ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES FOR B.

TECH
UNIT – 4
Ecology and ecosystem
Ecology-Definition, branches, objectives and classification, Concept of an ecosystem – Structure and
functions, Characteristics of an Ecosystem-Ecosystem Resilience, Ecological succession and
productivity, Balanced ecosystem, Components of ecosystem-abiotic and biotic, biological diversity.
4 Hr
Biogeochemical cycles and its environmental significance – Carbon and nitrogen cycle, Energy flow
in an ecosystem, food chains –types, food web & Ecological Pyramids. 2 Hr

Self study: Need for balanced ecosystem and restoration of degraded ecosystems.

The word “Ecology” was coined by German biologist ‘Ernst Haeckel’ in 1869 and is derived from
the Greek words “Oikos” (or “Ekos”) which means ‘House’ and “logos” means ‘knowledge of’.
Definitions to Ecology:
a) Ecology is a branch of science that deals with the study of interactions between living
organisms and their physical environment. Both are closely inter-related, and they have
continuous interaction so that any change in the environment has an effect on the living
organisms and vice versa. (General definition)
b) Ecology as the study of structure and function of nature or the study of inter-relationships
between organisms and their environment.(Odum, 1963)
c) Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and
abundance of organisms (Krebs, 1985).

The two important branches of Ecology are given below:

a) Autecology: It is the study of an individual species and its population. While studying the
Autecology of a particular species, an ecologist studies its behavior and adaptation to the
environmental condition at every stage of that individual’s life cycle.
Autecology is also called species ecology.

b) Synecology: It is the study of communities, their composition, their behavior and relation to
the environment. Synecology is called the ecology of communities. Synecology is further
divided into population ecology, community ecology and ecosystem ecology. With the
advancing trends is ecology, present day ecologists divide ecology into the following
branches.
 Productive ecology
 Population ecology
 Community ecology
 Ecosystem ecology
 Microbial ecology
 Radiation ecology
 Pollution ecology
 Space ecology

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Objectives of ecology:
The general objective of ecology is to understand the dynamics of our surroundings and to take
proper measures to conserve it if and when required. However, the main objective of ecology is to
study;
1. The local and geographical distribution and abundance of organisms.
2. The inter-relationship between organisms in population and communities.
3. The structural adaptations and functional adjustments of organisms to their physical environment.
4. The behaviour of organisms ‘under natural conditions.
5. The biological productivity of nature and its relationship with mankind.
6. Temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of organisms.
7. Conservation and management of natural resources and pollution.

Classification of Ecology/Ecosystem:
Ecology/Ecosystem are broadly classified as explained below
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial/man-made Ecosystem

Natural Ecosystem is further classified into the following ecosystem;

a) Terrestrial Ecosystem: Those that encompass (include) the activities that take place
on land
Examples: Forest ecosystem, mountain ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland ecosystem,
etc.

b) Aquatic Ecosystem: Those that exists in water bodies. Ex: Fresh water ecosystem,
marine ecosystem, estuarine ecosystem.

Chart showing the classification:

i)Terrestrial Ecosystem
Ex: Forest Ecosystem, Biomes,
Grassland Ecosystem, Desert Ecosystem etc.
ii)Aquatic Ecosystem
Natural Ecosystem a)Fresh water ecosystem:
Lotic: Running water
Lentic: Standing/stagnant water
b)Marine/Salt water ecosystem
c)Wetland ecosystem d) Estuarine ecosystem.
Man-engineered ecosystem
Artificial
Ex: Urban ecosystem, aircrafts, cropland
Ecosystem
ecosystem etc.
(Manmade)

Terrestrial Ecosystem (Biomes):

Biomes: The biome is a very large land community unit where the plant species are more or less
uniform. It provides a basis for natural ecological classification.
The main biomes of the world are
1. The Tundra biome
2. Temperate Coniferous Forest biome
3. Temperate Deciduous Forest biome

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 4. Temperate grassland biome
5. Tropical Savanna biome
6. Desert biome
7. Tropical Rainforest biome
Tundra biome is in the polar region. It is the coldest of all biomes. The word tundra originated
from Finnish word “tunturi” means ‘treeless plain’. Tundra biome is noted for its frost molded
landscape, extreme temperature, poor nutrients, less precipitation, short growing periods etc.
Temperate Coniferous biome occurs in the cold regions with high rainfall, long winter & short
summer.
Temperate Deciduous Forest biome: These are high altitude region about 3000-4000 meters above
sea level as in Himalayas. Here pines, fir and Juniper (evergreen shrub) trees are found.
Temperate Grassland biome: This type of grassland occurs where there is about 25 to 75 cm
rainfall per year. It can be seen in North & South America, southern Russia. Two types of grass
prairies such as tall grass prairies and short grass prairies can be seen in these parts of the world.
Tropical Savanna biome: These are tropical grasslands with scattered drought resistant trees.
These are found in eastern Africa, Australia and South America.
Desert Biome: These are found in very dry environment where temperature changes from very hot
to very cold.
Tropical Rainforest biome: These occur near the equator and offer the most diverse communities
on earth with fairly high temperature and humidity. The annual rainfall is more than 200 to 225 cm.
It offers habitat to numerous vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
So land (terrestrial) ecosystems depend largely on the climate and soil.
Aquatic Ecosystems:
1. Fresh water ecosystem: Fresh water bodies are rich in nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphates. Fresh water ecosystems have low percentage of dissolved salts. They have
fluctuating physical and chemical factors affecting the flora (plant of particular region) and
fauna (animals). They provide good habitat for phytoplankton (microscopic plants), zoo
plankton (microscopic animals), aquatic plants and variety of fishes.
Ex: Pond Ecosystem, River Ecosystem, Lake Ecosystem, Stream Ecosystem etc.

