Vernacular Architecture UNIT - 3

UNIT III VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF THE WESTERN AND NORTHERN REGIONS OF INDIA
Architecture of the Deserts of Kutch
 Primitive forms
 Symbolism
 Colour
 Folk Art, etc.
 Gujarat State - Subterranean Architecture
 Gujarat & Rajasthan - Wooden Houses & Mansions (Havelis)
 Kashmir - Houseboats (Dhungas); Materials of Construction & Construction detail.

ARCHITECTURE OF THE DESERTS OF KUTCH

 Geography:
− It is the land of deserts, dry salty alluvial mudflats, and great stretches of water.
− Kachchh District is surrounded by the Gulf of Kachchh and the Arabian Sea in south and west, while
northern and eastern parts are surrounded by the Great and Small Rann (seasonal wetlands) of Kachchh.
 Climate:
− Kutch experiences extreme climatic conditions characterized by
sweltering summer and scanty rainfall.
− It is a shallow wetland which submerges during rainy season and
becomes dry during other seasons and marshy salt flats when
shallow water dries up.
− Winter temperature-12°Celsius to 25°Celsius. And sometimes
low as 2°Celsius.
− Summer temperature- extremely hot up to 48° Celsius.
− Average rainfall of around 14 Inc.
− Central, western, and southern coastal desert areas-hot and dry climate-nomadic and semi nomadic
communities-circular mud and thatch houses-scarce resources.
 History:
− 2600 BC before Jesus birth Harappan civilization evolved on banks of river Sindh similarly Kutch was
evolved on the banks of river Godavari.
− It has been proved from excavated weapons made from stones, which indicates cave man civilization.
− During 78 to 400 BC inscriptions on prevalence of Jainism and Buddhism also found.
 Culture:
− Culture is the soul of their life.
− Their caste and community defines their own culture.
− Hinduism is the major religion followed by the kutchies.
− They worship Banyan,Tulsi,and Pipal. They also worship cows and snakes.
− In many castes of Kutch, cattle are important than education.
− Many people believe in ghosts and supernatural believes.
− Sthanaks of gods and goddesses are built with well connected.
− In every village we find Kuldevi’s Deris and that are built for protection of village.
− In the west side of any village resides hanuman’s Deris and out of village Vachradada’s Sthanaks, at the
entrance Nagdeva Deris.
− They dressed up fully covered to prevent themselves from extreme climate.
− Men wear cheni, dothi made of thick cloths.
− Women mostly wear choli, ludi, and veil-odhani.
− The groom is dressed up like king. he wears traditional dress which is embroider and with the embroider
sword in his hand.

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− Colors and embroidery works defines their unique caste and community.
− Jewelleries they wear symbolize their culture and community.
− (Example:Muslim women wear artistic ankle bangals
called ghunla).
− Rabariwomen’s main jewels akota that they wear in their
nose. It is too heavy and so is supported by a look of hair.
Men also wear kadku in ear.

 Festivals and Fairs:

− Navarathiri- Important festival for matha. And they have fairs in
− Mata’s madh.
− Janmasthami-Mandvis ravadi fair held on this day and on second
− Day they have rathyatra.
− Shitla saptami- Celebrated on the birthday of lord Krishna.First
− Day they celebrate Shitla saptami.
− Hajipir - It is celebrated on the name of saint Hajipir ( Muslim )
− Who gave his life to save cow from bandits.
− Jesal and toral- fair for saintly couple
− Dada mekan
− Mota yaksha
− Naagapanjami- celebrated at the temple of naga dev at the top of bhjiahill.
 Arts and Crafts:
− Lacquerware:Lacquered bed posts, Dandia (Stick) Godiva (Cradles) handles of spoon, velans (Chapatti
Roles) Bajots (low stool) Patla, flower pots and Powder boxes are produced.

