Ecology Fire23

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
For. Luisito T. Babaran, J.D., Ph.D.
INTRODUCTION:
The term “environment” is commonly perceived as the immediate surroundings of an
individual. In a broader context, however, environment is a complex system which deals with a
network of living and non-living entities. These entire make up an enormously complex living
machine and its proper functioning depends on every human activity.
To appreciate the importance of the environment however, it is necessary that certain

fundamental ecological concepts be explained. This handout intends to introduce to the public a
general knowledge on the basic life cycles and life support systems of the environment. It is further
intends to create an understanding and appreciation of the earth’s natural processes to prevent
disturbances that may unduly harm the environment.
A. ECOLOGY: ITS DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Ecology was coined in 1866 by Ernest Haeckel.a german scientist.
It derived from the Greek words “oikos” (household) and “logos” (study).
✔ the study of the environmental house including all the organisms in it and all the
functional processes that make the house habitable.
✔ the study of life at home with emphasis on the totality or pattern of relations
between organisms and their environment.
✔ the study of the interrelationships and interdependencies of organisms with their
environment.
✔ the science of the living environment.
Primary Concerns of Ecology (life - support systems)
⮚ Population –group of individuals of the same species in a certain area at a given

time.
⮚ Community – composed of all the population occupying a certain area.
⮚ Ecosystem or ecological system – is the interaction ( give and take

relationship) that exists among living things and their environment.
I. DIVISION OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is principally divided into five divisions:
a. Autoecology –the interrelations of individual organisms and their environment.

b. Synecology - the interrelations of two or more organisms and their environment.
c. Genecology - deals with the genetic variations of organisms in relation to their environment.
d. Ecosystem analysis - deals with the functional dynamics of the ecosystems.
e. Paleoecology - deals with how to reconstruct past vegetation and climate from fossil evidence.
II. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
A. Terrestrial Ecosystem
Ω Ecology & Environmental Protection
✔ an ecosystem that exists on continent and islands of the world and comprehends a series of
dynamic open interaction system that include living and non-living entities and the activities,
interrelations, chemical, reactions, physical changes, and all other phenomena of each.
Fundamentally, climax vegetation is the key to delimiting and recognizing terrestrial biomes.
Components of the terrestrial ecosystem:
1. Physical component – this includes temperature, humidity (amount of moisture in the

atmosphere), wind (movement of air), precipitation, light, etc.
2. Soil component – this includes the physical and chemical properties of the soil.
3. Plant component
a. Forestland – a community dominated by trees.
b. Brushland – a community dominated by brushes and shrubs.
c. Grassland – a community dominated by grasses.
d. Cropland – a community seasonally planted with cash crops or permanent agricultural
crops.
e. Marginal land – a community characterized by denuded soils with a few numbers of
flora and fauna lived.
f. Mangrove – a community found on tidal flat along the seacoast, extending along the
streams where the water is brackish.
Plants are classified according to their relationship on water:
a. Xerophytes - plants that grow in dry places

b. Mesophytes - plants that grow in moist places
c. Hydrophytes - plants that grow in wet or watery places
d. Halophytes - plants that grow in brackish or salty water.
4. Animal component –includes the mammals, reptiles, and birds or avian group of
species.
5. Saprobe component – this includes the virus, fungi and bacteria.
B. Freshwater Ecosystem
✔ An ecosystem that exists on ponds, marshes, swamps, lakes, and streams where living and
non-living entities are interacting upon each other to produce an exchange of energy and
materials to each component.
3 series:
a. Lentic ecosystem – an ecosystem found in lakes and ponds.

b. Lotic ecosystem – an ecosystem found in springs, brooks, creeks, and rivers.
c. Wetland ecosystem – an ecosystem found in marshed and swamped.
Freshwater habitats occupy a relatively small portion of the earth but their importance to
human is far greater that their area for the following reasons:
1. The most convenient and cheapest source of water for domestic and industrial
needs.
2. The bottle neck in the hydrologic cycle.
3. Provide more convenient and cheapest tertiary waste disposal systems.
Lymnology is a comprehensive study of all the components of inland aquatic

ecosystems and their interrelationships.
C. Marine Ecosystem
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✔ Marine ecosystem is an ecosystem that exists in the oceans at their shores and estuaries
where living and non-living entities are interacting upon each other.
The principal features of the sea that is of ecological interest:
1. The sea is big; it covers 70% of the earth’s surface.

2. It is deep and life extends to all its depths.
3. It is continuous, thus allowing free movement of marine organisms.
4. The sea is continuously circulating.
5. It is dominated by waves of many kinds and by tides produced by the pull of moon and sun.
6. It is salty and alkaline, strongly buffers but often low in vital nutrients.
Based on the zonation of the sea as well as the complex nature of the seabed, sea
therefore is categorized into:
1. Neritic zone – the shallow water zone on the continental shelf.

2. Intertidal (Littoral) zone – the shore area between high and low tides.
3. Bathyal (Oceanic region) zone – a region of the continental slope and rise where it is
characterized by trenches and canyons.
4. Hadal (Abyssal region) zone – the very deep area of the ocean.
Marine ecosystem may be conveniently considered in 3 major components:
1. Seaweed component – includes all plants or seaweeds living on the seabeds.

2. Tidepool component –includes all organisms in the intertidal zone of the sea.
3. Estuarine component – includes all organisms found in the semi-enclosed coastal body of
water that has a free connection with the open sea.
III. Components of Ecosystem

An ecosystem has structural and functional components. The “structure” is made up of the
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) parts of an ecosystem (Fig. 1). While the roles of operations,
interactions and interrelationships of the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem are referred to
as the “function” (Fig. 2).
Figure 1. Interdependence of plants-animals-soil in the ecosystem. The soil gives

nourishment for the plants to grow. The plants in turn provide food to
animals. The wastes of animals and the dead leaves, twigs and branches
of plants provide the organic nutrients for the soil to keep it fertile and
healthy for plant growth and small animals and micro-organisms to thrive.
When plants and animals die, their dead bodies likewise contribute the
necessary nutrients to the soil. In short, one cannot live without the others.
Each contributes to maintain a balanced ecosystem.
Figure 2. Diagram of the pond ecosystem. Basic units areas follows: I. abiotic
substances-basic inorganic and organic compounds; II-A, producers-
rooted vegetation; III-1A, primary consumers (herbivores)- bottom forms;
III-1B primary consumers (carnivores)-zooplankton; III-2, secondary
consumers (carnivores); III-3, tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores);
IV, saprotrophs-bacteria and fungi of decay. The metabolism of the
system runs on sun energy while the rate of metabolism and relative
stability of the pond depend on the rate of inflow of materials from rain and
from the drainage basin in which the pond is located.
A. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
A.1. Abiotic (non-living) Components
1. Inorganic substances (involved in materials cycles like nitrogen, carbon, water, etc.)
2. Organic compounds (like carbohydrates, proteins, humic substances, lipids, etc.)
3. Climate regime (like rainfall, temperature and other physical factors)
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Soil – is composed of a mixture of mineral particles (45%) or the disintegrated

rocks, organic matter (5%) which is decayed plant and animal bodies, water
(25%), and air (25%) which is mostly carbon dioxide. It is the loose surface
.materials of land in which plants grow. The character of the soil determines
largely the character of vegetation and types of animals that maintain
themselves upon it. The types of soil, whether sandy, loamy or clay has a great
influence in the ability of an organism to live in it. The soil is a complex inorganic
material in which plants are anchored. Plants receive water and other needed
materials from it. It is found in the upper layer of the earth crust.
Heat – is a form of energy that regulates temperature.
Temperature – It is directly proportional to the intensity of light. Every organism

has different level of tolerance for temperature.
Sunlight – light is an important physical factor. Without the sun, life on earth
would be impossible. The process of photosynthesis on which organisms
depend for the manufacture of food does not take place except in the presence
of light.
Water – is an important ecological factor. It is an inorganic substance which

plays an important role in the ecosystem. It brings about changes in the life
forms of plants and animals.
Wind – it plays a role in pollination.

A.2. Biotic (living) Components
1. Producers – mostly green plants that manufacture food from simple inorganic
substances and light energy.
All life in an ecosystem depends on primary producers to capture energy from the
sun, convert it to food that is stored in plant cells, and pass this energy on to organisms
that eat plants.
Photosynthesis - process by which green plants and certain other organisms use
the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide and water into the simple sugar glucose. In
so doing, photosynthesis provides the basic energy source for virtually all organisms. An
extremely important byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, on which most organisms
depend.
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
2. Consumers (macro-consumers) – chiefly animals which ingest other organisms,

particulate organic matter, plants or other animals.
Consumers are either a herbivores and carnivores. Primary consumers are

animals that feed on plants. This group includes some insects, seed- and fruit- eating
birds, rodents, and larger animals that graze on vegetation, such as deer. When primary
consumers eat primary producers (plants), the energy in plant cells changes into a form
that can be stored in animal cells.
Secondary Consumers are diverse group of animals. Some eat primary

consumers and some eat other secondary consumers. These animals that eat smaller
primary consumers include frogs, snakes, foxes, and spiders. Animals that eat
secondary consumers include hawks, wolves and lions.
3. Decomposers (micro-consumers) – mainly bacteria and fungi which breakdown the

complex compounds of dead tissues of plants and animals, absorb some of the
decomposition products, and release simple substances or inorganic nutrients which
are used by producers. These decomposition products provide energy which may be
stimulating or inhibiting to other living components of the ecosystem. It includes worms,
mushrooms, and microscopic bacteria. These organisms breakdown dead plants and
animals into the nutrients needed by plants to survive.
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The decomposers, producers and consumers are connected to one another according
to the food they provide or the food they eat.
These abiotic components are needed by living things in order to survive.