Fresh water Ecosystem can also divided into two types;

a) Lentic (Stagnant water) Eg., Ponds, Wells, Lakes.
b) Lotic (Running water) Eg., River, Streams.
Pond or Lake Ecosystem can be explained as follows:
Components of pond ecosystem are abiotic and biotic components.
Abiotic components: Water, dissolved oxygen, CO2, inorganic salts such as chlorides, nitrates,
phosphates of Ca, Na & K. A large number of organic compounds such as organic acids are also
present.
Biotic components:
Producers: In a fresh water pond, two types of producers are present. The large plants floating or
growing along the shore line and the floating/suspended microscopic plants. The microscopic plants
are made up of different types of algae. They are distributed throughout the water as deep as

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sunlight penetrates. These small plants are called phytoplankton. Individual algae cells are not
visible, but when they are present in large quantities they give a greenish hue to the water body.
Consumers: This includes primary consumers such as herbivores, Secondary consumer such as
Carnivores and also tertiary consumers feeding on carnivores. The microscopic consumers such as
Zooplankton are also present.

Decomposers: The pond ecosystem accommodates a major consumer form (includes bacteria &
fungi) which are called as decomposers. These are micro consumers and play a major role in
breaking down the waste products of macro consumers, dead consumer and producer organisms.
Algal-Bacterial symbiosis:
In a pond ecosystem, bacteria, the main decomposer, feed on the biodegradable organic matter
available to them in the form of waste matter discharged by animal species and the dead organisms
of both animal and plant species. They consume oxygen for bio-chemical oxidation of the organic
matter, and for their own respiration. As a consequence, CO2 is liberated. This CO2 is taken up by
the algae, which are abundantly available. The growth of algae is promoted by the presence of
nutrients in water. Algae, being able to carry out photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight, take up
the CO2 and releaseO2, which is readily taken up by the bacteria. This cyclic activity is called algal-
bacterial symbiosis, and it keeps the pond ecosystem in a balanced condition.

2. Salt water (marine) Ecosystem: Oceans occupy 70% of earth’s surface, offering habitat to
numerous plants (mainly algae), animals like zoo plankton, shrimps, oysters, fishes, reptiles,
birds and mammals such as whales and seals. Ocean serves as the sink of a large quantity of
run off and wastes from the land.
Marine water has a high salt content and poor fertility due to lack of nitrates and phosphates
compared to fresh water.
3. Wetland Ecosystems: Wetlands are transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems where water stands at 2.5cm to 300 cm during most of the year. They are at
present in danger due to increasing urbanization.

Artificial/manmade Ecosystem: Artificial Ecosystem is of man-made such as agricultural land,

urban land, artificial pond, dam/artificial water reservoirs, aircrafts etc.

CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM: (STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF

ECOSYSTEM)
The term “Ecosystem” was proposed by ‘A.G.Transley’ in 1935. He defined it as the system
resulting from the interactions of all the living and non-living factors of the environment. In other
words, any unit of bio system that includes all the organisms which function together in a given area
where they interact with the physical environment
According to George Jackson, an ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and
micro-organisms in an area functioning with all of the non-living things.
Organisms and the environment are interrelated and interact upon each other so that a flow of energy
leads to a clearly defined tropic (nutrient requiring) structure, biotic diversity, and material cycle.
The whole earth and its parts, land surface, water bodies, atmosphere as well as living organisms, are
working in an integrated system, which not only directs but also determines the pattern of life and is
also an indicator of environmental relationship with living organisms.

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Structure of an Ecosystem:
The structure of an ecosystem composed of two major components such as Abiotic and Biotic.

Abiotic Components: These include inorganic and organic compounds present in the environment.
The inorganic components of an ecosystem include substances such as oxygen, CO2, water and
minerals whereas Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, amino acids etc, are examples of organic material.
Climate, light and heat can be either studied under abiotic component or as separate entities. The
abiotic substances are circulated in the ecosystem through material cycles (natural cycles) and
energy cycle (energy flow or solar energy).