− Wood Carving: Teak wood and local babul is used for middle relief carving.
− Terracotta Pots: Traditional art made in different sizes and shapes. Colours are of white red and black. The
common motifs used are waves, straight lines and zigzag lines, peacocks in various postures, leaves, fish
and flowers.
− Anjarakh printing: This is a very complex hand printing Technique using wooden blocks and dyes.

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− Embroidery, beadwork and appliqué work: Embroidery is also a major craft and especially beadwork
embroidery seen in Gondla, and leather embroidery for mouldy footwear.
− Bandhani: It is the most important traditional handiwork of Kutchies. It is an art of dying.
− Mud work: Is an artistic wall piece. Walls are highly decorated with mix of camel dung mud and mirrors.
This work is usually done by women.

− Handloom weaving: Weavers weave wool, cotton acrylic yarn to make shawl, yardage, and jackets.
− Silverware & other metal work
 Music and Dance :
− They sing and dance during festivals and fairs and at usual nights to entertain themselves.

 Primitive Form: Traditional rural house –Bhonga

− The Bhonga is a traditional construction type in the Kutch district
of the Gujarat state in India.
− Bhonga construction has existed for several hundred years.
− This type of house is quite durable and appropriate for prevalent
desert conditions.
− Due to its robustness against natural hazards as well as its pleasant
aesthetics, this housing is also known as "Architecture without
Architects.
 Building configuration:
− Bhonga is circular in plan, with cylindrically shaped walls and
topped with conical roof.
− The inner diameter of the Bhonga is typically between 3m to 6m.
− A Bhonga generally has only three openings one door and two
small windows.
− These buildings are typically found in flat terrain.
− They do not share common walls with adjacent buildings.
− When separated from adjacent buildings, the typical distance from a
neighbouring building is 3.0 meters.
 Functional planning:
− The main function of this building typology is single-family house.
− Main door of the Bhonga is the only means of escape.

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 Modification to building:
− Recent Bhonga constructions have used wide variety of construction materials.
− These include the stone or burnt brick masonry either in mud mortar or in cement mortar.
− Traditional roof consists of light-weight conical roof, while some recent constructions have used heavy
Mangalore tiles on roofs.
− Some recent constructions have used circular strip footing below the wall, while traditional construction
simply extended the walls below ground level.
 Building dimensions:
− Typical Plan Dimensions: Inner diameter generally varies between
3.0 m to 6.0 m
− Height: 2.5 meters.
− The typical structural wall density is more than 20 %. 25%
(totally) since,
o Walls: Stone masonry in mud mortar, burnt bricks with mud or

lime mortar.
o Foundation: Stone masonry in mud mortar, burnt.

o Roof and floor(s): Bamboo, straw and thatch roof.

 Streetscape:
− Street elevation-planned visual order-based on social aspect
− Varying height, proportion, opening pattern

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Housing Typology - 3 Housing Typology - 4

 Architectural features:
− Narrow and linear houses.
− Construction made up of mud.
− Single bed room plan.
− Central court yard was provided.
− Sloped roof construction.
− The entrance of houses is represented by Gadi on both sides of doors.
− Interwoven open, semi open, and enclosed spaces.
− Belief, religion, climate, materials, social structure and economy-habitat.
− Central, western, and southern coastal areas-hot and humid climate-long row type houses, narrow streets
network and dense population-traditional villages
− Desert areas-hot and dry climate-nomadic and semi nomadic communities-circular mud and thatch houses-
scarce resources.
 Color and symbolism:
− Colors and type of their costumes symbolize their castes, community they are.
− The jewellery they wore represents their culture, community etc.
− Traditional colors such as red, green, blue, black, yellow, maroon, brown are often
wore by them.
− Bandhani: It has a deep root of social customs. it is a symbol of married life. It is must in marriages of
Hindus and Muslims. Traditional colors of red, green, yellow, dark blues are used.
− Almost every part of the Kutch surrounded by cremated stones called ‘palia’ that are symbol of bravery of
the people.
− Settlement of dispute invariably follows offering milk to each other as a concluding remark.
− In the Kutchi engagement ceremony, the bride's family offers milk to the groom's relatives as a symbol of
accepting their relationship.

