CLASS :- 12TH PCB

I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the

people who have helped & supported me throughout my
project. I respect and thanks to Mr.Vinod Kumar Bhatt, principal
of N.P.S, Gonda and I am grateful to my chemistry teacher, Mr.
Sushil Kumar Singh for her continuous support for the project,
from initial advice & contacts in the early stages of conceptual
inception & through ongoing advice & encouragement to this
day.

I wish to thank my parents for their undivided support and

interest who inspired me and encouraged me to go my own way,
without whom I would be unable to complete my project.

A special thank of mine goes to my best friend who helped me in

completing the project & he exchanged his interesting ideas,
thoughts & made this project easy and accurate.

At last but not the least I want to thank my friends who

appreciated me for my work and motivated me and finally to
God who made all the things possible.

-
ADITYA KUMAR
This is to certify that the project on “Soaps
and Detergents” submitted by “Sachin Yadav
” of class 12th SCIENCE(PCB) is a sincere work
of his intelligence and deep study
of the topic. He has been working under my
supervision during the session 2019-20.
The material involved in his report is entirely
his contribution. The results are satisfactory
and has been checked by me.
Mr. SUSHIL KUMAR
NARAYANA PUBLIC
SCHOOL
HISTORY OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
SOAPS TODAY
TOTAL FATTY MATTER (TFM)
BATHING BARS
TRANSPARENT SOAPS
MEDICINAL SOAPS
HOW SOAPS WORKS?
DISADVANTAGES OF SOAPS
SOAP POWDER AND WASHING POWDER
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS
HEALTH AND DETERGENTS
SPRAY DRIED AND DRYMIX POWDER
COMPACT DETERGENTS
DETERGENTS AND ENVIRONMENT
 In olden days clothes were cleaned by beating them on rocks
in the nearest stream. This practice is followed even today in many
villages. Sometimes plants such as soap nuts are used as cleaning
agents. Such plants contain saponins, chemical compounds that
produce a soapy lather. These saponins were probably the first
detergents used.

Ashes of plants contain potassium carbonate (K 2 Co3) and sodium

carbonate (Na2 Co3). The carbonate ion present in both these
compounds,
reacts with water to form an alkaline solution. The basic solution has
detergent properties. These alkaline plant ashes were used as cleaning
agents by the earliest civilizations at least 4000 years ago. Europeans
were using plant ashes to wash their clothes as recently as 100 years
ago. Sodium carbonate is still sold as washing soda and is being used
for cleansing purposes. The discovery of disease causing micro
organisms and subsequent public health practices brought about an
increased interest in cleanliness by the late eighteenth century. Soap
was in common use by the middle of the nineteenth century.
The first written record of soap can be seen in the writings of the
Roman pliny the Elder. He described the Phoenicians’ synthesis of
soap by using goat tallow and ashes. By the second centaury A. D,
sodium carbonate was heated with time (from limestone) to produce
sodium hydroxide (lye). The sodium hydroxide was heated with
animal fats or vegetable oils to produce soap. Other societies made
soap in much the same manner.
 The large scale manufacture of soap was not possible until the
discovery of practical methods of manufacturing alkalies on a large
scale. This did not take place until about 1800. Soaps are compounds
formed by the reaction of bases with fats, chemically known as fatty
acid esters. The most important fatty acid esters. The three most
important fatty acid esters are :-

1. Palmitin [( C15 H3 1 COO)3 C3 H5)

2. Stearin [( C17 H35 COO)3 C3 H5)
3. Olein [( C17 H3 3 COO)3 C3 H5)
They are found in lard, tallow, olive oil, cotton seed
oil, and other animal and vegetable fats or oils. Soap
is usually made by the reaction of animal fat or
vegetable oil with sodium hydroxide. The process of
treating fats with bases or alkalies is called
‘Saponification’. Vegetable oils, with unsaturated
carbon chains, produce soft soaps. Animal fats yield
hard soaps. Coconut oils with shorter carbon chains,
yield soaps that are more soluble in water.