The physical factors of the environment (which are nonliving) have a major influence on the life of
organisms. The abiotic components are of two types. They are:
(a) Climatic factors
(b) Edaphic factors

(a) Climatic factors consist of Temperature, rainfall and snow, wind, light, humidity etc. The
climate of an area is the result of several factors such as latitude, elevation, nearness to the
sea, and monsoon activities and ocean currents.
Temperature influences the rates of biochemical reactions in plants, with the
reaction rates approximately doubling with every 10°C increase. Plant species require a range
of temperature to survive. Below a minimum temperature they are inactive, and above a
maximum temperature biochemical reactions stop. Normally in many plants growth is
possible above 6°C. In areas with extremes of temperature, such as the tundra and tropical
deserts the plants have mechanisms to adapt to such conditions.
Light levels decide the magnitude of photosynthesis reactions. Different plants have
their characteristic light requirements in respect of light intensity, duration and wavelength.
Some plants, termed heliphytes, require high levels, whereas sciophytes can grow in shady,
low light conditions.
Water is an essential factor for biochemical plant processes, including
photosynthesis. Plants growing on lands obtain their water requirements from the soil
through their roots by the osmosis process. Plants called Hydrophytes grow in fresh water
and they cannot withstand drought. Xerophytes survive long periods of drought, and
halophytes are able to survive in saline water. Mesophytes require moderate conditions
(neither waterlogged nor drought) and are found mainly in temperate areas.

(b) Edaphic factors or soil factors are pH, mineral and organic matter in soil and texture of
soil.
Soil is the major source of nutrients and moisture in almost all the land ecosystems.
Soil is formed when a rock weathers .The rocks break down into a collection of different
inorganic or mineral particles. The climate influences the type and rate of the weathering of
the rocks as well as the nature of the vegetation growing on it. Nutrients are recycled in the
soil by the plants and animals in their life cycles of growth, death and decomposition. Thus
humus material essential to soil fertility is produced.
Soil PH is one of the edaphic factors. Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity
(alkalinity) of a soil. Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many
chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the
chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they
undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5 however, many
plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.

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 Soil mineral matter is derived from the weathering of rock material. These consist of
two types viz. stable primary materials like quartz and various secondary materials like clays
and oxides of Al and Fe.
Soil texture is the different size range of mineral particles varying from fine clay to
coarse gravel. The varying percentages of each size range produce soils with different
characteristics.
Soil organic matter is called humus that is formed by the decomposition of plant and
animal matter. The rate of decay depends upon the nature of the material and the climate. The
humus produced and incorporated into the soil, is known as clay-humus complexes, which
are important soil nutrients.

Biotic Components:
The live component of an ecosystem comprises plants, animals, and microorganisms (Bacteria and
Fungi). They carry out different functions and based on their role they are classified into three main
groups. They are:
(1) Producers (Autotrophs)
(2) Consumers (heterotrophs)
(3) Decomposers (Saprophytes)
Producers are mainly green plants having chlorophyll. They produce carbohydrates by
photosynthesis process. In effect the plants convert solar energy into chemical energy using water
and carbon dioxide. These are called Autotrophs (self-feeder) since they produce their own food.
Part of the food produced by the autotrophs is utilized for their own consumption for survival and
growth while the remaining is stored in the plant parts for future consumption. This becomes the
food for other biotic components in the environment.
Consumers are living things, which do not have chlorophyll, and hence they are unable to
produce their own food. They rely on the producers for their food requirements. Consumers are
called Heterotrophs. Consumers are classified into four categories. They are
Primary Consumers or Herbivores: They are also called first order consumers. They eat
the producers or plants. Examples are cattle like cow and goat, deer, rabbit etc.
Secondary Consumers or Primary Carnivores: They are also called second order
consumers. They eat herbivores Examples are snakes, cats, foxes etc.
Tertiary Consumers: They are also called third order consumers. They feed on secondary
consumers. They are large Carnivores. Example is Wolf.
Quaternary Consumers: They are also called fourth order consumers. They are very large
Carnivores and feed on tertiary consumers and are not consumed by other animals. Examples are
lions and tigers.
Decomposers called, as Saprotrophs are mainly microorganisms like Bacteria and Fungi.
The dead organic materials of producers and consumers are their food. They break down the organic
matter into simple compounds during their metabolic process. These simple compounds are
nutrients, which are absorbed by the producers thus completing a cyclic exchange matter between
the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.
Summary:
By structure we mean;
 The composition of biological community including species (plants, animals and
microbes), number, biomass, life history, life cycle and distribution in space, trophic
status etc.
 The quantity, distribution and cycling of abiotic (non-living) materials, such as macro
and micro nutrients, water, trace elements etc., and

