarely listened to on a device exclu-
sively designed for musical purposes. In the 21st century, “the ideal musi-
cal experience is as much about convenience and style as it is about
sound” (Guberman 2011: 449). The translation of lyrics of music items is
now expected to be part of this experience.
Translations are generated on the internet in a wide range of formats:
“official” translations of the lyrics of songs provided by music companies
320 Lucile Desblache

on companion websites, fan translations on sites dedicated to songs or

subtitled music videos, comments on lyrics as part of social network dis-
cussions, background information on songs and writers on music discov-
ery services such as Last.fm, instant lyrics provisions on music translation
sites or applications such as Lyrics Translate, Musixmatch or SongMean-
ings. Internet translation is increasingly part of a multiscreen environ-
ment culture where users interact with each other as they consume
music. Applications such as Shazam can also recognize music and give
information on the song listened to, including lyrics. In the contempo-
rary media convergence arena, soundtracks tend to be listened to on de-
vices that provides access to all these services. The translations of lyrics
are therefore present as an optional service, although their quality varies
and they are rarely synchronized to the music. 21st century music, for
the first time in human history, can be a solely individual experience and
its translation provision reflects this fact.

Vinyl, CDs, DVDs, MP3s

Surprisingly, lyrics translation provision on CDs and DVDs is rather
poor overall. Again, this is not the case in classical music, where opera
is subtitled intra-/interlinguistically, and art songs generally transcribed
and translated multilingually on a companion website, rather than in a
booklet included in the CD case as was the practice until the second
decade of the 21st century. Equally, some niche areas, such as K-Pop
products, usually provide subtitles as a large proportion of their audi-
ence is Western. They are thus marketed to this effect. After two de-
cades of favouring portability and quantity over product quality, there
seems to be a trend towards some prioritizing of quality, with pop sing-
ers such as Taylor Swift offering her music on a range of formats in-
cluding CDs and vinyls for instance. Information regarding the songs
though has to be fished out by users in various spaces, ranging from
social networks to related books.

Videogames
The majority of videogame music is instrumental but vocal music not
only can be part of the soundtrack (Grand Theft Auto), it can also play
an integral role in the game (Dance Dance Revolution). When songs
are not essential to the action, they are usually left in their original
Translation of Music 321

language. The theme song Baba Yetu, a Swahili version of the Lord’s
Prayer in Civilization IV, was thus not translated in the game for an
exoticizing effect. However, when games include diegetic music, such
as in Rock Band or in the Guitar Hero series for instance, where the
player is the hero and the agent of the game, songs are generally local-
ized or replaced with successful local items. Frequently and increasing-
ly, they are chosen by individual players among a pool made available
to them which varies according to territories. Today’s young musicians
have also been brought up with a convergence of music and images
provided in the multimedia products they grew up with. They general-
ly favour, or even expect intersemiotic translation or some form of
fusion to take place between art forms. The singer Woodkid thus ex-
plains that his creations are covers which include the reinterpretation
of existing music, films and images: “It is this type of ‘translations’
which makes Woodkid. The essence of art is to find a vehicle for ex-
pression, be it in painting, dance, cooking or cinema” (Siankowski
2013).

Television and Internet Streaming

The provision of the translation of lyrics on television channels and on
the internet is inconsistent. On television, if songs are part of a film or
programme, they are often left untranslated, as is the case in cinema (see
paragraph below). On mainstream television channels, a verbatim tran-
scription is generally provided as part of an accessibility service for the
deaf and hard of hearing. In dubbed films, songs are mostly ignored, al-
though they may be crucial to the narrative. The main exception to this
concerns children’s programmes, which tend to be dubbed throughout,
especially animation programmes. Even in a country such as France,
where the law mandates the use of the French language in all broadcast
audiovisual programmes, an exception is made for musical texts, often
left untranslated. Songs are usually subtitled for the deaf and hard of
hearing in general programmes. In series, the localization of the title
songs varies according to programme and countries. Rather than trans-
lating existing songs, new ones are often used, to reflect a different
image for the programme it introduces: The Fox title song of the “Prison
Break” series was hence replaced with an entirely different rap song (Faf
Larage 2006), “Pas le temps” for the French version in 2006, cover songs
of the original, “Ich glaub’ an Dich” (Azad feat Adel Tawil) for the
322 Lucile Desblache