These two components are equally dependent on each other and in this sense, they
constitute an ecosystem.
B. FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
B.1. Food Chains
A food chain or food cycle occurs when plants (producers) are consumed by
animals, and these plant consumers (herbivores) are consumed by larger animals
(carnivores). Man can either herbivore or carnivore (Figs. 3 and 4). A “Life Pyramid” is
shown in Fig. 5. At the base of the pyramid are the producers followed by the first-order
consumers or herbivores which feed directly on the producers. On the third stratum are the
second-order consumers or carnivores which feed on the herbivores. One will notice that
there are more producers than herbivores and more second order carnivores than third-
order carnivores and so forth. This mean, for example, that a large amount of plant material
is needed to feed a few insects and more insects are needed to feed a few animals. At the
top of the food pyramid is the hawk that generally is not eaten by another animal. A
disruption or imbalance in any part of the food chain will result in food shortage since each
part of the chain is dependent or connected to other parts as depicted in Fig. 5.
B.2. Energy Flow
The sun is the ultimate source of all energy. All energy entering the earth’s biosphere
eventually leaves the earth’s surface after some time in the form of heat. Some sunshine flows
though our planet very rapidly, and some remain on earth for a longer period. For example, the
solar energy which strikes the roads or roof of houses, on the other hand, is lost very quickly when
reflected back into space in just a matter of hours. On the other hand, the solar energy absorbed by
a tree for its growth stays longer in the earth’s ecosystem before it is lost in space. Solar energy in
combination with water, minerals and carbon dioxide are utilized by plants for their growth and in
manufacturing food. When an animal eats a plant, some of the energy stored in the plant material
is passed on and utilized by the animals thus taking longer time before the energy is dissipated into
space as heat.
B.3. Diversity
Diversity means the number of species (varieties or kinds) of plants and animals in a given
community. Higher diversity means longer food chains and greater community stability. It can,
therefore, be said that an ecosystem is stable if it has diverse species of plants and animals. When
an ecosystem attains stability, it has a greater capacity to withstand stresses or perturbations by
man or nature than an unstable ecosystem.
When a forest with many species of trees and animals is cleared and converted to an
agricultural land (e.g. corn field which is by contrast composed of few species, if not a
monoculture), the ecosystem becomes unstable. Many animals that depend on the trees for food
and shelter disappear. The soil is directly exposed to weather elements like rain. Erosion is then
more likely to occur.
B.4. Evolution
Evolution is a natural process of change in response to the physical changes of an aging

planet. Evolution remained unknown to man for thousands of years because the processes of
change unfolded so slowly. The long term evolution of ecosystems (more than 3B years ago) was
shaped by external forces such as geological and climatic changes. Likewise, it was molded by
processes resulting from activities of the living components of the ecosystem, especially man.
Changes in the species composition of communities occur when new species evolve: old species
become extinct, and surviving species change in abundance or genetic composition. Organism less
suited to a particular environment tends to be eliminated, and an evolutionary change can, in a
sense, be envisaged as a population’s last resort to cope with the effects of a changing
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environment. Therefore, through the process of evolution, the organisms are able to survive and
reproduce offspring adapted to the environment and are likewise capable of survival.
B.4. Ecosystem Development or Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is an orderly process of community development that involves

changes in species structure and community processes with time. It is reasonably directional and
therefore predictable. Ecological succession results from the modification of the physical
environment by the community. It culminates in a stabilized ecosystem. For example, in an
abandoned cropland formerly planted to corn and cotton, grassland develops. If the grass is left
undisturbed for sometime, the area will eventually be invaded by shrubs and, later on, by waves of
trees of different species. This is termed as ecological succession. The grasses tend to modify the
physical environment (e.g. soil, climate) and biota, making conditions favorable for the invasion and
growth of shrubs. Through the same process, the trees will replace the shrubs until a balance or
equilibrium between biotic and abiotic components in the area is reached. The last stage in the
succession process (tree population) is called the climax and sometimes referred to as the mature
stage since it is already stable and is no longer replaceable by other communities unless they are
disturbed by man and other external factors.
B.5. Control or Cybernetics
Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as do their component

populations and organisms. Cybernetics, the science of controls, has important applications in
ecology since man increasingly tends to disrupt natural controls or attempts to substitute artificial
mechanisms for natural ones.
The growth of predator population can be controlled by the growth of the prey population
and vice versa. An increase, therefore, in the growth of predator population results in the reduction
of the prey population to a point where the prey population is no longer adequate to supply the
growing predator population. As a consequence, the predator population tapers off in a number
than can be sustained by the prey population. This control process is reversible, that is, it can also
be applied in the case of an increase in growth of the prey population (Fig. 6).
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS & ISSUES
A. Global Warming & Greenhouse Effect
Admittedly, we treat our environment as a matter of less concern for us, but with the glaring
truth before us, including the consequences it may bring, maybe it is about time that we shed our
attitude of indifference and for once, help one another. Let help each other lessen, if not totally stop
this environmental disaster, for our sake and for the sake of the future generation. Let us make our
environment our responsibility.
What is the greenhouse effect?
We normally associate the greenhouse with a garden, an orchard or a farm, it being a

glassed enclosure used for the cultivation and protection of tender plants. Inside a greenhouse, the
environment is warm and controlled, to nurture plants and to protect them from the elements
outside.
The same is true for the earth. Without the natural greenhouse effect found in the upper
atmosphere, our planet would be lifeless and ice-covered. But pollution in the atmosphere, caused
by man’s increasing activities had accumulated in the atmosphere and greatly changed the natural
greenhouse effect. All the gases from the pollution sources rise from the surface of the earth and
form a permanent layer that prevents heat from the earth from escaping. The rise in temperature
could possibly be due to the lessening of ozone, a gas formed naturally in the atmosphere by a
reaction with sun’s ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer protects the earth from the sun’s damaging
ultraviolet rays.
The main pollutants responsible for the global warming is carbon dioxide which results from
burning of fossil fuels or fuels derived from living things such as coal, oil and natural gas. It also
comes from the destruction of forests, which releases carbon dioxide (CO 2) into the atmosphere
when they are burned or cut down. The destruction and burning reduces the stock of forests that
act as sink for carbon dioxide and increases emission through decay and direct combustion. The
forests, along with the oceans absorb CO 2 and helps regulate atmospheric concentrations. More
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important still, they recirculate water, maintaining cloud cover over large areas. If the burning
continues, this process will break down and bring about areas incapable of supporting life.
Other “greenhouse gases” which contribute to global warming are chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) which also destroy the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere, methane, nitrous oxide
and carbon monoxide.
Chlorofluorocarbons are synthetic or man-made chemicals used as aerosol repellants, as

blowing agents for plastic foams, as refrigerants and as solvents. Some of these compounds can
remain in the atmosphere from 75 to 150 years. They are approximately 10,000 times more
efficient as greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Nitrous oxide is released both by bacterial process and by the combustion of fossil fuels
especially coal and fuel oil. Some research suggests that deforestation, especially clear cutting can
increase by two times local emissions of nitrous oxide.
Some greenhouse gases have been rising even faster than carbon dioxide and some, like
methane and CFCs are much more effective at retaining heat.
CO2 and methane are produced from municipal solid waste when it is buried in landfill or
burnt in incinerator. CFCs may also be released when aerosol cans or plastic foams are burnt, or
when they disintegrate inside landfills. High temperature and complete combustion are required to
breakdown CFCs.
Inside the landfill, municipal solid waste is degradedly microbes and partially converted into
biogas, a roughly equal mix of methane and carbon dioxide. Over the years, much of this seeps
into the surface of through cracks in the capping or via ground water, the rest remains trapped
below the ground. Waste that is burnt or decomposed in open air dumps is converted directly into
carbon dioxide. But when wood or other biomass fuel is burned in open fires or inefficient cook
stoves, some of the carbon in the fuel is released as methane rather than as carbon dioxide.
Lastly, carbon monoxide is produced primarily during inefficient combustion and the
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (hydrocarbon is an organic compound e.g. acetylene
or benzene, containing only carbon and hydrogen and often occurs in petroleum, natural gas and
coal). It is released in large quantities as an element of the exhaust gases produced by cars and
light trucks.
Greenhouse gases have five characteristics (Lave, 1989):
1. They are global in the sense that all regions are affected, thus involves the whole world.
2. They are long term since short-term effects are undetectable and important effects on
people and their well-being are perhaps a century in the future.
3. They are ethical since they involve the preference and well-being even of persons who
have not been born yet, as well as of plants, animals and the environment.
4. They are potentially catastrophic, in the sense that large changes in the environment might
result, as well as massive loss of human life and property.
5. They are contentious in the sense that coming to decisions, translating these into
agreements and enforcing these agreements would be difficult because of uncertainty, the
tendency for individual nations to cheat, the difficulty of detecting cheating and the difficulty
of enforcing agreements even after cheating is detected.
⮚ Caused by water vapor and atmosphere gases (e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone,
methane)
⮚ Causes a rise in the global temperature
How can we help slow the Greenhouse effects?
1. Be energy efficient. Purchase appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, water

heaters and stoves that have low “energy use” rating. Replace standard light bulbs with
special available lighting which requires less energy and produces less heat, thereby
reducing air conditioning costs.
2. Drive a fuel-efficient car.
3. Plant a tree-lot if you can. Shade trees planted around a house cut down energy
consumption. They absorb carbon dioxide and prevent it from going to the atmosphere.
4. Avoid using products made with harmful CFCs.

