Archives Volume 40 International Scientific Journal

Issue 1 published monthly by the

of Materials Science November 2009 World Academy of Materials
and Engineering Pages 5-12 and Manufacturing Engineering

Organic Light Emitting Diodes operation

and application in displays
J. ¯mija a,*, M.J. Ma³achowski b
a Institute of Technical Physics, Military University of Technology,
ul. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warszawa, Poland
b Education Department, The K. Pulaski Technical University of Radom,
ul. J. Malczewski 20A, 26-600 Radom, Poland
* Corresponding author: E-mail address: jzmija@edu.wat.pl
Received 30.08.2009; published in revised form 01.11.2009

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The aim of this work is to perform the review of the recent most important results of experimental and
theoretical investigations connected with the organic light emitting devices (OLEDs).
Design/methodology/approach: The recent achievements in the field of designing, fabricating and
clarification of the OLEDs operation have been presented. The possibilities of numerous, present and future
applications of these devices have been pointed out.
Findings: We show that fundamental differences among organic and inorganic devices result from differences
between inorganic and molecular semiconductor materials. No charges are present in OLED devices without
charge injection. Emission is due to radiative transitions from the neutral excited states to the ground states. We
pointed out the important role that the OLEDs play in display design (even the flexible ones).
Research limitations/implications: The main disadvantage of OLEDs is reported to be short their lives
(particularly the blue OLED) and weak resistivity to moist but improvements are advancing.
Originality/value: Our review concerns the most recent experimental and theoretical publications in the OLED
investigation. We also show some recent examples of OLEDs application.
Keywords: LED, OLED; Displays; Organic materials; Optoelectronics
Reference to this paper should be given in the following way:
J. Żmija, M.J. Małachowski, Organic Light Emitting Diodes operation and application in displays, Archives
of Materials Science and Engineering 40/1 (2009) 5-12.

RESEARCH PAPER

1. Introduction
1. 
Introduction organic synthetic techniques and the wide spectrum of
commercially available building blocks allow seemingly infinite
flexibility in tuning molecular structure, and therefore the
Organic materials are of great interest for electronics corresponding molecular packing and macroscopic properties.
applications, as they have many advantages over their inorganic Already, organic solids such as pentacene and rubrene have
counterparts. They may often be solution-processed, allowing the surpassed amorphous Si in performance, of thin film transistors
fabrication of devices such as circuits, displays, and radio- (TFT) and light emitting devices creating organic light emitting
frequency identification devices on plastic substrates, and diodes (OLEDs) which are used by the former. An OLED is a
deposition by unconventional means, such as screen and inkjet thin-film solid state device, which makes it easier to apply to
printing. The most attractive prospect, however, is the flexible displays because of its relatively simple fabrication process
incorporation of functionality by design. The versatility of and reduced distortion according to the geometric form of display.

© Copyright by International OCSCO World Press. All rights reserved. 2009 5

 J. ¯mija, M.J. Ma³achowski

Table 1.
History of investigations in the field of electroluminescence organic materials
Year Authors & references Materials, structure and emission
1953 Bernanose et al. [10] Blue emission from LED on Li complex
1963 Pope et al. [11] EL from antracene crystals
1976 Kalinowski et al. [12] EL from tetracene crystals
1983 Partridge [13] EL from polymers
1987 Tang and Van Slyke [14] Double-layer organic solid LED
1990 Burroughes et al. [15] Single-layer PLED
1993 Greenham et al. [16] Double-layer PLED
2007 M. Hack el al. [17] Technology Flexible OLED display