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GUJARAT STATE - SUBTERRANEAN ARCHITECTURE

− The state is bordered by
o Rajasthan to the north

o Maharashtra to the south

o Madhya Pradesh to the east

o Arabian sea to the west

− The capital of Gujarat is Gandhinagar and its largest city is

Ahmadabad.
− Gujarat played an important role in the economic history of
India.
− They express the totality of relationship between man and
society.
 Architectural Concept of Gujarat: Bohra Houses
− The settlements are characterized by consistency over a long period
of time and the strong traditional habitat of the Islamic community.
− Integration of the built environment with the patterns of life.
− Most bohras are inwardly oriented, where the houses are arranged
in an introverted neighbourhood form.
− The houses are typically grouped around a street and these form a
Mohalla (several bohras form a Mohalla and several mohallas form a
bohrwad)
− Each mohalla is an exogamous unit and may have 50-100 houses.

 Features:
− The neighbourhood have a structural unity and give a general impression of order and homogeneity
− Beside the housing a bohrwad generally consist of mosque , madras's and other buildings for collective
functioning
− It is basically a deep a house plan with 3-4 sequential room one behind the other
− Certain concepts like clear separation between the public and private , necessity for an in-between zone at
the entrance level ,male female divide, seclusion of women , intense need of privacy etc have brought about
specific devices and spatial configuration
− The kitchen is common to all, the individual courtyard becomes an air and light shaft where the cooler air
sinks below and the hotter air escapes out of the room
− The Bohras have adopted the regional tradition of Gujarat of making facades with intricate details in wood.
− Through the display of several textures and patterns, they express balance and harmony within a
predominantly symmetrical composition.
− The surface of the facade is visually broken by ornamented columns, brackets and mouldings, at times
bringing multi-colored cohesion to the streets.

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− The impact of cultural attitude is seen in the full enclosure of the balcony in many of the bohra houses
because the bohra life style emphasis privacy, formality and internalization.
− A space is created next to the entrance for the seat which is used for a group of women to relax and
converse.
− Since both Hindu and bohra house types are based on common regional house forms, there are more
similarities than differences.
 Huts of Gujarat :
− Huts in the countryside were usually made with mud and plastered with dung.
 Features :
− They had thatched roof made from local material, such as palm fronds, coconut leaves or dry straw.

− Veranda would have extended the covered area at the front and back.
− People used the “room” to store things and during the rainy or cold season. Most of the time they lived on
the veranda or the outer courtyard. This allowed people to socialise and catch the breeze during the hottest
part of the day. Even at night, they would have slept outside to keep cool.
− There were no indoor toilets in huts – people went out in the fields to relieve themselves.
− Animals would have been sheltered in sheds nearby; there would have been a small garden to grow herbs,
vegetables and fruits.
− Cooking would have happened in the open courtyard or at one end of the veranda. This way the smoke and
smell would have been immediately expelled
− Shining, reflecting mirrors were inserted throughout the house at various parts for decorative purpose.
− The plastered mud walls where painted with bright bold colors representing the charm of Gujarat's cultural
heritage
− Small handmade paintings of idols , animals and folklore activities where painted on the walls by the
habitants
 Subterranean Architecture:
− Step wells, also called bawdi are wells or ponds in which the water
can be reached by descending a set of steps.
− They may be covered and protected, and are often of architectural
significance.
− It can be multi-storied also in which a bullock turns the water wheel
to raise the water in the well to the first or second floor.
− The majority of surviving step wells originally also served a leisure
purpose, as well as providing water.
− This was because the base of the well provided relief from daytime heat, and more such relief.
− This underground construction peculiar to the Gujarat region (except for southern Gujarat) was the outcome
of the hot, arid climate and of water available for human and animal use in the region.
 Folk Art:
− Around more than thousand festivals are celebrated in Gujarat, the state is known as the land of fairs and
festivals.
− Gujarat is well known for its graceful dances and rhythmic music.
− One of the best known aspects of Gujarat is its tradition of textiles and handicrafts.

