POWER FACTOR - THEORY

Active Power:

Pure resistive loads convert the Electrical Power to another form viz., Heat, Light or Mechanical
Power. For, these type of loads which have no Inductive or capacitive components, the voltage
and current waveform intersect the “Zero” co-ordinate at the same point.

For such Resistive loads, the voltage and current are set to be “In-Phase”. The active Power “P”
is calculated as the Product of momentary voltage and current with a “P” frequency double to that
of voltage supply and it is entirely on the positive area. With the resistive or ohmic loads, “P”
power is calculated by multiplying the momentary values of Voltage and Current.

Based on Momentary Values :

P = v(t) x i(t)

1 T
P = ---- œ Y(t) x i(t) x dt
T 0
Based on Effective (RMS) Values :

3 9 [ ,  $V &RV 3  

In practice, it is unusual to find purely resistive loads, since most of the electrical equipments has

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Inductive components and they operate in the presence of magnetic field like Motor, Transformer
etc. The current which is used to create and reverse the magnetic field is not dissipated, but flows
to and fro as Reactive Current between the Source and the Load. As illustrated in the figure, the
voltage and current waveform no longer intersect the “Zero” Co-ordinate at the same point, but
with the displacement normally referred as displacement angle. With magnetic / inductive loads,
the current lags the voltage whereas with the capacitive loads the current leads the voltage.

If the momentary values of the Power “P” is now calculated with the above formula, negative
value obtained with one of the two factors is negative. In this case, part of the power “P” is in the
negative area. The active power in this case is computed as per the following formula :

Based on Momentary Values :

P = v(t) x i(t)

1 T
P = ---- œ YW [ LW [ GW
T 0
Based on Effective (RMS) Values :

3 9 [ , [ &RV 3
$ QHZ SDUDPHWHU &RV 3 LV DGGHG LQ HIIHFWLYH YDOXH FRPSXWDWLRQ IRU $FWLYH 3RZHU DQG WKLV
parameter is referred to as Power Factor in all electrical power computation

Reactive Power :

Electrical machines work on the principle of conversion of electromagnetic energy. (e.g.electric

motors, transformers). A part of input energy is consumed for creating and maintaining the
magnetic field. This part of the input energy cannot be converted into active energy and is
returned to the electrical network on removal of the magnetic field. This power is known as
“reactive” power Q.
Reactive Power is the power, which flows between the Source and the Load at the same
frequency as the supply voltage. The Q Power flows back and forth, causing 90º Out of phase
shift between the current and voltage waveform. This Reactive Power has one half of the Power
in the positive area and the other half in the negative area.

In this case, the Reactive Power is computed as:

Based on Momentary Values :

Q Power flows back & forth, hence

Nett Q Power on Integration in one
cycle is Zero.

Hence Q Power is computed based on

Effective Value.

Based on Effective (RMS) Values :

4 9 [ , [ 6LQ 3

Apparent Power:
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Applications of Electrical equipment are based on the conversion of Electrical energy into some
other form of energy. The Electrical energy drawn by an equipment from the Source is termed as
Apparent Power and it consists of Active and Reactive Power.

Apparent Power is the product obtained

by multiplying the Effective values of
voltage and current without taking into
S Q
the Phase displacement.
S = V.I

3 Based on Active & Reactive Power, the

Apparent power can be computed for
Linear loads only as
P I
S=¥P +Q
2
Power Factor :

The cosine of angle of Phase displacement between voltage and current in an a.c circuit is known
as Power Factor. The Reactive component is a measure of the Power Factor. If the Reactive
component is small, the Phase angle - is small and hence the Power Factor Cos- will be high.
Therefore, a circuit having small reactive current will have high Power Factor and vice-versa

&RV 3 3  6 $FWLYH 3RZHU$SSDUHQW 3RZHU

The Power Factor at full load is normally given on the nameplates of the electrical machines. As
the Power distribution system must be dimensioned to carry the apparent power, efforts are made
to keep this as low as possible. If a device taking leading reactive power (e.g capacitor) is
connected in parallel with the load, lagging reactive power of the load will be partly neutralized
thus improving the Power Factor of the load

QC

S Q1

Q2
-1 -2
P I

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The reactive power Qc corrected by the capacitor is given by the difference between the Inductive
Reactive Power Q1 before correction and the reactive power Q2 after correction i.e Qc = Q1 – Q2

Average Power Factor:

The Power Factor discussed above is Instantaneous Power Factor. However, the invoicing in all
the Utility companies is based on the Power Factor on monthly average basis. Average Power
Factor is a time integrated quantity and is defined as the ratio of KWh to KVAh

PF = KWh / KVAh

Here the KVAh includes both lagging Reactive Power and Leading Reactive Power. This
effectively implies, whenever the Reactive Power flows to and fro, the source KVAh is counted
irrespective of the direction of the Reactive Power flow. For effective average Power Factor
improvement, it may not be just sufficient to maintain instantaneous Power Factor at healthy
levels during loaded conditions, but also to maintain the instantaneous Power Factor at healthy
levels during lightly loaded conditions and jerking load operations.