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5. Drive less. Use public transportation. Walking and bicycling benefits your health and your
environment by not polluting.
6. Spread the word. Share your knowledge and concern about the green house effect with
others.
7. Conserve energy.
B. Ozone Depletion – it is the depletion or the loss of the blocking effect of the ozone layer
against ultraviolet rays. Caused by the release of ODS (e.g. CFCs into the atmosphere
• Causes eye damage, skin cancer, aging of the skin, Disruption of the immune
system of plants & animals
C. Decrease in Biodiversity
⮚ in 1996, 25% of the world’s mammal species and 11% of the bird species were assessed
as globally threatened – that is at significant risk of total extinction
Why this is a threat? The accelerated and enhanced reduction in diversity of at gene, species
and ecosystem level implies reduced ability of ecosystem to provide key products and services
to human being.
There is a wide range of causes to these problems; land clearance for development purpose at
ecologically sensitive areas being one of them, climate change can be another. The impacts of
irresponsible use of bio-technology are clearly a risk but yet to be understood better.
D. Acid Rain
⮚ Caused by atmospheric gases such as Carbon Dioxide, Sulfur Oxides and Nitrogen Oxides
E. Urban Smog
F. Persistent Organic Pollutants
FOREST FIRE
Forest Fire are fires that burn forest vegetation. (Wildland fires)
Types of Forest Fire
■ Ground fires – burn the humus layer of the forest floor but do not burn
appreciably above the surface.
■ Surface fires – burn forest undergrowth and surface litter
■ Crown fires – fires which advance through the tops of trees or shrubs.
Forest fires result from:
■ Human carelessness
■ Deliberate arson
■ Lightning
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Weather conditions that influence susceptibility of the area to forest fire:
■ Temperature
■ Humidity
■ Rainfall
Some Sources of Heat Which Cause Forest or Grass Fires
1. Flames (e.g. match)

2. Embers (e.g. cigar)
3. Electrical sparks from man made sources
4. Lightning; and
5. Friction (forest machines, trains, etc.)
Most forest fires result from human carelessness or deliberate arson. Fewer fires are
started by lightning. Weather conditions influence the susceptibility of an area to fire; such
factors as temperature, humidity, and rainfall determine the rate and extent to which
flammable material dries and, therefore, the combustibility of the forest. Wind movement
tends to accelerate drying and to increase the severity of fires by speeding up combustion.
By correlating the various climatic elements with the flammability of branch and leaf litter,
the degree of fire hazard may be predicted for any particular day in any locality. Under
conditions of extreme hazard, forests are closed to public use.
Although organizations involved with fire control have traditionally fought all fires, certain
fires are a natural part of the ecosystem. Complete fire exclusion may bring about
undesirable changes in vegetational patterns and may also allow accumulation of fuel, with
increased potential for feeding catastrophic fires. In some parks and wilderness areas,
where the goal is to maintain natural conditions, lightning-caused fires may be allowed to
burn under close surveillance.
Foresters may purposely ignite prescribed fires under carefully controlled conditions to
remove unwanted debris following logging, to favor tree seedlings, or to keep fuels from
accumulating. Since most grasses and shrubs grow well after fires, and animals are
attracted to the tender and nutritious new growth, prescribed fires often benefit both wildlife
and livestock. The mosaic of vegetation of different ages that results from frequent small
fires favors a rich diversity of plant and animal life.
Forest fires are often set deliberately to clear forested areas for grazing or agricultural
purposes. In slash-and-burn cultivation, subsistence farmers burn small plots of forest for
space to grow crops. After two or three years, when the nutrients in the soil have been
depleted, the plots are abandoned and other plots are cleared by fire. Large-scale
agricultural operations use similar methods to clear forested areas. These practices, along
with logging operations, destroyed much of the world’s tropical rain forests during the
1980s and 1990s. The El Niño weather pattern of 1997-1998 disrupted rainfall patterns,
leaving many forests dry. Thousands of deliberately set forest fires raged out of control in
Indonesia, Brazil, and Mexico, burning millions of hectares of rain forest. Thick clouds of
smoke blanketed vast areas in Southeast Asia, South America, and Central America,
sending tens of thousands of people to hospitals with respiratory illnesses related to the Air
Pollution.
TECHNIQUES ON FOREST FIRE PREVENTION

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PREVENTION - is the means of reducing the number of unwanted, uncontrolled, or

escaped wildfires
Factors of an Effective Fire Prevention
• An adequately large organization

• Knowledge of fires and their causes
• Trained firemen for fire prevention activities
• Good and advanced planning for fire prevention
• Budgetary requirements
What are the best “tools” for fire prevention?
• Education of the general public

• Elimination of the fire hazards
• Fire enforcement laws
Risks - the chance of a fire starting from one cause or another, such as people, lightning,
electricity,
Wildfire Causes and Risk
1. Land owners and farmers
Agricultural burning including kaingin, grazing, and fires to control vermin and
insects, together with many variations of rubbish and debris burning may cause wildfires
Farmers should be educated on the following:
• Burn only during safe conditions, for example, when there is little or no wind and
after rain, if possible
• Obtain a permit from the local fire authority or forest fire headquarters
• Start the fire in a safe place, not too close to the forest or woodland. Clear all
hazardous material from around the fire area
• Burn at a safe time and never on a windy day. Generally, the early morning or the
late evening is the best time
• Before starting a large outdoor fire, there must be stand-by fire suppression
equipment and men available to prevent the fire from spreading
2. Picnickers, campers, hikers,hunters, tourists

 Cigarette smoking
Basic rules for smoking in forest areas:

• During fire danger season, smoking while walking or working in a forest area is
prohibited
• Smoke only in designated safe places where there is no hazardous fuel. These
areas could be next to a stream or lake, on sandy soil, or on a roadway
• Crush the butt end of the cigasrette against a bare rock, or into a sandy soil
• Use a cigarette lighter or make sure that the match is extinguished
• Use ash tray in the vehicle.
 Campfires
Basic information that should be known to campers:
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• Campfire should be contained in a specially constructed fireplace which should

be well away from overhead and surrounding hazardous fuels
• It should be kept small
• It should never be left unattended, as a wind could spread the fire into near-by
fuels
• Make sure that the fire is properly out before leaving the site.
 Arsonists
 Children (playing with matches & other sources of fire)
3. Lightning
• Occasionally, a “dry” lightning will start many fires. Fires started by lightning
strikes may smoulder for days before conditions become favorable for the
spread of fires.
• Lightning storms usually follow a definite path across the terrain. A map
which shows the fires caused by lightning over a period of 10 years will
usually show the lightning pattern.
4. Railways and roads
• Fireguards along railways and roads are essential
• Drivers should be educated
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Environmental Protection
- is the preservation and safeguarding of one’s surroundings or territory or domain.
Environmental Problems: Causes and Effects
Environmental Causes Effect

Problem
Improper disposal of solid waste It threatens the community

(solid waste like residential waste, because the decomposed organic
street garbage, market waste and waste is used as the breeding
industrial waste, it occurs mostly in grounds of insects and disease-
urban areas) carrying insects.
Intensive Farming – occurs when The use of fertilizers and

farmers throw chemicals in the soil pesticides leads to deteriorations
in the form of pesticides and or of soil quality and it also threatens
insecticides during agricultural human’s health.
practices.
If the waste is not properly

disposed, it can contaminate the
soil.
If mining sites are close to fertile

Exploitation of Minerals. lands, the land soil hardens and
dries because of the chemicals.
Land/Soil
Pollution
If mining sites are close to the

bodies of water, chemicals poison
the water and destroy the coral
reefs.
If mining sites are within the forest

land, the habitat of the countless
land species may be destroyed.
Common Air Pollutants: Exposed person is more

susceptible to respiratory
diseases. PM10 from diesel
Particulate Matter smoke can cause cancer.
Air Pollution Carbon Monoxide (CO) Greatly interferes with oxygen

absorption from the blood that
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result to dizziness, and fatigue

among people who are exposed
to low concentrations. It may
cause death among people high
concentration.
Increased respiratory diseases

and decreased lung function
among people who are exposed
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
to the identified chemicals. This
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) makes especially for those who
are suffering from asthma.
Acid rain.
It depletes the ozone layer. The

ozone layer serves as a filter from
the ultra violet rays of the sun.
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
Improper garbage disposal Fish kills occurs when the

concentration of nutrients
increased due to domestic waste.
When water is covered with oil

and chemicals, fish and other
aquatic animals cannot breathe,
Oil Spill they will not able to get their food,
and eventually they will die.
Water Pollution
It causes over fishing and

eventually decreases in water
habitant.
Intensive Fishing:
- Use of dynamite/cyanide Depletion of the coral reefs.