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− Any form of art, be it sculpture, architecture, painting,

poetry or music reflects the mood and psyche of the
people of the period.
− All forms of art and craft in Gujarat reflect the
aggressive individuality and religious impulses of an
average Guajarati and have religious impulses
− Major artistic talents of Gujarat are sculpture,
miniature painting, calligraphy, music, etc.
 Colour and Symbolism
− Gujarat is a state which gives major respect and importance to tradition, culture,
religion, patriotism.
− Hence the colors of the Indian national flag (green, white, and saffron) are being
significantly used in the states construction decoration and art works along with
other bright and bold colors.
− Bright, bold colors symbolize the aggressive individuality and religious impulses
of the Guajarati habitants.

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GUJARAT & RAJASTHAN - WOODEN HOUSES & MANSIONS (HAVELIS)

− The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's first and oldest civilizations, was located in parts of what
is now Rajasthan.
− Rajasthan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization
− The Aravalli range divides the state into 60% in the northwest of the range and 40% in the southeast.
− The northwest tract is sandy and unproductive while fertile and habitable land lies towards the east.
− In Indian architecture there are features like pavilions, courtyards, terraces, as well as threshold and realm
accentuating transition.
− Climate has a very deterministic role in shaping activity areas by creating indoor, outdoor and in-between
spaces.
 Pavilions:
− They came into being by multiplying very simple spatial units in modules.
− Consisting of four columns and a roof.
− It conveys the idea of shelter, but does not enclose; it is built and has a presence, yet it is transparent and
ethereal.
− It is clear that such open shelters served best during summer evenings in arid regions, or even in the warm
humid regions, allowing a free flow of fresh air.

Pavilion Baradari Chattti

 Baradaris:
− Fairly common in north-western parts of India.
− Every royal complex has to have a baradaris often more than one.
− These structures are so articulated with the landscape and the spatial order of a building complex as to
provide the most strategic location for a good view, fresh air and general comfort.
 Chattris:
− Another version of pavilion is the large cupola-like structure called a chattri in the north-western parts of
India and is often grouped in clusters.
− The structure is polygonal or circular in plan and has a domical roof.
− This extremely adaptable element is space, but equally it is a complete form.
− Chattris generally have only peripheral supports allowing a column less space.
 Courtyards:
− Internal open spaces become another thematic element in all scales of domestic architecture.
− From small urban houses to large mansions and palaces, courtyards became the key organisational elements
responding to climatic conditions as well as the cultural needs of communities.
− The rooms get their light and ventilation from this courtyard and have very few openings onto the exterior.
 Entrances:
− The most important transitional relationship between two distinct realms is expressed through entrances.
− In many cultures, entrances are intentionally indirect in order to achieve greater privacy.
− On the other hand, there are numerous examples all over the world, where a single door can be the total and
only link between the inside and the outside.