In modern commercial soap making, the fats

and oils are often hydrolysed with super heated
steam. The fatty acids then are neutralized to make
soap. The process takes place in large cylindrical
vessel. The next step in the manufacture of soap is
called graining or Saltingout. This involves the
addition of common salt (NaCl).

During this process the soap becomes insoluble in

brine and separates from the solution. The soap may
be washed several times with brine to rid it of free
alkali.

The molten soap may be run into large frames

from which bars may be cut, or it may be run over
cold rollers, producing thin sheets which are scraped
to form soap chips. The molten soap may also be
squirted from a nozzle as a spray into hot air to form
powdered soap.

Soft or liquid soaps are made by using potassium

hydroxide (KOH) instead of lye. Potassium soap
produces a finer lather. They are used alone or in
combination with sodium soaps in liquid soaps,
shampoo soaps and shaving creams.

Very often certain foreign materials are added

to soap as it leaves the reaction kettle. These fillers
may be such inert adulterants as chalk and suphates
of sodium, calcium or barium. Another very
common filler is talc(magnesium acid silicate).
Sodium silicate is also used. Silicates give firmness
to soap and enables it to hold more water. Rosin is
also sometimes added to soap especially to laundry
soap. Although not a fatty acid, it reacts with sodium
hydroxide to form a sodium salt which resembles
soap in many respects.

It is soluble and has a high frothing power.

The cleansing power of rosin soap is much lower
than that of ordinary soap. The presence of rosin in
any quantity is undesirable. If soap contains more
than 15 percent rosin, it is known as low grade soap.
Permitted dyes are added to soaps to impart than a
pleasing colour. The most expensive ingredient of
toilet soap is the perfume, which is responsible for its
characterstic odour.
 Soaps are graded in terms of total fatty matter or TFM. Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) has catogorised bath or toilet soaps as ‘normal’,
‘baby, transparent, and antibacterial soaps. The last three are called
specialty soaps targeted to specific users. A toilet soap is a cosmetic by law
and it must fulfil the requirements of the relevant Indian standard.
T. F. M or total fatty matter is a measure for identifying the amount of
fatty matter present in soaps. TFM of a sample of soap can be determined
as follows. A known weight of the soap is dissolved in water and the
solution is treated with dilute sulphuric acid. The soap decomposes to
sodium suplphate and fatty acids. The fatty acids so formed can be
estimated. From this TFM can be calculated. On the basis TFM, toilet
soaps can be classified into three grades.

Grade 1 TFM Moisture Free salt (NaCl)

I above 80 Max:13.5 Max:0.7
II 65–80 13- 15 0.8
III 55- 65 15-20 1.5
Grade I toilet soap should have TFM value above 80 percent, except in
ayurvedic soap. Any soap which has a TFM value less than 55 percent is
not considered as toilet soap at all. TFM is what lends soap its soapy feel
and it is the TFM and the insoluble matter in the soap that largely
distinguishes one soap from the other. The three grades should have less
than 0.05 % of free alkali as sodium hydroxide and less than 1% of
carbonate alkali. The salt content should not go above 1.5 %.

Today 85 percent of bathing soaps available in the market are not toilet
soaps even if they are promoted by some celebrities. The bathing bar shall
be a product containing acceptable surface active agents which could be
used for bathing purposes. One or more of the following surfactants
confirming to the relevant Indian standards, can be used -
  Soap of fatty acids.
 Fatty acid ester sulphonates
 Fatty alkanolamide
 Fatty alcohol ethoxylates
 Sarcosinates
 Taurides
 Fatty isothionates
 Alpha olefin sulphonate
 Alcohol sulphates; and
 Amphoterics such as betaines.