- Muro ami
- Use of fine nets
Rampant Logging Soil Erosion
Kaingin System (slash and burn) Loss of Biodiversity
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Deforestation Industrialization Drought
Natural Calamities: Disruption in the cycle of nature
Greenhouse Effect / Global

❖ Forest fires
Warming (Global warming refers
❖ Typhoon to the increase of the Earth’s
atmosphere due to the so called
❖ Volcanic eruption Greenhouse Effect.)
PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION LAWS/LEGISLATIONS
⮚ The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines enshrines environment

and natural resources in at least four of its articles, or at least 18 of its sections., These
are Sections 15-16 and 23 of Article II; Section 20 of Article X; Section 2-6 of Article XII
and Section 1, 4-10 and 12 of Article XIII. Foremost among these provisions is Section
16 of Article II, which states that “. the State shall protect and advance the right of the
people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature.”
⮚ Presidential Decree (PD) 1586: Philippine Environmental Impact Statement

System. This law requires private corporations, firms or entities including agencies
and instrumentalities of the government to prepare an environmental impact statement
(EIS) for every proposed project and undertaking which significantly affect the quality
of the environment.
⮚ Republic Act No. 8749 – Clean Air Act of 1999 – An Act Providing for Comprehensive
Air Quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain
healthy air for all Filipinos.
⮚ Republic Act No. 9275. The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004. The law aims to
protect the country’s water bodies from land-based pollution sources (industries and
commercial establishments, agriculture and community / household activities). It
provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and minimize
pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the
stakeholders.
⮚ Republic Act No. 6969. Philippine Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear
Waste Act. The Act provides the legal framework for the Philippines to control and
manage the importation, manufacture, processing, distribution, use, transport,
treatment and disposal of toxic substances and hazardous and nuclear wastes.
⮚ Republic Act No. 9003. Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of
2000. It provides the legal framework for the country’s systematic, comprehensive and
ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure protection of public
health and the environment.
14
⮚ Republic Act No. 9729. Climate Change Act of 2009. This law aims to systematically
integrate the concept of climate change in the policy formulation and development
plans of all government agencies and units, to the end that the government will be
prepared for the impact of climate change.
⮚ Republic Act No. 9512 – Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008. –
An act to promote environmental awareness through Environmental Education (EE)
and covers the integration of EE in the school curricula at all levels, be it public or
private, including day care, preschool, non-formal, technical, vocational, indigenous
learning, and out-of-school youth courses or programs.
⮚ Republic Act No. 7161 (Forest Charges Law dated 02 July 1991). This act prohibits the
cutting of mangrove trees. “All mangrove species whose cutting shall be banned, x x x” Section
4 thereof.
Mangrove is a type of forest growing along tidal mudflats and along shallow water coastal
areas extending inland along rivers, streams and their tributaries where the water is generally
brackish. The mangrove ecosystem is dominated by mangrove trees as the primary producer
interacting with associated aquatic fauna, social and physical factors of the coastal environment.
ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS/FUNCTIONS OF MANGROVE
⮚ Mangroves provide nursery grounds for fish, prawns and crabs, and support fisheries
production in coastal waters.
Almost every living thing needs a safe place when it is young, small and fragile. Like human
babies, young fish, shrimp, crabs and other animals in the sea need a safe place to grow,
away from many predators. Only those young animals that find refuge survive to grow to full
size. Smaller fish or shrimp swimming in open waters may soon be eaten by larger fish.
Mangroves are good nurseries because they provide hiding places for young animals. The
arched-shaped roots of the bakauan mangroves and the finger-like roots of the api-api and
piapi mangroves are good examples. This protection, along with the abundant food supply
that comes from mangrove areas are very good nurseries for any important sea animals.
For every hectare of mangrove cut down, a corresponding reduction in fish catch is
estimated at 1.08 tons per hectare per year.
⮚ Mangroves produce leaf litter and detrimental matter, which are valuable sources of food for
animals in estuaries and coastal waters.
The leaves that fall from a mangrove tree break up and decompose into small pieces known
as detritus, some too small to be seen by the human eye. The detritus is broken down by
bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms that nourish marine animals. Mangroves
contribute about 3.65 tons of litter per hectare per year.
⮚ Mangroves protect the environment by protecting coastal areas and communities from
strong surges, waves, tidal currents and typhoons.
The crown and stem of mangroves serve as physical barriers. Their specialized roots trap
and hold sediments and siltation from the uplands. It promotes clear water and the growth
of corrals and sea grasses.
⮚ Mangroves produce organic biomass (carbon) and reduce organic pollution in nearshore
areas by trapping or absorption.
Mangroves contribute 1,800-4,200 grams of carbon per square meter per year
(approximating the contribution of the tropical rain forest and 10 times higher than primary
production primary production in the open ocean.
15
⮚ Mangroves serve as recreational grounds for bird watching and observation of other wildlife.
Mangroves provide shelter for local and migratory wildlife and serve as roosting and
foraging grounds. They also provide access to highly diverse mangrove plants and animals
and their adaptations, making them ideal ecological destinations and field laboratories for
biology and ecology students and researchers.
⮚ Mangroves are a good source of wood and timber and nipa shingles for housing materials,
firewood and charcoal and of poles for fish traps. Mangrove seeds and propagules can be
harvested and sold. Fish, crustaceans and mollusks can also be harvested from
mangroves. Aquaculture and commercial fisheries also depend on mangroves for juvenile
and mature fish species.
⮚ mangroves are sources of tannin, alcohol and medicine.
⮚ Chainsaw Act of 2002 (RA No. 9175)
All chainsaw owners shall apply for registration within 3 months from the effectivity of this
Order (Sec. 4). The IRR was issued on July 3, 2003; therefore the effectivity was October 4, 2003.
Persons authorized to own, possess and use chainsaws (Sec. 6)
1. holder of a subsisting Timber License Agreement, Production Sharing Agreement, Co-

Production Sharing Agreement, or a Private Land Timber Permit/Special Private Land
Timber Permit, Community-Based Forest Management Agreement (CBFMA), Integrated
Forest Management Agreement (IFMA), Socialized Industrial Forest Management
Agreement (SIFMA), or similar tenurial instruments.
2. Orchard or fruit tree farmer
3. Industrial tree farmer
4. licensed wood processor and the chainsaw shall be used for the cutting of timber that has
been legally sold to said applicant
5. anyone who shows satisfactory proof that the processor and/or use of chainsaw is for a
legal purpose
6. agencies of the government, government-owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs) that
use chainsaws in some aspects of their functions
All persons, partnerships, and corporations who own or are otherwise in possession of
chainsaws must be register with the CENRO who shall issue the corresponding Certificate of
Registration. A serialized sticker will be attached to the chainsaw indicating the registration
number, date of registration and expiry date (Sec. 7). Every permit to possess and/or use a chain
saw for legitimate purpose shall be valid for two (2) years upon issuance: Provided, that permits to
possess and use chainsaw issued to non-commercial orchard and fruit tree farmers shall be valid
for a period of five (5) years upon issuance.
Requirements for Certificate of Registration (Sec. 8)
1. Duly accomplished application form;

