CHAPTER III

THE AKKULAM-VELI LAKE BASIN

3.1 GENERAL

The study of a water body is incomplete without the study of its basin. Lakes

are intimately linked to their basin. The flux of materials drained into lakes, which is

derived ultimately from basin weathering, atmospheric deposition and anthropogenic

inputs, has a substantial impact on the lake chemistry (Noges et aI., 2003). The basin

characteristics, namely, physiography, lithology, soil, slope, and land use, have a

dominant role in the lake water quality. The population density in the basin affects the

water quality to a great extent. The morphometric features of a lake system are

important as they can directly or indirectly affect the Iimnological processes (Winona,

2008). The seasonal variation in climatological factors also causes significant variation

in water quality. The biophysical, demographic, land use, and climatological factors of

the AV lake system are discussed. The sources of pollution in the lake basin have been

identified. The pollution potential area in the lake basin is assessed by integrating

geomorphology, lithology, soil, slope, land use, and population density maps using

GIS.

3.2 BIC-PHYSICAL SETTINGS

a. Morphometry of the AV lake

The knowledge of the morphological characteristics of a lake is important

because the shape of the water body affects the physical, chemical, and biological

properties of the ecosystem (Bezerra-Neto et aI., 2010). These dimensions influence

the lake's water quality and productivity levels (WOW, 2004). Bathymetric maps can

be used to describe a lake's physical features. The morphological features of the AV

lake are given in Table 3.1. The bathymetry map is shown in Figure 3.1.

Lake surface area is used to predict the potential effects of wind on a lake and

it also influences the dilution capacity of the lake system (Lakewatch, 2001). The lakes

with greater surface area are subjected to larger waves during windy conditions and

the larger waves have the ability to mix water at greater depths (Lakewatch, 2001).

37
Lakes with greater surface area have a greater dilution capacity than lakes with a

smaller surface area. For the AV lake, the surface area is very small (0.76 km 2 ) and

smaller waves are generated during windy conditions. These waves have the ability to

mix water at smaller depths only. Hence, resuspension of sediments due to wind

action is not prominent. Further, as the lake surface area is small, less water is

available to dilute the contaminants entering the lake and hence the dilution capacity

is very low for the AV lake.

Table 3.1 Morphological Features of the Akkulam-Veli lake

No. Item Unit Value

1. Elevation Around mean sea level

2
2. Lake area km 0.76

3. Maximum length km 3.2

4. Maximum width m 525

5. Mean width m 250

6. Maximum depth m 5.7

7. Minimum depth m 0.22

8. Mean depth m 0.9

9. Shore length km 7

3
10. Volume m 373,927.41

2
11. Watershed area km 143.9

12. Watershed to lake surface area 189.34

38
 1'1

( A
J

T. S. c.n. .
Legend
~

Water depth in metre

.4-5
.5-5.6

TS.CanaI
.3.5-4
.3-3.5 ~
.2.5-3
DZ-L5
.1.5-2
.1.1.5 ~
0.5-1
0-4.5
O-=o.::JII'2!l-=="0.25~--=O.ll==O.:IIII15--'-

Figure 3.1 Bathymetry Map of the Akkulam-Veli Lake

(Source: Hydrographic survey in November, 2007, Department of Harbour, Kerala)

The maximum length is important because it can influence the depth at which

waves can mix water and bottom sediments in a lake (Lakewatch, 2001). AV lake has a

maximum length of 3.2 km and a maximum width of 0.52 km with a mean depth of

0.9m (Table 3.1). As the maximum length of the lake is small, waves are prevented

from becoming very large and mixing of water is reduced. The narrow shape in some

portion of the Veli lake also restricts the formation of wind induced wave action.

Hence the mixing of water and bottom sediments is less due to wind induced wave

action. Comparatively maximum width is observed in the Akkulam lake and minimum

in the Veli lake. Hence wind induced wave action is more in the Akkulam lake than in

the Veli lake.

The depth of the lake is important as it indicates productivity in a lake system

(Lakewatch, 2001). Shallow lakes are more productive than deeper lakes. As per the

standards (MPCA, 2005), lakes having maximum depth less than 15 feet (4.57 m) or if

the littoral zone (area where depth is less than 4.57 m and able to support emergent

and'submerged rooted aquatic plants) covers at least 80% of the lake's surface area

are defined as shallow lakes. For the AV lake, almost the entire area has depth less

39
than 4.57 m and falls under shallow lake category. The mean depth of the Akkulam

lake is 0.34 m and that of the Veli lake is 1.3 m. This shows that the Akkulam lake is

more shallower than that in the Veli lake. The bund in between the two lakes is

responsible for the partial obstruction to the flow from the Akkulam lake to the Veli

lake causing siltation in the former. The bathymetry map (Figure3.1) shows the

location of bund located in between the Akkulam and Veli lake.

The maximum depth of a lake influences the movement of fine organic

sediments found at the bottom of a lake. The sediments usually move into the deep

areas and if these areas are filled in with sediment and the remaining sediments go

back and forth across the lake bottom or into the water column or resuspend them in

water column. The maximum depth observed is 5.8 m in the downstream portion of

the Veli lake.

The total lake volume influences lake's dilution capacity (WOW, 2004). The
3
volume of water available in the entire AV lake is 373,927.4 m (Table 3.1). The

volume of water in the Akkulam lake is 155,663.6 m 3 and that in the Veli lake is
3
218,263.8 m . Since the lake volume is very small, the dilution capacity of the lake is

also very little. The dilution capacity of the Veli lake is more when compared with that

ofthe Akkulam lake.

Shoreline length is the linear measurement of a water body's entire perimeter,

at a given water level (Lakewatch, 2001). It provides a measurement of the actual

amount of interface between a water body and the surrounding land. Shoreline

development refers to the length of a lake's shoreline relative to a circle of the same

area. For the AV lake, the shoreline length is 7 km and the shoreline development is

2.3 i.e. the interface between the lake and the surrounding land is more. Hence, the

buffer zone around the lake shall be notified and steps shall be taken for shoreline

planting to prevent soil erosion.

The index of basin permanence (IBP) is a morphometric index that indicates

the littoral (inshore area where light penetrates to the bottom) effect on basin

volume. The lakes with IBP less than 0.1 are dominated by rooted aquatic plants which

is an indication of excessive shallowness, high water colour, and high total phosphorus

(Lakewatch, 2001). For the AV lake, IBP (Index of basin permanence) is 0.05 indicating

40
 that rooted aquatic plants are dominated in the lake system.

Fetch is the distance that wind travel over water before intersecting the land

mass. This can be used to predict the depth of wave mixing height (Lakewatch, 2001).

Fetch measured is 1.5 km in the Akkulam lake. The maximum wind speed upto 28

kmph was observed in the lake basin (Table 3.5). The depth of wave mixing height is

obtained as 2.2 m for the maximum fetch of 1.5 km and for the maximum wind speed

of 28 kmph. But the large beds of aquatic plants in the AV lake reduce the amount of

turbulence within the plants beds. Plant beds can interfere with the development of

waves in a lake. This results in the accumulation of fine particles in shallow areas that

are dominated by plants. Thus shallow lakes filled with plants may not develop large

waves and the fine sediments will be protected from resuspension.ln the AV lake, lake

area, maximum length and width, and fetch are small and a large portion of the lake is

covered with aquatic plants. Hence the formation of wind induced wave action is

restricted in the AV lake.

The area of the lake basin also plays an important role in the environmental

status of a lake (WOW, 2004). If the basin area is more, there will be more input of

pollution load into the lake, causing its degradation. The greater the lake area and

volume, the greater is the ability for a lake to withstand water quality impacts from

surrounding land use. Lakes have natural buffering potential when their surface area is

larger than 500 ha, mean depth is greater than 5 m, and the ratio of watershed to lake

area is less than 5:1 (WOW, 2004). For the Akkulam-Veli lake, surface area is only 0.76
2
km ; mean depth is only 0.55m; and the watershed to lake ratio is 189:1. This shows

that the lake has no natural buffering potential. The land use in the watershed causes

significant change in the water quality of the AV lake.