The purpose of this article is to review the recent most enough threshold-voltage shifts has to be developed. Another
important papers concerning investigations on OLEDs and approach is the use of microcrystalline silicon (a-Si). The other
AMOLEDs. Recently, some reviews have appeared on this method is the use of low-temperature polycrystalline silicon (LTPS)
subject, just to mention the papers [1-9]. History of fundamental which has the highest carrier mobility and extremely small
investigations in the field of electroluminescence organic threshold-voltage shift. In order to realize the feasibility of this new
materials, OLEDs and display is presented in Table 1 [10-17]. As technology as described above, Sony has developed a 27-in. OLED-
it can be seen since over 50 years, researchers are interested in display prototype with full-HD resolution (1920 x l080 RGB) [9].
study of this subjects. Additionally, the metal-free transparent Recently, prototypes have been demonstrated based on a-Si,
OLEDs should be mentioned. Theirs original fabrication and including a 20-in. display by IBM/GMO in 2003[21] and a 40-in.
interesting properties have been reported by Parthasarathy et al. display by Samsung Electronics in 2005[22]; however, even with
[18]. Furthermore, importance of the quasi-monochromatic colour these demonstrations, the majority of AMOLED prototypes
and white light emitting devices should be indicated. For continue to be made on crystallized Si TFT backplanes (e.g., CMO
example, quasi-monochromatic OLEDs based on rare earth ion demonstrated a 25-in.-diagonal AMOLED in 2006 based upon an
emission, particularly on Eu and Tb organic complexes, emitting LTPS backplane), primarily because of the stability problems
in pure red and green and also the highly efficient white-light associated with a-Si. Almost all OLED displays produced today use
emitting devices based on single dopant emitters of a mixture of the evaporation of organic small molecules [23].
molecular, excimer and exciplex phosphorescence have been The display market of the future demands ubiquitous devices
reported by Kalinowski et al. [19]. that are more portable, fashionable, and environmentally friendly
OLED displays may be operated in two basic architectures: [24]. Display manufacturers need to advance their technologies to
passive matrix (PM) and active matrix (AM) displays. The AM build lighter, slimmer, more rugged devices that consume low
architecture is expected to be the main technology on which amounts of power while at the same time improve the picture
advanced OLED displays will be based (steering them by TFT quality. The emerging technology of flexible active-matrix displays
which could be the organic or inorganic). Now the used displays are is being developed in order to fulfil these needs. Currently, there are
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube), PDP (Plasma Display Panel) ELD active research projects in reflective-type flexible liquid-crystal
(Electro Luminescent Display), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and displays (LCDs) [25], flexible electrophoretic displays (EPDs) [26],
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode). These two architectures are and emissive type flexible OLED displays [17]. Today, EPD
concurring OLED technology that resembles LCD technology and technology is considered as the most desirable flexible-display
uses such procedures as vacuum evaporation of thin films technology because of its simple fabrication process and very low
(including shadow mask processes), lithography and etc. The others power consumption. An AMOLED, on the other hand, is an
are described in paper [20]. Organic thin film transistors (OTFTs) emissive-type display device that promises better picture quality -
are required for fabrication of plastic-based AMOLEDs, as including brightness, colour, contrast ratio, viewing angle, and
conventional Si-based TFTs cannot be directly fabricated on plastic response time - compared to active-matrix liquid-crystal displays
substrates. In general, organic solids are thermally evaporated to (AMLCDs). However, in general, AMOLED displays still have to
form a polycrystalline active layer. Many details of this fabrication overcome numerous technological obstacles for mass production
procedure in technology OLED, such as surface treatment, [27]. AMOLEDs hold great promise for use inflexible displays
temperature, material purity, device structure, and testing and [28]. LG Display has presented a full-colour 4-in. flexible
deposition vacuum conditions, dramatically affect the performance AMOLED prototype on an 80-Pm-thick stainless-steel foil
of thin-film devices. Displays based on OLEDs have an apparent substrate, achieving a curvature of 5-cm bending radius.
advantage over LCDs due to their superior inherent properties such
as viewing-angle independence and fast response time. Especially
in mobile applications, OLED displays are already competing with 2. OLEDs,
OLEDs, theirs structure
2.  structureand
andoperation
operation
LCDs as there are many devices available, which use simple PM
OLED displays instead of LCDs. One candidate for AM backplanes 2.1. Structures
2.1.  of OLEDs
Structures of OLEDs
TFT is amorphous silicon (a-Si), which is commonly used in
AMLCDs. However, the threshold-voltage shifts of a-Si TFTs OLED (organic light emitting diode) is a monolithic, thin-
caused by the bias stress voltage are a serious problem for OLED film, semi conductive device that emits light when a voltage is
displays. Compensating for the threshold-voltage shift by using applied to it. Various ways of light are generated by applying an
driving scheme has been investigated, but it is not yet good enough electric eld to organic materials, without involving any
to apply it to TV displays; accordingly, a new TFT with a small intermediate energy forms - the phenomenon known as organic