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  The range or gradient of conditions existing such as temperature, rainfall, light, wind,
relative humidity etc.
Function / Dynamics of an Ecosystem:
The various components of any ecosystem exchange minerals, matter and energy amongst them.
The stability of an ecosystem depends on the flow of energy and the circulation of minerals and
nutrients. The dynamics (functions) of an ecosystem include
 Energy & energy Flow
 Gross Primary production: It is the amount of chemical energy as biomass that primary
producers create in a given length of time.
 Food Chain& food web
 Trophic levels
 Ecological Pyramids
 Biogeochemical Cycle
 Ecological succession: It is the observed process of change in the species structure of an
ecological community over time, which may be decades/century/millions of years.
However, the major functions of an ecosystem which ensures its stability are as follows:
a) It regulates flow rate of biological energy including production and respiration rates.
b) It regulates flow rates of materials in terms of mass balance as nutrients or materials cycles.
c) It fixes limit of tolerance for each organism in an ecosystem because each organism has
certain limits of tolerance towards various factors of environment and only within specified
limits, the organism survive.
d) It regulates modification of environment because the environment is modified by organisms
according to their needs.
e) It regulates species diversity because the nature strives for greater diversity i.e. greater
variety of organisms in a system, which leads to its stability.
Summary: Ecosystem is the structural and functional unit in ecology as it consists of both the
biotic community (living organisms) and the abiotic environment. Thus in any ecosystem,
structure and function are studied together.

Characteristics of an Ecosystem:
Ecosystem Resilience:
The concept of resilience in ecological systems was first introduced by the Canadian ecologist C.S.
Holling in order to describe the persistence of natural systems in the face of changes in ecosystem
variables due to natural or anthropogenic causes.
Resilience has been defined in two ways in ecological literature:

1. as the time required for an ecosystem to return to an equilibrium or steady-state following a

perturbation (which is also defined as stability by some authors). This definition of resilience
is used in other fields such as physics and engineering, and hence has been termed
‘engineering resilience’ by Holling.
2. as "the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change
so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks".

The second definition has been termed ‘ecological resilience’, and it presumes the existence of
multiple stable states or regimes.

Some shallow temperate lakes can exist within either clear water regime, which provides many
ecosystem services, or a turbid water regime, which provides reduced ecosystem services and can

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produce toxic algae blooms. The regime or state is dependent upon lake phosphorus cycles, and
either regime can be resilient dependent upon the lake's ecology and management.

Mulga woodlands of Australia can exist in a grass-rich regime that supports sheep herding, or a
shrub-dominated regime of no value for sheep grazing. Regime shifts are driven by the interaction of
fire, herbivory, and variable rainfall. Either state can be resilient dependent upon management.

Ecologists Brian Walker, C S Holling and others describe four critical aspects of resilience: latitude,
resistance, precariousness, and panarchy.

The first three can apply both to a whole system or the sub-systems that make it up.

1. Latitude: the maximum amount a system can be changed before losing its ability to recover
(before crossing a threshold which, if breached, makes recovery difficult or impossible).
2. Resistance: the ease or difficulty of changing the system; how “resistant” it is to being
changed.
3. Precariousness: how close the current state of the system is to a limit or “threshold.”
4. Panarchy: the degree to which a certain hierarchical level of an ecosystem is influenced by
other levels. For example, organisms living in communities that are in isolation from one
another may be organized differently from the same type of organism living in a large
continuous population, thus the community-level structure is influenced by population-level
interactions.

Closely linked to resilience is adaptive capacity, which is the property of an ecosystem that describes
change in stability landscapes and resilience. Adaptive capacity in socio-ecological systems refers to
the ability of humans to deal with change in their environment by observation, learning and altering
their interactions.

Ecological succession:
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time.
The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass
extinction.

The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through
increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community. The
"engine" of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon
their own environments. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt
alteration of one's own environment.

It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly

and predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat.
Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat, such as from a lava flow
or a severe landslide, or by some form of disturbance of a community, such as from a fire, severe
wind throw, or logging. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing
communities is called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-
existing community is called secondary succession.

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Ecological Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. The study of succession
remains at the core of ecological science. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana
Dunes of Northwest Indiana which led to efforts to preserve the Indiana Dunes. Exhibits on
ecological succession are displayed in the Hour Glass, a museum in Ogden Dunes.

Ecological productivity: Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by
plants and the subsequent use of that fixed energy by plant-eating herbivores, animal-eating
carnivores, and the detritivores that feed upon dead biomass. This complex of energy fixation and
utilization is called a food web.

Ecologists refer to the productivity of green plants as primary productivity. Gross primary
productivity is the total amount of energy that is fixed by plants, while net primary productivity is
smaller because it is adjusted for energy losses required to support plant respiration. If the net
primary productivity of green plants in an ecosystem is positive, then the biomass of vegetation is
increasing over time.