From the bathymetry map (Figure 3.1), it can be seen that a major portion of

the Akkulam lake has depth less than O.5m and in its downstream portion, the depth is

in between 0.5 m and 1m. The existence of bund can be observed between the

Akkulam and the Veli lake. Then up to the middle portion of the Veli lake, the depth is

in between 0.5 and 1m. The factory of the English Indian Clays (EI Clays) is located

near the middle portion of the Veli lake. Though this portion of the lake is narrow, the

water depth is also low. This may be due to the draining of clay from the factory into

41
the lake during monsoon season. Then a rise in water depth can be observed beyond

this area. A major portion of the downstream portion of the Veli lake has depth

around 3m.

b. Administrative divisions

A major portion of the Thiruvananthapuram taluk and some portion of the

Nedumangad taluk, lie in the AV lake basin. The basin consists of a major portion of

the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation area (54 wards), the entire area of the

panchayaths of Kazhakuttom (17 wards), Kudappanakkunnu (27 wards) and

Sreekaryam (22 wards), and some portion of the panchayaths of Andoorkkonam (10

wards), Pothankode (12 wards) Vembayam (12 wards), and a few wards in the

Karakulam (Figure 3.2).

c. Demography

The population density of the lake basin plays a significant role in the

characteristics of the water quality of the lake. The Thiruvananthapuram Corporation

area is the most thickly populated area in the lake basin with a population density of
2
5004 persons per km (Census, 2001) (Figure 3.3). It is followed by the Panchayaths of

Kudappanakkunnu (4964 persons per km 2 ), Sreekaryam (2071 persons per km 2 ),

Andoorkkonam (2044 persons per km 2 ) and Karakulam (1867 persons per km 2 ). The

population details of the local bodies are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Population Density in the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin (Census, 2001)

Total population
Area Population density
No. Administrative units 2 2
(km ) (persons per km )
Male Female Total

1 Thiruvananthapuram 177.7 437407 452228 889635 5004

2 Sreekaryam Panchayath 23.73 24088 25057 49145 2071
3 Kazhakuttom Panchayath 19.47 16826 17305 34131 1753
4 Andoorkkonam Panchayath 13.96 14358 14179 28537 2044
5 Pothankode Panchayath 20.85 13271 14365 27636 1326
6 Vembayam Panchayath 30.58 17121 18267 35388 1157
7. Karakulam Panchayath 25.01 22991 23700 46691 1867
8. Kudappanakkunnu Panchayth 7.69 18643 19532 38175 4964

42
 • z ...... .. • 21<.rn.

~1' e lAgend
~~ Panch/Corp., Popul.tlon density (Parson-'Sq.km)
...~ AndooI1tonam. 20«
_ K11l11llulam. 1867
IS'(C'
~
ut1om.1753
Kudappanakkunnu .964
_ Polhankode. 1326
SrMk.rly.m. 2071
- ThINva~nlhaporam Corp, 5004
Vembayll/Tl, 1157
OfJlOI8llon - - Stl1l.mlRlver
7twO"! 7t'$SV'E
7&"5O'0"E

Figure 3.2 Administrative Divisions Figure 3.3 Population Density

of the Akkulam-Veli lake Basin in the Akkulam-Veli lake Basin (Census, 2001)

43
d. Climate

The AV lake basin enjoys a tropical humid climate (Arunkumar, 2007). The area

experiences two monsoons, the SW monsoon and NE monsoon. Based on the

monsoonal cycle, the year has been divided into three seasons namely premonsoon -

PRM (February - May), monsoon -MON (June - September), postmonsoon (October -

January). The annual average of climate data of the Thiruvananthapuram district for

the period from 1901 to 2000 is given in the archive of India Meteorology Department

(IMD, 2009).The climatic data for the monitoring station of the Indian Meteorological

Department situated in Thiruvananthapuram Air Port close to the Akkulam-Veli lake

have been gathered for the study period from December 2007 to March 2009. A brief

description of the climatic parameters, namely, rainfall, temperature, wind and

humidity is given below:

Rainfall

As per the archive of India Meteorological Department (IMD, 2009), the annual

average rainfall in the Thiruvananthapuram district from 1901 to 2000 was 1497 mm

with the maximum rainfall of 343.5 mm in June. During the study period, the total

rainfall received was 1823.7 mm in the year 2008. The season wise average rainfall in

this region during MON is 739.8 mm, followed by 673.8 mm during POM and 410.4

mm during PRM. The monthly highest rainfall of 444 mm has been occurred in

October, 2008, followed by 246.5 mm in March, 2008 and 223.2 in July, 2008 (Table

3.3 and Figure 3.4). The rainfall obtained from the South West monsoon was 739.8mm

and from North east monsoon was 673.5 in 2008.

Temperature

As per the archive of India Meteorological Department (IMD, 2009), the mean

maximum temperature in the Thiruvananthapuram district from 1901 to 2000 is

30.3°C and the minimum temperature was 23.7°C.

During the study period, the temperature ranges between 34.9°C (March,

2008) and 19°C (March, 2009). The annual seasonal average is 27.5°C. The season

wise average of the temperature is maximum during PRM (28.2°C), followed by MON

(27.3°C) and POM (27°C) (Table 3.4 and Figure 3.5).

44
 Table 3.3 Rainfall Data of AV lake Basin (Period - December 2007 to March 2009)
(Source: India Meteorological Department, Thiruvananthapuram)

Year Month Rainfall in mm*

2007 December Trace
2008 Januarv Trace
Februarv 23.4
March 246.5
April 89.2
May 51.3
June 106.9
July 223.2
August 203.2
September 206.5
October 444
November 193.7
December 35.8
2009 January 0.3
February 0
March 34.7

Wind

In Thiruvananthapuram, the wind is mainly from the north west (IMD, Pune).
Generally, winds from northeast and east prevail in the morning while in the

afternoon it is from west and northwest. The wind speed may even attain 40-50

km/hour during and before the monsoon rains. The wind direction/speed in the study

area in 2006 is given in Table.3.5. Wind speed is high in the evening than in the

morning. The wind speed was maximum in June, 2006 and is low in February.

45
 Table 3.4 Temperature Data of AV Lake Basin
(Period - December 2007 to March 2009)
(Source: India Meteorological Department, Thiruvananthapuram)

Year Month Average Max(OC) Min(OC)

2007 December 26.8 34.4 20.3

2008 January 27 33.4 20.7

February 27.7 33.3 22.8

March 27.5 34.9 21.8

April 28.7 34 22.8

May 28.9 33.3 22.4

June 27.7 32.6 22.8

July 26.9 31.7 21.4

August 26.9 31.4 22

September 27.5 32.3 21.8

October 27.5 33 22.6

November 27.2 32.3 21.6

December 26.6 33.1 19.5

2009 January 26.8 32.4 19.9

February 27.8 33.4 20

March 28.8 33.5 19

46
 450
400
350
E 300
E
.5 250
= 200
150
100
50
o
Feb.2008 .Apr. June AlJg. Oct. Dec. Feb.2009
Period

Fig.3.4 Rainfall Data of AV Lake Basin

(Period - February 2008 to March 2009)

35

41
30
e
Cl 25
41
'C

-c: Ul~ 20
...4lCii
~
-41 15
nit)
...41
Q. 10
E
41
..... 5

0
Feb Apr. June Aug. Oct. Dec. Feb.
Period

• Max 34.4 33.4 • Min 20.3 20.7

Figure 3.5 Temperature Data of AV Lake Basin

(Period - February 2008 to March 2009)

47
 Table 3.5 Wind Data of AV Lake Basin in 2006
(Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Thiruvananthapuram)

Wind dlrectlon/speed(kmph)

Month 830lST 1730lST

January 000 E/006 003 W/008

February 001 VRB/004 005 NW/012

March 004 N/012 008 NW/020

April 005 N/012 010 NW/020

May 005 N/016 008 NW/022

June 007 NE/020 013 NW/028

July 010 NW/022 013 NW/024

August 007 NW/020 012 NW/022

September 006 N/020 008 NW/022

October 002 N/008 005 NNW/014

November 001 SE/008 002 E/010

December 002 E/008 003 5/008

Humidity

A maximum humidity of 98% in July and October, 2008 and January, 2009 and

a minimum humidity of 45% in February, 2008 have been observed in the study area

(Table 3.6). In the evening, the humidity varies from 98% in March 2008 to 48% in

January, 2008 in the evening. The average humidity was maximum (87.6%) in July,

2008 and minimum (69.7%) in January, 2008 in the morning. In the evening, a

maximum (80.9%) average humidity was recorded in July, 2008 and a minimum

(63.5%) in February, 2009. The annual average humidity is 79.4% in the morning and

73.1% in the evening.

48
 Table 3.6 Relative Humidity from December 2007 to March 2009
(Source: Indian Meteorological Department, Thiruvananthapuram)

Year Month Relative humldlty(%) at 8 30 Hrs Relative humidity (%) at 1130 Hrs

Mean Max. Min. Mean Max. Min.