6 6 Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

Organic Light Emitting Diodes operation and application in displays

electroluminescence (EL). EL is the result of the electric eld– _ CATHODE

imposed formation of emissive states without recourse of any
intermediate energy forms, such as heat. ETL
In its most basic form, an OLED consists of a series of vacuum-
EMISION LAYER
deposited, small-molecule organic thin films that are sandwiched
between two thin-film conductors. The following figures show most HTL
often met constructions of this device. In Fig. 1 is presented one of
the possible simple structures of OLED. Here emission of EL HIL
occurs in the electron and hole transmission layers. However, in + ANODE
more complicated but also more efficient OLED is shown in Fig. 2,
the emission takes place in a separate layer. GLASS

_ CATHODE Mg or Ca
LIGHT
ETL Alq3

+
HTL TPD:T50hex:PC Fig. 2. A typical OLED multilayer device. ETL – electron-transport
layer, HTL – hole-transport layer, HIL – hole-injection layer
ANODE ITO
LIGHT
GLASS
METAL ITO
ORGANIC FILM ORGANIC FILM
ITO ITO
SUBSTRATE SUBSTRATE

a) b) LIGHT
LIGHT LIGHT

Fig. 1. An OLED is a monolithic, thin-film, solid-state device. ABSORBER

ITO
Schematic of a simple real OLED structure. ETL – electron- ORGANIC FILM ITO
transport layer, HTL – hole-transport layer ITO
ORGANIC FILM
ITO
SUBSTRATE
Sometimes the application requirements force to construct the SUBSTRATE
different configurations of OLEDs, examples of these are shown c)
d) LIGHT
schematically in Fig. 3. The output of the EL light can go through
the anode, cathode or through the both electrodes as well.
The ETL has the function of assisting the injection of Fig. 3. Schematic of (a) a standard OLED with a reflective top
electrons from a metal cathode and their transport throughout the cathode, (b) a TOLED with a transparent both, the top cathode
bulk lm. Recombination of holes and electrons occurs at the and the substrate, (c) a TOLED built on an opaque substrate, and
boundary regions between two organic layers. When the (d) a TOLED with an absorber on top (T – transparent)
recombination region is located within an ETL, the ETL behaves
as an emissive layer (EML). When the recombination occurs In its most common structure, known as a "single
within the HTL, on the other hand, the HTL can behave as an heterostructure," an OLED device consists of a hole transporting
EML. Thus these devices are classied into two types: layer (HTL) and an electron transporting and light emitting layer
ITO/HTL/ETL(EML)/Metal and ITO/HTL(EML)/ETL/Metal. In (ETL/EL) sandwiched between two transparent electrodes.
three-layer structure shown in Fig. 2, an independent thin EML is Transparent OLEDs (TOLEDs) enable new features: transparency,
sandwiched between HTL and ETL (ITO/HTL/EML/ETL/Metal), directed top emission, enhanced contrast ratio, and multi-stacked
in case bipolar materials (which have ability to transport both devices. Transparency paves the way for displays to be used in new
electrons and holes) are available. Figure depicts this typical places in the automobile. In applications where maintaining vision
device structure. In its most basic form, an OLED is a monolithic, area is important, TOLEDs have the potential to be integrated with
solid-state electronic device consisting of a series of vacuum- the windshield for navigation and warning systems, and with the
deposited organic thin films sandwiched between two transparent other windows for entertainment and telecommunication. TOLEDs
thin film conductors. When voltage is applied across the device, can also be designed into a novel rear-view mirror and head-up
these organic thin films emit light. This light emission is based information systems, and also be used as transmitters with the other
upon a luminescence phenomenon wherein electrons and holes display systems or backgrounds. In addition, because TOLEDs are
are injected and migrate from the contacts toward the organic transparent, they may be built on opaque as well as transparent
heterojunction. When these carriers meet, they form excitons surfaces. This means that a display may be built on metal roll stock,
(electron-hole pairs) that recombine radiatively to emit light of a for example, for potential use in exterior automotive parts.
certain wavelength (e.g., red, green or blue for flat panel displays) Moreover, it also creates a number of new, and as yet, unimagined
according to the specific organic materials employed. product opportunities.