Balanced Ecosystem:
As per the definition, an ecosystem is made up of different components. In the natural environment,
a balance or equilibrium exists among the various organisms and abiotic components. This
condition is known as ecological balance and the system is called a ‘balanced ecosystem’. If any
disturbances occur due to natural or manmade activities this balance gets upset and it will be no
longer a balanced ecosystem. If sufficient time is allowed for restoration, a balanced ecosystem will
gradually reappear, but it may not resemble the original system – a new balance or equilibrium
condition appears.
The term “ecological balance” means ‘the ability of the nature to remain unchanged,
readjusting with small disturbances’ and the system is called as “Balanced Ecosystem”

Factors affecting balanced ecosystem:

1. Balance between predator and prey
2. Balance between vegetation, herbivorous and carnivorous
3. Balance between competing species and biotic factors.

Biodiversity: Biological diversity or biodiversity involves genetic diversity among species or also
between individuals and ecological diversity i.e. number of species in a community of organisms.
The existing species of plants and animals are the product of 3.0 to 4.0 billion years of evolution
involving mutation, recombination and natural selection.
There may be about 10 million species of plants, microorganisms and animals on earth while only
about 1.6 million species are on record or identified so far.
Among these the majority are
Insects at about 900000,
41000 are vertebrates (those having back bone or spinal columns),
300000 are plants,
100000 are fungi and
The rest are invertebrates and microorganisms.

Components of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem has two distinctive components.
i) Non-living or abiotic components including Source of energy-light, heat and Climate regime.
ii) Living or Biotic component

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Abiotic substances: These include inorganic and organic compounds present in the environment.
The inorganic components of an ecosystem include substances such as oxygen, CO2, water and
minerals whereas Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, amino acids etc are examples of organic material.
Climate, light and heat can be either studied under abiotic component or as separate entities. The
predominant source of energy in the earth’s biosphere is sun. The abiotic substances are circulated
in the ecosystem through material cycles (natural cycles) and energy cycle (energy flow or solar
energy).
Biotic substances: Living organisms in the ecosystem – various species of plants and animals
including microbes are termed as biotic components.
They can be classified as producers (Autotrophs), Consumers (heterotrophs) and
Decomposers (Saprophytes).

Autotrophs/Producers: Autotrophs produce their own food from inorganic substances, using light
or chemical energy. Green plants including unicellular algae that contain the pigment chlorophyll
are producers. They are capable of taking up simple substances such as water, CO 2 and Oxygen as
well as inorganic nutrients.
A generalized photosynthesis reaction can be represented as
H2O + CO2 + light energy Carbohydrate + O2
(Solar) Chlorophyll

Hence photosynthetic activity is essentially brought about during day time, although some
insignificant amount of photosynthesis takes place during the night utilizing the faint light emitted
from heavenly bodies.

Heterotrophs/Consumers: Heterotrophs do not have the ability to produce their own food. All the
species of the animal kingdom fall under the category of consumers. The animals that feed on plants
are called herbivores, which are primary consumers. Those feeding on animals are called
Carnivores, which are secondary or tertiary or quaternary consumers. Another category of
consumers which feed on both plants and animals are called Omnivores.
Decomposers: Decomposers are the microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi which obtain their food
by breaking down dead tissues or by absorbing dissolved organic matter, extracted from plants and
other organisms. The decomposers release inorganic nutrients that are again utilized by producers.
They also supply food for macro consumers or heterotrophic organisms. Decomposers are also
called as Saprotrophs or Saprophytes.

Bio-geo chemical cycle/Material cycle/Natural Cycle:

Within an ecosystem there are dynamic relations between the living forms and their physical
environment i.e. rocks, air and soil of the earth (geo). These relations are called as natural or
biogeochemical cycles which involve continuous circulation of the essential elements and
compounds required for life from environment to organism and back to environment.
Thus the natural cycle and ecosystem function in a balanced manner which stabilizes
biosphere and sustains the life processes on earth.
It can also be defined as “atoms and molecules which constitute matter, move through the
ecosystem under the influence of physical and biological processes. The specific pathways through
which matter is circulated are recognized as Bio-geo chemical cycles”. These cycles are also
referred to as material cycle or nutrient cycle.
Types of cycles:

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 1. Water or hydrological cycle
2. Gaseous cycle such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen cycle
3. Sedimentary cycle such as Phosphorous cycle
Sulphur cycle can be included in both gaseous and sedimentary cycle.
Water cycle or Hydrological cycle:
This cycle helps in exchange of water among atmosphere/air, land/soil, hydro/sea, living
plants and animals. About one-third (1/3rd) of the solar energy absorbed by the earth is used to drive
the hydrological cycle which involves the following steps:
 Massive evaporation of water from the oceans and rivers & transpiration
 Cloud formation
 Precipitation/rainfall
 Infiltration &Surface runoff
 Ground water movements.
At freezing temperature rain water freezes into snow and forms hail in the presence of strong
wind. Water as rain, snow and hail is precipitated on the land and water surfaces. On land surfaces
water seeps into the soil and is stored as groundwater. The natural water level or water table exists
below the ground.
The water table is supported by the underlying clay and rock stratum. Ground water does not
remain static but moves in various directions. It moves up and reaches soil surface where it is drawn
by the plant roots.
Another important ground water resource is aquifers. These exist above the impermeable
rock strata. Water percolates through porous rocks and forms these underground lakes or reservoirs.
From this water can be pumped by digging tube well and extracted by sinking wells.
When there is a good rainfall, all the rain water on land does not percolate into the soil.
Surface water (run-off) flow into streams, rivers, seas, lakes and reservoirs. Normal evaporation
from the oceans exceeds precipitation by 10%. This excess 10% moves as water vapour over land
surface and balances the hydrological cycle. Plants absorb groundwater by root pressure and
transpirational pull but give off excess water through leaves by the process of transpiration. Thus
water vapour level in the atmosphere is balanced and at the same time ensures conduction of water
and dissolved mineral salts throughout the plants.
Thus hydrologic cycle consists of a balanced continuous process of evaporation,
transpiration, precipitation, surface run-off and ground water movements.