2001 December 76 95 61 66 81 49

2008 January 69.7 92 50 63.5 85 48

February 75.4 92 45 70 81 53

March 78.7 96 54 73.6 98 50

April 77.8 93 70 73.7 92 58

May 74.3 90 66 72.7 89 63

June 82.1 92 74 76.3 95 66

July 87.6 98 71 80.9 96 64

August 82.5 93 65 80 90 69

September 81 93 67 73.8 96 64

October 81.8 98 69 74.2 90 61

November 83.9 72 73.3 95 62

December 76.5 97 56 65.3 90 50

2009 January 70.9 98 57 63.7 78 52

February 70 85 57 62.9 75 41

March 74.8 86 63 67.3 83 54

e. Physiography

The AV lake is situated in the coastal area ofThiruvananthapuram district. The

entire area of the basin (143.9 sq.km) lies in the lowland (<7.5 m) midlands (between

75 m & 7.5 m) and some portion in the high lands (> 75 m).

f. Drainage

The major streams that drain into the AV lake include the Kannamoola stream

and the Kulathur stream (Figure 3.6). The Kannamoola stream is formed by the

confluence of the Ulloor stream, Pattom stream and the Amayizhanchan canal near

Pattoor. The Ulloor stream originates from Vattappara and Arasumud area and flows

through Paudikonam, Ulloor and Kesavadasapuram and joins the Pattom stream near

49
 Pattoor. The Pattom stream originates from the Kudappanakunnu-Mannanthala area

and flows through Kuravankonam, Plamood, and Gowreeshapattom and meets the

Ulloor stream and the Amayizhanchan canal at Pattoor. The Amayizhanchan canal

starts from Vellayambalam (backwash of filters from the water treatment plant of

Kerala Water Authority) and passes through Thampanoor, East Fort, Vanchiyoor and

Pattoor i.e. through the midst of the Thiruvananthapuram city. Thus the Pattom

stream, Ulloor stream and Amayizhanchan canal join to form Kannamoola stream and

it then flows through Kannamoola, and joins with the upstream portion of the

Akkulam lake. Medical College channel joins the Kannamoola stream before it joins

with the Akkulam lake.

The Kulathur stream starts from the Andoorkkonam, Pallippuram and

Chengottukonam area, and it joins the Veli lake on its northern shore. It passes

through Kazhakuttom, Kariavattom and Pangappara, and brings in substantial

quantities of fresh water to the lake during SW and NE monsoon. The TS canal

connects the lake with two estuaries, namely, the Kadinamkulam lake in the north and

the Poonthura lake in the south.

g. Drainage Basin

The Akkulam-Veli lake basin consists of six sub-basins, namely, the

Amayizhanchan basin, Pattom basin, Ulloor Basin, Medical College basin, Kulathur

basin and the TS canal basin (Figure 3.7). Among these, Ulloor basin (19.71%), the

Pattom basin (10.8%), the Amayizhanchan basin (6.11%) and the Medical College

basin (5.65%) together constitute the Kannamoola basin and is the largest basin

(42.27%) in the AV lake basin.

The entire area of the Amayizhanchan basin covers the commercial/agglomerated

settlement area of the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation. The commercial centres like

Thampanoor, Statue, Palayam, and East Fort lie in this basin. When the

Amayizhanchan canal passes through this urban area, it is being fouled by sewage and

garbage and becomes a dirty gutter. The overflow from the sewerage system in the

Thiruvananthapuram city as well as from the settlements and commercial

establishments situated on either sides of the canal are the main sources of pollution

50
in this area. The stagnation of waste water makes the situation pathetic. This

contaminated canal is one of the main reasons for the deterioration of water quality

of the AV lake. In the Medical College basin, Medical College is the main source of

pollution. In the Pattom basin, the important places are Kudappanakunnu,

Mannanthala, Peroorkada, Kuravankonam, and Plamood. The important places

situated in the Ulloor basin are Arasmud, Vattappara, Ulloor, and Kesavadasapuram.

The TS canal basin (17.41%) covers thickly populated coastal areas of

Thiruvananthapuram city. The places namely Valiyathura, Shangumugham, and

Thumba are located in this basin. Improper sanitation facilities in the area is the main

reason for degradation of water quality of TS Canal. Domestic waste water including

sewage generated in the Thiurvananthapuram city also reaches the T. S. Canal. The

major portion of the Kulathur basin (39.79%) comes under the rural area.

Andoorkonam, Pallipuram, Chengottukonam, Kazhakuttom, and Kariavattom are the

main places located in this basin. Kulathur stream after passing through this area

meets the Veli lake.

h) Lithology

The lithological make up of the AV lake basin is covered by both crystalline

rocks and tertiary sediments, which are laterised and covers major portion of the area

(Figure 3.8 and 3.9). The important rocks include garnetiferious biotite, garnet-biotite

gneiss with migmatite, coastal sand and alluvium, and sandstone and clay. The tertiary

formation comprises of sandstone intercalated with clay and the valley contains

quarternary deposits. About 60.5% of the entire lake basin is covered by garnetiferous

biotite, followed by coastal sand alluvium (26.1%), sandstone with clay (5.6%) and

4.5% by garnet-biotite gneiss with migmatite.