German version (2007), and “Prison Break Anthem” (Kaynes Styles

2007) for the Belgian version. The “YouTube generation” born in the
1990s, which has grown up with online music videos, and, in Europe at
least, with the growth of largely public-funded accessibility provision
(initially with Teletex and now with various hybrid television systems),
is subtitling friendly and belongs to a participatory culture where infor-
mation given on music programmes as on other programmes is expect-
ed on a companion site and, in popular music, generally produced by
fans.
Even mainstream television music programmes often omit to sub-
title songs. On the internet, a constant battle of copyrights is enacted,
with enthusiasts adding subtitled musical clips, which they are often
required to take down. Nevertheless, YouTube and other video-shar-
ing websites provide a fair number of music video clips which include
intralinguistic or interlinguistic subtitled lyrics. With the growth of
video-on-demand services such as Netflix, programmes are often
available multilingually. Subtitling services such as Opensubtitles (for
films) and Seriessub (for series) which allow the downloading of sub-
titling for streamed audiovisual material do not apply to music pro-
grammes. For music, users tend to rely on lyrics catalogue
applications such as Musixmatch, officially used by the music stream-
ing service Spotify since 2015.

Cinema
While instrumental music is frequently composed for a specific movie,
existing songs have been more often chosen for the vocal items of film
soundtracks since the 1970s. Songs in films may appear as mere back-
ground (e.g. a radio programme playing or a street singer performing
while action takes place) or play an integral part in the construction of
the film narrative (in Almadóvar’s Volver (2006) for instance, where the
eponymous theme song is at the centre of the narrative). They can have a
diegetic (if a singer / singers perform[s] in the film) or a non-diegetic
role, which is independent from the impact of the song on the meaning
of the film.
As Frederic Chaume has discussed (2004; 2014) the translation of
songs in films poses cultural and technical problems. Songs are often
culture-bound and can trigger connotations to mood or references in
an instant. The quality of the original voices also contributes to the
Translation of Music 323

meaning of the song, which explains why so many Hollywood actors

have been dubbed by singers in musical films (Dyer 2011; Bosseaux
2015). Films often use well-known songs. Dubbing them for interna-
tional versions can be problematic. They include the recording of sepa-
rate music sequences, copyrights, economic cost and possible loss of
reference to the established version of the songs. In texts involving
music, “[t]he process of transmission is not always straightforward:
some elements that constitute the message may be implied rather than
contained in the source text, and some may be hard to trace and to
define (O Cuilleanáin 2011: 67). Moreover, as Chaume (2004: 18) re-
minds us “[s]ongs often work as narrative punctuation signs and usually
involve a take cut (the translator uses a new dubbing unit or take for
the song), or a subtitle change (the translator does not mingle lyrics and
dialogue in the same subtitle)”. Sadly, many songs are thus left untrans-
lated in otherwise dubbed or subtitled versions. In many cases, the
extra layer of semantic text provided by the song, which can contradict
or enhance the film script is denied to the foreign viewer. For instance,
the narrative of The Graduate (1967) is strongly underpinned by “The
Sound of Silence” by Simon and Garfunkel. The song, played in its en-
tirety at the beginning and at the end of the film, expresses the emo-
tional difficulties that people have communicating with each other, a
key theme of The Graduate. In the opening scene of the film, immedi-
ately after the theme song has been heard, Ben (Dustin Hoffman) is
seen to avoid contact with people. The song in this scene echoes very
potently the sense of isolation that permeates the film. Similarly, at the
end, it is played to anticipate Ben and Elaine’s feelings of uncertainty
and anxiety as they face to the reality of their life together, but are
unable to discuss its challenges.

(b) Translation Types and Strategies for Vocal Music Translation

The sections above have demonstrated that the translation of musical texts
covers a broad spectrum of textual genres and translation types. Based on
variation from both points of view of composition and performance,
music is intrinsically dependent on translation in its broadest sense. How-
ever, if cultural or intersemiotic translations are generally not undertaken
by translators but by musicians and other creative artists, translators in the
conventional understanding of the word, and particularly but not solely
324 Lucile Desblache

audiovisual translators, face the challenge of translating song lyrics and

vocal music on a regular basis.
The next paragraphs focus on the main types of translation which
these transfers entail in vocal music, and on the main strategies suitable
for their completion, drawing on the existing literature on the topic.
This concerns all forms of vocal music, mainly songs (popular and
traditional songs, opera arias, vocal ensembles of all musical genres and
styles, “a cappella” pieces for one or several voices, instrumental music
with spoken or semi-spoken narration…). The semantic translation of
the words of a song is what most people understand the translation of
music to be. Even within this limited understanding, these lyrics exist in
a multimodal and cultural context, and may require different types of
translation. The main ones are listed below:

A Transcription of Lyrics
The exact record of the words being sung. Due to issues relating to copy-
rights, such transcriptions are common, on television or internet plat-
forms for instance, where content providers are only allowed (as well as
required in most European countries) to transcribe the verbatim text of
songs for legal reasons. This requirement varies from country to coun-
try: in the UK for instance, music programmes are not seen as different
from other programmes by Ofcom, the national communications regula-
tor, but in Finland, media companies are currently exempt from any
translation obligation for such programmes. With the development of
music identification software, verbatim transcriptions are increasingly
provided automatically and just checked prior to transmission. In the
world of pop music, primarily sung in English, non-native English view-
ers, who often have some knowledge of English, appreciate a script
which is faithful to the original text. Song identification applications are
now able to transcribe lyrics in a large number of cases. The multiscreen
culture that is currently ubiquitous allows and even favours such prac-
tices, which are currently available only in mainstream European lan-
guages but have potential for development, as software development
companies encourage the population of information by music “prosumers”
(Toffler 1980: 267).
In live events and their retransmission, and particularly for musicals
and mainstream music festivals, surtitles may be provided for some per-
formances and in some cases, live-subtitled.
Translation of Music 325

In printed sheet music, transcriptions can also take the form of

transliterations for languages which are less commonly sung on the West-
ern scene. For instance, Indian or Hebrew scripts can be transliterated
into the Roman alphabet, as in the example below:

Maurice Ravel, opening bars of “Kaddisch” from Deux melodies hebraiques (1915)

In choir practices, a simple phonetic transliteration may also be given

by a choirmaster so that gross errors of pronunciation are avoided.

Maurice Ravel, opening bars of “Kaddisch” from Deux melodies hebraiques (1915)

As Brian Mossop (2013) has discussed in detail, sheet music for

choirs may contain guidance, essential for singers who are not familiar
with the phonetics of the languages that they sing into.

An Intralingual Translation of Lyrics

Unlike a verbatim transcription, transliteration or phonetic transcription,
this may include rewording a song within the same language to take into
326 Lucile Desblache

account various elements of the piece being translated, including repeti-

tions, intertextual references and non-verbal aspects relevant to the text.
As audiences have been exposed to regular text provision, they have
become increasingly hungry for information. Opera houses now surtitle
shows (at least their singing parts) even if performances are taking place
in the language of the country in which they are taking place. The trans-
lator of the libretto, who provides the text, and the subtitler, who cues it
in during the performance are two different professionals. The subtitler is
usually a musician who reads the music and works in response to the
conductor for cueing text.
Songs also frequently require adaptation within the same language.
In fact, not adapting a famous song for a long period of time, is in itself a
statement. For instance, keeping the Robert Burns verse of the Scottish
“Auld Lang Syne” when celebrating New Year sends a message about pre-
serving traditions. Similarly, national anthems generally show resistance
to change, as they are perceived as symbols of unity and continuity. The
transformational essence of translation can therefore be resisted and re-
sented in some cases.
Yet for historical, ideological or cultural reasons, reappropriating a
familiar tune has always been widespread, as the example of Martin Lu-
ther’s shift from secular songs to hymns discussed above illustrated. As
far as lyrics are concerned, these “transcreations” as they may be called
today, generally do not involve strictly semantic translation as such.
New words, which are intended to fit the old tune, convey a fresh se-
mantic and poetic message, which may or may not be in line with the
original text.

An Interlingual Translation of the Lyrics

This takes three main forms. Lyrics are provided to be read/heard inde-
pendently from or in conjunction with the original song or musical text;
they are intended to be sung in another language than the original lan-
guage with the aim of remaining largely faithful to the message of the
original language; they are free adaptations into another language.
In the first instance, translations can take various forms. An oral
interlingual summary of a song, of the plot of an opera or musical can
be provided. This can be pre-recorded for optional use (on opera
houses websites for instance), aired on radio, television, or prepared
Translation of Music 327

for live retransmissions at the cinema. A script or libretto can also act
as support for the listener. This was one of the main methods of trans-
lation provision in opera and classical concerts until the post–second
world war era. Going back to the 18th and 19th centuries, Lorenzo Da
Ponte, The Man who wrote Mozart (Holden 2007), largely earned a
living by providing libretti translation sold as programmes for live per-
formances. Various forms of translation provision were offered in
opera houses until the 1980s, when surtitles took over. Since then, they
have been “here to stay” (Bredin 2005: 32) as the expected form of tex-
tual support.
Although the interlingual translation of a live or recorded musical
performance plays an important role in the production and transmis-
sion of culture, the most common form of interlingual translation is
provided for films or video programmes in the form of subtitling.
This is in spite of the fact that many songs are left untranslated, as
discussed above. Song translation in films is of course subjected to
the same constraints as any subtitled text: the need for concision and
for meaning that takes the multisemiotic content of the original into
consideration. They need to convey some of the musicality of the origi-
nal songs, specially their rhyming and rhythm qualities (see Tortoriello
2006). Songs which are part of films or television programmes are
often reversioned:

• as part of a foreign language production. For instance, large

companies such as Disney issue new vocal versions of films
otherwise unchanged. Large-scale animation films are thus
entirely redubbed, songs included. Classic films can and do
undergo several reversionings. Films made by Disney are
generally readapted if successful, including as regards their
songs: 1938, 1962 and 2001 are different French versions
of the 1937 Disney’s Snow-White and the Seven Dwarfs
for instance.
• as part of a “remediation” (Deuze 2006 in Pérez González 2014)
or localisation process where new material is integrated or cut
from an existing version. This has been common for centuries
and is still popular. Mozart’s Magic Flute, for instance has been
remediated numerous times in different countries linguistically,
musically and theatrically since its creation in 1791. Such
328 Lucile Desblache

remediation can of course be intralingual, and often is in the first

instance. Thus Newsies, the Musical (2011) was remediated for
the stage after the film Newsies (1992), on Broadway first, but
then in Italy and Germany.

The second form of translation relevant to song/opera translation

relates to “singing” or “singable” translations. This timeless strategy
has existed since singers have travelled across countries, languages
and cultures. A very prominent form of translation in folk music
throughout the ages, it has been widespread in Western classical and
popular music until the Second World War. In opera and classical
concerts, singers largely sung in the language of the country of pro-
duction. These singable translations primarily intend to carry the nar-
rative meaning of the plot across language and time barriers, in the
context of their multimodal content and of the production that they
belong to. The translation strategies required for such singing adapta-
tions imply a successful dialogue with the musical setting, which
cannot change substantially, and with the staged production, which
can do. Less popular in opera and musicals since surtitling took over
as the main form of translation, singable translations are key to chil-
dren’s films. Strategies for this type of translation have been summa-
rized by Peter Low in his pentathlon principle of singable translation:
singability, sense, naturalness, rhythm and rhyme (Low 2005).
In popular music, as Klaus Kaindl has argued (2005; 2013), sing-
able translations and adaptations tend to take more distance from the
original, musically as well as semantically. Cover songs involve social
and aesthetic transfers implying substantial changes from the original.
Fruela Fernández has analysed how they reveal both “translation’s
role as a tool of cultural and historical analysis” as well as “anxieties
within the target culture” (Fernandez 2015: 12). One of the most
famous examples of the 20th century is “Comme d’habitude”, adapted
into “My Way”, which became Frank Sinatra’s theme song, and into
many other covers (see Lexilogos). As the beginning of the songs
below show, the initial ending love story of Claude François becomes
in English a meditation on mortality by an older man taking stock of
his life. The themes and tones of the two songs are as far apart as can
be:
Translation of Music 329

Claude François “Comme Claude François “Comme Frank Sinatra (1969)

d’habitude” (1967) d’habitude” (1967) English adaptation by Paul
Original French Literal translation Anka (1969)
Je me lève I get up And now
Et je te bouscule And shake you up The end is near
Tu n'te réveilles pas You don’t wake up And so I face
Comme d'habitude As usual. The final curtain.

Sur toi On you My friend

Je remonte le drap I pull up the sheets I’ll say it clear
J'ai peur que tu aies froid I worry that you may be cold, I’ll state my case
Comme d'habitude As usual. Of which I’m certain

Ma main My hand I’ve lived

Caresse tes cheveux Strokes your hair A life that’s full
Presque malgré moi Unwittingly I’ve travelled each
Comme d'habitude As usual. And every highway

Mais toi But you And more

Tu me tournes le dos Are turning your back to me Much more than this
Comme d'habitude As usual. I did it my way.

Alors So Regrets,
Je m'habille très vite I quickly get dressed, I’ve had a few
Je sors de la chambre Get out of the bedroom But then again
Comme d'habitude As usual. Too few to mention.

Tout seul Alone, I did

Je bois mon café I drink my coffee, What I had to do
Je suis en retard I am late, And saw it through
Comme d'habitude As usual. Without exemption.

Sans bruit Silently, I planned

Je quitte la maison I leave the house Each chartered course
Tout est gris dehors All is grey outside Each careful step
Comme d'habitude As usual. Along the byway.