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Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen constitutes 78% of the atmospheric gases. It is essential for living organisms because it is
responsible for the formation of proteins through amino acids. It cannot be directly used. It has to
be converted into some usable chemical form. It exists in different forms. The nitrogen cycle is
complete in three stages:
1. Nitrogen Fixation: The nitrogen is present in the atmosphere cannot be used by plants in its
present form. Therefore, it has to be converted into some other form. The usable forms are
ammonia and nitrates. The conversion is called nitrogen fixation. It is done in following two
ways.
a) Physical Process: A strong reaction takes place in atmosphere among oxygen, nitrogen
and hydrogen when high amount of energy is released. This high amount of energy is
provided by lightning, cosmic radiations, lava flow and forest fire. As a result of this
reaction alkali and acids are formed which are brought to earth by rain water. On the
earth, reaction of calcium carbonate changes nitric acid into nitrates. The nitrates
accumulate in soil.
CaCO3 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2CO3.
b) Biological Process: There is another process which is performed by the activities of
organism. i) In agro ecosystem about 200 species of leguminous plants are nitrogen
fixers. ii) Free living bacteria is also important fixers. They fix nitrogen into ammonia.
Iii) About 35 species of blue green algae are also important fixers. They are useful in
stagnant water.
c) Chemical Fixation: Artificial methods of nitrogen fixation include chemical fertilizers.

2. Ammonification & Nitrification: The process of conversion of nitrogen compound into

ammonia is called ammonification or mineralization. The conversion of ammonia salts into
nitrates is called Nitrification. The plants get nitrogen in the form of nitrate from soil
through their roots. After this any one of the following three routes can be followed by
nitrogen compounds.
i) Nitrates taken by plant are converted into protein. Nitrates may remain in
plants in the form of protein.
ii) Plants are eaten by animals. The plant protein converted into animal protein.
iii) The protein in dead plants and animals can be decomposed to ammonia. It
may changes into Urea through the decomposed excreta of animals.
3. Denitrification: It means conversion of nitrates into gases of nitrogen. The process is
performed by the action of denitrifying bacteria and fungus.
The Nitrogen goes back to atmosphere and the nitrogen cycle is completed. It is clear
that the cycle is mainly controlled by bacterial action. Therefore, nitrogen cycle in the
ecosystem needs a balance action of the bacteria of many species so as to maintain
sufficient bud of plant nutrients without excessive accumulation of decomposition
products like ammonia.

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Carbon cycle:
As Carbon is the back bone of biological chemistry, the carbon cycle is a very important chemical
cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere,hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Along with
the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key
to making the Earth capable of sustaining life; it describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled
and reused throughout the biosphere.
The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon
interconnected by pathways of exchange:
 The atmosphere
 The terrestrial biosphere
 The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
 The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material, such
as soil carbon
 The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact with
the other components through geological processes
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the
surface of the Earth. The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, and sediments is
fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.

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The CO2 balance sheet per year is given below;
i) emissions by fossil fuel 20 billion tonnes,
ii) emissions by deforestation & changes in land use 5.5 billion tonnes
iii) uptake in the oceans 5.5 billion tonnes
iv) uptake by CO2 fertilization/photosynthesis7.3 billion tonnes
Thus there is a net increase of CO2 in the atmosphere of 12.7 billion tonnes per year. This can be
reduced by 50% if we can stop deforestation.

Atmospheric Carbon dioxide

Uptake by
Oceans

Volcanoes

Phosphorous cycle:

The phosphorus cycle is a biogeochemical process describing how phosphorus moves through the
biosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere.

Explanation:

The phosphorus cycle is a biogeochemical process describing how phosphorus (P) moves through
the biosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere . The phosphorous cycle does not include the
atmosphere because very little phosphorus circulates through the atmosphere as a gas.

Like all cycles, this one does not have a start nor does it have an end. You can see the basics of the
phosphorus cycle in the image below.

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 Most phosphorus is found in rocks, so we'll start looking at the cycle there.