51
 • • 1 ....
_ 0 lKnw •

! ~

--
~~~ ..,
~
1-
d'~..,
\?-~
.. N ~m
~
Legend
_
_
...
Akkulam·Veli Lake
Amayi1hanchan Basin
Kulathur Basin
~"1
..,~,,;.:!-,.;::~.
..,~

'"..,,,,
Il'~..,
~. ."., ",

~!

Medical Collage Basin

~
Legend _ Pattom Basin
_ TS Canal Basin
- - Stream/River
r Ulloor Basin
_ Akkulamveli

70"Sal7'E 7O"SSVE
I - - Drainage

7O'517l7'E 7e~l7'E

Figure 3.6 Drainage Map of Akkulam-Veli Lake Figure 3.7 Sub-drainage Basin Map ofthe Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

52
 Of the total area of the basin (143.9 km 2 ), garnetifierous biotite covers an area

of 31.8% in the Kannamoola basin and 29% in the Kulathur basin (Table 3.7 and 3.8).

Coastal sand and alluvium covers 17.5% in the TS Canal basin and 5.4% each in the

Kannamoola and Kulathur basins. Garnet biotite gneiss with migmatite covers 4.5% in

the Kannamoola basin and 0.13% in the Kulathur basin. Sandstone and clay covers the

remaining 5.6% in the Kulathur basin.

A large portion of the lake basin is covered by garnetiferous biotite. It occurs

almost throughout the khondalite terrain of South Kerala as concordant bands within

the khondalite (Soman, 1997). Khondalites are the oldest and the most wide spread

crystalline rocks. The rainfall falling on this metamorphic rock moves as surface runoff

and groundwater directly downhill toward the nearest stream unless diverted by

pumping wells, lost to eva po-transpiration or taken into storage (Cinotto et aI., 2005).

Garnet-biotite gneiss with migmatite covers a small portion in the Kannamoola basin.

Migmatitic rocks are rich in ferromagnesian minerals and are found as small patches in

gneisses (Sadashivaiah and Venugopal, 1962). The coastal alluvium is essentially

composed of sand, silt and clay and comprises of unconsolidated sediments

(Anonymous, 2008).They are excessively drained with very high hydraulic conductivity

(Bhosale and Kumar, 2002). The tertiary formation of sandstone is intercalated with

clay.

Entire area of the TS Canal basin is covered by coastal sand and alluvium

(17.5% of the total basin area), where the porosity and permeability are very high.

Here the surface run off is less and groundwater recharge is more. Hence even a small

quantity of pollutant can enter the ground water in this basin and reach the TS Canal.

Water bodies in the TS Canal basin are highly prone to pollution. 5.4% of the

Kannamoola basin and 5.3% of the Kulathur basin are also covered by coastal sand

and alluvium. More thrust is to be paid for the prevention of pollution in this area.

Garnetiferous biotite covers 31.8% of the Kannamoola basin and 29% of the

Kulathur basin. The permeability of the garnetiferous biotite is less compared to the

coastal sand and alluvium. The surface runoff is more and there is more chance of

escape of pollutant from this area towards the downstream.

53
 Lithology of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

50
45
40
~ 35
cr
~ 30
~ 25
"-
III
~ 20
u
CIl 15
~
<{ 10

5
o
Gametiferous Coastal sand Gamet-Biotite Sand stone and Chamakite
Biotite and Alluvium Gneiss with Clay
Migmalite
Lithological units

_ Kannamoola _ TS Canal Kulathur basin(sq.km)

Figure 3.8 Lithology of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

Table 3.7 Lithology of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

2
Lithology Kannamoola TS Canal Kulathur Basin(km )
2 2
Basin (km ) Basin(km )

Garnetiferous Biotite 45.57(31.8%) 0 41.54(29%)

Coastal sand and Alluvium 7.73(5.4%) 25.05(17.5%) 7.58(5.3%)

Garnet-Biotite Gneiss with 6.49(4.5%) 0 0.19(0.13%)

Migmatite

Sandstone and Clay 0 0 7.95(5.6%)

Charnakite 1.03(0.7%) 0 0

54
 .- ~V...,_

ChamaIa1.
CoMtJII ...-.cf end AlwlI.m
Km'
078
103
.a3
~"
O. J<
on
2806
I . 1
• ......
~-&CCIIe Gne<. \Mlh ,..""""••
Gamet>t• .,.. _ .
eM 464
11111 110 53
s.n<t Itone end ca.v 7115 553
TOIaI 143.110 100.00

e ~

neldo.mnu'

! !
lAgend
_ typo, T....." •• alope
Legend
K02, Sandy, Very gentle
_ Chamalute
KOS. Clay. Very gentlll
c: Coastal sand and AJuvtum _ K07. Gravelly clay, Gentle
_ Gamet-Biotite Gneiss Wlth Mlgmibte _ K09. Gravelly clay. Moderately steep
_ Gamebferous BIotite K12. Gravelly clay. Gentle
Sand stone and Clay _Settlement
_ Aklwiam-Veiliake _ Akkulam-Vel

7e'SO'lTE 7e'56lTE 7e'SOlTE 7ll'55'lTE

Figure 3.9 Lithology Map of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin Figure 3.10 Soil Map of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin
 Table 3.8 Subbasin-wise Lithological Distribution in Akkulam-Veli basin

2
Sub-basin lithology Area (km ) Area (%)

Amaylzhanchan Basin Coastal sand and Alluvium 5.2848 60.05

Garnetiferous Biotite 3.5113 39.90

Total 8.7961 100.00

Coastal sand and Aluvium 7.5831 13.24

Kulathur Basin Garnet-Biotite Gneiss with Migmatite 0.1908 0.33

Garnetiferous Biotite 41.5389 72.54

Sand stone and Clay 7.9522 13.89

Total 57.2650 100.00

Medical College Basin Coastal sand and Aluvium 2.3327 28.70

Garnetiferous Biotite 5.7954 71.30

Total 8.1281 100.00

Coastal sand and Aluvium 0.0061 0.04
Pattom Basin
Garnet-Biotite Gneiss with Migmatite 2.8800 18.54

Garnetiferous Biotite 12.6511 81.42

Total 15.5372 100.00

TS Canal Basin Coastal sand and Aluvium 25.0525 100.00

Total 25.0525 100.00

Charnakite 1.0349 3.65

Ulloor Basin Coastal sand and Aluvium 0.1081 0.38

Garnet-Biotite Gneiss with Migmatite 3.6107 12.73

Garnetiferous Biotite 23.6089 83.24

Total 28.3625 100.00

In the Kulathur basin, 5.6% of the total basin area consists of sandstone and

clay. Surface runoff is less in this basin when compared to that of Garnetiferous

biotite. The infiltration is more and ground water recharge is moderate in this area.

I. Soil

A major portion of the basin consists of gravelly clay soil of gentle slope

(Figure.3.i0 and Table 3.9). Gravelly clay with moderate surface gravelliness on gentle

slope (K12) covers 68.5% of the entire basin area. Gravelly clay soils on gently sloping

coastal laterites (K07) covers 7.7% and the gravelly clay soils with moderate surface

56
 graveliness on moderately steeply sloping laterite mounds covers 6.8% of the lake

basin. Gravelly clay of types K07, K09, and K12 are well drained as per the

classification of Land Use Board, Kerala given in Table 3.9. Almost the entire area of

the Kannamoola basin falls in the category of K12 type soil. The runoff through the

settlement area is also more. In urban centers, floods become a greater problem due

to increase in runoff, which is caused by deforestation activities, increase in

percentage paved area and blockage of waterways (Jimoh and Iroye, 2009).

Table 3.9 Classification of Soil Types of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

(Source: Land Use Board, Kerala)

No. Soli Description Classification Characteristics {in terms of

type percolation, permeability,
Major salls
plasticity}

Major soils Inclusions

1. K02 Very dee~ somewhM Mixed,Typic Coarse-loamy,

excessively drained, sandy Ustipasamments mixed Aquic
soils with moderately deep Ustorthents
Depth-very deep
water table on very gently
sloping beaches, with slight Texture-Sandy soil
erosion; associated with very Slope-Very gentle slope
deep, moderately well
Drainage-Moderately well
drained, sandy soils with
drained
moderately shallow water Mixed Aquic Fine,mixed,
Ustipasaments Aeric Tropaquepts
table

Fine, mixed, Fine, mixed,

2. KOS Very deep, imperfectly
Typic Typic Tropaquepts
drained, clayey soils with Depth-very deep
Dystropepts
shallow water table on level
Texture-Clayey soil
lands with valley, with slight Fine-loamy, mixed,
erosion Fine, mixed, Ustic Slope-Level
Aeric Kanhaplohumults
Tropaquepts

3. K07 Very deep, well drained, Clayey-skeletal, Loamy-skeletal,

gravelly clay soils on gently Kaolinitic, Typic mixed, Ustoxic Depth-very deep
sloping coastal laterites, with Kandiustults Dystropepts
Texture- Gravelly
moderate erosion;
clay
Slope-Gentle
Associated with very deep, Drainage-well
Clayey-skeletal, Clayey, Kaolinitic,
well drained, gravelly clay
Kaolinitic, Typic Typic Kandiustults
soils with moderate surface
Kanhaplustults
gravelliness

57
4. K09 Very deep, well drained, Clayey-skeletal, Clayey-skeletal,
gravelly clay soils with Kaolinitic, Oxic Kaolinitic, Ustic Depth-very deep
moderate surface graveliness Humitropepts Kandihumults
Texture- Gravelly
on moderately steeply
clay
sloping laterite mounds with
moderate erosion; Slope-Moderately steep

Drainage-well

Associated with deep, well Clayey-skeletal, Fine-loamy, mixed,

drained, gravelly clay soils on Kaolinitic, Ustic Typic Kandiustults
gentle slopes Haplohumults

s. K12 Very deep, well drained, Clayey-skeletal, Fine-loamy, mixed,

gravelly clay soils with kaolinitic, Ustic Aquic Ustifluvents Depth-very deep
moderate surface Kanhaplohumults
Texture- Gravelly
gravelliness on gently sloping
clay
midland laterites with valleys Clayey-skeletal,
of southern Kerala, with Clayey, kaolinitic, Slope-Gentle
Kaolinitic, Typic
moderate erosion;associated Typic Drainage-well
Kanhaplustults
with very deep, well drained, Kandiustults
clayey soils

j. Geomorphology

The lake basin consists of lateritic lower plateau, valleys, flood plain, old coastal

plain, and young coastal plain (Figure 3.11 and Table 3.10). Of the total basin area of

143.9 km 2, laterite lower plateau covers an area of about 60.35%, followed by 14.42%

of valleys, 14.06% of young coastal plain, 10.27% of old coastal plain and 0.06% of

flood plain (Table 3.10). A large portion of water runs off quickly after the rains from