In addition to surfactants and perfume, the bathing bar may contain

other ingredients such as electrolytes, bar structuring and processing
aids, colouring matter, permitted antioxidants, preservatives,
permissible germicides super fatting agents, humectants and such
additional substances that are declared on the label. All ingredients
except moisture should be declared. All of them should be non-
injurious to skin.
WHY BATHING BARS:-
Bathing bars were introduced in India in 1985, when the country was
facing acute scarcity of vegetable cooking oils. Much of the vegetable
oils were being used by industry. The government started importing
palmoil from abroad. In order to control the use of vegetable oils for
soap making, the government allowed the manufacturers of soap to
introduce bathing bars. The introduction of bathing bars reduced the
use of cooking oils for soap making. Thus more cooking oil became
available for domestic use. The price of bathing bars were
determined according to the total fatty matter contained in them and
more importantly the type of fatty matter used. Due to this step
government could reduce the quantum of import of vegetable oil and
could save a lot of foreign exchange.
 Types of bathing bars:
There are two types of bathing bars (1) made up of partial soap and
partial synthetic detergent (syndet). (2) Made up of wholly synthetic
detergent. The first type is usually known as combination bars or combars.
These contain 50 percent TFM and 30-35 percent mineral matter like talc
and Kaolin. They are simply structured
toilet soaps. Bureau of Indian standards
(BIS), warns the customers of bathing
bars. “It is important to guard against
the removal of the beneficial skin lipids
by bathing bar and over cleaning
resulting in defatting of the skin is
undesirable”.
High clay content in bathing bar may reduce its solubility and hence
increase its durability. But after bathing with a bathing bar, whole body
may be coated with a white powder, (two-in-one soap + talcum powder)
Children and old people cannot tolerate high syndet containing bathing
bar, because it would decrease their skin. Special processes have been
developed by Indian scientists to upgrade cheaper and easily available raw
materials to make good quality toilet soap. Techniques have been
developed to obtain good quality fatty acids for soap making from fish oil,
neem oil and Karanja oil. India is the second largest producer of castor oil,
the first being Brazil. A process was developed in India to convert castor
oil into good quality soap making oil. Textured castor oil is found to be
very good for making transparent soap.

Transparent soap is a clear soap with high glycerin content often referred
to as glycerin soap. Transparent
soap is less drying than opaque soap and
can have additional emollient oils added
to it such as Shea butter or jojoba oil. It
is basically partly soap and partly
solvent. Sodium hydroxide causes big
crystals to form in soap and that is why
the soap becomes opaque. In order to
make it transparent, we have to dissolve the soap in enough solvent to
make the crystals so small that light will feely pass through the soap which
makes it look transparent. The solvent used can be glycerol, alcohol or
glycerol alcohol mixture.

As per many advertisements

medicinal soaps are supposed to
contain deodorants antiseptics and
some medicines that cure skin
diseases. They say that medicinal
soaps arecleansing agents well as
antiseptics. Here soap is treated as
a carrier of medicines that is it
serves the purpose an ointment or
oil. But we should remember that
soap is essentially a cleansing
agent. After applying soap to the
body, immediately we used to
wash with water, when together
with dirt the medicines if any
would also be washed out. We are not giving enough time for the
medicine, to be absorbed by the skin. Then how can they cure skin
diseases?

Germicidal soap usually contains the germicide Trichloro

carbanilide (TCC) upto 1 percent. When warmed to 60o C, It is converted
into chloromine which is toxic to skin.

Herbal soaps contain some fragrant essential oils. Some soaps contain
‘Shekakai (Acacia sinuate) which has saponin as an active agent. Saponin
is a good emulsifier. Soft soap: - Soft soaps are usually used in shaving
soaps and in liquid soaps. They are more soluble in water than ordinary
soaps. While ordinary soaps are sodium soaps, soft soaps are potassium
soaps.
\

Dirt and grime usually

adhere to skin, clothing
and other surfaces
because they are
combined with greases
and oils – body oil,
cooking fats,
lubricating greases and
a variety of similar
substances – which act
a little like sticky glues.
SinCE oils are not
miscible with water,
washing with water alone does little good.