As rocks are broken down and weathered, the phosphorus is released. A form of phosphorus is then
taken up from the soil by plants. Herbivores consume these plants and ingest phosphorus while
doing so. Animals that consume the herbivores obtain their phosphorous through the herbivores. All
animals excrete phosphorus through their urine and and feces, releasing it back into the soil.

When either the plant or the animal dies, decomposers such as fungi and bacteria break down the
body and phosphorous is released into the soil again.

Phosphorous enters rivers and other waters through precipitation, runoff, or through organisms that
enter or live in the water. Organisms that die in the ocean return their phosphorus to sediments in the
water (if the organism wasn't consumed by another organism). Over time, these sediments may form
rocks or the phosphorous may be used by aquatic plants.

The Significance/importance of biogeochemical cycles:

Biogeochemical cycles serve a variety of functions at ecosystem level and in ensuring survival of
various organisms including humans. Below are some of the significances/importances of
biogeochemical cycles.

 Biogeochemical cycles enable the transformation of matter from one form to another. This
transformation enables the utilization of matter in a form specific to particular organisms. For
example humans utilize water in liquid form. Through the hydrological cycle, water vapour is
condensed to ice, which is converted to liquid water. Nitrogen, despite its abundance in the
atmosphere it’s often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs because most
plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion (NH4+) and the ion nitrate
(NO3-). Therefore, biogeochemical cycles enable the provision of elements to organisms in
utilizable forms.
 Biogeochemical cycles enable the transfer of molecules from one locality to another. Some elements
such as nitrogen are highly concentrated in the atmosphere, but some of the atmospheric nitrogen is
transferred to soil through the nitrogen cycle (which is a biogeochemical cycle).
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 Biogeochemical cycles facilitate the storage of elements. Elements carried through the
biogeochemical cycles are stored in their natural reservoirs, and are released to organisms in small
consumable amounts. For example through the nitrogen cycle and with the help of the nitrogen
fixing bacteria, green plants are able to utilize nitrogen in bits though it is abundant in the
atmosphere.

 Biogeochemical cycles assists in functioning of ecosystems. An ecosystem is a system that properly

functions in a state of equilibrium, and whenever any imbalances occur, the ecosystem through the
biogeochemical cycles restores to the equilibrium state; this may take a few days or many years. The
adjustment is such that the disturbing factor is eliminated.

 Biogeochemical cycles link living organisms with living organisms, living organisms with the non-
living organisms and nonliving organisms with non-living organism. This is because all organisms
depend on one another and most especially, the biotic (living component) and a biotic component of
the ecosystem are linked by flow on nutrients engineered by the biogeochemical cycles.

Biogeochemical cycles regulate the flow of substances. Since the biogeochemical cycles pass
through different spheres, the flow of elements is regulated because each sphere has a particular
medium and the rate at which elements flow is determined by the viscosity and density of the
medium. Therefore elements in the biogeochemical cycles flow at differing rates within the cycle
and this regulates the flow of the elements in those cycles.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem:

The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another tropic level is called energy flow. In an
ecosystem the flow of energy is unidirectional.
The study of energy transfer between different trophic levels in an ecosystem is known as
Bioenergetics.

Energy flow in an ecosystem is explained as follows:

 The radiant energy produced in the sun travels through space in the form of waves. But only
a small fraction of solar radiation reaches the earth to provide energy for the biotic
components of the ecosystem.

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  The energy reaching the earth’s surface is used by the green plants and other organisms
during photosynthesis or chemosynthesis by converting the light energy to chemical energy
and making it available to other organisms as food.
 Energy flow is unidirectional in an ecosystem and is formed from producers to herbivores to
carnivores.
 It cannot occur in the reverse direction.
 It moves in the ecosystem starting from Autotrophs to heterotrophs including plant eaters or
herbivores (primary consumer i.e., second trophic level), primary carnivores (secondary
consumers) which eat the herbivores.
 It means energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other in succession in the form of
a chain called “food chain”.
 The amount of energy decreases with successive trophic levels
 Green plants use only upto 1 to 5 % of the total solar radiation and the rest remains
unutilized.
 Energy actually used by the herbivores is only 10% of the gross productivity of producers.
 Similarly herbivores use part of this energy for growth and maintenance.
 The rest is left as fecal matter or dead organic matter.
 Energy flows through the ecosystem in the form of carbon-carbon bonds. When respiration
occurs, the c-c bonds are broken and the air born is combined with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
Food Chain:
It is the sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem.
Food chain is also defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients from one feeding group of
organisms to another in a series.
Ex: Plants → Herbivores → Primary Carnivores → Secondary Carnivores.
Grass → Grass hopper → Lizard → Snake → Hawk
Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fish → Snake → Hawk
Plant leaf → Caterpillar → Sparrow → Hawk
Explanation: A caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar and a hawk eats the
sparrow. When they die, they are all consumed by microorganisms like bacterial or fungi, which
break down the organic matter and convert it into simple inorganic substances that can again be used
by the plants.
In nature there are two basic type of food chain,
1} Grazing food chain
2} Detritus food chain
Grazing food chain: This food chain starts with green plants (primary producers) and goes to
herbivores and on to carnivores.
Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Tuna (Large fish)
Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → fish → Man
Grass → Rabbit → Fox → Tiger

Detritus Food chain: This food chain starts from dead organic matter (dead leaves/ plants/animals)
and goes to herbivores and on to carnivores and so on.
Leaves/dead plants → soil mites → Insects → Birds
Dead organic matter → Bacteria → Insects

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Dead Leaves → Algae → Fish → Man.