this plateau region. Around 14% of the lake basin is covered by valleys and they are

formed by a complex reaction of fluvial processes. Valleys are restricted between two

linear ridges or along linear depressions. It occupies the low lying areas (ENVIS, 2007).

Valleys act as good zones for groundwater storage and are also the best for

groundwater discharge because of high porosity and permeability (Thakur and

Raghuwanshi, 2007). Normally valleys are filled with alluvial materials and cultivated

with paddy. Now this area is also densely populated. Coastal Plain covers around 30%

of the entire basin.

58
 • 2K_
• 2K_

liM

"
o
iii:ii ~
~

'oroc>fb"

Legend

~'?
Legend E
Contour1m)
20
~
~~
,; --40
-Canal
~~ ~ 60
FlOOd Plain
<l'~~ - Lateotlc Lower Plateau
--eo
- Old Coastal Plain 100
_Valley --120
Young Coastal Pla,n 140
- Akkulam-Vell Lake --160
C=:J PanchayaVCorporation - - Drainage
,.....""
17'0'0"£
70'5O'O'"E
7O'55'O"E

Figure 3.11 Geomorphology Map

of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin Figure 3.12 Contour Map
of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

59
The coastal plain is any flat, low-lying geographical region that is situated near the sea.

It consists of sandy plain with alternating ridges and swales and a narrow modern

beach (ENVIS, 2008). The modern beach is also termed as young coastal plain. The

coastal plain is utilized for human settlement and mixed crops.

Table 3.10 Geomorphologic Units of the Akkulam- Veli Lake Basin

(Source: Land Use Board, Kerala)

2
Units Origin Area (km ) Area in %

Young Coastal Plain 20.23 14.06

Marine
Old Coastal Plain (with unconsolidated 14.79 10.27
material! Lateritic)
Valley floor with associated flood plain and
20.75 14.42
stream terrace/ Lowland
Fluvial
Flood plain 0.08 0.06

Laterite lower plateau - 86.85 60.35

Akkulam-Veli lake - 0.76 0.53

Canal - 0.44 0.3

k. Contour and Slope

The TS Canal basin and the Amayizhanchan basin are having contour less than

20m basin (Figure 3.12). High contour lines of 120 m are situated on the upstream

portion of the Ulloor basin. Slope refers to the degree of inclination from the

horizontal of an element of ground surface. It is the degree of steepness of the land

surface.

In the Akkulam-Veli Lake, four categories of slopes are recognized in the

present study based on the degree of steepness (Table 3.11 and 3.12 and Figure 3.13).

They are level gentle (0-5%), moderately sloping (5-15%), strongly sloping (15-35%),

and moderately steep to steep slope (35-70%).

60
 • • 1~

• • 1~

--

'._do '-.

Legend
Elevatlon(m)
<~
~11 e _
-
144.444-160
128.889 - 144.444
+U'
~~ 1-
/~ - 113.333 - 128.889 ~o
1- _ 97.778 - 113.333 ~~
Legend U'~ 82.222 - 97.778 ~A)
Slope Clltegory, Slope(%) ~
_ 66.667 - 82.222 U'~
level to genUe, 0-5 _ 51.111 - 66.667 ~
Moderately sloping, 5-15
_ 35.556-51.111
- Moderately steep to steep sloping, 15-35
_ Strongly sloping, 35-70 20 - 35.556
- - Drainage - - Drainage

70"!5aO"E 70"55'O"E

Figure 3.13 Slope Map of the Figure 3.14 Digital Elevation Model of the
Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

61
 Table 3.11 Distribution of Slope of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

Distribution of slope Kannamoola TS Canal Kulathur basin(sq.km)

Level to gentle (0-5%) 26.79{18.7%) 25.05{17.5%) 26.29{18.4%)

Moderate sloping{5-15%) 22.05{15.4%) 0 23.74{16.6%)

Strongly sloping (15-35%) 11.39{8%) 0 7.12{0.05%)

Moderate steep to steep sloping 0.57{0.4%) 0 0.12{0.08%)

Table 3.12 Distribution of Slope in Sub-basins of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

Sub-basin Slope Slope category Area (sq.km) Area (%)

0-5% Level gentle 7.52 85.52

Arnayizhanchan Basin
5-15% Moderately sloping 1.19 13.48

15-35% Strongly sloping 0.09 1.00

Total 8.80 100.00

0-5% Level gentle 26.29 45.90

Kulathur Basin 5-15% Moderately sloping 23.74 41.45

15-35% Strongly sloping 7.12 12.44

35-70% Moderately steep to steep slope 0.12 0.21

Total 57.26 100.00

0-5% Level gentle 4.34 53.42

Medical College Basin
5-15% Moderately sloping 3.11 38.30

15-35% Strongly sloping 0.67 8.27

Total 8.13 100.00

0-5% Level gentle 5.78 37.22

Pattorn Basin 5-15% Moderately sloping 8.65 55.69

15-35% Strongly sloping 1.09 7.03

35-70% Moderately steep to steep slope 0.01 0.07

Total 15.54 100.00

TS Canal Basin 0-5% Level gentle 25.05 100.00

Total 25.05 100.00

0-5% Level gentle 9.15 32.27

Ulloor Basin 5-15% Moderately sloping 9.10 32.10

15-35% Strongly sloping 9.54 33.65

35-70% Moderately steep to steep slope 0.56 1.98

Total 28.36 100.00

62
 In the AV lake basin, the category of slope is level gentle in 54.8% of the basin

area followed by 31.8% in the moderately sloping and 12.7% in the strongly sloping

category (Figure 3.13). The majority of the lake basin is level gentle. (Table 3.11 and

3.12).

Of the sub basin, the entire area in the TS canal basin, a major portion of the

Amayizhanachan basin and a half of the Medical College basin and Kulathur basin lie

in the level gentle area. A major portion of the Pattom basin lie in the category of

moderately sloping whereas that of the Kulathur basin lie in the category of strongly

sloping. In the lake basin, less than 9% of the entire lake basin has steep slope (slope

greater than 15%).

I. Digital Terrain Model (DTM)

Digital representation model gives a visual representation of earth's surface.

The elevated areas can be easily identified using a digital terrain model (DTM). Figure

3.14 gives the DTM of the Akkulam-Veli lake basin. It is revealed that elevated areas

are located in the upstream portion of the Ulloor stream. The TS Canal basin and the

Amayizhanchan basin are fully located in the low lying areas.

m. Land Use

Land use is an essential and the basic characteristics of a watershed that

affects the infiltration and other hydrological processes like water flow, runoff, and

soil erosion (Dar and Romshoo, 2007). Lakes are strongly linked to their basin through

the transport of materials carried by surface runoff and many studies have

demonstrated that land use composition can affect nutrient loading to lakes (Sorrano

et aL, 1996; Arbuckle and Downing, 2001; Jones et aL, 2004). Developed lands

(residential, commercial or industrial) increase the abundance of impervious surface in

a watershed, which promotes excessive runoff and reduces the potential nutrient

attenuation in the area (Sorrano et aL, 1996 and Carpenter et aL, 1998).

63
 Area under Various Land use in 2008

35

30

25
E
.>0; 20
0-
en
c:
.;;; 15
~
oct
10

0-1--......

Land use
• Kannarroola • TS Canal. Kulathur basin(sq.km)
·Settlement with mixed tree crop

Figure 3.15 Land Use in the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

Table 3.13 Land Use Category of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin (Period: 2008)

land use category Kannamoola TS Canal Kulathur

Commercial 9.1325 5.1135 0.2591

Mixed built-up 10.4376 0.4914 3.8658

Residential area 2.1734 3.3212 2.4636

Reclaimed area 3.4226 0.4447

Land without scrub 0.4285

Land with scrub 0.1957

Rubber 1.0452

Settlement with mixed crop 32.9858

Double crop 0.7483 0.0048 0.6758

Reclaimed area 3.4226 0.4447

Coastal sand - 5.6466 0.0044

River/waterbody 0.1744 0.3434 0.3242

64
 2Kmo
, •
·~~~)I I
2 2Kmo

- -
..-... l2ttII - 01..".

......
\l<m'l
oe
:::
000
~-
C."...... 5
lUI
3ll<
1000
'43 0118
o:z 0,
043 OJO
002 00'

-!!!..--
oeo '0,"
mktd ... CftlD III eo

,- ~i 1
112<'
387 211I
082

~!
057

\ {
T....
HII
ISO
282
10.11I
556
'04
'OIl
\ Kulathur Basin

Legend
<:.:>aslal aand
-Commercial
Peddy
Land with scrub
i '91\
11'~ ~
Land without lICrub
-M1nlngaraa ~
1-
- Mixed bUIM-up
Il'~
.,...". settlement with milled trell crop
11'
- Reclaimed aria
sendy beach
2 Legend
- ~Iomeraled lIenlementarea
3
- RlverlWalerbody No. of beds In hospitals
" -Rubber • >200
6 - Banen rocky/Slony wasle/Sheet rock
• 50-200
II Pumping station
711"55"1T'E
77'01TE 711WCTE
7II"55"CTE

Figure 3.16 Land Use Map of the

Figure 3.17 Hospitals in the
Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin
Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

65
 Table 3.14 Landuse(2008) of the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin

Sub-basins Landuse (2008) Area (Sq.km) Area (%) to the area of subbasin

Akkulam-Vell Lake 0.7623

Commercial 5.2060 59.19

Double crop 0.0628 0.71

Land without scrub 0.0124 0.14

Mixed bUilt-up 0.0027 0.03

Amaylzhanchan Basin
Settlement with mixed crop 3.1730 36.07

Reclaimed area 0.0008 0.01

Residential area 0.2455 2.79

River/Waterbody 0.0929 1.06

Total 8.7961 100.00

Coastal sand 0.0040 0.01

Commercial 0.2591 0.45

Double crop 0.6758 1.18

Mixed bUilt-up 3.8658 6.75

Kulathur Basin Settlement with mixed crop 46.5916 81.36

Reclaimed area 0.4447 0.78

Residential area 3.3212 5.80

River/Waterbody 0.3242 0.57

Rubber 1.7786 3.11

Total 57.2650 100.00

Commercial 0.0550 0.68

Double crop 0.0252 0.31

Land without scrub 0.4043 4.97

Mixed built-up 3.3079 40.70

Medical College Basin
Settlement with mixed crop 3.7255 45.83

Reclaimed area 0.1436 1.77

Residential area 0.4328 5.32

River/Waterbody 0.0338 0.42

Total 8.1281 100.00

Commercial 3.4440 22.17

Pattom Basin
Double crop 0.2461 1.58

66
 2.9057 18.70
Mixed built-up

Settlement with mixed crop 7.1040 45.72

Reclaimed area 1.0846 6.98

Residential area 0.7168 4.61

River/Waterbody 0.0360 0.23

Total 15.5372 100.00

Coastal sand 5.6466 22.54