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 J. ¯mija, M.J. Ma³achowski

Good HTL materials should satisfy one or more of the general efficiency, Șij (ext) is dened as the ratio of numbers of emitted
requirements given below. photons outside a device divided by the number of charges
1. Materials are morphologically stable and form uniform injected into a device. The internal quantum efficiency, Șij is the
vacuum-sublimed thin lms. ratio of the number of photons produced within a device divided
2. Materials have small solid state ionization potential. by the number of charges injected.
3. Materials have high hole mobility. The power conversion efficiency in emissive devices is
4. Materials have small solid state electron affinity. frequently expressed in terms of the luminous power efficiency
These requirements can be used as general guiding principles (lm/W). A better measure of the power conversion efficiency,
for screening new hole transport materials. Several metal chelates may be given in terms of the electric-to-photon conversion
have been proposed and used as ETL materials. Tris (quinolin-8- efficiency (WE/W) expressed by the ratio of the power of the
olato) aluminum (Alq3) and its analogues are known to be one of emitted light to the input electric power. The relationship between
the most robust ETL materials. An oxadiazole derivative, 2-(4ƍ- the power efficiency (internal) ȘE, which is dened by the ratio of
biphenyl)-5-(4Ǝ-tert-butylphenyl)-1, 3, 4-oxadiazole (t-Bu-PBD) the emitted light power inside a device and the applied electric
was used as an ETL material in blue-emitting OLEDs, where light power (JV), and the quantum efficiency (internal) Șij is given by
emission from the hole transporting layer was demonstrated. One Equation (1) where İp and eV express the photon energy of the
of the best examples for a systematic molecular design lies in the emitted light eV, obtained by averaging the entire
success of the distyrylarylene development. OLEDs are generally electroluminescence spectrum, and the applied voltage,
characterized by the material used in the emissive layer: Either respectively. The major factor determining the power conversion
small molecules such as Alq3, poly (methyl methacrylate) efficiency is İp/(eV). In a
(PMMA) and bisphenol-A-polycarbonate (PC), C60 and pentacene HP
can be used or polymers such as poly (para-phenylenevi-nylene) K E KM (1)
(PPV), poly (3-alkylothiophenes) (P3ATs), poly (P-phenylene eV
thynylenes) (PPEs). Often, a polymer layer is spin coated on top hypothetical situation when the average photon energy İp is equal to
of ITO to provide a smooth surface for the following layer stack. the electronic potential provided by the applied voltage, eV, the
ratio İp/(eV) is 1.0. Usually this factor is assumed to be far less than
unity, because several steps lead to the decrease of the potential eV
2.2. Basic
Basic phenomena
2.2.  inOLEDs
phenomena in OLEDs before the production of the thermally relaxed emissive excitations.
Voltage losses due to energy barriers to charge injection, voltage
OLEDs made of small molecules behave very similarly to drops due to charge transport resistance, dissipation of electronic
conventional inorganic LEDs, but the fundamental difference energy corresponding to a binding energy of electron-hole pairs at
exists between conventional inorganic semiconductors and the charge recombination, and excess energy due to the thermal
“so-called” molecular semiconductors. This difference originates relaxations of the hot emissive excitations to the lowest electronic