By usage of any Reactive Power Compensation System by fixed method, though instantaneous
P.F may be improved, but the average P.F may not be healthy depending on the method of Fixed
Reactive Power Compensation.
 POWER FACTOR AND LOADING PATTERN

As the Power Distribution network must be dimensioned to carry the apparent current, the
optimum apparent current shall be maintained by improving the Power Factor close to unity. If
appropriately sized capacitor banks or automatic systems are installed in parallel to the loads, the
Reactive Current circulates to and fro between the capacitor and the load. This effectively means
rest of the distribution network or the source is not subject to this additional Reactive Power. If
Power Factor of unity is achieved by suitable combination of systems, the main current in the
distribution is Active Power only

Reactive Current circulating between the source and the load converts the electrical energy into
2
heat. There is an additional load on the transformer, cables, switchgear etc., through the I RT
losses. This energy losses and voltage drops leads to additional loading on the source. If higher
proportion of Reactive current is present, such losses will be higher and the distribution network
shall have to be over sized to transmit Useful Power ‘P’

Effect of Low Power Factor :

¾ Higher Apparent Current.

Low Power Factor causes higher Apparent Current in any Load Centre. For example, if the
required Active Current is 10 Amps and the prevailing Reactive Current is 10 Amps,
the Apparent Current will be 14.5 Amps while drawing at a power factor of 0.79 lag. Hence
to operate an equipment with 10 Amps Active Current, the Apparent current Drawal will be
14.5 Amps.

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Higher Losses in the Electrical Distribution System.
The loss in the Cables, Switches, Motors etc., are in square proportion of the Active Current
i.e., 14.5 amps leading to higher losses in the Electrical Systems. The higher Active Current
passing through all electrical circuits, cables, busbars, switches, motors etc., reduces the life
of the components and also lead to more break-downs.

The electrical losses at a higher level will lead to higher resistive loss in square proportion of
the Active Current, in turn leading to higher monthly consumption bills.

¾ Low Voltage in the System.

The low power factor leads to low voltage which leads to motor winding burn-outs, repeatitive
fuse failure etc., which in turn lead to production down time.

¾ Low Plant Load Factor.

The low power factor reduces the capacity of the distribution network.

Low Power Factor increases the maintenance cost of the Power Distribution System, in addition
to the stiff power tariffs being paid to the distribution authorities.

Benefits of Improving Power Factor :

¾ Lower Apparent Power.
¾ Reduced KWHr Losses.
¾ Improved Voltage leading to enhanced life of the transformer, cables, switchgear, motors
etc., and lower energy cost.

Power factor correction by means of conventional capacitor banks will not be effective where the
level of harmonics are higher. This is because the harmonic-currents are amplified in the parallel
resonant circuit formed by the capacitor and the network. As a result, current and voltage
distortion are further increased.
Types of loading pattern:

The general Industrial Scenario with the present day’s trend on Energy Saving Devices like
AC/DC Drives, Soft Starter, UPS etc., lead to underutilization of the available power. To
overcome this and to avail Quality Power, a suitable Power Quality System needs to be
considered taking into account Power Quality Issues viz., Power Factor, Harmonics etc.

The general Industrial Conditions prevalent are listed below and the apt System needs to be
selected accordingly :

Nature of Load :

Most of the loads are basically Inductive in nature and these Inductive loads operate at a
maximum load factor of 80% i.e., a 1 HP Motor will be loaded only upto 0.8 HP at any given
instance. But the overall Operational Factor of these Loads will be as low as 20% to 40%
depending on the application i.e., for the 1 HP Motor, the continuous pattern of load will be only
around 0.2 to 0.4 HP but with the peak loading of 0.8 HP. There are special loads like Pressing,
Welding Machines, Shears etc., where the load variation is from 0% to 80% in which case 0.8 HP
is applied for a short period and the motor will be running at no load in other periods.

In all industries, combination of standard running motors and special application oriented motors
will be operating together. In a general combination of Loads, the overall Operational Factor will
generally be around 40% to 50% of the total connected load for a continuous process industry

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and 20% to 30% for other industries.