2. Copy of business permit from the LGU or affidavit that chainsaw is needed in applicant’s
work/profession and will be used for legal purpose;
3. Detailed specification of chainsaws to be registered (brand, model, engine capacity, serial
number), purpose of use, areas/location where it is to be used, name of owner, date of
purchase, and name of dealer; and
4. Registration fee of P 500.00/chainsaw registered
Penalties (Sec. 12.4)
Any person who is found to be in possession of a chainsaw and uses the same to cut trees
and timber in forest land or elsewhere except as authorized by the DENR shall be penalized with:
a. imprisonment of 6 years and 1 day to 8 years

b. or a fine of not less than P 30,000.00 but not more than P 50,000.00
c. or both at the discretion of the court without prejudice to being prosecuted for a separate
offense
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d. The chainsaw unlawfully used shall be likewise confiscated in favor of the government
e. If the offender is a public official or employee, in addition to the above penalties, the
offender shall be removed from office and perpetually disqualified from holding any public
office.
⮚ Presidential Decree No. 705, otherwise known as the “Revised Forestry Code of the
Philippines”, was promulgated and passed into law on 19 May 1975. Section 68 thereof
classifies the cutting, gathering and/or collecting of timber and other forest products without a
license or permit from the DENR as QUALIFIED THEFT, a criminal offense, punishable
under Articles 309 and 310 of the Revised Penal Code. The said Section 68 of PD 705 was
amended by E.O. 277, Series of 1987 dated 25 July 1987 and now Sec. 77 as renumbered
under R.A. 7161. The law provides:
“Sec.77. Cutting, gathering and/or collecting timber, or other forest products

without License. Any person who shall cut, gather, collect, or remove timber or other
forest products from any forest land, or timber from alienable and disposable land, or
from private land, without any authority, or POSSESS TIMBER OR OTHER
FOREST PRODUCTS WITHOUT THE LEGAL DOCUMENTS AS REQUIRED
UNDER EXISTING FOREST LAWS AND REGULATIONS , shall be punished with
the penalties imposed under Articles 309 (theft) and 310 (qualified theft) of the
Revised Penal Code: Provided that in case of partnerships, associations or
corporations, the officers who ordered the cutting, gathering, collection or
possession shall be liable, and if such officers are aliens, they shall in addition to the
penalty, be deported without further proceedings on the part of the Commission on
Immigration and Deportation. (underlining supplied)
The Court shall further order the confiscation in favor of the government of
the timber or any forest products cut, gathered, collected, removed, or possessed,
as well as the machinery, equipment, implements and tools illegally used in the area
where the timber or forest products are found.”
P.D. 705 is a special law and it is in the nature of a mala prohibita wherein specified
offenses are defined and penalized. Since it is a mala prohibita, the mere perpetration (action) of
the prohibited acts(s) or omission to do (inaction) of the required acts(s) is sufficient to impose the
prescribed sanction regardless of motive and notwithstanding lack of criminal intent. What is
material is that there was commission or perpetration of the prohibited act or omission to do
(inaction) of the required act.
It must be noted that the afore-quoted law even prohibits private land owners from cutting,
collecting, gathering and removing naturally growing timber within their private land for commercial
purposes without any authority under a license agreement, lease, license, or permit issued by the
DENR.
Therefore, before the private land owner could cut, gather, collect and remove the naturally
growing timber on his land, he must secure a permit for the purpose from the Department.
This section punishes but one offense: illegal logging. But what is logging? Logging is
essentially the extraction of wood-based products from our forests. If done responsibly (through
sustainable logging practices or cutting of only mature or over-mature trees), logging can actually
help develop our forest resources and contribute not only to the economic developments but also
to the environment health of the country. What constitute illegal logging are the unauthorized
cutting and/or gathering of trees, rattan, mangroves and other forest products as well as the
transport buying and/or selling of illegally acquired forest products. There are, however, three ways
or modes of committing it. These are:
1. Cutting, gathering, collecting or removing of timber or other forest products from any
forest land without authority.
Elements:
a) there must be cutting, gathering, collecting or removing of timber or other forest

products;
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b) the timber or other forest products is cut, gathered, collected or removed from any
forest land ;
c) the cutting, gathering, collecting or removing is without authority.
“Timber” shall mean a piece of wood having an average diameter of at least 15 cm and a
length of at least 1.5 m, except all mangrove species which in all cases, shall be considered as
timber regardless of size. It may include the felled tree in its unaltered state. It may either in logs
and flitches (a piece of timber sawn or hewn on two or more sides).
“Forest product” means timber, pulpwood, firewood, bark, tree top, resin, gum wood (used
in generic sense and should be interpreted as to include all its form including lumber), oil, honey,
beeswax, nipa, rattan, or other forest growth such as grass, shrub, and flowering plant, the
associated water, fish, game, scenic, historical, recreational and geological resources in forest
lands.
2. Cutting, gathering, collecting or removing of timber from alienable and disposable

land or from private land.
Elements:
a) there must be cutting, gathering, collecting or removing of timber;

b) the timber is cut, gathered, collected or removed from (i) alienable and disposable
land or (ii) from private land;
c) the cutting, gathering, collecting or removal of timber is without authority.
The cutting of timber of naturally growing trees even from private or titled lands requires a
license or permit such as a Private Land Timber Permit [PLTP] or a Special Private Land
Timber Permit [SPLTP] for premium hardwood tree species. Thus, even the owner of private land
who cuts timber in said land without the necessary license or permit is guilty of the offense.
3. Possession of timber or other forest products without the legal documents as

required under existing forest laws and regulations.
Elements:
a) the accused possessed timber or other forest products;

b) his possession of timber or other forest products is without the legal documents as
required under existing forest laws and regulations
In this mode, the source of timber or other forest products is not specified. The provision is
silent as to the source, under this mode, can only imply that all types of land are covered. The
intent of the law is to punish the mere act of possessing timber and other forest products without
legal documents, whatever may be the source. Accordingly, unlawful possession of timber or forest
products comes from public forest land, alienable and disposable land, or even private land.
Table1. Distinctions among the Modes of Committing the Offense of Illegal Logging
ACTS PUNISHED SUBJECT SOURCE BASIS OF

(Mode) OFFENSE
1. cutting, gathering, Timber/forest Forest land (public) Without authority

collecting, removing products
2. cutting, gathering, Timber A & D, public land, Without authority

collecting, removing private land
Timber/forest
products
3. Possession All Without authority
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PERSON LIABLE: Who are the persons liable under P.D. 705, as amended?
The persons liable include the:
✔ Cutter
✔ Gatherer
✔ Collector
✔ Remover
✔ Possessor or any and all persons who appear to be responsible for the commission of the
offense [owners of conveyances (barges, vessels/ships, boat, bus, jeep, etc.) and owners of
tools and implements (chainsaws, bolos, etc.)]
✔ In case of partnership, associations, or corporations, the OFFICERS who ORDERED the
cutting, gathering, collection or possession.
BASIS AND PENALTIES FOR ILLEGAL LOGGING :

The basis of the penalty for illegal logging, as theft and qualified theft, is the value of the
timber or forest products subject of the offense. The penalty is imprisonment from arresto menor to
reclusion temporal. The duration of the penalties are shown in the following table.
Table 2. PENALTIES FOR ILLEGAL LOGGING

VALUE PENALTY DURATION
18 yrs 2 mos & 21 days to 20 yrs

(1yr for each add’l P10,000.00
More than Reclusion temporal in its medium but total penalty shall not
P22,000.00 and maximum periods exceed 20 yrs)
More than Reclusion temporal in its medium 14 yrs 8 mos & 1 day to 20 yrs
P12,000.00 up to and maximum periods
P22,000.00
More than Prision mayor in its maximum 10 yrs & 1 day to 12 yrs
P6,000.00 up to period to Reclusion temporal in its
P12,000.00 minimum periods
More than P200.00 Prision mayor in its medium and 8 yrs & 1 day to 12 yrs
up to P6,000.00 maximum periods
More than P50.00 Reclusion temporal in its medium 8 yrs & 1 day to 14 yrs & 8 mos
up to P200.00 and maximum periods
More than P5.00 up Reclusion temporal in its medium 8 yrs & 1 day to 12 yrs
to P50.00 and maximum periods
P5.00 or less Prision correccional in its medium 2 yrs 4 mos & 1 day to 6 yrs
and maximum periods
In case the value does not exceed P 5.00 and the offender shall have acted under the
impulse of hunger, poverty, or the difficulty of carrying a livelihood for the support of himself or his
family, the penalty imposable is arresto menor in its maximum period, or 21 days to 30 days.
Prior to the issuance of E.O. 277, Series of 1987, the percentage of criminal conviction for
violation of forestry laws is below the desired result on account of the reluctance of possible
witnesses to testify on the identity of the perpetrator(s) of the crime and because the courts
invariably require evidence as to the origin of the illegally cut logs or forest products. At present, it
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is sufficient that the logs were not accompanied by the necessary supporting documents, as
required by existing forestry laws, rules and regulations to sustain the conviction of the accused.
AUTHORITY/ISSUANCE OF CUTTING PERMIT AND REQUIREMENTS
In timberland areas are legalized under the following conditions:
A. For naturally-grown trees-Timber License Agreement (TLA)
Timber License Agreement (TLA) is the most popularly known authority granted by the
government for the extraction of timber. It is a long term license which entitles the grantee to cut,
remove, and utilize timber in public forest for duration of 10 to 25 yrs. The government receives a
fixed license fee and does not share in the timber produced. The license is subject to the submitted
and approved Integrated Annual Operations Plan (IAOP) of the company.
B. Plantations
b.1 IFMA/SIFMA (DAO 99-53)

Requirements:
- Comprehensive Development and Management Plan (CDMP)

- Harvesting Plan
- Environmental Compliance Certificate
- Permit to Harvest
b.2 CBFMA (DAO 2000-29)
Requirements:
- affirmed Community Resource Management Framework (CRMF)