Commercial 5.1135 20.41

Double crop 0.0048 0.02

Mixed built-up 0.4914 1.96

TS Canal Basin
Settlement with mixed crop 10.1655 40.58

Recreational area 0.8228 3.28

Residential area 2.4636 9.83

River/Waterbody 0.3434 1.37

Total 25.0516 100.00

Barren rocky/Stony 0.0641 0.23

Commercial 0.4275 1.51

Double crop 0.4142 1.46

Land with scrub 0.1957 0.69

Land without scrub 0.0118 0.04

Mining area 0.0159 0.06

Ulloor Basin
Mixed built-up 4.2213 14.88

Settment with mixed crop 18.9833 66.93

Reclaimed area 2.1936 7.73

Residential area 0.7783 2.74

River/waterbody 0.0117 0.04

Rubber 1.0452 3.69

Total 28.3625 100.00

Sewage inputs can also be a key source of phosphorus in developed area

(Muscutt and Withers} 1996). The land use type} built-up land is a critical source of

fecal indicator organisms in the Ribble drainage basin in U.K. (Kay et al.} 200S).The

reclamation of paddy fields leads to flooding rainy season and cause lowering of water

67
table in the area. The reduction in paddy fields leads to the reduction of infiltration

area and the increase in runoff through the soil (Kannan et aI., 2003). The nitrogen

content in surface runoff from the agricultural field is more when compared with

residential area (Poudel et aI., 2010).

In the AV lake basin, settlement with mixed tree crop (62.4%), mixed built up

(10.3%) and commercial areas (10.1%) are the predominant land use (Table 3.13 and

3.14 and Figure 3.15 and 3.16). In the Amayizhanchan basin, commercial use (59%) is

the predominant use, followed by settlement with mixed tree crop (36.1%). In the

Medical College basin, settlement with mixed tree crop (45.8%) and mixed built-up

(40.7%) are the predominant uses. In the Pattom basin, settlement with mixed tree

crop (45.7%) is the predominant land use followed by commercial use (22.2%).

Settlement with mixed tree crop is the predominant activity in the Ulloor basin (67%)

and Kulathur basin (81.4%).

3.3 SOURCES OF POLLUTION

a. Domestic Pollution

The degradation of lake water quality is mainly caused by the discharge of

sewage, sullage, and garbage into the water bodies. The generation, treatment and

disposal of these wastes in the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation area and

Panchayaths are discussed here.

Sewage

In the City, people mostly depend on piped water supply. About 80-85% of the

water consumed is returned to public drainage system as waste water as sullage and

sewage. Sewerage system was commissioned in 1945. The execution and

maintenance of sewerage schemes are vested with the Kerala Water Authority (KWA).

The details of the sewage generated as well as the existing sewerage scheme is given

in Table 3.15. The four lift up stations at Mudavanmugal, Arannoor, Thaliyal and

Sathamangalam discharge the sewage in to the main pumping station at Kuriyathi. A

fifth lift up station at the Medical college campus pumps the sewage into the main

pumping station at Kannammoola. The sewage from the main pumping stations

namely Kuriyathy, Pattoor, Eanchakkal and Kannammoola is pumped to the stilling

68
chamber at Valiyathura and is disposed thorugh sewage farming in a land of 80 acres.

The farm is maintained by the Dairy Development Department and is used for fodder

cultivation and the leachate is being discharged into the T. S. Canal. The pumping

stations and lift-up stations in the AV lake basin are given in Figure 3.16.

Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation presently comprises an area of

2
141.74 km of which about 30% is covered by piped sewerage system. The system

was designed in such a way that the overflow, i.e. excess sewage above the holding

capacity in the pumping stations due to pumping breakdown caused by power failure,

break down of pump sets etc., should reach the nearest canal/rivers. 30% of the city

area is only covered under the sewerage scheme. Now the population and the

number of houses in the City have increased many folds and the inflow into the

sewage pumping stations also has increased. The system has exceeded its designed

capacity resulting in the discharge of a large quantity of raw sewage as overflow into

the Karamana river through the Killiyar, the Akkulam-Veli lake through the

Amayizhanchan stream, the Thekkanankara Canal and the T. S. Canal.

A large quantity of rain/seepage enters the system during rainy season

although the sewerage scheme is designed for disposal of sewage and sullage.

Considerable quantity of sewage as overflow at many places such as through

manholes, sump wells in the pumping stations reaches the Akkulam-Veli lake through

the Amayizhanchan stream and the T. S. Canal due to the inadequacy of the existing

system and negligence of some of the pump operators.

Only some part of the total quantity of sewage reaches the sewage farm. The

sewage farm which is in use since 1940 can take care of a small quantity of sewage.

Hence no proper treatment facilities are provided for the disposal of sewage

generated in the Thiruvananthapuram city.

The houses situated on either sides of the Ulloor stream, Pattom stream and

the Amayizhanchan stream and T. S. Canal discharge waste water containing sewage

directly in to these streams. The streams discharge the wastes into the Akkulam lake

causing further degradation of water quality. No proper sanitation facility exists in this

area. Sewage disposal methods from the households in un-sewered areas of the

Corporation include septic tanks, borehole latrines and community toilets. There are

69
also many houses without any sanitation facilities. Moreover, slums are located on the

banks of the tributaries of the AV lake (Table 3.16). There is more chance for the

disposal of wastes from these slums into the streams.

Table 3.15 Generation of Sewage in the Thiruvananthapuram City

No. Particulars Unit Quantity

2
1. Area of the Thiruvananthapuram City· km 177.77
2. Population(2001 census)· No. 8,89,635

3. Quantity of water supplied to the cityO Mid 160

4. Total number of households· No. 2,07,460

5. Quantity of sewage generated in the City- Mid 128

2
6. Area of the City comes under the sewerage system km 27.01

7. Number of households under sewerage scheme of KWA No. 80000

8. Number of households under sewerage scheme in the AV lake basin No. 44100

8. Number of sewerage connections No. 68000

9. Population under sewerage scheme No. 343000

10. Quantity of sewage collected through sewerage connections Mid 50

• District Census Handbook, 2001
o Quantity of water required per head per day is assumed as 180 I.
- Quantity of sewage generated per head per day is assumed as 80% of average quantity
of water required per head per day

Garbage

Garbage is another source of pollution to the water bodies. Indiscriminate

disposal of garbage causes stagnation of water bodies thereby leading to emanation

of foul gases, breeding of mosquitoes, destruction of aquatic vegetation and animals,

and prevailing of unhealthy situation in the area.

70
 Table 3.16 Details of Slums
(Source - Corporation of Thiruvananthapuram)

No. Name sub- Name of Slum Area(ha) Total Population

basin

1. Amayizhanchan Chirakkulam colony 0.5 430

basin
Poundukulam colony 1.1 803

Rajajinagar colony

2. Pattom basin Ambedkar colony, Thekkumoodu 1.8 289

Barton Hill, Kunnukuzhy 5.16 1256

Kunnukuzy R. C. Street 1.3 1055

PIa mood thottuvarambu 0.4 204

Thekkumoodu bund colony 0.3 381

3. Ulloor basin Murinjapalam bund colony 0.06 107

Vayyamoola, Gowreesapattom 0.47 178

4. TS Canal basin Colony opposite to Airport 3 2454

Fishermen settlement from Veli to 10 4269

Shankumugam

Kannanthura colony 1.5 882

Karimadom colony 2.8 1815

I
Poonthura pamboor 0.61 1825

Priyadarsini nagar Airport 0.3 343

Sewage farm 0.5 890

Slum near Kuriyathi 0.08 75

St. Mary's colony near wireless station 44.52 1226

Uppidamoodu palam I & " 0.15 86

Vallakkadavu Puthen road milk colony 1.2 265

71
 In Thiruvananthapuram Corprotion, 266 t of garbage is generated daily. Of

which, 66 tid of garbage was disposed at source and the rest of 200 tid of garbage

was disposed in Municipal stream (Anonymous, 2005). The Corporation has now

provided facilities for the segregation, collection, transportation, and treatment of

garbage generated in the City. A manure factory was commissioned at Vilappilsala for

the treatment and disposal of garbage. But in the commercial areas and in the

settlements near the tributaries especially in the Amayizhanchan canal and the T. S.

Canal of the AV lake, a considerable amount of solid wastes is thrown into these

tributaries, causing its stagnation. In the panchayaths of Andoorkkonam,

Kazhakuttam, Sreekaryam, Pothenkode, Vembayam, Karakulam, and

Kudappanakkunnu, no facilities are provided for collection, treatment and disposal of

sewage and garbage. Here, septic tank, soak pit, borehole latrines, and community

toilets are provided for the disposal of sewage. No facilities are provided for the

collection, treatment, and disposal of garbage generated in these areas.

b. Hospitals

Hospitals are another source of pollution to water bodies. Biomedical wastes,

sewage, and garbage are the wastes generated from hospitals. Biomedical wastes

Include human anatomical wastes, animal wastes, discarded medicines, waste sharps,

liquid and solid wastes. In the Akkulam-Veli Lake basin, about 14 hospitals (having 200

or more beds) and 14 hospitals having 50 or more beds (Figure 3.17). The largest