Soap molecule have a split personality. One end is ionic and

dissolves in water. The other end is like a hydrocarbon and dissolves
in oils. If we imagine the ionic end of the molecule as ‘head’ and
hydrocarbon chain as ‘tail’, then we can explain the clearing action of
soap clearly. The hydrocarbon ‘tails’ stick into the oil.

The ionic ‘heads’ remain in the acqueons phase. In this manner, the
oil is broken into tiny droplets and dispersed throughout the solution.
The droplets don’t coalerec because of the repulsions of the charged
groups (the caboxl anions) on their surfaces.

The oil and water form an emulsion, with soap acting as an

emulsifier. With the oil no longer “gluing” it to the surface, the dirt
can be removed easily. This mechanism applies to synthetic
detergents also.
 For cleaning clothes and for other purposes, soap has been largely
replaced by synthetic detergents. This is because soaps have two rather
serious short comings. One of these is that, in acidic solutions, soaps are
converted in to fatty acids. The fatty acids unlike soap (sodium salt of fatty
acids) do not ionise much. Lacking the split personality, they can’t
emulsify the oil and dirt that is they do not exhibit any detergent action.
What is more these fatty acids are in soluble in water and separate as a
greasy scum.

The second and more serious disadvantage of soap is that it does not
work very well in hard water. Hard water contains certain metallic ions,
particularly magnesium, calcium and iron ions. The soap anions react with
these metal ions, to form greasy, insoluble curds. These deposits make up
the familiar bathtub ring. They leave the freshly washed hair sticky, and
forms kettle fur.

Soap powders are not be

confused with powdered soaps,
which is merely soap in powdered
form. Most soap powders are
mixtures of soap and alkali
substances known as builders. Such
builders include sodium carbonate,
trisodium phosphate, borax and
sodium sulphate. Most frequently
used one is sodium corbonate. Some
washing powders also contain a
beaching agent, such as sodium perborate. These usually are called oxygen
washes and often contain part of the word oxygen in the commercial
name. As a rule, the cheaper the washing powder, the larger the proportion
of alkali present. The builder is added to soften hard water and to act as
cheap detergent, or cleansing agent. It should be remembered, however,
that the builder is a less efficient cleansing agent than soap.
 Detergent is a cleansing agent. In that sense soap is also a detergent.
But the word detergent usually refers to a synthetic substance other than
soap. A detergent contains an active agent called surfactant, that wets the
fabric, emulsifies oily matter, solubilizes grime and keeps the soil in
suspension. This active agent contains two groups one oil loving lipophilic
and the other water loving – hydrophilic.
The first synthetic detergents synthesized were derived from fats by
reduction with hydrogen, followed by reaction with sulphuric acid, and
then neutralization.
Example;
> Sodium lauryl sulphate (Sodium dodecyl sulphate)
Thus sodium lauryl sulphates are the first such detergents synthesized.
But this process was found to be expensive. Within a few years, cheap
synthetic detergents were produced from petroleum products.
Made largely from a material
called aeid clurry which is
chemically linear alkly benzence
(LAB). LAB is sulphonated to get
linear alkyl benzene sulphonate
(LABS). This is reacted with
sodiumhydroxide or sodium
carbonate (Sodaash) to form its
sodium salt soluble in water. The
products for use in homes and commercial laundries usually contain much
more than LABS molecules. The LABS is called a surface active agent or
surfactant. In addition to the LABS modern detergent formulations contain
a number of other substances to improve detergency, to bleach, to lessen
redeposition of dirt, to brighten, or simply to reduce the cost of the
formulation.
An substance added to a surfactant to increase its detergency is called a
builder. Common builders are the Phosphates. An example is sodium
tripoly phosphates (Na3 P3 O10). It ties up Ca2+ and Mg 2+ in soluble
complexes this softening water.
 The basic function of a detergent is to remove dirt. In our country
most of the people are washing their clothes with their hands. The
detergent which removes the dirt and grime from the clothes also
degreases the skin while washing the clothes. Thus natural oils from the
skin are removed which may lead to certain skin diseases. Alkaline
materials which are also present in the detergent powders and bars will
intensity this. LABS can penetrate, the epidermis causing irritation of the
skin. More over the alkaline builders and fillers added to the detergents are
also harmful to the sensitive skin. If the clothes are not washed very well
with water, the residual detergent sticking to the cloth also may irritate the
skin. Metallic impurities like nickel present in the detergent powders or
cakes are also harmful.
Alpha olefin sulphonate (AOS) is now days used as detergent instead of
LABS. Some time AOS is mixed with sultones which are also good
surfactants. Sultones are very sensitive to skin. One advantage of AOS is
that it is completely biodegradable.