Constant Load Pattern :

For Industries like spinning mills the reactive power requirement is steady and constant. Such
type of Industries fall under constant Load Pattern. The variation for such loading pattern is very
minimal

Varying Load Pattern :

The industrial motors are subject to different loads based on the production capacity. Hence, the
loading on the motors varies from time to time. These loads are termed as Varying Loads. The
varying loads involve differing instantaneous Power Factor, effectively meaning varying lagging
Reactive Power (KVAR). The capacitor rating selection shall account for these varying Reactive
Power and the minimum rating capacitor shall be selected for the minimum Reactive Power.
Hence, the combination of Capacitors of different ratings needs to be considered.

Dynamically Varying Load Pattern :

Highly oscillating / fluctuating Loads are termed as dynamically varying Loads. Dynamically
Varying Loads like Welding machines are known to have extremely wide fluctuations and
consume large amounts of reactive power. These load fluctuations cause voltage drops and
create high voltage flicker levels. These power quality issues reduce weld quality and reliability,
as well as limit the production output and service utilization of the facility. Hence, systems with
high speed sensing and switching devices need to be utilized.
 SELECTION OF REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION SYSTEM

Step Sizing of Capacitor unit plays a vital role in the performance of the entire system. For
Capacitor rating calculation, details of distribution system, source of supply, characteristics of
loads etc are some of the important parameters which needs to be known. Depending on whether
the Installation is a new plant or existing plants following details are provided for your reference to
arrive at the rating of the capacitors.

New Plant:

For the new plant, the following minimum data shall be available to arrive at the capacitor sizing :

¾ Complete SLD (Single Line Diagram including Transformer Capacity, Main Sub Distribution
Board, Number of Distribution Boards etc.)

¾ Connected load in each of the Distribution Boards.

¾ Cabling & Protection Systems.

¾ Normal Load Factor or Coincidence Factor.

¾ Possibility of Future load additions - by percentage.

Based on the connected load and the type of Reactive Power Compensation required, following
schemes can be adopted:

Individual Motor compensation 35% to 40% of the Motor rating in KW

25% of the total connected load in KW (OR)
Load Centric Power Factor Correction

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40% of the normal running load in KW
25% to 35% of the transformer capacity – for 0.9 P.F
Centralized Power Factor Correction
40% to 50% of the transformer capacity – for P.F
close to unity.

Approximate values specified for Individual Motor Approximate values specified for Load
Compensation – VDE Standards Centric compensation – VDE Standards

Moto
Motor
r n omina
n omina l rating
l rating Cap
Ca pa
acc itor Po Poww eerr Approximate values specified for PF
in inK W
KW Ratin
Ra tingg inin KKVV A RR Correction
70 KW (3 x1 20 to KW1.9 + 1 x 1 0 K W ) 025.5 Of Transformers – VDE Standards
80 KW2 to(4x 2.920 KW ) 30
1
90 KW (2x315 to KW3.9 + 2x 30 KW ) 135.5
10 0 4KW to (4 x 2 5 KW )
4.9 40
2
11 0 KW (45x 2to5 5.9KW + 1 x 1 0 KW ) 245.5
12 0 6KW to (4 x 3 0 KW )
7.9 50
3
15 08 KWto 10(5 x.93 0 KW ) 60
4
20 0 KW (41 1x 4to0K1 W
3 .9+ 2 x 2 0 K W ) 70
5
25 0 KW (51 4x to201KW7 .9 + 6x 25 KW ) 106 0
30 0 KW (21 8x 3to0 2KW
1 .9 + 4 x 6 0K W ) 11
7 .50
35 0 KW (42 2x 2to5 2KW
9 .9+ 5 x 5 0 KW ) 12
1 05
50 03 0KWto(130x9 .950 KW ) a pp rox . 40 % 17 o f5 moto r Po w e r
80400 KWo r (1a bo
0xv80e KW ) a pp rx . 3 5% 28 o f 0mo tor Po w e r
 Trans f ormer nominal rating Capac itor Pow er
in KV A Rating in KV A R
100-160 2.5
200-250 5
314-400 7.5
500-630 12.5
800 15
1000 20
1250 25
1600 35
2000 40

Normal plant Load Factor for the specific industry needs to be considered for arriving at the total
KVAR requirement. If the same is not available, a load factor of 0.7 can be considered or the
ratio of applied Sanctioned Demand to connected KVA can be applied as a load factor. From the
load factor available, the normal running KVA can be calculated from the Connected KVA and the
KVAR requirement can be calculated for this normal running KVA.