- Annual Work Plan (AWP)
- Environmental Compliance Certificate
- Resource Use Plan (RUP)
The following permit to cut will be issued in private lands:
A. For a naturally-grown trees -Private Land Timber Permit (DAO 2000-21)
Requirements:
- letter of application
- authenticated copy of land title/CLOA with approved sketch map
- development plan for 10 has. or larger with at least 50% of the area covered with
forest trees
- endorsement from LGU
- inventory fee
- EIA
B. For premium species-Special Private Land Timber Permit (DAO 2000-21)
Requirements:
- letter of application
- authenticated copy of land title/CLOA with approved sketch map
- development plan for 10 has. or larger with at least 50% of the area covered with
forest trees
- endorsement from LGU
- inventory fee
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- EIA
List of Premium Species
1. Akle 8. Ebony 15. Molave

2. Almaciga 9. Ipil 16. Narra
3. Apanit 10. Kalantas 17. Sangilo
4. Banuyo 11. Batikuling 18. Supa
5. Betis 12. Kamagong 19. Teak
6. Dao 13. Manggis 20. Tindalo
7. Bolong-eta 14. Lumbayao 21. Lanete
C. Plantations (MC 99-20) – no cutting permit needed except for premium species which
require special permit (SPLTP)
At present, only trees growing in titled land are allowed to be cut. Tax declaration shall not
be acceptable as proof of ownership for purposes of PLTP application. It is issued only to
landowners. No middleman/timber traders even with special powers of attorney from landowners
may be issued said permit.
DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR THE TRANSPORT OF TIMBER AND OTHER FOREST

PRODUCTS:
Effective monitoring of the movement of timber and other forest products from the resource
base shall be put in place without necessarily impeding their transport from the point of origin to
final destination or point of discharge. The necessity of providing (DENR) transport documents
covering the said forest commodities becomes imperative, not only as (1) basis for determining the
resource drain but also (2) in providing a control mechanism against the unauthorized movement
and disposition of contraband forest products.
For a forest products shipment to be considered as legal, it shall be duly accompanied with
DENR shipping documents which must be valid, authentic and genuine. The DENR shipping
document is considered valid if it conforms to the extrinsic validity requirements deal on the use of
the prescribed form and duly marked as received and released by the DENR office of source,
presence of the right hand thumb mark of the issuing officers and other matters which relate to the
required forms and solemnities. On the other hand, intrinsic validity concerns more on the
consistency of information manifested in the Certificate of Origin and that actually shipped (volume,
dimensions, species or other pertinent information) which could raise-up doubt as to the legality of
the shipment. The documents must not be tampered or if there are erasures/changes of
data/information reflected, the same must be duly authenticated.
It is likewise an indispensable requirement that the issuing officers must possess the
constituted authority to issue such documents or if such officers have such authority, they should
not act in excess or with abuse of such authority. DENR shipping documents duly signed and
issued by authorized DENR personnel are the ones considered to legally support a forest products
shipment, being authentic and genuine, and wanting of any other flaw, valid.
The following are set of transport documents required by a person when transporting forest
products from the source to any destination.
1. From timberland:
1.1 For a naturally-grown trees
A. logs (round timber), flitches (squared timber)
1. Original copy of the Certificate of Timber Origin

2. Auxiliary Invoices
3. Tally sheets (logs must be scaled and marked with Forest Officer’s marking hatchet and
Timber Licensee’s Registered Private Log Mark (Par. 7, DAO No. 34, S. of 1988)
4. Sales or Commercial invoices (if logs sold to second parties)
5. Log Supply Contract
6. Certificate of Transport Agreements
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Certificate of Lumber/Timber Origin (CTO/CLO) refers to the document issued by the

CENRO to accompany the shipment (transport) of lumber/timber, showing the number of
pieces/volume and species of forest products under shipment, place of loading, conveyance used,
date of transport, its source and its consignee and expected duration of shipment. It is an
accountable form/security document of the DENR printed by the Central Bank of the Philippines,
with assigned computer-based serial numbers indicated at the upper right hand side of the form
and perforated sections at the bottom portion to be detached by the DENR official concerned. The
bordered sections at the left hand side described the route and perforating the validity date of the
shipment to be covered by it. It is issued on a one-shipment basis.
A CTO shall be valid only for a period of 15 days (including Saturdays, Sundays and
Holidays) from date of issuance. In case of expiration before reaching the point of destination,
renewal or extension thereof should be secured from the nearest DENR field office. Once a CO is
already used to cover a shipment, it shall no longer be valid to cover subsequent shipments. If,
however, a shipper declare “shut out”, the same shall be annotated on the CO and a
revalidation/clearance shall be secured form the DENR of origin for the transport of the shut out
volume.
The CO contains material information. The unjustified alterations, erasure and/or

misdeclaration of which would warrant the seizure and confiscation of the forest product shipment
and the conveyance.
Certificate of Minor Forest Products Origin (CMFPO) refers to the document issued by
the CENRO to accompany the transport of non-timber forest products, showing the volume, type of
product, place of loading, conveyance used, date of transport, source and destination (consignee),
of the products to be transported.
Auxiliary Invoice - A document and an accountable form printed in quintuplet which are
serially numbered issued by the CENRO at source/origin. It shall be a ONE-SHIPMENT BASIS and
should approximate what could be ordinarily loaded in one vehicle commonly used in transporting
said products from the cutting area to the point of discharge. It contains the following: true and
complete listing of timber and/or forest products subject to forest charges transported or to be
transported, that the same were cut by authority of a duly issued license/permit, that each piece of
timber/forest products have been permanently marked with the registered private log mark of the
licensee and serially numbered, that the forest charges have been paid, and when completed, shall
be sworn to before the Collection Agent concerned.
Tally Sheet (TS) – It is the inventory or scaling sheet where material

informations/specifications of the forest products under shipment such as kind of forest product,
number of pieces, volume, species, dimensions, etc. are indicated signed by the DENR Scaler
concerned and co-signed by the licensee-supplier or his authorized representative.
Sales or Commercial Invoice - A document issued by the vendor of forest products to the
vendee indicating the number of pieces, volume and unit price of the forest product purchased
Log Supply Contract - A contract between the consignee/buyer and the log supplier/timber
licensee to provide so much cubic meters to the latter at an agreed price.
Delivery Receipt - A document issued by the licensee/permittee to the

consignee/purchaser which contains the specific number of pieces and volume as well as the
dimensions of the forest products.
Certificate of Transport Agreement (CTA) – refers to the joint declaration made by the
shipper and the owner of the conveyance used in the transport, shipment or movement of forest
products that both parties are aware of the documents required by forestry laws and regulations
and the conveyance used in the transport/shipment/movement of forest products may be subject to
confiscation/forfeiture if the forest products sought to be transported/shipped/ moved are not
covered by the required/requisite documents.
Before any forest product is transported, the shipper and the conveyance owner will enter
into a transport agreement and submit the same to the CENRO as a prerequisite to the issuance of
a transport document. The transport agreement shall contain the undertaking that the conveyance
owner shall also be held liable in case of illegally transported forest products (DAO # 54, S. 1993).
The Certificate of Transport Agreement can be dispensed with:
1) if the owner of CONVEYANCE is the same owner of the timber or other forest product to be
transported/shipped.
2) If immediately prior to loading of any forest products, the conveyance owner notifies the
CENRO concerned of the planned shipment, in which case, the CENRO shall issue
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instead a CLEARANCE FOR THE TRANSPORT OF FOREST PRODUCTS. (DAO No. 59-
A, S. 1990)
1.2 Imported logs
- Certificate of verification (issued by the CENRO which has jurisdiction over the area
where the property is located) from the port of entry to the entry to the point of
destination shall accompany the shipment.
B. lumber
1. Original copy of the Certificate of Lumber Origin

2. Tally sheets
3. Lumber Sales or Commercial Invoices (in case of sale)
4. Delivery Receipt (BFD Circular No. 8, S. 1983)
5. Certificate of Transport Agreements unless dispensed with under DAO No. 59-A, S. of
1990
6. Lumber Supply Contract
C. Minor Forest Products
1. Certificate of Minor Forest Products Origin

2. Auxiliary Invoices
3. Delivery Receipt
4. Certificate of Transport Agreements
5. Supply Contract /Agreement
1.3 For Plantations:
A. IFMA/SIFMA (DAO 99-53)
1. Certificate of Timber/Lumber Origin

2. Tally Sheets
B. CBFMA (DAO 2000-29)
1. Certificate of Timber/Lumber Origin

2. Tally Sheets
2. From private lands
A. Naturally-grown trees/premium species (DAO 2000-21)
1. Certificate of Origin
2. Tally Sheets
3. Auxiliary Invoice
4. Official Receipt of Payment of Forest Charges
Forest Charges - A levy being imposed by the government on each cubic meter of timber
cut, the amount of which is specified in the implementing rules and regulations of RA 7161.
B. Plantation Species, except premium species (MC 99-20)
1. Original copy of Self Monitoring Form