among them is the Govt. Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram and the Shri. Avittam

Thirunal Hospital, Medical College compound. In the majority of the hospitals, sewage

Is discharged into the sewerage system maintained by the Kerala Water Authority. The

biomedical wastes are disposed to common biomedical waste disposal facility at

Palakkad and garbage is disposed to Thiruvananthapuram Corporation for its disposal

In the manure factory at Vilappilsala. The sewage treatment plant of KIMS hospital is

situated on the banks of the Kannamoola stream.

c. Industrial Pollution

The Veli industrial area is situated near the banks of the lake (Figure 3.18). The

factories of English Indian Clays and the Travancore Titanium Products Limited are the

major factories situated in the vicinity of the lake. The effluent from the factory of

72
Thiruvananthapuram Dairy, Ambalathara, reaches the T.S.Canal leading to the lake.

This factory has provided effluent treatment plant for treating the effluent. Table 3.17

gives the details of the major industries in the AV lake basin.

Table 3.17 large Scale Industries in AV lake Basin

No. Name Product Effluent treatment plant Final disposal

1 English Indian Clays Limited, Clay processing ETP 1 Clarifiers

Veli, Thiruvananthapuram (using chemicals)
Land for
percolation
ETP 2

Activated sludge process

plant

2 Bharath petroleum LPG filling plant Septic tank Land for

corporation ltd., LPG Filling percolation
Plant, Kazhakuttom P. O.
Thiruvananthapuram

3 Indian Oil Corporation, Petroleum products Septic tank

Thiruvananthapuram storage & transfer

4 Trivandrum International Airport Septic tank Land for

Airport, Airport Authroity of percolation
India, Thiruvananthapuram

5 Travancore Titanium Titanium dioxide No treatment Discharged

Products Limited, in to sea
Kochuvelii,
Thiruvananthapuram

d. Agricultural Pollution

The Akkulam-Veli lake basin lies in the low land and mid land. Coconut is the

main plantation in the low land regions. The other cultivation include rubber and

paddy. Chemicals like fertilizers and pesticides are being used for increased

agricultural production. Fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are

used as fertilizers. Carbofuran, Fenitrothion, Phosphamidon, Quinalphos, Phorate,

73
Methyl parathion, Malathion, BHC are the pesticides used for paddy cultivation. BHC,

Carbaryl, Aluminium phosphide, Malathion, Quinalphos are the pesticides used for

cultivation of coconut. Phorate, Aldrin and carbofuran are used for banana

cultivation.

3.4 POLLUTION POTENTIAL AREA OF THE LAKE BASIN

The characteristics of the lake basin is the main cause of pollution of a lake

system Hence the entire lake basin is classified into 'very high', 'high', 'moderate',

'low' and 'very low' zones based on its pollution potential. The principal sub criteria

that are used for identification of pollution potential area are lithology,

geomorphology, slope, land use and population density in the lake basin. Of several

methods available for determining interclass/inter-map dependency, a probability

weighted approach has been adopted that allows a linear combination of probability

weights of each thematic map (Wt) and different categories of derived thematic maps

have been assigned rank (Wi), depending upon their impact on pollution. The rank and

weights were assigned after consulting with experts in the field of geology,

geochemistry, environmental sciences, environmental engineering, and hydraulics.

Models were developed with the different rank and weight age prescribed by these

experts. Finally the feasible model was selected which has more than 90% accuracy

with the actual field conditions on the subsequent ground truth verification.

Weights and ranks assigned for analysis are given in Table 3.18. Spatial analyst

extension of Arc GIS 9.1 is used for converting the features to raster and also for final

analysis. The pollution potential map has been generated by the integration of

geomorphology, lithology, land use, soil, slope, and population density using GIS. The

total weights of the final integrated map were derived as sum of product of the

weights assigned to the different layers according to the impacts. Pollution potential

zones are delineated 'very high', 'high', 'moderate', 'low' and 'very low'. The

weightage for each pollution potential zone is consolidated in Table 3.19. Thus the

highly potential area can be clearly identified using GIS.

7-l
 - • 2ter.
• • 2Km1

i i

Atu l%l
26.87
45.20
26.23
1.17
0.53
100.00

!
!

_do
Legend
IndUstrlestype
• Large industries e
• Medium industries
Small industries
~
Micro industries Legend
IndustJles
SUb Basin Pollution Intensity
urgo Medium 19monl Micro 1Total
Amavizh8nd"l1rl Saln o - Very high
11 ~I <161 S1
Kutathur Basin
01 31 111 1S
_High
Medical Colleo. Bason o 01 21 121 1~ -Moderate
Pdom Basin
11 71 181 28
T S Conal BaSIn low
3131 191 ZT
Ullocr Basin
31 1~1 17
Total - Akkulam-Veli Lake
221 1201 150
78'5O'1TE - - Stream/River
78"S5'O"E
78'SSO"E
n"O'O"E
Figure 3.18 Industries in the Akku/am-Ve/i lake Basin
Figure 3.19 Pollution Potential Map of the
Akku/am-Veli lake basin

75
 Table 3.18 Weightage and Rank for the Lake Basin Characteristics

No. Laver Class R Weightage Index

1. Geomorphology Canal 4 15 60
Flood Dlain 4 60
Old coastal Dlain 3 45
Young coastal nlain 3 45
Vallev 2 30
Lateritic lower Dlateau 1 15
2. Lithology Coastal sand alluvium 3 5 15
Sand stone and c1av 2 10
Garnetiferous biotite 1 5
Garnet-biotite lmeiss with migmatite 1 5
Charnakite 1 5
3. Landuse Agglomerated settlement area 4 20 80
Commercial 4 80
Mininll area 4 80
Sandv beach 4 80
River/watpr bodv 4 80
Coastal sand 3 60
Mixed built-uD 3 60
Paddv 2 40
Reclaimed area 2 40
Settlement with mixed tree crOD 2 40
Barren rockv/stonv waste/sheet rock 1 20
Land with scrub 1 20
Land without scrub 1 20
4. Soil Settlement 4 15 60
Clav with verv 2entle and imDerfectlv drained 3 45
GravPllv clav with gentle and well drained 2 30
Sandv with verv llentle and excessiveIv drained 2 30
Gravellv c1av with moderateIv steeD and well drained 1 15
5. Slope Leveillentle /0-5) 4 15 60
Moderatelv sloDinl! /5-15) 3 45
Stronglv sloDing /15-35) 2 30
Modpratelv steeD to steeD sloDe /35-70) 1 15
6. Population >4000 4 30 120
density 2000-4000 3 90
1500-2000 2 60
<1500 1 30

76
 Table 3.19 Weightage for each Pollution Potential Zone

Pollution Potential Zone Weightage

Very hi~h >300
Hi~h 225-300
Moderate 150-225
Low 75-150
Very low <75

In general. in the AV lake basin, 26.87% of the total area comes under 'very

high' pollution potential zone, 45.2% comes under 'high' pollution potential zone,

26.23% comes under 'moderate' and the rest of 1.17% under low pollution potential

area. This shows that around 72% of the lake basin comes under 'very high' and 'high'

pollution category zones.

The pollution potential map (Figure 3.19) indicates that out of the total basin

area (Table 3.20), 'very high' polluted zone exists in 8.37% in the Kannamoola basin,

16.14% in the T. 5. Canal basin, and 1.35% in the Kulathur basin. 'High' polluted zone

exists in 23.68% in the Kannamoola basin, 1.32% in the T.5. Canal basin and 20.82% in

the Kulathur basin and the 'Moderate' polluted zone exists in 9.62% in the

Kannamoola basin and 16.98% in the Kulathur basin and 'Low' polluted zone lies in

0.54% in the Kannamoola basin and 0.65% in the Kulathur basin.

Entire area of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation in the lake basin lies in 'very

high' and 'high'pollution potential zone (Figure 3.20). 'Very high' pollution zone does

not exist in the panchayath areas. 'High 'pollution potential zone exists in the

Sreekariyam, Kazhakuttom and Andoorkonam Panchayath.

Figure 3.21 shows the percentage of the lake sub-basin area in the 'very high'

pollution potential zone of the AV lake basin. Of the 'very high' pollution potential

zone, 63% lies in the T.S. Canal basin; 20% lies in the Amayizhanchan basin, 6% in the

Pattom basin, 5% each in the Kulathur and Medical College basin, and 1% in the Ulloor

basin. Figure 3.22 shows the percentage of the lake sub-basin area in the 'high'

pollution potential zone of the AV lake basin. Of the 'high' pollution potential zone,

77
45% lies in the Kulathur basin; 20% lies in the Ulloor basin, 20% in the Pattom basin;

10% in the Medical college basin and 3% in the TS Canal basin and 2% in the

Amayizhanchan basin. Of the 'moderate' pollution potential zone (Figure 3.23), 64%

lies in the Kulathur basin and 36% in the Ulloor basin. Of the 'Low pollution potential

zone', 55% lies in the Kulathur basin and 45% in the Ulloor basin (Figure 3.24).

A major portion of the T. S. Canal basin and the Amayizhanchan basin lies in the

category of 'very' high pollution potential zone. A major portion of the Kulathur basin

and the Ulloor basin are least polluted. Hence more thrust is to be given for the

abatement of pollution in the T. S. Canal basin and the Amayizhanchan basin.

Almost the entire T. S. Canal basin and a major portion of the Amayizhanchan

basin exist as 'very high' pollution potential zone. This includes almost the entire

Thiruvananthapuram Corporation. High population density, predominant commercial

use and settlement with mixed tree crop, level and gentle slope (low slope) are the

factors that are responsible for high pollution potential. The Amayizhanchan canal,