Determination of Required Capacitor Rating by measurement:

1. Measurement with Current and Power Factor:

The active power P is calculated from the measured voltage V, apparent current IS and Power

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Factor:

P = ¥ ,S &RV 3 -3
,I WKH GHVLUHG SRZHU IDFWRU FRV 3 KDV EHHQ VSHFLILHG WKH FDSDFLWRU SRZHU UDWLQJ FDQ EH FDOFXODWHG
from the following formula:

QC 3 WDQ 3 actual - WDQ 3 desired)

Measured Apparent Current IS : 248 Amps

3
QC
3RZHU )DFWRU FRV : 0.86
S Q1

'HVLUHG &RV 3 : 0.92

Q2
Voltage V : 397 V -1 -2
P=146.6 kW I
-3
P = ¥    

P = 146.6 KW where

QC = 3 WDQ 3 actual - WDQ 3 desired) FRV - = 0.86 - 1=

30.68
°
tan -1 = 0.59
cos -2 = 0.92 -2 = 23.07° tan -2 = 0.42
= 146.6(0.59 – 0.42)

= 24.9 KVAR
For the Existing Plant:

A similar method as explained above can be used for the existing plant. However, more accurate
data can be observed by recording the readings through a Meter. The normally available
calibrated supply authority meters or Industrial Meters can be used with the utility billing data. It
shall be noted that while recording such data, the healthiness of the existing available capacitors
shall be noted separately.

2. Measurements with recording of Active and Reactive power:

More reliable results can be obtained by recording all Parameters including Peak values for a
longer duration. With the recorded parameters, the required KVAR can be arrived as per the
formula given below:

QC = required capacitor rating.

QL = measured reactive power.

P = measured active power.

7DQ 3 WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ YDOXH RI WDQ 3 DW WKH GHVLUHG FRV 3

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3. Measurement by Reading Meters:
QC = QL – 3 WDQ 3

For a period of total 8 hours, the active and reactive energy needs to be measured and the initial
and final readings shall be noted for calculating the required KVAR.

RM1 = Initial Reactive Energy Reading.

RM2 = Final Reactive Energy Reading.

AM1 = Initial Active Energy Reading.

AM2 = Final Active Energy Reading.

RM2 – RM1
7DQ 3 = -----------------
AM2 – AM1

:LWK WKH FDOFXODWHG 7DQ 3 DQG WKH GHVLUHG FRV 3 ZH FDQ GHULYH WKH FDSDFLWRU UHTXLUHPHQW DV
given below :

(AM2 – AM1) * k
QC = --------------------- * f
8

Example :

Initial Active Energy reading (AM1) : 115.3 KWh

Final Active Energy reading (AM2) : 124.6 KWh

Initial Reactive Energy reading (RM1) : 311.2 KVARh

Final Reactive Energy reading (RM2) : 321.2 KVARh

Current Transformer Ratio : 150/5

Multiplication Factor – k : 30

321.2 – 311.2
7DQ 3 = ------------------ = 1.08
124.6 – 115.3

Hence, factor – f = 0.65 = WDQ 3 actual - WDQ 3 desired

( 124.6 – 115.3 ) * 30
QC = ----------------------------- * 0.65 = 22.67 KVAr
8

The values arrived above are only for instantaneous values. The loading pattern may vary from
time to time. Hence, care shall be taken while extrapolating these data. A simple method is to
take several measurements at different times to have accurate selection. These selections can
be verified with the Electricity Authorities’ cards where the maximum load and average power

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factor are recorded. Wherever fluctuating loads are present, it may not be appropriate, since
3
simultaneous measurements of 9ROWDJH &XUUHQW DQG &RV LV QHHGHG WR DUULYH DW WKH FRUUHFW
results.

Capacitor Sizing from EB Details :

Based on the EB Bill furnished, the Power Parameters are listed below :

KVA - As per EB Bill – A

PF - As per EB Bill – B

KW - MD KVA * PF = (C = A*B)
2 2 2 2
Requirement of Capacitors - SQRT ((KVA) – (KW) ) - (D=SQRT ((A) -(C) )

(OR)

INSTANT KW - As per EB Bill – A

PF - As per EB Bill – B

KVA - KW / PF = (C = A / B)
2 2 2 2
Requirement of Capacitors - SQRT ((KVA) – (KW) ) - (D=SQRT((A) -(C) )
Extrapolated for the MD KVA Condition:

MD KVA during this Billing period - As per their Bill - A

MD KVA during the last 12 months - As per their Bill - E

Extrapolated for MD KVA - (E/A) * D

The Capacitors selected are 440 Volts, considering the features required for automatic operation
and the voltage variation. Hence the requirement of Capacitance are revised as given below :

2
Capacitors @ 440 Volts = Instantaneous KVAR x (440)
2
(Available Voltage)

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 FORMULAES AT A GLANCE
T

Voltage RMS : U = œu
0
2
(t) dt [V]