primarily from two intrinsically different electronic and optical excited state are the main origins for lowering the value of the
characteristics between conventional inorganic and organic İp/(eV) factor below unity. Recently, the introduction of high-
semiconductors. conductivity doped layers between the cathode/anode and the
First, all solid lms made of small molecules useful for organic ETL/HTL have led to a drastic decrease in the driving
OLEDs are wide-energy-gap semiconductors. As early studies on voltage of OLEDs. In general, carrier injection into organic
EL in anthracene single crystals clearly indicate, anthracene has a materials has been described using thermionic emission and
high resistivity of 1020 Ÿcm. Vacuum-sublimed lms have Fowler–Nordheim tunnelling, and modications of the above
resistivities typically on the order of 1015Ÿcm. This means that no models by taking the interface recombination current, polaron
charges are present in OLED devices without charge injection and effects, and disorder into account. While accurate determination of
attention should be paid only to the behaviour of injected charges the recombination coefficient including all processes is still not
from the electrodes. In other words, OLEDs are not treated under readily available, it has been proposed that the Langevin
electrostatic equilibrium but rather under dynamic charge recombination mechanism generally applies to the organic systems.
equilibrium when devices are in operation. All charges are Based on the Langevin formalism, the recombination coefficient is
assumed to behave as space charges in solid molecular lms, and proportional to the carrier mobility in the following way: OLED
no local charge neutrality is expected within the lms. materials can probably be classied as either semiconductors or
Secondly, neutral molecules in the excited states, i.e., singlet insulators. Their typical band gap is about 3 eV, and the device is
and triplet excitons, are produced by charge recombination, and usually undoped in terms of conduction type. Thus, the current
emission is due to radiative transitions from the neutral excited carriers have to be injected from the electrodes. Conduction features
states to the ground states. There is no experimental evidence on can be understood by considering the case where only one kind of
the radiative recombination of positive and negative charges in carrier (say, holes) is injected. When traps are not present, the
OLEDs, which typically occur in inorganic LEDs. It should be current–voltage relationship obeys the classic Child’s square law:
emphasized here that estimating the EL quantum efficiencies This relationship deviates from the linear form because the carrier
becomes quite simple once these two basic assumptions are made. distribution is not a constant in the solid; rather, it decays rapidly
The elementary processes that take place upon charge into the solid from the injecting electrode. There is a so-called space
injection into an OLED including recombination of holes and charge build-up near the electrode, giving the process the name
electrons, radiative decay from the electronic excited states, and space charge limited conduction (SCL). In this case, the space
output coupling of the emitted light. The external EL quantum charge consists of conducting carriers. When signicant traps are
efficiency and internal EL quantum efficiencies are connected by present, the trapped charge concentration can be many orders of
the extraction efficiency of photons. An external EL quantum magnitude larger than that of the conducting carriers. There will