after passing through the highly polluted area (Thiruvananthapuram Corporation)

joins the Kannamoola stream. This stream joins the Akkulam-Veli lake in its upstream

portion causing deterioration of water quality. T. S. Canal also passes through the

highly polluted area before joining the upstream portion of the Veli lake. Water

quality in the entire AV lake is deteriorated during all seasons. Priority shall be given

for the control of pollution in the T. S. Canal basin and the Amayizhanchan basin. Then

only the water quality in the Akkulam lake can be improved.

78
 Table 3.20 Pollution Potential of the AV Lake Basin

Area Total
2
Pollution Intensity Basin type Area (km ) Area (%) (%) area

Amayizhanchan Basin Kannamoola 7.42 5.16

Basin
Medical College Basin 1.78 1.24
8.37
Pattom Basin 2.29 1.59
Very High Polluted Zone 25.86
Ulloor Basin 0.55 0.38

TS Canal Basin TS Canal Basin 23.22 16.14 16.14

Kulathur Basin Kulathur Basin 1.94 1.35 1.35

Amayizhanchan Basin Kannamoola 1.37 0.95

Basin
Medical College Basin 6.33 4.4
23.68
Pattom Basin 13.07 9.08
High Polluted Zone 45.82
Ulloor Basin 13.32 9.25

TS Canal Basin TS Canal Basin 1.91 1.32 1.32

Kulathur Basin Kulathur Basin 29.96 20.82 20.82

Amayizhanchan Basin Kannamoola 0 0

Basin
Medical College Basin 0.02 0.01
9.62
Pattom Basin 0.12 0.08 26.6
Moderately Polluted
Zone
Ulloor Basin 13.72 9.53

TS Canal Basin TS Canal Basin 0 0 0

Kulathur Basin Kulathur Basin 24.43 16.98 16.98

Kannamoola 0.54
1.2
Ulloor Basin Basin 0.78 0.54
Low Polluted Zone

Kulathur Basin Kulathur Basin 0.93 0.65 0.65

Akkulam - Veli 0.76 0.53 0.53 0.53

Total 143.90 100.00 100

79
30

I Very high
I High

II Moderate
Low
I

Figure 3.20 Local body-wise of classification of pollution potential area

80
 2%

5%

• Armyizhanchan
,_ Arreyizhanchan 20% a~
_Me 45%
5%
• Pattorn
_ Pattom bas"
o Uloor
6%
I 0 lJIoor bas"
_ TS canal basin .T8
_ Ku\athur basin o Kulathur

3%

Figure 3.21 Very high Polluted Potential Zone Figure 3.22 High Polluted Potential Zone
in the Akkulam-Veli Lake Basin in the Akkulam-Veli lake Basin

0%

• Arreyizhanchan
.M::
o Pattorn 45%

Iii! Uloor 55%

.T5
o Kulathur

Figure 3.23 Moderate Polluted Potential Zone Figure 3.24 Low Polluted Potential Zone
of the AV lake Basin of the AV lake Basin 81
3.5 SUMMARY

The influence of biophysical, climatological and demographic factors in the

Akkulam-Veli lake (AV lake) have been studied in detail. The pollution sources in the

lake basin has been ascertained. Based on the basin characteristics namely lithology,

geomorphology, slope, land use and population density in the Akkulam-Veli lake basin,

pollution potential area in the basin has been identified. The major findings are

summarized as follows:

1. The AV lake is a shore perpendicular lake with a surface area of 0.76 km 2 . As the

surface area is small, smaller waves are generated during windy condition and

the resuspension of sediments due to wind action is not prominent. The wind

induced wave action in the Akkulam lake may be comparatively more than that in

the Veli lake since the maximum length of the former is high. But the large beds

of aquatic plants restrict the formation of wave and cause the accumulation of

fine particles in shallow areas in Akkulam lake.

2. The AV lake is a shallow lake (mean depth=0.9m). The mean depth of the Akkulam

lake is 0.55 m, whereas that of Veli lake is 1.3m. The bund separating these two

lakes is causing obstruction to the flow from the Akkulam to the Veli lake and

there by leading to siltation in the Akkulam lake.

3. The dilution capacity of the lake is generally low due to the small lake area.

However, the Veli part of the lake has more dilution capacity compared to the

Akkulam part due to the comparatively high volume of water in VeiL

4. For the AV lake, the shoreline length is 7 km and the shoreline development is

2.3, implying that the interface between the lake and the surrounding land is

more. Hence the buffer zone around the lake shall be notified and steps shall be

taken for shoreline planting to prevent soil erosion. The low index of basin

permanence of 0.05 indicates that rooted aquatic plants are dominated in the

lake system.

2
5. The low surface area (0.76 km ) and mean depth (0.9m) of the AV lake and the

high ratio of area of lake basin to the area of lake (189:1) indicating that the lake

82
 has no natural buffering potential and the land use in the watershed causes

significant changes in the water quality of the lake.

6. As the majority of the AV lake basin lies in the low land and mid land J weathering

of rocks has no significant role on water quality.

7. The AV basin and its environs enjoy a tropical humid climate with an annual

rainfall of 1823 mm (Period 2008-09). The season-wise distribution of rainfall

shows maximum during monsoon (739mm), followed by postmonsoon(673mm)

and premonsoon (410mm). The season-wise average temperature is maximum

during premonsoon (28.2°C), followed by monsoon (27.3°C), and postmonsoon

(27°C). The annual seasonal average is 27.5°C. The prevailing wind is NW wind.

Wind speed is high during and before the monsoon rains. The average humidity is

maximum during monsoon and minimum during postmonsoon.

8. The major streams that drain into AV lake include Kannamoola and Kulathur

streams and these have many tributaries. The AV lake basin consists of

Kannamoola basin (43.27%), T. S. Canal basin (17.41%) and Kulathur basin

(39.79%). Kannamoola basin consists of the Amayizhanchan basin (6.11%),

Pattom basin (10.8%), Ulloor basin (19.71%), and Medical College basin (5.65%).

The Amzyizhanchan basin covers the commercial/agglomerated settlement area

of the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation and the sewage and garbage from this

basin has made the Amayizhanchan canal a dirty gutter. T. S. Canal basin covers

the thickly populated areas of the Thiruvananthapuram city and is polluted due to

improper sanitation facilities in the area. A major portion of the Kulathur basin

lies in the rural area.

9. The lithological framework of AV lake basin consists of garnetiferous biotite

(60.53%) followed by coastal sand and alluvium (28.05%), sandstone and clay

(5.53%), garnet-biotite gneiss with migmatite (4.64%), and charnakite (0.72%).

The entire area of the T.S. Canal basin consists of coastal sand and alluvium.

About 60% of the Kannamoola basin and Kulathur basin is covered by

garnetiferous biotite. Hence the runoff is more in this area causing the escape of a

major quantity of wastes from this area.

83
10. A major portion of the AV lake basin consists of gravelly clay of gentle slope and

well drained soil (68.49%) followed by settlement area (12.3%).

11. Geomorphologically, the AV lake basin is covered dominantly by laterite lower

plateau (60.35%) followed by valleys (14.42%), young coastal plain (14.06%), old

coastal plain (10.27%), and flood plain (0.6%). This causes the escape of wastes

from the lateritic region when compared with that of the other geomorphic

features

12. The TS canal basin and the Amayizhanchan basin are having contour less than

20m. The maximum contour lines of 120 m are located on the upstream portion

of the Ulloor basin. The elevated area of the basin is situated on the upstream

portion of the Ulloor stream. The entire area of the TS Canal basin and the

Amayizhanchan basin lies under low lying area.

13. About 54.83% of the lake basin lies in the category of level gentle; 31.82% lies in

the category of moderately sloping, and 12.87% lies in the category of strongly

sloping. As the category of level gentle is more, the runoff is lesser in this area.

14. Settlement with mixed crop (62.4%), mixed built-up (10.3%) and commercial uses

(10%) are the predominant land use in the AV lake basin. As the settlement, built-

up and commercial area are more in the Kannamoola basin, the intensity of

domestic pollution is intense in this part of the basin.

15. The ab'sence of sewage treatment plant and the inadequate collection of sewage

from the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation are the main reason for the

degradation of water quality of the Amayizhanchan canal. The houses, flats,

hospitals, hotels and other establishments situated on either sides of the Ulloor

stream, Pattom stream, the Amayizhanchan canal and the T. S. Canal discharge

waste water containing sewage directly into these streams.

16. The disposal of garbage into the streams from the commercial areas and from the

settlements in the Thiruvananthapuram Corporation near the tributaries of the

AV lake, cause its stagnation.

17. The absence of sewage treatment plant causes the discharge of sewage from the

hospitals in the Medical College area through the Medical college channel in to

84
 the AV lake. The factory of the English Indian Clays is situated besides the lake.

During rains, there is chance of draining of clay from their plant and storage yard

situated close to the lake.

18. A major portion of the T. S. Canal basin and Amayizhanchan basin has 'very high

pollution potential' whereas a major portion of the Kulathur basin and Ulloor

basin has 'low pollution potential'. Action is to be taken for the control of

pollution from the Amayizhanchan basin and the TS Canal basin.

19. Entire lake basin area which falls under Thiruvananthapuram Corporation comes

under the category of 'very high' and 'high' pollution potential zones.

85