Food Web:
The food chains in nature never operate in an isolated, simple, straight line sequences. Instead, they
are interconnected with each other to form a network called food web. So it can be defined as “the
Interlocking food chain”. This is because each organism may obtain food from more than one tropic
level.
Or
Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at different
levels so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level (A trophic
level refers to an organism’s position in food chain)

Ex; A sparrow may feed on primary producer (seeds of plants) or herbivores (leaf eating insects)
Similarly, in a grass ecosystem, grass may be eaten by grasshopper, rabbit and mouse.
Hence, in a food web specific tropic levels cannot be assigned to species.

Grass hopper Lizard

Grass Rabbit Hawk

Mouse snake

In the above figure, it may be observed that there are 4 linear food chains in the food web of a
grassland ecosystem.

Grass → grasshopper → Lizard → Hawk

Grass → Rabbit → Hawk
Grass → Mouse → Hawk
Grass → Mouse →snake → Hawk

Food webs are more complex and are interlinked at different trophic levels. This means that
organisms have more than one alternative for food and hence survivability is better. Hawks don’t
limit their food to snakes, snakes eat things other than mice, mice eat grass as well as grasshoppers,
and so on. A more realistic depiction of eating habits in an eco-system is called a food web. An
example is shown in above figure.

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Ecological Pyramids:
The concept of Ecological pyramid was introduced by Charles Elton (1927). Hence the Ecological
pyramids are also referred as “Eltonian Pyramids”.
Definition: Ecological pyramids are the graphical representations of the number, biomass and energy
of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. The number, biomass and energy of organisms
gradually decrease from the production level to the consumer level.
There are three types of ecological pyramids
1. Pyramid of number
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of Number:

The pyramid of number is the graphical representation of the number of individuals in

various trophic levels of food chain per unit area at any given time. The number of individuals at the
trophic level decreases from the producer level to the consumer level. That is in an ecosystem, the
number of herbivores is less than that of producers. Similarly, the number of carnivores is lesser
than that of herbivores.
For example, as in the figure, in a cropland ecosystem, crop plants are more in number. The
Insects feeding on these plants are lesser in number. The frogs feeding on Insects are still lesser in
number. The snake feeding on frogs are still few in number.

Suppose when the ecosystem contains lesser number of producers than those of consumers, the apex
of the pyramid is directed downwards. Pyramid of this type are called Inverted pyramid.
Inverted pyramid of number occurs in a tree ecosystem. A single tree (producer) harbours
i.e., giving shelter to many fruit eating a bird which is a primary consumer and these birds in their
turn host numerous parasites which is a secondary consumer.

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Pyramid of Biomass: Biomass refers to total weight of living matter per unit area at a given time.
In an ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to the consumer level.
Or
The amount of organic matter present in environment is called biomass. In pyramids of biomass, the
relationship between different trophic levels is maintained in terms of weight of organisms.
The pyramid may be upright for grassland ecosystem and inverted for pond ecosystem.

Grass → mouse → Snake → Hawk

Plants → rabbit → fox→ lion

Pyramid of Energy:

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The amount of energy trapped for unit time and area at different trophic levels of a food chain with
producers forming the base and the top carnivores at the apex is called pyramid of energy. The
energy content is generally expressed as kilo Cal per meter square per year or KJ/m2/year.

In an ecosystem, the energy flows from the producer level to the consumer level. At each trophic
level substantial portion of energy is lost. Hence amount of energy decreases from the producer
level to the consumer level. Since the energy flow is always unidirectional, the pyramid of energy is
always upright.

10% Energy Transfer Law:

It was proposed byR.Lindemann(1942). According this rule, 90% of energy is used at each tropic
level,but only 10% of energy is retained in an organism tissue. Remaining energy is used for its
growth, heat loss, metabolic activities and through excreta.

OR

The Ten percent law of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by
Raymond Lindeman (1942). According to this law, during the transfer of energy from organic food
from one trophic level to the next, only about ten percent of the energy from organic matter is stored
as flesh. The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete
digestion by higher trophic level.

When organisms are consumed, 10% of the energy in the food is fixed into their flesh and is
available for next trophic level (carnivores or omnivores). When a carnivore or an omnivore
consumes that animal, only about 10% of energy is fixed in its flesh for the higher level.

For example;
Producer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer Tertiary Consumer
1000K.Calorie 100 K.Calorie 10 K.Calorie 1 K.Calorie

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