AEMx CH12

Chapter 12
Orthogonal Functions and Fourier Series
12.1 Orthogonal Functions
2
2
1 4
ˆ
2
1. xx dx = x = 0
−2 4
−2
1 1
1
1 1
ˆ
2. x3 (x2 + 1) dx = x6 + x4 = 0

−1 6 4
−1 −1
2 2 2
1 2
ˆ ˆ
x −x −x
3. e (xe −e ) dx = (x − 1) dx = x −x =0

0 0 2
0
π
π
1
ˆ
2 3
4. cos x sin x dx = sin x = 0
0 3
0
π/2 π/2
1 1
ˆ
5. x cos 2x dx = cos 2x + x sin 2x =0

2 2

−π/2
−π/2
5π/4 5π/4
1 x 1
ˆ
6. ex sin x dx = e sin x − ex cos x =0

2 2

π/4
π/4
7. For m 6= n
π/2
1 π/2
ˆ ˆ
sin(2n + 1)x sin(2m + 1)x dx = (cos 2(n − m)x − cos 2(n + m + 1)x) dx
0 2 0
π/2 π/2
1
= sin 2(n − m)x − sin 2(n + m + 1)x = 0.

4(n − m) 4(n + m + 1)
0 0
907
908 CHAPTER 12 ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS AND FOURIER SERIES
For m = n
π/2 π/2
1 1
ˆ ˆ
sin2 (2n + 1)x dx = − cos 2(2n + 1)x dx
0 0 2 2
π/2 π/2
1 1 π
= x − sin 2(2n + 1)x =

2 4(2n + 1) 4
0 0
so that
1√
k sin (2n + 1)xk = π.
2
8. For m 6= n
π/2
1 π/2
ˆ ˆ
cos (2n + 1)x cos (2m + 1)x dx = (cos 2(n − m)x + cos 2(n + m + 1)x) dx
0 2 0
π/2 π/2
1 1
= sin 2(n − m)x + sin 2(n + m + 1)x = 0.

4(n − m) 4(n + m + 1)
0 0
For m = n
π/2 π/2
1 1
ˆ ˆ
2
cos (2n + 1)x dx = + cos 2(2n + 1)x dx
0 0 2 2
π/2 π/2
1 1 π
= x + sin 2(2n + 1)x =

2 4(2n + 1) 4
0 0
so that
1√
k cos (2n + 1)xk = π.
2
9. For m 6= n
ˆ π
1 π
ˆ
sin nx sin mx dx = (cos(n − m)x − cos(n + m)x) dx
0 2 0
π π
1 1
= sin (n − m)x − sin (n + m)x = 0.

2(n − m) 2(n + m)
0 0
For m = n
π π
π π
1 1 1 1 π
ˆ ˆ
sin2 nx dx = − cos 2nx dx = x − sin 2nx =

0 0 2 2 2 4n 2
0 0
so that r
π
k sin nxk = .
2
12.1 Orthogonal Functions 909
10. For m 6= n
p p
nπ mπ 1 (n − m)π (n + m)π
ˆ ˆ
sin x sin x dx = cos x − cos x dx
0 p p 2 0 p p
p p
p (n − m)π p (n + m)π
= sin x − sin x = 0.
2(n − m)π p 2(n + m)π p
0 0
For m = n
p p
p p
nπ 1 1 2nπ 1 p 2nπ p
ˆ ˆ
2
sin x dx = − cos x dx = x − sin x =
0 p 0 2 2 p 2 4nπ p 2
0 0
so that
r
sin nπ x = p .

p 2
11. For m 6= n
p p
ˆ ˆ
cos x cos x dx = cos x + cos x dx
0 p p 2 0 p p
p p
p (n − m)π p (n + m)π
= sin x + sin x = 0.
2(n − m)π p 2(n + m)π p
0 0
For m = n
p p
p p
nπ 1 1 2nπ 1 p 2nπ p
ˆ ˆ
cos2 x dx = + cos x dx = x + sin x = .
0 p 0 2 2 p 2 4nπ p 2
0 0
Also p
p p
nπ p nπ
ˆ ˆ
1 · cos x dx = sin x = 0 and 12 dx = p
0 p nπ p 0
0
so that
r
√ cos nπ x = p .