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− In yet another form, an entrance may be the prelude through which one is introduced to the interior right
from the first step.
 Planning issue and Climate:
− A typical town of Rajasthan presents a very compact picture of houses and other buildings huddled together
so that they not only shade each other but also considerably reduce the exposed open spaces around them.
− The height of the building compared to the width of the streets is large to create shaded cool environment
for the pedestrians and other social activities on the streets.
− All major streets are oriented almost in the East-West direction at right angles to the direction of dust
storms.
 Control of heating by texture of surfaces:
− The heat inside of the building is controlled by the use of textures in
Jaisalmer.
− This is organized at three levels.
− At the town scale the buildings are of unequal height with parapets
and high walls, creating uneven sky lines and desired shading of each
other.
− Secondly, the building facades have large number of projections like
jharokhas and chajjas which provide shade to the facades.
− Thirdly, the front part of the facade which remains exposed is controlled by creating deeply carved patterns.
− Use of such devices minimizes the heat gain by providing shading due to texture.
− Such devices also result in increased convective transfer of heat because of increased surface area.
− In summer in day time when the major heat source is Sun the exposed textured surfaces will be cooler than
plain surfaces.
− In evening when ambient conditions are cool the increase surface area helps in cooling it faster.
− However, an extended surface will warm up faster than a plain surface under winter conditions due to low
solar altitude, therefore the location in context of these surfaces is very important.
 Orientation:
− The building is always oriented by the cardinal directions: North, South, East, West, Northeast, Northwest,
Southeast and Southwest.
− Each of these directions is considered as energy by itself.
− The spaces in different orientation are considered differently for design purposes which is a very climate
sensitive approach.
− The placement of the building within the site is the first step toward forming the grid for internal planning.
 The Grid and the Courtyard:
− The grid system of planning was always followed regardless of the site or building type.
− The grid was made flexible enough to accommodate any site condition and topography.
− Grid system is more sustainable in terms of economy and speed of construction.
− The grid was not always symmetric or simple. Complex geometry and curvilinear grids were also adopted.
− The central courtyard is the ‘lung space 'of either the house or the housing block.
− Just to ensure there is a courtyard in every house, the centre of the house is never built up and is called the
Brahmastana, the genius loci of the house.
 The Four Golden Principles:
 Function or bhogadam
− Function or bhogadam which was given the first priority keeps climate among the first considerations in
architectural design.
− Bioclimatic approaches to new forms and materials were explored.
− The architects never considered climate as a force to fight or win but to enhance and enjoy.
− Even extremities in climate were handled with master skill and remarkable comfort levels were achieved.

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− Most of the forms were aimed at long term benefit and well thought about before the designed building is
built.
− Harmony or ramyam
− Harmony or ramyam was achieved by geometry and play of shapes, Solids and voids.
− The architectural language was of simple spaces with complex ornamentation, which in most cases had a
use along with its aesthetic appeal.
− For example a rain water gutter was so well sculpted in the temples that one just thinks it is for the delight
of the eye.
 Aesthetics
− The aesthetics or sukhadarsham were not ‘added on’ to the building but were an integral part of it.
− It is sometimes difficult to tell apart where the functional aspect stops and the aesthetic one starts.
 Poornam
− Lastly, the ‘all encompassing’ factor or poornam of Indian Architecture was a result of the perfect blend of
the above-mentioned three factors which makes it feel eternal.
 Colour of Rajasthan
− Although, Rajasthan is full of scenic beauty, but the most lasting impression that visitor take away with
them after travelling through this state is that of color.
− In Rajasthan color is evident in turbans, in long skirts known as 'Ghagharas' worm by Rajasthani women,
and in their odhnis of different colors such as red, green blue, yellow and purple etc. Rajasthan is the most
colorful region of India.
 Culture
− Rajasthan is a perfect place for culture vultures. The desert state of Rajasthan is widely renowned for its
rich culture that enamours everyone.
− Soulful music and dance, colorful handicrafts, resplendent fairs and festivals and the breathtaking
architecture, the culture and tradition of Rajasthan is known for its distinctiveness.
− Fairs and festivals of Rajasthan add more colors and vibrancy to the lives of people.
− Various fairs and festivals bring the desert state alive.
− Every festival has its own character and significance. Fairs and festivals such as Desert Festival, Pushkar
Festival, etc, provide an insight into the traditional and cultural life of these desert people.
− Most of the festivals in Rajasthan include activities like camel / elephant processions, camel races, folk
performances and many more.
− There are a number of historic and cultural sites in Rajasthan.
− JantarMantar, City Palace, Lake Palace, HawaMahal, JaisalmerHavelis, Chittorgarh Fort, Ranakpur Jain
Temples and Shekhawati Havelis are some of the most notable historic monuments of Rajasthan.
− Most of the monuments in the state boast of a harmonious mix ofRajput and Mughal architecture.
− From intricate carvings and mirror work to murals, forts and palaces of Rajasthan offers a glimpse in the
rich history of the region.
 Folk Arts of Rajasthan
− Rajasthan is blessed with a rich cultural heritage.
− The land of colors and diversified culture - Rajasthan - boasts of being the land accommodating various art
forms such as music, dance, paintings and handicrafts.
− Most of the art forms have been transferred from one generation to the other.
− Several dance forms have evolved in the desert state of Rajasthan over the centuries.'Gair', 'Ghoomar',
'Gauri', 'Raika', 'Kalbeila' and 'Jhoria' are some of the dances of Rajasthan.
− Many a times, these dances are performed on the auspicious events such as festivals.
− While attending the fairs and festivals in Rajasthan, one will also see 'TerahTaali', 'Matka-bhawai' and
puppet dance. These dance forms of Rajasthan has always been appealing.
− Through folk music of Rajasthan, Ballad singing or Panihari folk music, one can explore the rich cultural
heritage of Rajasthan 'Maand', which was evolved in the royal era, is the most popular folk music in the
desert state of Rajasthan.