Current RMS : I = œi
0
2
(t) dt = IR2+IL2

Apparent Power: S = U.I [ VA ]

T
Active Power : P = 1/T œ i2 (t) dt 8,&RV - 8,R 6&RV- >:@
0

Reactive Power: Q = ¥ S2 – P2 = U.I.Sin(-) [VAr]

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Power Factor : PF = P/S = P/(U.I) = IR/ I

Other Methods of determining Reactive Power Requirement

1. QC 3 WDQ 3 actual - WDQ 3 desired)

2. QC = QL – 3 WDQ 3

(AM2 – AM1) * k
3. QC = --------------------- *f
8
ZKHUH I WDQ 3 actual - WDQ 3 desired
 TYPES OF REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION SYSTEM

Power factor correction is a frequently misunderstood topic. Improper techniques can result in
over-correction, under-correction, and harmonic resonance, so it is necessary to select the
correct System and apt sizing for Reactive Power Compensation. Following loading patterns are
considered for the selection of Suitable Capacitor/Reactive Power Compensation System.

Steady loads:

A) Fixed Capacitors

For Steady Loads, the Capacitors can be connected across the terminals. A correctly sized
Capacitor installed in parallel to each Individual Inductive Loads like Motor etc., improves the
Power Factor. When load levels are high, a shunt capacitor system is highly beneficial. However,
when the load drops off, the capacitor poses more harm to the System compared to its benefits.
An excess of capacitance in service can lead to higher than desired voltages, excessively leading
power factors, and resonance phenomena. Hence consider the following precautions while
installing Fixed capacitors.

Precautions:

¾ The capacitor power rating must not be over-dimensioned to avoid self-excitation. The
recommended value is 85% of the no-load magnetizing KVAR. Wherever Motor with high
centrifugal mass is used, further care should be applied to select the correct sizing.
Generally shunt connected capacitors can cause excitation thereby producing dangerous
over-voltage at the time of switching OFF. This can cause damage to the Capacitor and

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Motor.

¾ The Type of switching devices shall also be considered as appropriate while connecting the
capacitors on the motor terminals. Wherever critical devices are used, the capacitors shall
be preferably connected before the Switch Gear and separate contact should be provided to
connect these capacitors. In such case, interlock or timer must be incorporated in the control
system to prevent the capacitors switching ON again, before discharging.

¾ In the case of Star – Delta Switch or Star – Delta Contactors, the capacitors shall be switched
ON in the delta condition.

¾ For frequently switching motors, the compensation shall be provided in the incoming side with
proper protection and switching devices.

Features required for Fixed Connection of Capacitors:

™ The Capacitors shall be of Heavy Duty, Dry type, MPP design with low wattage losses
™ The Capacitors shall be guaranteed for specific harmonic withstanding capability
™ The Over current withstanding capability of the capacitors should be 2 times the rated
current continously and 350 times the rated current during short peak operation
™ It should be built with specific features like Pressure Disconnector, Anti-Loosening
terminals etc.

Benefits:

9 Fixed Capacitor as a unit is extremely compact in design and non polluting because of
the dry type design.
9 It is easy to install and it is maintenance-free
 9 Can be used for a wide number of applications like wind turbine applications, Harmonic
Filter technology etc.
9 It reduces the Apparent Power on the cabling including cable feeding the Motors.
9 With the availability of Over Pressure Disconnector the danger of Capacitor bursting due
to thermal overload or any other electrical phenomenon is avoided

Drawbacks of direct Connection:

ƒ Danger of Excess Capacitance/leading Power Factor operation at light load conditions

ƒ It is not easy to install the capacitors directly to inductive load due to switching surges of
the load and other phenomenon associated with capacitors such as discharge time, self –
excitation etc.
ƒ Danger of Resonance
ƒ Offers low impedance to Harmonics. Hence frequent failures are possible when
Capacitors are connected in a System containing harmonics.

B) Banked Capacitors/Banked Capacitors with Protection MCBs:

Banked Capacitors are used wherever the KVAR Requirement is high and loading pattern is
constant like in a Spinning Mill. Banked Capacitors are also available with Protection MCBs which
protects the Capacitors in case of any abnormal conditions.

C) Manual Switched Banked Capacitors:

Manually switched Banked Capacitors are used wherever it is necessary to operate each step of

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the Capacitor bank individually in a manual fashion depending on the KVAR requirement like in
an Industry where the machines are operated based on 25%, 50%, and 100% loading. Each
capacitor circuitry pertaining to the particular loading pattern can be operated individually through
Capacitor Duty contactors and Push Buttons for Switching ON and OFF.