k1k = p and p 2
12. For m 6= n, we use Problems 11 and 10:

p ˆ p
nπ mπ nπ mπ
ˆ
cos x cos x dx = 2 cos x cos x dx = 0
−p p p 0 p p
ˆ p ˆ p
nπ mπ nπ mπ
sin x sin x dx = 2 sin x sin x dx = 0.
−p p p 0 p p
Also
p p
ˆ ˆ
sin x cos x dx = sin x + sin x dx = 0,
−p p p 2 −p p p
p
p
nπ p nπ
ˆ
1 · cos x dx = sin x = 0,
−p p nπ p
−p
ˆ p p
nπ p nπ
1 · sin x dx = − cos x = 0,
−p p nπ p
−p
and p
p p
nπ nπ 1 2nπ − 2nπ
ˆ ˆ
sin x cos x dx = sin x dx = 4nπ cos x = 0.
−p p p −p 2 p p p
−p
For m = n
p p
nπ 1 1 2nπ
ˆ ˆ
cos2 x dx = + cos x dx = p,
−p p −p 2 2 p
p p
nπ 1 1 2nπ
ˆ ˆ
2
sin x dx = − cos x dx = p,
−p p −p 2 2 p
and ˆ p
12 dx = 2p
−p
so that
p nπ √ nπ √
k1k = 2p , cos x = p, and sin x = p.
p p
13. Since
ˆ ∞
2
e−x · 1 · 2x dx = 0, ←− integrand is an odd function
−∞
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
−x2 2 2
e · 1 · (4x − 2) dx = 2 e−x (4x2 − 2) dx ←− integrand is an even function
−∞ 0
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
−x2 2
=4 x 2xe dx − 4 e−x dx
0 0
∞ ˆ !
∞ ˆ ∞
−x 2 −x 2 2
= 4 −xe + e dx − 4 e−x dx

0 0
0
∞ ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
2

−x −x2 2
= −4xe + 4 e dx − 4 e−x dx = 0
0 0
0
and ˆ ∞
2
e−x · 2x · (4x2 − 2) dx = 0, ←− integrand is an odd function
−∞
the functions are orthogonal.
14. Since ∞ ˆ
ˆ ∞ ∞
e−x · 1(1 − x) dx = (x − 1)e−x − e−x dx = 0,

0 0
0
∞ ˆ
∞ ∞
1 2 1 2 −x
ˆ
e−x · 1 · x − 2x + 1 dx = 2x − 1 − x e + e−x (x − 2) dx
0 2 2 0
0
∞ ˆ
∞
= 1 + (2 − x)e−x + e−x dx = 0,

0
0
and
∞ ˆ ∞
1 2 1 3 5 2
ˆ
−x −x
e · (1 − x) x − 2x + 1 dx = e − x + x − 3x + 1 dx
0 2 0 2 2
∞ ˆ ∞

−x 1 3 5 2 −x 3 2
=e x − x + 3x − 1 + e − x + 5x − 3 dx

2 2 0 2
0
∞ ˆ ∞
3 2
= 1 + e−x x − 5x + 3 + e−x (5 − 3x) dx

2 0
0
∞ ˆ ∞

−x
= 1 − 3 + e (3x − 5) − 3 e−x dx = 0,

0
0
the functions are orthogonal.

´b ´b
15. By orthogonality a φ0 (x)φn (x)dx = 0 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; that is, a φn (x) dx = 0 for n = 1,
2, 3, . . . .
16. Using the facts that φ0 and φ1 are orthogonal to φn for n > 1, we have
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b
(αx + β)φn (x) dx = α xφn (x) dx + β 1 · φn (x) dx
a a a
ˆ b ˆ b
=α φ1 (x)φn (x) dx + β φ0 (x)φn (x) dx
a a
=α·0+β·0=0
for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
17. Using the fact that φn and φm are orthogonal for n 6= m we have
ˆ b ˆ b
2 2
2
φm (x) + 2φm (x)φn (x) + φ2n (x) dx

kφm (x) + φn (x)k = [φm (x) + φn (x)] dx =
a a
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b
= φ2m (x) dx + 2 φm (x)φn (x) dx + φ2n (x) dx
a a a
= kφm (x)k2 + kφn (x)k2 .