2. Certificate of Tree Plantation Ownership
3. Special Power of Attorney in cases where the person transporting the forest products is
not the owner himself.
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Self-Monitoring Form (SMF) – is a document required for the transport of forest products
derived from plantations. It includes the location of plantation, CTPO no., kind, species and quantity
of transported forest products, conveyance used, consignee/destination, described route, validity
date and arrival/ confirmation report
Certificate of Tree Plantation Ownership (CTPO) - a document issued to the owner of

the plantation after ground verification/validation as proof of their tree plantation ownership. It
contains among others the type of plantation as to species, diameter, height, volume, age, area
and location of plantation
C. Finished, semi-finished or knock-down forest products
1. Sales Invoices
2. Delivery Receipt
2. Tally sheets
3. Certificate of Legitimacy
Finished products – products derived from the manufacture or conversion of forest

products into forms which can be readily used without further processing, or end-products ready for
use without need of further manufacturing.
● Ex. Doors, door jambs, picture frames, tool handles, wooden shoes, mouldings,
toothpicks, chopsticks, boxes, plywood, toys, drawers sides, decorative articles, floor
parquets, pallets (assembled) and other similar products.
Knocked-down products - finished or unfinished wood product whose components or

parts are taken apart for ease in packing, handling and transporting to the market or end-users.
● Ex. Cabinets, tables, chairs and other similar wood products.
Semi-finished products – whole end-product requiring final stages of manufacture and/or

assembly.
● Ex. Window components, table tops, veneer and other similar products.
Certificate of Legitimacy – A document to certify that the owner of the forest product is a
duly registered forest product supplier.
D. Minor Forest Products
1. Certificate of Verification
2. Delivery Receipt
3. Sales Invoice
3. Imported logs, lumber and unprocessed rattan canes/poles being transshipped from the
local port of entry to final domestic destination
1. Certificate of Transshipment
Certificate of Transshipment - A document issued by the DENR local official at CENRO

level to accompany logs, timber, lumber and other wood or non-wood forest products being
transshipped from initial port/point of entry to their final destination, showing the quantity/volume,
type of conveyance used, date of transshipment, serial number of mother CO, and
destination/consignee
4. Plantation species from Lumber Dealer transported to another lumber dealer, wood
processor or furniture manufacturer, end-user (outside the province)
24
1. Certificate of Verification
Certificate of Verification – A document issued by DENR local official at the CENRO level
to show that the logs, timber, lumber or any wood or non-wood forest products came from private
lands indicating therein the quantity, volume, type of forest products, and destination/consignee of
the commodities.
5. Lumber and lumber products transported from source to buyer/end-user within the
confines of the province
1. Sales invoice
2. Delivery receipt
All the documents required above shall be presented at established check points/stations or
places of inspections for verification. Whereupon, the forestry law enforcement officers concerned
shall stamp and sign on the faces of the CTO/CLO/CMFPO, as the case, maybe with the notation
INSPECTED/ VERIFIED.
For shipment on board motor vessels/bancas, a discharge permit/clearance must be

secured from the CENRO of destination before such shipment could be legally removed/taken out
from pier area/unloading site and in violation to operating procedures which infraction necessitates
the imposition of sanction in accordance with law.
Forest products shipped/transported without the above-mentioned documents shall be

considered as coming from illegal sources/dubious origin thus subject to confiscation and
disposition.
PROCEDURES ON THE ISSUANCE OF CLEARANCE

OF FOREST PRODUCTS
1) Transport documents required should be presented to the DENR officers duly assigned at
the designated landing points upon arrival.
2) Discharge permit shall be issued by the DENR officers assigned at landing points, if all
accompanying forestry documents are found authentic and in order.
3) A corresponding tally duly reflected in the Actual Tally Inspection Sheet of the various
specifications of the forest products (species, quantity/volume, dimensions, etc.) conducted
and signed by the duly authorized DENR officer and confirmed to by the shipper or his duly
authorized representative or the consignee or his duly authorized representative.
4) A Clearance to Transport Forest Products shall be issued by the PENRO/CENRO or his

duly authorized representative, upon submission of items 2 and 3 including the transport
documents required and if all are found authentic and in order.
PERSONS AUTHORIZED TO MAKE APPREHENSIONS (DAO # 99-32):
(a) Forest Officers

(b) Deputies (i.e., other government officials and private citizens duly deputized by the DENR
Secretary or his duly authorized representative)
(c) Members of law enforcement agencies and
(d) Private citizens as provided by law.
ARREST AND INSTITUTION OF CRIMINAL ACTIONS
Section 89 of P.D. No. 705, as amended (formerly Section 80 of P.D. No. 705), provides:
Arrest, Institution of criminal actions. – A forest officer or employee of the

Bureau or any personnel of the Philippine Constabulary/ Philippine National Police
shall arrest even without warrant any person who has committed or is committing in
25
his presence any of the offenses defined in this Chapter. He shall also seize and
confiscate, in favor of the Government, the tools, and equipment used in committing
the offense, and the forest products cut, gathered or taken by the offender in the
process of committing the offense. The arresting forest officer or employee shall
thereafter deliver within six (6) hours from the time of arrest and seizure, the offender
and the confiscated forest products, tools and equipment to and file the proper
complaint with, the appropriate official designated by law to conduct preliminary
investigations and file information in court.
If the arrest and seizure are made in the forests, far from the authorities
designated by law to conduct preliminary investigations the delivery to, and filing of
the complaint with, the latter shall be done within a reasonable time sufficient for
ordinary travel from the place of arrest to the place of delivery. The seized products,
materials and equipment shall be immediately disposed of in accordance with
forestry administrative orders promulgated by the Department Head.
The Department Head may deputize any member or unit of the Philippine
Constabulary, policy agency, barangay or barrio official, or any qualified person to
protect the forest and exercise the power of authority provided for in preceding
paragraph.
Reports and complaints regarding the commission of any of the offenses defined
in this Chapter, not committed in the presence of any forest officer of employee, or
any of the deputized officers or officials, shall immediately be investigated by the
forest officer assigned in the area where the offense was allegedly committed, who
shall thereupon receive the evidence supporting the report or complaint.
If there is a prima facie evidence to support the complaint or report, the

investigating forest officer shall file the necessary complaint with the appropriate
official authorized by law to conduct a preliminary investigation of criminal cases and
file and information in Court.
DENR Memorandum Order No. 36, S. of 1988 dated 06 May 1988 prescribes the
guidelines on the confiscation, seizure and disposition of illegally cut, gathered, and/or transported
forest products. Pertinent provisions under Item 1 thereof are herewith quoted:
a. Arrest of offenders, seizure and confiscation of illegally cut, gathered and/or questionable
forest products.
x x x x
D. immediately after seizure of the forest products together with the tools, conveyances and
instrument used in the commission of the offense, the apprehending forest officer shall
execute his sworn statement/affidavit surrounding the facts of the case affidavits or
statements of witnesses, if any (in a prescribed form);
E. The scaling or measurement of the seized forest products shall be conducted immediately
and the assessment thereof shall be based on the gross volume without benefit of
deduction for natural defects, after which the corresponding seizure receipt shall be issued
by the signing DENR Officer(s). All logs confiscated and are to be sold shall be marked with
the marking hatchet at both ends;
F. In cases where the apprehension are made by the PC/INP, EIIB, COAST GUARD AND
OTHER LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES, the apprehending agency SHALL NOTIFY
THE NEAREST DENR OFFICE AND TURN OVER THE SEIZED FOREST PRODUCTS TO
THE CENRO/PENRO/RED as the case may be for proper investigation and disposition;
G. In cases where the apprehension is made by the field DENR Officer, the forest products
and the conveyance used shall be deposited to the nearest CENRO/PENRO/RED office, as
the case may be, for SAFEKEEPING. If the transfer of the seized forest products to the
above places is not immediately feasible, the same shall be placed under the custody of
any licensed sawmill operator or the nearest public official such as the Barangay Captain,
Municipal/City Mayor, Provincial Governor or the PC/INP;
H. All expenses incurred by the CENRO/PENRO/RED in the hauling and transportation of the
forest products from the place of apprehension to the depository area shall be reimbursed
by the office in the amount of 10 percent of the proceeds of sales thru public bidding of the
confiscated forest products as administrative costs.
26
ITEMS SUBJECT TO APPREHENSION, SEIZURE, CONFISCATION AND FORFEITURE:
1. Any forest products that are removed, cut, collected, processed and/or transported:
a. without the requisite authorization or permit

b. with incomplete required supporting document
c. with genuine authorizations or permits and/or supporting documentation that have an
expired validity, have been cancelled or that contain forged entries;
d. with spurious (fake) authorizations, permits and/or supporting documentation
e. the quantity or volume of a shipment or stock of forest products exceeds what is
authorized, documented, manifested or declared: (i) by 5% or more, in case of timber
and (ii) 2% or more, in case of lumber
f. upon discovery of a misdeclaration on the quantity and species being verified pursuant
thereto
2. Machinery, equipment, tools and implements used in the possession, gathering, collecting,
processing and/or transporting of illegal forest products; and
3. Conveyance – any mode or type or class of vehicle or craft or any other means used for
transportation either on land, water, air, or any combination thereof, whether motorized or
not, used for or in taking and/or maintaining temporary or permanent possession or control,
gathering, collecting, processing, disposing of, or otherwise transporting, moving or
transferring illegal forest products.
PROCESS FLOW: DOMESTIC/LOCAL TRANSPORT