D) Auto Switched Banked Capacitors:

These type of Capacitor Banks are commonly used for Individual Motor Compensation, wherein
the Capacitor is switched ON after a period of delay from the Switching ON of the Motor. The
delay is basically introduced, since the Inrush current of Induction Motor is usually 7 to 9 times
higher than the rated current. Hence, to avoid such higher magnitude currents through the
capacitor, time delay is introduced through a timer circuit. Auto Switching ON & OFF is controlled
through Control Contactor energized through the Motor Controls along with provision for Auto
Manual Selector Switch

Varying loads:

A) Automatic Power Factor Correction Systems:

The present day electrical networks cater to a variety of loads like UPS, Soft Starter etc
which dynamically fluctuates and creates waveforms distortion thereby necessitating an
apt APFC System, which is self adaptable with short reaction times for extremely
fluctuating power levels

Why Install an APFC System:

• To Minimize line losses, thus saving Power Consumption
• Improvement in Voltage Regulation
• Avoid manual disruptions
• Longer life for all electrical circuits, cables, busbars, switches, motors etc.
• Avoidance of motor winding failure and end termination darkening or burn outs.
Types of switching in APFC System:

1. Contactor Switching
2. Thyristor Switching

Before selecting the type of Switching in APFC System, it is necessary to understand the
concept of total system response time. This is the time taken from the moment, PF is
changed from unity to poor; to the time System brings it back to near unity.

The way in which the System responds is discussed below:

Power Factor sensing is done by the APFC Relay(Reactive Power Controller), which sends
the control signal to the switching device(Contactor/Thyristor). The switching device senses
the command from the relay and switches the required Capacitor stages.

The total delay can thus be divided into two parts:

1. Delay in the APFC Relay(i.e. The time taken to sense the PF Changes and to deliver
suitable output commands to the Switches)
2. Delay in the Switching Device(i.e The time taken to receive the command from the
APFC Relay to the time when the capacitor is brought in and out from the circuit)

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For Induction motor loads, AC loads, compressors etc PF changes are likely to occur with a
time period of 5-40 sec. Hence APFC System with Contactor Switching shall be efficient as
well as cost effective. The contactors selected are of Capacitor duty type with two sets of
contacts, one for restricting inrush current and other set is for continuous loading of the
capacitors.

For dynamically varying loads like Welding loads, Furnace loads, Plastic Moulding machines
etc, load PF may change as fast as 100msec. Hence high speed sensing relay and fast
switching Thyristors are selected to deliver suitable Reactive Power Compensation.

Major Components in APFC System:

For varying load Variable Capacitance System with following components are selected to
deliver an apt Reactive Power Compensation System.

• FRAKO, Heavy Duty, Dry type Capacitors of Metallised Polypropylene design

to supply the required Reactive Current
• Microprocessor based Relay with high class accuracy of 0.4%, to sense the
phase displacement between the Fundamental waveforms of the voltage and
current waves of a power circuit.
• Incomer MCCB with suitable tripping characteristics and adequate Breaking
Capacity are selected
• Capacitor Duty Contactor are built with special damping resistors to limit the
Inrush current (or) High speed Thyristor Switching modules
• Feeder Control MCBs are designed to provide additional protection to capacitor
circuit
• Coil Wound Inductors are provided for additional dampening effects and for
the avoidance of amplification of Harmonics
 APFC

IN C O M E R
M CCB

S e nsin g C T Bus

A u xiliary S u pp ly

M CB
R e lay R e lay S ense s the K VA R R eq uirem e nt

C O N T AC TO R /
T H Y R IS TO R

S e nd s Co ntro l Sig na l to C onta cto r

C UR R E N T
L IM IT ING
IN D U C TO R

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C o nn ec ts the C apa cito r to the Bu s throu gh P ro te ctio n M C B s C AP AC ITO R

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF APFC SYSTEM

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Target PF for Captive Power Generation & EB Supply:
Depending on the Network, usage of Stand-by DG Sets or Captive Generation Plants, the
following optimum Power Factor is appropriate :

Captive Generation / DG Sets :

Optimum Power Factor needs to be maintained without affecting the performance characteristics
of Capacitive Generation / Diesel Gensets. Excessive Capacitance on the Captive Generation /
Diesel Genset affects the Voltage regulation due to over-excitation / self – excitation.

Hence, following Power Factor shall be maintained :

For less than 1000 KVA capacity DG Sets : 0.90 P.F

For above 1000 KVA capacity DG Sets : Between 0.90 and 0.95 P.F

Grid Supply :

For the loads operated through Grid Supply, the power factor needs to be maintained close to
unity for optimum M.D KVA and reduction in losses.
 Location Power Factor Remarks
Individual Motor 0.90 Restricted due to self-excitation.
Terminals Compensation Capability – 85% of the
no load magnetizing power.