The grains of spray dried detergent

powder are hollow globules. They look
like beautiful little pearls. The powder
is freed flowing and very well soluble
in water. Since it is very attractive
customers prefer it even though it is bit
costly.
Drymix detergents are made by
mixing the pre-dried ingredients
throughly either manually or using a
mixer. The density of this powder is higher than that of spray dried
powder. There is not much difference between them in detergent action.
But drymix powder tend to cake on contact with moisture.
 Concentrated or compact detergents contain
about 25 percent of active matter; and the rest
consists of builders and fillers. Now a days in
order to reduce packaging cost, compact
detergents containing 40 to 60 percent of active
matter have been introduced by leading
companies.

Use of phosphates, enzymes, bleachers, and brightening agents in

detergents is a subject of debate among environmentalists. Even though
phosphates are perfect builders they suffer from one overwhelming defect:
they are superb, nutrients for the algae and other small plants and grow on
the surfaces of lakes and streams. Algae, nourished by a steady supply of
phosphates, can cover the surface of body of water and prevant atmosheric
oxygen from reaching the marine life below the surface.

The resulting death of fish and other aquatic animals sometimes

occurring on a large scal in lakes and rivers covered by algae, has led
many countries to ban the use of phosphates as detergent builders. This
type of water pollution is known as Eutrophieation. In india 80 percent of
the detergents marketed are phosphate free, hence eutrophieation from
detergents does not happen. The most promising substitute for phosphates
is a class of compounds of aluminium, silicon and oxygen known as
zeolites.

Chemical composition of a detergent does not correctly reveal its

cleaning capacity. For a practical and realistic evaluation, it is necessary to
determine the actual performance of detergents.
Detergency is measured by reflectance. Infact there is not much difference
in detergency between low grade and high grade detergents. All the
surfactants discussed so far, including soap are anionic surfactants; The
working part of the molecule is an anion with a nonpolar part and anionic
end. Some liquid detergents contain nonionic surfactants.

Examples are alcohol ethoxylates and alkyl phenol ethoxylates.

The several oxygen atoms, by their attraction for water molecules, make
that end of the molecule water soluble. Nonionic surfactants are great for
removing oily soil from fabrics. They are more soluble in cold water than
in hot water.

There are eat ionic surfactants also, in which the working part of the
molecule is a action. The most common of these are called quaternary
ammonium salts. An example of such an eat ionic surfactant is hexadecyl
timethylammoniumchloride. These are not very good detergents, but they
have a degree of germicidal action. Sometimes they are used along with
nonionic surfactants, as cleaners and disinfectants in good and dairy
industries. Eat ionies cannot be used with anionic surfactants.

Of all the house hold chemicals, the detergents and related cleaning
compounds make up the greatest volume. Extensive use of these chemicals
has led to an increasing number of health and environmental problems.
Hence care should be taken to use them in homes with proper regard to the
directions or precautions given on their labels. It would be nice if everyone
knew a lot of chemistry.