18. Setting
2 2
16 64
ˆ ˆ
x2 + c1 x3 + c2 x4 dx =

0= f3 (x)f1 (x) dx = + c2
−2 −2 3 5
and
2 2
64
ˆ ˆ
x3 + c1 x4 + c2 x5 dx = c1

0= f3 (x)f2 (x) dx =
−2 −2 5
we obtain c1 = 0 and c2 = −5/12.
19. Since sin nx is an odd function on [−π, π],

ˆ π
(1, sin nx) = sin nx dx = 0
−π
and f (x) = 1 is orthogonal to every member of {sin nx}. Thus {sin nx} is not complete.
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b
20. (f1 + f2 , f3 ) = [f1 (x) + f2 (x)]f3 (x) dx = f1 (x)f3 (x) dx + f2 (x)f3 (x) dx
a a a
= (f1 , f3 ) + (f2 , f3 )
21. The fundamental period is 2π/2π = 1.
22. The fundamental period is 2π/(4/L) = 12 πL.
23. The fundamental period of sin x + sin 2x is 2π.
24. The fundamental period of sin 2x + cos 4x is 2π/2 = π.
25. The fundamental period of sin 3x + cos 2x is 2π since the smallest integer multiples of 2π/3
and 2π/2 = π that are equal are 3 and 2, respectively.
26. The fundamental period of sin2 πx is 1 since
sin π(x + 1) = sin (πx + π) = sin πx cos π + cos πx sin π = − sin πx
sin2 π(x + 1) = (− sin πx)2 = sin2 πx.
Alternatively, we can also use teh trigonometric identity sin2 πx = 21 (1 − cos 2πx).
27. (a) Following the pattern established by φ1 (x) and φ2 (x) we have
(f3 , φ0 ) (f3 , φ1 ) (f3 , φ2 )

φ3 (x) = f3 (x) − φ0 (x) − φ1 (x) − φ2 (x).
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 ) (φ2 , φ2 )
(b) To show mutual orthogonality we compute (φ0 , φ1 ), (φ0 , φ2 ), and (φ1 , φ2 ) using properties
(i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) from this section in the text.

(f1 , φ0 ) (f1 , φ0 )
(φ0 , φ1 ) = φ0 , f1 − φ0 = (φ0 , f1 ) − (φ0 , φ0 ) = (φ0 , f1 ) − (f1 , φ0 ) = 0
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ0 , φ0 )

(f2 , φ0 ) (f2 , φ1 ) (f2 , φ0 ) (f2 , φ1 )
(φ0 , φ2 ) = φ0 , f2 − φ0 − φ1 = (φ0 , f2 ) − (φ0 , φ0 ) − (φ0 , φ1 )
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 ) (φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 )
= (φ0 , f2 ) − (f2 , φ0 ) − 0 = 0

(f2 , φ0 ) (f2 , φ1 ) (f2 , φ0 ) (f2 , φ1 )
(φ1 , φ2 ) = φ1 , f2 − φ0 − φ1 = (φ1 , f2 ) − (φ1 , φ0 ) − (φ1 , φ1 )
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 ) (φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 )
= (φ1 , f2 ) − 0 − (f2 , φ1 ) = 0.
28. (a) First we identify f0 (x) = 1, f1 (x) = x, f2 (x) = x2 , and f3 (x) = x3 . Then, we use the
formulas from Problem 22. First, we have φ0 (x) = f0 (x) = 1. Then
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
(f1 , φ0 ) = (x, 1) = x dx = 0 and (φ0 , φ0 ) = 1 dx = 2,
−1 −1
so
(f1 , φ0 ) 0
φ1 (x) = f1 (x) − φ0 (x) = x − (1) = 1.
(φ0 , φ0 ) 2
Next
1 1
2
ˆ ˆ
2
(f2 , φ0 ) = (x , 1) = 2
x dx = , (f2 , φ1 ) = (x2 , x) = x3 dx = 0,
−1 3 −1
ˆ 1
2
and (φ1 , φ1 ) = x2 dx = ,
−1 3
so
(f2 , φ0 ) (f2 , φ1 ) 2/3 0 1
φ2 (x) = f2 (x) − φ0 (x) − φ1 (x) = x2 − (1) − (x) = x2 − .
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 ) 2 2 3
Finally,
1 1
2
ˆ ˆ
3 3 3
(f3 , φ0 ) = (x , 1) = x dx = 0, (f3 , φ1 ) = (x , x) = x4 dx = ,
−1 −1 5
and 1
1 1
ˆ
3 2
(f3 , φ2 ) = x ,x − = x − x3
5
dx = 0,
3 −1 3
so
(f3 , φ0 ) (f3 , φ1 ) (f3 , φ2 )
φ3 (x) = f3 (x) − φ0 (x) − φ1 (x) − φ2 (x)
(φ0 , φ0 ) (φ1 , φ1 ) (φ2 , φ2 )
2/5 3
= x3 − 0 − (x) − 0 = x3 − x.
2/3 5
(b) Recall from Section 5.3 that the first four Legendre polynomials are
3
P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x, P2 (x) = 2 x2 − 21 , and P3 (x) = 5
2 x3 − 3
2 x. We then see
1 2 3
that φ0 (x) = P0 (x), φ1 (x) = P1 (x), φ2 (x) = x2 − 3 = 3(2 x2 − 21 ) = 2
3 P2 (x), and
3
φ3 (x) = x3 − 5 x = 52 ( 25 x3 − 3
2 x) = 2
5 P3 (x).
ˆ b ˆ b
29. (i): (f1 , f2 ) = f1 (x)f2 (x) dx = f2 (x)f1 (x) dx = (f2 , f1 ).
a a
ˆ b ˆ b
(ii): (kf1 , f2 ) = kf1 (x)f2 (x) dx = k f1 (x)f2 (x) dx = k(f1 , f2 ).
a a
ˆ b ˆ b
(iii): If f1 (x) = 0 then (f1 , f1 ) = 0 dx = 0; if f1 (x) 6= 0 then (f1 , f1 ) = [f1 (x)]2 dx > 0
a a
since [f1 (x)]2 > 0.
ˆ b ˆ b
(iv): (f1 + f2 , f3 ) = [f1 (x) + f2 (x)]f3 (x) dx = [f1 (x)f3 (x) + f2 (x)f3 (x)] dx.
a a
ˆ b ˆ b
= f1 (x)f3 (x) dx + f2 (x)f3 (x) dx = (f1 , f3 ) + (f2 , f3 )
a a
30. In R3 the set {i, j} is not complete since k is orthogonal to both i and j. The set {i, j, k} is
complete. To see this suppose that ai + bj + ck is orthogonal to i, j, and k. Then
0 = (ai + bj + ck, i) = a(i, i) + b(j, i) + c(k, i) = a(1) + b(0) + c(0) = a.
Similarly, b = 0 and c = 0. Thus, the only vector in R3 orthogonal to i, j, and k is 0, so