Infrequent switching
Load Centric P.F 0.90 Restricted due to self-excitation.
Correction
Infrequent switching
Centralised P.F 0.90 for lesser than 1000 KVA Restricted, since higher P.F affects the
Correction capacity Sets. operational characteristics and field
excitation of the gensets
0.95 for larger Captive
Generation Sets above 1 MW

Close to Unity for Grid Supply To obtain optimum M.D KVA reduction in
line losses and to avail Power Factor
Incentive / avoidance of P.F Penalty.

Group – I Level of Harmonics :

Where the Level of Harmonics are lesser than IEEE / IEC Guidelines for Harmonics, Power
Factor Correction System as APFC System / Capacitors having specific guaranteed Harmonic
Withstand Capability can be installed, based on the Loading Pattern.

Group – II Level of Harmonics :

BARON
Where the level of Harmonics are higher than the IEEE / IEC Guidelines for Harmonics,
recommendation is to provide De-Tuned / Tuned / Active Harmonic Filter System.

For improvement of Power Factor and also Suppression of Harmonics, either Fixed or Automatic
Operation of De-Tuned / Tuned Harmonic Filter System can be installed. Hence, the Average
P.F will be maintained at healthier level for the Loads as well as suppressing the level of
Harmonics.

Wherever the level of Reactive Power Compensation is low and all orders of Harmonics are
present, Active Harmonic Filter System can be installed.
 BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Direct Savings

1. Reduction in Maximum Demand KVA (M.D. KVA) :

There will be a reduction in M.D KVA registered for the System Loads with the installation of
Automatic Power Factor Correction System. M.D KVA registered are time integrated
Maximum KVA registered. By monitoring the instantaneous Power Factor and then by
correcting with suitable Capacitance, the KVA will be effectively curtailed by an APFC System
in a factory. The following example illustrates this M.D KVA reduction :
APFC SYSTEM WITH APTLY SELECTED
WITH EXISTING
EXISTING CAPACITORS APFC SYSTEM
CAPACITORS

300 300
276

KVA KVA
KVA
200 200 193

100 80
80

10 20 30
10 20 30 10 20 30
MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

CASE

KVA

INSTANT P.F
BARON 10 Min

100

-0.80
EXISTING CAPACITORS

20 Min

200

+0.95
30 Min

300

+ 0.90
10 Min

80

+1.00
APFC SYSTEM
WITH EXISTING CAPACITORS

20 Min

200

+0.95
30 Min

300

+0.90
APTLY SELECTED

80
APFC SYSTEM

10 Min

+1.00
20 Min

193

+0.98
30 Min

+0.98
276

M.D KVA – for 30 Minutes 200 KVA 193 KVA 183 KVA

AVG P.F DURING M.D KVA 0.90 0.93 0.98

MONTHLY AVG. P.F 0.94 TO 0.96 0.95 TO 0.97 0.96 TO 0.99

For better understanding, 30 minutes readings of MD KVA registered with fixed Capacitors,
varying of available fixed capacitors and APFC System is given above. By opting for an
Automatic Switching of Capacitors, MD KVA control is achieved effectively by switching OFF
of the Capacitors when it is not needed i.e., during low load conditions. This is clearly
indicated in the above figure that with aptly selected Automatic Power Factor Correction
System, the ultimate user can achieve optimum KVA at different times, thereby reducing the
M.D KVA considerably.

2. Reduction in KWH Consumption :

The following highlights the Reduction in Apparent Current leading to Reduction in Energy
Consumption. Basically Reduction in Apparent Current also leads to a Saving in KWH
Consumption by reducing the losses which depends on the fast reaction of the APFC System and
its location.
Without Capacitance / APFC System :
Low Power Factor causes higher Apparent
Current in any Load Centre. For example, Reactive Power
if the required Active Current is 10 Amps (KVAR)
and the prevailing Reactive Current is
10 Amps, the Apparent Current will be Active Apparent
14.5 Amps while drawing at a power factor Power Power
of 0.79 lag.Hence to operate an equipment (KW) (KVA)
with 10 Amps Active Current, the Apparent
current Drawal will be 14.5 Amps.
Active Power Active Current
P.F = = = Cos
Apparent Power Apparent Current

With APFC System :

With the installation of BARON - APFC Panel Reactive Power (KVAR)
higher and better Power Factor is maintained.
This Improved Power Factor will reduce the Inductive
Consumption of KWH in an Industry. For
example, if the required Active Current is Capacitive
10 Amps and the Reactive Current is 4 Amps,
the Apparent Current will be only 11 amps 1