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− Today also, these folk performers have kept alive the rich culture and traditions of the region.
− Painting schools of Kota, Jaipur and Bikaner are famous worldwide.
− The folk arts of Rajasthan India also include the colorful handicrafts, the tie-and-dye Bandhej, Leheriya
prints on fabrics, hand-woven saris of Kota and Sanganer Block Printing.
 Havelis
− The term Haveli was first applied in Rajasthan by the Vaishnava sect to refer to their temples in Gujarat.
− In the northern part of India, Havelis for Lord Krishna are prevalent with huge mansion like constructions.
− The havelis are noted for their frescoes depicting images of gods, godesses, animals, scenes from British
colonization, and the life stories of Lords Rama and Krishna.
− Later on these temple architectures and frescoes were imitated while building huge individual mansions and
now the word is popularly recognized with the mansions themselves.
− Between 1830 and 1930, Marwari's erected buildings in their homeland, Shekhwati and Marwar. These
buildings were callledhavelis.
− The Marwaris commissioned artists to paint those buildings, which were heavily influenced by the Mughal
architecture.
− The havelis were staus symbols for the marwaris as well as homes for their extending family, providing
security and comfort in seclusion from the outside world.
− The havelis were to be closed from outside with one large main gate. The typical havelis in shekhawati
consisted of two courtyards – an outer one for the men and inner one, the domain of the women.
− The largest could have up to three or four courtyards and were two to three stories high.

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KASHMIR - HOUSEBOATS (DHUNGAS)

− There are three factors governing the construction
methods and availability of materials in Kashmir,
they are:
o Economics

o Maintenance

o Geography

 Economics
− This is demonstrated most clearly by the use of
brick for construction, which is most economical
in the plains of the Kashmir Valley, and the use of
stone, which is most economical in the hills, on
account of their easy availability in the respective
areas.
− The valley has soil that is most suitable to make
bricks, baked or unbaked. The mountains, on the
other hand, offer very little soil but have lots of
stone and rock.
 Maintenance
− Maintenance requires materials and skills. Since these are no different from what is required in
construction, the maintenance of rural structures is easy and within the reach of ordinary people.
− However, if materials from outside the locality were to be used, the maintenance of the structure would
become expensive.
 Geography
− Winter cold is the most common natural factor governing most of Kashmir. Thick walls of brick and stone
with mud plaster provide excellent protection against this, as does a thick mud-timber roof.
− The lighter, pitched roof made of timber and CGI sheets in combination with the attic floor also ensures
liveable conditions inside the house in winter and summer.
− The steep pitch of the light roof permits little accumulation of snow and prevents any water leakage
 Evolution of Vernacular Architecture in Kashmir
− Traditional architecture in many places continues to evolve, and Kashmiri rural architecture is no exception.
− A number of building systems in various parts of Kashmir have developed over time to accommodate local
natural and cultural factors, including the impact of earthquakes.
− These systems are not only part of the cultural heritage of Kashmir but also add to its beautiful landscape.
− Historically, the buildings have depended completely upon stone, mud, bricks and wood for roofing as well
as walling.