8 8 Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

Organic Light Emitting Diodes operation and application in displays

also be space charge build-up near the electrode; however, in that binders. The optical and electronic properties of isolated small
case, the dominant space charges are the trapped charges. The molecules can be simply described according to a molecular
conduction process is thus called TCL conduction, in order for it to orbital picture. Electrons are localized on molecules and the
be distinguished from the previously mentioned trap-free SCL case. optical properties of the molecular solids are roughly
A great deal of progress in the understanding of organic EL has approximated with this localized electron model. The important
been made using EL cells based on single organic crystals. The point, however, is that electrons and holes move within molecular
sandwich cell EL structures involve a single crystal and at least one solids producing large electric current. The movement of
semitransparent electrode. The study results made clear that the electrons and holes in molecular solids is described as a hopping
emissive states are mostly molecular singlet excitons formed in the process from one molecular site to another (Fig. 4).
bulk recombination of electrons and holes injected from electrodes;
that is, type III of the EL underlies the electric eld–imposed
emission from organic single crystals. However, in some early
works, they have been interpreted in terms of impact ionization
excitation by primary electrons injected from a metal contact.
The EL spectra of relatively thick (>5 µm) organic crystals
can differ from their photoluminescence (PL) spectra for several
reasons: (1) different reabsorption effects caused by a difference
in spatial distributions of the emitting states generated by the
exciting light in PL and by charge carrier recombination in EL,
(2) the presence of bulk dopants or defects acting as more
efficient recombination centres than acceptors in energy transfer
processes, and (3) the splitting the insulator electronic levels at
the interfaces. Interestingly, the difference in the trivial
reabsorption effect between PL and EL spectra allowed the spatial Fig. 4. Schematic emission mechanism diagram responsible for
distribution of excited states to be inferred, and revealed the role EL effect in an OLED device
of traps and excitonic interactions.
The study of EL in powder-type dielectric cells has been The organic stack consists of a series of individual organic
extended to organic lms prepared by vacuum evaporation, materials tailored for specific functionality, e.g., light emission
melting, and recrystallization or solution cast, sandwiched and carrier transport. When voltage is applied across the device,
between carrier injecting electrodes. EL diodes have been these organic thin films emit light based upon a luminescence
fabricated on polycrystalline and amorphous anthracene and other phenomenon wherein electrons and holes are injected and migrate
organic compounds. The crucial role of charge injection at from contacts toward each other. When these carriers meet, they
electrodes has been realized. An important model, also employed form excitons (electron-hole pairs) that recombine radiatively to
in EL of single crystals and used currently to explain optical and emit light, the colour, efficiency and intensity of which are
electrical characteristics of vast variety of organic LEDs. EL is characteristic of the specific organic materials employed. A
due to generation of excited states via the recombination of variety of colours have been demonstrated. OLEDs offer bright
primary electrons and holes injected at two oppositely placed emissive light, excellent contrast ratio, low power consumption,
electrodes, and moving against each other across the luminescent wide viewing angle and fast response time requisite for video rate
material. Other mechanisms such as impact ionization excitation applications. Additionally OLEDs are current-driven devices (i.e.,
by primary electrode-injected electrons in local strong electric brightness is proportional to current), brightness can be varied
elds, however they could not be excluded conclusively. The over a very wide dynamic range.
strong eld has been located in the depletion layer, developed
parallel to the metal contact. Injection-recombination mechanism
becomes more appropriate to explain the functioning of thin lm 2.3. 
Model of
EL devices. The injection-limited-currents have been shown to 2.3. Model of electroluminescence
electroluminescence
impose nonlinear brightness-current characteristics.
Present state-of-the-art PPV-based EL devices approach the In order to obtain the EL effect carriers should be injected
efficient Alq3-based LEDs, showing luminance up to 104 Cd/m2 from the electrodes into the organic material. Usually diodes are
and lifetime over 10.000 h. Both the EL and PL spectrum as well fabricated on ITO coated glass substrates. The model assumes that
as their EL efficiency depend on degree of the monomer–polymer injection of charges from the electrode into the organic
conversion. semiconductor is governed by thermionic emission. The
Molecularly doped polymers (MDPs) having a base on thermionic emission occurs across the energy barrier that is
electronically inert polymeric binder are of particular interest formed between the work function of the injecting electrode and
because they allow us easily to select a variety of dopant the HOMO or LUMO of the organic semiconductor depending on
molecules with diversied electronic functions. The guiding whether hole or electron injection, respectively, is considered. The
principle for choosing the right composition of an MDP for an EL current density J across this energy barrier can be modelled using
device is that energetic position of the HOMO/LUMO (Highest the general diode equation
Occupied Molecular Orbital/Lowest Unoccupied Molecular § ª qV º · (2)
J J 0 ¨¨ exp «  1¸¸
¬ nkT »¼ ¹
Orbital) of a hole/electron-transporting dopant incorporated into
such a binder should be as high/low as possible in order to ©
eliminate trapping by accidental impurities of the possible inert where J0 is the saturation current density is given by the equation