BARON
Active 2
while operating at a Power Factor of 0.91 lag.
Power Apparent
Hence, to operate an equipment with 10 Amps
(KW) Power
Active Current, the Apparent Current Drawal
will be only 11.0 Amps. (KVA)
Active Power Active Current
Compensated P. F = = = Cos 2
Apparent Power Apparent Current

The reduction in KWH Consumption is specifically due to the following reasons :

™ 2
Reduced Wattage Loss ( I R) in the total Distribution Network, thereby reducing the KWH
Consumption. ( I - is the Nett Current and R - is effective Resistance of the total Electrical
System )

™ Reduced KVA Load on the Transformer, thereby reducing the Wattage Losses in the
Transformer.

™ Optimum Capacitance, thereby reducing the KWH Consumption of the Capacitors.

™ Reduction in Line Losses.

In practical consideration, the following reduction in losses were observed as a percentage of the
total energy consumption.

ƒ Reduced KVA Load on the Transformer - 1.0% to 1.5%

ƒ Reduced Wattage Loss - 2.0% to 4.0%

ƒ Optimum Capacitance - 0.5%

ƒ Reduction in Line Loss - 0.5%

Quantifying Reduction in KWH Consumption :

Assessment of reduction in KWH Losses needs total study of the Electrical Distribution Network /
Systems in an industry. This involves observation of cable sizing, allocation of the loads, normal
current flow in each of the feeders, Type of Loads etc.
In a typical study at a general industry, we recorded the Energy Readings Before and After
Installation of BARON - APFC System which is shown below :

Reading Before Installation of Reading After Installation of

Parameters
BARON System BARON System
KWH 1606 1548
KVARH 824 316
KVAH 1805 1580
Avg. Power Factor 0.89 0.98

The above table indicates 3.5% of KWH saving for the Power Factor improvement to 0.98 lag.
However in different Industries, there will be variation in KWH Saving due to the Distribution &
Load Pattern.

Reduction in KVAh Charges:

By maintaining healthy Instantaneous Power Factor there will be reduction in KVA and hence

BARON
appreciable reduction in KVAh. Certain Electricity Boards also offer 100% rebate in KVAh
charges for maintenance of Power Factor at 0.97.

APFC SYSTEM WITH APTLY SELECTED

WITH EXISTING
EXISTING CAPACITORS APFC SYSTEM
CAPACITORS

300 300
276

KVA KVA
KVA
200 200 193

100 80
80

10 20 30
10 20 30 10 20 30
MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

CASE EXISTING CAPACITORS APFC SYSTEM APTLY SELECTED

WITH EXISTING CAPACITORS APFC SYSTEM

10 Min 20 Min 30 Min 10 Min 20 Min 30 Min 10 Min 20 Min 30 Min

KVA 100 200 300 80 200 300 80 193 276

INSTANT P.F -0.80 +0.95 + 0.90 +1.00 +0.95 +0.90 +1.00 +0.98 +0.98

KVAH 16 33 50 13 33 50 13 32 46

M.D KVA – for 30 Minutes 200 KVA 193 KVA 183 KVA

AVG KVAh consumption 33 KVAh 32 KVAh 30 KVAh

AVG P.F DURING M.D KVA 0.90 0.93 0.98

From the above example it can be inferred that, by opting for an suitable APFC System, the
KVAh consumption can be reduced to a great extent
Avoidance of Power Factor Penalty/Availing of PF Incentives :

By maintenance of healthy power factor optimum system current is drawn from the EB side
thereby avoiding any Power Factor based penalties. Some Electricity Boards also provide
Incentive for the Consumers for the maintenance of Healthy PF. With the Installation of an
apt APFC System, the Consumers can also enjoy Incentives in addition to the reduction in
losses in the Distribution Network

Reduction in KVAh Charges:

By maintaining healthy Instantaneous Power Factor there will be reduction in KVA and hence
appreciable reduction in KVAh. Certain Electricity Boards also offer 100% rebate in KVAh
charges for maintenance of Power Factor at 0.97.

INDIRECT BENEFITS :

Reduction in Maintenance Cost :

By Improving the Operational Power Factor with BARON-APFC System, the Maintenance Cost
also will be reduced.

ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
BARON
Reduction / Avoidance of End Termination Darkening or Burn-outs due to reduced Apparent
Current Flow.
Reduction / Avoidance of Motor Winding Failures due to reduced Apparent Current Flow in
the Windings.
Improved System Performance due to healthy Voltage.
Low Electrical Break Downs and thus avoiding Down Time of the Plant.