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− Until very recently, non-local materials did not represent a valid option for local constructions.
− They were expensive, and their use added logistical complications to the construction process.
− However, in recent times new materials have made their way into the valleys of Kashmir on account of
their favourable economics as well as people’s aspiration to modernity.
− Until the 1970s the most common building systems in Kashmir were brick or stone walls.
− Some of them timber framed, with timber and mud roofs. But as durable wood like Deodar became very
expensive, corrugated galvanized iron (CGI) sheets came to replace wood planks and shingles.
 Architectural characteristics in Rural areas of Valley of Kashmir
− The most common wall types are load bearing:
− baked brick (external wall) masonry with mud or cement mortar, with or without plaster
− unbaked brick (internal wall) with mud mortar and mud plaster
− unbaked brick with baked brick veneer (external wall) masonry with mud mortar, with or without plaster
− Dhajji timber framed constructions with infill of baked brick in cement mortar or unbaked brick masonry in
mud mortar, both 4" thick with timber frame.
− Many structures which are typically single- and double storey have Dhajji walls in the upper storey and the
gables.

 Factors dictating the local architecture:

− Easy access to good soil for brick-making, and to water and timber snow in
winter.
− Possibility of earthquakes. As a result, walls are made mainly out of timber
and bricks, baked or unbaked.
− Roofs slope steeply in two directions. Although planks or shingles of
hardwood like Deodar were formerly the main roofing materials, today CGI
sheets on timber supports have become the most common type of roofing.
 Architectural characteristics in Urban areas of Valley of Kashmir
− The urban areas of the Valley have architecture that is distinct from all
other areas.
− The main factor determining this architecture is the high density of
development.

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− This calls for vertical growth, resulting into three to four storey structures.
− The two most common walling systems observed are:
o Dhajji type, with timber frame and infill consisting of baked or unbaked bricks

o Taaq type, consisting of brick masonry interlaced with heavy timber bands supported on large masonry

piers made of baked bricks.

Taaq construction showing the timber lacing The timber frame of dhajjidewari construction shown
embedded into the masonry walls before infill masonry is added

 High-Elevation hilly region:

− The major factors that dictate the local
architecture in this zone are:
− Easy access to building-quality stone.
− Limited availability of topsoil.
− Varying availability of water, ranging from
abundant to very little.
− Better availability of timber than in other
zones due to lesser deforestation.
− Difficulty in carting non-local materials.
− Heavy snow in winter.
− Possibility of earthquakes.

 Low-Elevation hilly region:

− The main factors that dictate the local
architecture in this zone are:
− Easy access to building quality stone
− Limited availability of topsoil
− Greatly varying availability of water
− Varying availability of timber
− Little snow in winter
− Possibility of earthquakes.

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 Wall types in Kashmir

− The most common wall types are:
− Coursed random rubble masonry with or without mud mortar, with or without mud plaster
− Dhajji wall made of timber frame with small stones and plenty of mud mortar as infill, mainly for the
interior walls.
− Mud roofing on timber deck placed on rubble masonry walls Coursed random rubble masonry without
plaster Coursed random rubble masonry without plaster availability of mud and water vary greatly.

 Kashmir house boats:

 History behind the construction of house boats:

− Members of the Indian Civil Service who vacationed in Kashmir were not permitted to own land or build
permanent homes because the Maharaja of Kashmir at the time feared a British presence in Srinagar. As a
result, they chose to stay on houseboats. The first one - the Victory - was designed by M.T. Kenhard and
built in 1888.
− Now hundreds if not thousands of the boats line the lakes of Kashmir and the Jehlum River. Their designs
range from basic shelters to elaborate five-star floating palaces.
 Basic Construction Method:
− The boats were entirely built by traditional methods using crude hand-tools and manual labor. There were
no Black & Decker power tools, no lifting cranes, or no air compressors.
− Nailers pounded red-hot spikes to join sides to the keel of the Snow King. Planers smoothed planks for
flooring while other men slopped white paint to the hull of the Cultural Palace.

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