Volume 40 Issue 1 November 2009 9

 J. ¯mija, M.J. Ma³achowski

§ ) · (3) When tandem OLED has been applied, as it is shown in paper

J0 AT 2 exp¨  B ¸ [40], the device performance is signicantly improved. For
© kT ¹ instance, at a luminance of 100 cd/m2 (typical brightness for
where A is the Richardson constant and I B is the injection display application), the current density required is only
barrier for charges. Once the charges have been injected, they 6.2 mA/cm2 for the tandem OLED, much lower than that required
have to travel across the organic semiconductor to the opposite for the conventional single-emitting-unit device (17.1 mA/cm2).
electrode. It has been shown for organic materials that this drift Similarly, at a current density of 100 mA/cm2, the current
current is a SCLC and follows the equation efficiency of the conventional OLED is 0.63 cd/A, while that of
9 V2 the tandem OLED is-increases to 1.47 cd/A. These values clearly
J PHH 0 3 (4) demonstrate the effectiveness of the two-emitting-unit tandem
8 L architecture on improving the current efficiency. However, the
where L is the thickness of the sample. Furthermore, the mobility notable weakness of the tandem devices is their high driving
in an organic material is given by a simplified equation: voltages. This is attributed to the larger series resistance of the
V thicker organic layers in the former. It should be mentioned that
P P 0 T  exp( E ) (5)
the device efficiency may depend on the purity of chemicals used
L
and the fabrication conditions.
In the case of single-crystal anthracene, with anthracene
cation and anion containing electrolyte solutions as anode and
cathode, respectively. Many research results indicate that the EL
emission intensity depends linearly on the injected current 3. Application
3. 
Application
density. This result is quite valuable and it provides clear-cut
evidence for a charge-injection process. The emission arose The tremendous strides have been made in the science and
predominantly from a region near the positive electrode (anode), technology of organic electroluminescence (EL). Most of this
indicating that electrons are injected from the cathode and progress has been applied in developing at panel displays. If this rate
transported through the crystal to meet the holes entering from the of progress can be sustained into the next decade, organic EL
opposite electrode and then due to the recombination process EL technology has the potential to exert an impact not only on displays,
occurs. The development of stable solid state contacts with good but also on general lighting applications. In particular, a large-area
injection characteristics for both electrons and holes is an white-light-producing organic light-emitting device could potentially
important area deserving further attention. provide a solid state diffuse light source that could compete with
In molecular systems, which have very low carrier densities, conventional lighting technologies in performance and cost. The
the injected positive and negative charges (referred to as electrons vision of solid state lighting has largely been driven by the desire to
and holes for simplicity) are expected to exist as space charges reduce energy consumption. Organic electroluminescent displays on
with no local charge neutrality. This case is clearly different from rigid or exible substrates are envisioned to play a signicant if not
inorganic semiconductor LEDs, in which minority charge carrier major role in the area of at panel displays. They may eventually
injection at a n-p junction recombine with the majority charge dominate the market in just a few years. Small, passive, and active
carriers and the junction determines the charge recombination matrix organic light-emitting displays that are relatively inexpensive
process. The performance of OLEDs critically depends on the already have penetrated the commercial market in a signicant way.
balanced injection of holes and electrons into the emitting layer Organic electroluminescent displays can be small, such as hand-held
from the anode and cathode. Since lowering the injection barrier or head-mounted devices, or large, such as at panel screens that can
at the electrode/organic junction would facilitate effective carrier be rolled up or hung at on a wall.
injection, a natural approach to enhance carrier injection is to use OLED devices offer many advantages for at panel display
n-type or/and p-type injection layers. Extensive research on the applications:
applications of n-type injection layers, such as Li:4,7-diphenyl-1, 1. Very thin solid-state device (less than 300 nm thick),
10-phenanthroline [29,30] (BPhen) and Alq3, [31] and p-type 2. Light weight,
layers, such as 4,4’, 4’’ tris(3-methylphenylphenylamino) 3. High luminous power efficiency,
triphenylamine (m-MTDATA): 2,3,5,6-tetrauoro-7,7,8,8,- 4. Fast response time that makes animations and motion crisp
tetracyanoquinodime thane (F4-TCNQ), [28,29] CuOx, [32] and and entertaining,
SiO2, [33] have been reported. Recently it has been reported that 5. Wide viewing angle without brightness or image loss (170+
junctions between suitable n- and p-type injection materials can degrees),
be effectively used as connecting units to join two or more 6. Self-emitting, which eliminates the need for a back-light
emitting units in series. [34–39]. The luminance intensity of such illumination source,
“tandem OLEDs” generally increases a number of stacking 7. Colour tuning throughout the entire visible spectrum for full-
emitting units. As expected, the connecting unit plays a crucial colour displays,
role on the device performance. In addition to the efficient 8. Flexibility.
injection of oppositely charged carriers into the adjoining organic OLEDs that have these merits in addition to their temporal
layers, the connecting unit must also possess a high optical stability are expected to have many applications. Devices that are
transparency and a low electrical conductivity. To date, a variety very thin and lightweight and have low power consumption are
of connecting units have been introduced, which include Cs:2,9- especially suitable for portable equipment (e.g., wireless phones,
dimethyl-4,-7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BCP)/ITO, Cs:BCP, PDAs, view nders for digital cameras) and other portable
Li :BCP/V2O5 [35], Li :Alq3, Li:1,3,5-tris(N phenylbenzimidazol imaging devices. Monochrome, multiple-colour, and full-colour
-2-yl) benzene (TPBI) /FeCl3 :N,N(-bis)1-naphthyl(N,N)- display technologies using OLEDs, as are future directions
diphenyl-1,1(biphenyl-4,4)-diamine (NPB) [39], Mg:Alq3 /WO3. relating to applications based on the needs in the multimedia era.