OF FOREST PRODUCTS
1. Upon interception of conveyance loaded with forest products, determine if transport thereof
is covered with appropriate DENR transport documents.
2. If with valid (legal/authentic and genuine transport documents), mark documents as

verified/inspected and conveyance proceeds to consignee/ destination.
3. If found without valid or questionable documents, apprehend the conveyance and its cargo
(forest products) and deliver to depository area for safekeeping.
3.1 conduct inventory/scaling

3.2 issue seizure/custodian’s receipt
3.3 issue written notice to owners of cargo (forest products and conveyance of the
seizure/proceedings) and submit flash report to the regional office
3.4 conduct investigation
3.4.1 execute affidavit
3.4.2 take pictures
3.4.3 get affidavits of violators
3.5 PENRO/CENRO conducts administrative seizure proceedings. Prepare and submit

a resolution with their categorical recommendations to the regional office.
3.6 If the resolution is affirmed, FMS-FPLE to prepare the draft order

(release/confiscation) with technical opinion/recommendation and submit to the RED
attention Legal Division who affixes their signatures on the draft order for the
approval of the Regional Executive Director.
3.7 However, if the resolution is not affirmed, FMS to conduct clarificatory investigation,
prepare technical brief/draft order with opinion/recommendations to the RED
attention Legal Division. If amended draft order is not affirmed, FMS and LD to sit
down together to arrive at a consensus or common stand and prepare a final order.
Guidelines and procedures in handling forest law violation cases relative to the
cutting, gathering, transport and movement of forest products.
1. Immediately after apprehension, the CENRO shall conduct investigation and submit report
of apprehension together with its findings and categorical recommendations to the RED thru
the PENRO concerned not later than 3 days after termination of investigation;
27
2. Immediately upon receipt of the apprehension report and/or within the prescribed
reglamentary periods, the PENRO shall conduct Administrative Seizure Proceedings and
submit Resolution thereof together with the complete records of the case including
documentary evidences to RED thru the RTD-FMS;
3. All submitted Resolutions together with pertinent enclosures shall be reviewed and
evaluated by the RTD-FMS who shall prepare the draft Order (Confiscation or Release, as
the case may be) immediately if the resolution is approved in-toto or conduct clarificatory
investigation/hearing, if necessary, and prepare its dissertation (containing its technical
opinion and recommendations) which shall serve as basis in preparing the draft Order of
Confiscation or Release for review by the Legal Division.
4. If the Legal Division affirm in-toto the technical findings/recommendations of the RTD-FMS,
it shall manifest its concurrence by affixing their initials on the draft Order for approval of the
RED otherwise, if it (Legal Division) objects to/contests the technical opinion, it shall
prepare its legal opinion on the matter and return the case (folder) to the RTD-FMS for
comment. No draft Order disposing a pending case shall be approved by the RED without
the concurrence of both the Technical and Legal Divisions. In case of deadlock in opinion,
the RED renders the final decision, otherwise, the case shall be referred to the Secretary for
advise and appropriate.
MODUS OPERANDI OF ILLEGAL LOGGERS:
Statistics on apprehensions and other intelligence information have disclosed that illegal
loggers are employing various modus operandi in their illegal activities. The common Modus
Operandi are as follows:
1. RECYCLED DOCUMENTS – illegal loggers in connivance with some DENR personnel will
use their supporting documents/permits more than once which is contrary to law;
2. “PALAMAN” or EXCESS – the logs being shipped is more than what had been stated in
the document. This can only be done with the connivance of DENR scalers who conduct
the scaling or measurement of these logs;
3. TAMPERED DOCUMENTS – some entries in the documents are being tampered in order
to recycle the document or transport more than what had been duly authorized;
4. DIFFERENT ORIGIN – in areas where concessions are suspended or cancelled, shippers

would secure the necessary document from other places where concessions are granted;
5. TABLED DOCUMENT – the illegal cut logs are being smuggled to an area where the
spurious documents are processed by some scrupulous DENR personnel;
6. “SANDWICH OR COVERED LOGS” – illegal cut logs are being packed with coco-lumber in
such a way that only the coco-lumber can be seen while the illegal lumbers are covered;
7. CONTAINERIZED LOGS – illegally cut logs are loaded on a container van and declared as
some other cargoes
It is wise to include in the inspection of vessels or watercrafts these pointers as check

measures in order to extensively apprehend offenders. Perhaps a follow-up investigation will be
necessary particularly when some offenders “name drops” some political or influential personalities
just to evade arrests. In such instance, it is important to maintain your composure and announce
his rights and apprehend the offender. Always maintain your stand since you are mandated by law
to apply the provisions of this law.
In cases where the apprehension are made by any government law enforcement agencies,
the apprehending agency shall notify the nearest DENR office and turn over the seized forest
products to the CENRO/PENRO/RED for proper investigation and disposition. Immediately after
seizure of the forest products together with the tools, conveyances and instrument used in the
commission of the offense, the apprehending officer shall execute his sworn statement/affidavit
surrounding the facts of the case. He shall also take the affidavits or statements of witnesses (DMO
# 36, S. 1988).
Our forest resources may be effectively conserved and protected through the vigilant
enforcement and implementation of our forestry laws, rules and regulations. The move of the
government to impose total logging ban in selected areas, such as critical watersheds, high
ecological risk areas, and other protected reserves as provided for under our laws and regulations
28
while allowing regulated harvesting operations or logging in production forest areas, including
forest plantations, in both public and private lands.
The continuing degradation of the remaining forests of the Philippines has reached critical
proportions and unless abated, will result in irreparable and irreversible damage within the next
decade.
Strategies were formulated and implemented in order to help attain the objectives of
assuring sustainability of these forest resources which include the strict monitoring of incoming
forest products as part of the Forest Protection and Law Enforcement activities of the DENR.
In order for the DENR to be effective in its campaign against forest products smuggling, the
support from Armed Forces of Philippines, Philippine National Police and other law enforcement
agencies, is a MUST. Without such needed cooperation, support and assistance, DENR may
invariably fail in its fight against forest products smuggling.
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30

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ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

For. Luisito T. Babaran, J.D., Ph.D.

To appreciate the importance of the environment however, it is necessary that certain

A. ECOLOGY: ITS DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Primary Concerns of Ecology (life - support systems)

⮚ Population –group of individuals of the same species in a certain area at a given

⮚ Ecosystem or ecological system – is the interaction ( give and take

Ecology is principally divided into five divisions:

a. Autoecology –the interrelations of individual organisms and their environment.

II. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Components of the terrestrial ecosystem:

1. Physical component – this includes temperature, humidity (amount of moisture in the

Plants are classified according to their relationship on water:

a. Xerophytes - plants that grow in dry places

a. Lentic ecosystem – an ecosystem found in lakes and ponds.

Lymnology is a comprehensive study of all the components of inland aquatic

The principal features of the sea that is of ecological interest:

1. The sea is big; it covers 70% of the earth’s surface.

1. Neritic zone – the shallow water zone on the continental shelf.

Marine ecosystem may be conveniently considered in 3 major components:

1. Seaweed component – includes all plants or seaweeds living on the seabeds.

III. Components of Ecosystem

Figure 1. Interdependence of plants-animals-soil in the ecosystem. The soil gives

A. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

A.1. Abiotic (non-living) Components

Soil – is composed of a mixture of mineral particles (45%) or the disintegrated

Heat – is a form of energy that regulates temperature.

Temperature – It is directly proportional to the intensity of light. Every organism

Water – is an important ecological factor. It is an inorganic substance which

Wind – it plays a role in pollination.

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

2. Consumers (macro-consumers) – chiefly animals which ingest other organisms,

Consumers are either a herbivores and carnivores. Primary consumers are

Secondary Consumers are diverse group of animals. Some eat primary

3. Decomposers (micro-consumers) – mainly bacteria and fungi which breakdown the

These abiotic components are needed by living things in order to survive.

B. FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

B.1. Food Chains

B.2. Energy Flow

Evolution is a natural process of change in response to the physical changes of an aging

B.4. Ecosystem Development or Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is an orderly process of community development that involves

B.5. Control or Cybernetics

Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as do their component

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS & ISSUES

A. Global Warming & Greenhouse Effect

What is the greenhouse effect?

We normally associate the greenhouse with a garden, an orchard or a farm, it being a

Other “greenhouse gases” which contribute to global warming are chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons are synthetic or man-made chemicals used as aerosol repellants, as

Greenhouse gases have five characteristics (Lave, 1989):

How can we help slow the Greenhouse effects?

1. Be energy efficient. Purchase appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners, water

2. Drive a fuel-efficient car.

4. Avoid using products made with harmful CFCs.

F. Persistent Organic Pollutants

Forest fires result from:

Weather conditions that influence susceptibility of the area to forest fire:

Some Sources of Heat Which Cause Forest or Grass Fires