J'ai froid I am cold And more,

Je relève mon col I pull up my collar much more than this
Comme d'habitude As usual. I did it my way.
… … …

Literal or semi-literal translations are also available on related inter-

net sites. In pop and rock music, where the original lyrics can usually be
330 Lucile Desblache

provided by software applications as mentioned above, interlingual trans-

lations are frequently offered by fan translators whether on a music blog,
below the video of the song or on a separate site.
An intersensorial mediation of the lyrics and the musical show in gen-
eral, which operates across different senses. This can include subtitling/sur-
titling, signing for the deaf and the hard of hearing, as well as audio
describing or audio introducing for the blind and the visually impaired. In
musical live events and products, intra/interlingual surtitles are provided
for all members of the public, regardless of their ability. Unlike on televi-
sion, no subtitling/surtitling is offered during the musical performance.
Transcriptions, interlingual and intralingual translations can take the form
of surtitles, subtitles, printed texts, electronic texts and audiorecordings
while intersensorial translation can also use video recordings. These trans-
lations can be hosted for the stage, the cinema, television, all video and web
platforms, including mobile phones and other electronic devices. They can
abide by standard norms of publishing applying to each specific platform,
or depart from them. For instance, song translation for the stage can offer
standard static surtitles projected above the stage or animated writing with
special effects, different speeds, spacings and directions, created as part of
the production. Thus, in the 2013 Macerata Opera Festival, surtitles for the
Midsummer Night’s Dreams (music by Mendelssohn and Britten), projected
on the huge outdoor wall of the Sferisterio building, were given the shape
of 1920s cinema intertitles, in line with the production

“Anche Lisandra ama Ermia Lysander also loves Hermia”

(Midsummer Night’s Dreams August 2013, Macerata Opera Festival. Production Francesco Micheli)
Translation of Music 331

Fonts, layouts, colours, levels of brightness can also be used as varia-

tions, which are meaningful to the target text. For instance, although on
the whole, sung text is produced slower than spoken text, the simultane-
ous or very rapidly succeeding emission of lines is common in vocal en-
sembles. To avoid confusion, different lines sung by different characters
may mirror their position on the stage and are separated by a dash as in
the example below from Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro produced by the
Royal Opera House, London (as quoted by Palmer 2013: 31):

—Him? —You? —Figaro?

—My mother? —Who?

Some theatres provide signing for the deaf with a sign interpreter
mediating rhythms, tempi and musical emotion with one hand and using
sign language to translate the lyrics with the other hand.
Provision for the blind is often more comprehensive with a choice of
recorded audio introductions or audio descriptions for opera and some
musicals. Some theatres also offer pre-performance touch tours in order
to give blind or visually-impaired members of the audience an opportu-
nity to touch costumes, props, explore the stage set and talk to members
of the cast.

Conclusion

From specialized publications comprising complex music terminologies

to live interviews with musicians to be provided on different media plat-
forms, texts including or involving music encompass an extraordinarily
wide spectrum. Their transfers can concern musical content and words.
They can take place across time, genre, styles, as well as cultural, artistic
and linguistic borders. They require every known form of translation.
Music has been at the heart of the Third Wave revolution prophesized by
Alvin Toffler (1980) in that it is vital to the worldwide participatory cul-
ture that is driving the world today, defying the ways multinational com-
panies provide it and disseminate it. It has and is playing a crucial role in
constructing the world, fostering both diversity and global reach. In the
last decade, it has inspired new forms of translation. Perhaps paradoxi-
cally, as music has becoming more individualized through technology
332 Lucile Desblache

devices, it has also favoured collective forms of translation. Lyrics web-

sites, music recognition software, song lyrics catalogues, music sharing
community sites all depend on the resources that ordinary listeners and
viewers make available. This chapter could only give a bird’s eye view of
the processes and products that music translation entails. The decision to
focus on texts including music itself and words was driven by the fact
that every translator who works in a range of fields will at some stage en-
counter the challenge of translation involving music. Such translations,
whether or not they involve the transfer of lyrics, require specific strate-
gies and knowledge for a successful mediation. The challenges and scopes
of music translations go beyond those of vocal music. They can involve
texts about music and various ways of interpreting music. For music, ac-
cording to Victor Hugo, is that “which cannot be told and cannot be kept
silent” (Hugo 1864: 120). It depends on interpretation to be meaningful
and to reach an audience. In this sense, just as for Umberto Eco “translation
[was] the language of Europe” (Eco 1993), translation is also the language
of music.
Translation of Music 333

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Music and Films

Almadóvar, Pedro (2006) Vovler, 121 minutes, Production: El Deseo et al.
Ortega, Kenny (1992) Newsies, 121 minutes, Production: Walt Disney Pictures.
Nichols, Mike (1967) The Graduate,1h 46 minutes, Production: MGM.
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Russian Traditional Folk Song “Kalinka”, http://www.rmda.us/music/kalinka.pdf.