10 10 Archives of Materials Science and Engineering

Organic Light Emitting Diodes operation and application in displays

finely patterned OTFTs, resulting in the world’s first

demonstration of full-colour imaging on a flexible OTFT-OLED
are presented in the paper [44]. In the paper [45] the presented
top-emission structure is divided into two parts; namely, the pixel
OTFT circuit and the OLED: The OLED is formed on the OTFT
circuit. In this structure, the pixel size can be reduced by
fabricating OLEDs on top of the OTFT circuit. A full-colour pixel
structure with a resolution of 80 ppi, corresponding to a main
pixel size of 318x318 Pm, is designed based on the above design
concept. Small-molecule fluorescent RGB OLEDs are formed on
the flexible OTFT backplane by shadow-mask evaporation,
followed by formation of the common cathode and encapsulation
of the OLED. Finally, the backplane including the OLED layers
are assembled with a 100-Pm-thick cover film using a sealing
Fig. 5. Picture of 40-in AMOLED display fabricated on the a-Si resin. Fig. 6 shows a photograph of the fabricated flexible display.
TFT substrate matrix from Samsung The OTFT backplane makes the display thin and lightweight. The
thickness and the weight of the display can be reduced to 0.3 mm
and 1.5 g, respectively. The backplane also makes the display
mechanically flexible, and the display specifications are
maintained even when the display is subjected to bending.
Operation of the display is possible at a bending radius as small as
20 mm wide viewing angle and a high contrast ratio of OLEDs
supports a clear visibility in a bending condition. These results
demonstrate that the combination of OTFTs and OLEDs is a
promising candidate for the flexible displays.

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