{i, j, k} is complete.
∞
X nπ nπ
31. The period of f (x) = A0 + An cos x + Bn sin x is 2p since
n=1
p p
∞
X nπ nπ
f (x + 2p) = A0 + An cos (x + 2p) + Bn sin (x + 2p)
p p
n=1
∞
X nπ nπ
= A0 + An cos x + 2nπ + Bn sin x + 2nπ
p p
n=1
∞
X nπ nπ
= A0 + An cos x + Bn sin x = f (x).
n=1
p p
12.2 Fourier Series 915
12.2 Fourier Series
π
1 1 π
ˆ ˆ
1. a0 = f (x) dx = 1 dx = 1
π −π π 0
1 π nπ 1 π
ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos x dx = cos nx dx = 0
π −π pi π 0
1 π nπ 1 π 1 1
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin x dx = sin nx dx = (1 − cos nπ) = [1 − (−1)n ]
π −π π π 0 nπ nπ
∞
1 1 X 1 − (−1)n
f (x) = + sin nx
2 π n
n=1
Converges to 12 at x = 0.
1 π 1 0 1 π
ˆ ˆ ˆ
2. a0 = f (x) dx = (−1) dx + 2 dx = 1
π −π π −π π 0
1 π 1 0 1 π
ˆ ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos nx dx = (− cos nx) dx + 2 cos nx dx = 0
π −π π −π π 0
1 π 1 0 1 π 3
ˆ ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = (− sin nx) dx + 2 sin nx dx = [1 − (−1)n ]
π −π π −π π 0 nπ
∞
1 3 X 1 − (−1)n
f (x) = + sin nx
2 π n
n=1
ˆ 1 ˆ 0 1
3
ˆ
3. a0 = f (x) dx = 1 dx + x dx =
−1 −1 0 2
1 0 1
1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos nπx dx = cos nπx dx + x cos nπx dx = [(−1)n − 1]
−1 −1 0 n2 π 2
1 0 1
1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nπx dx = sin nπx dx + x sin nπx dx = −
−1 −1 0 nπ
∞
(−1)n − 1

3 X 1
f (x) = + cos nπx − sin nπx
4 n2 π 2 nπ
n=1
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1
4. a0 = f (x) dx = x dx =
−1 0 2
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1
an = f (x) cos nπx dx = x cos nπx dx = [(−1)n − 1]
−1 0 n2 π 2
1 1
(−1)n+1
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nπx dx = x sin nπx dx =
−1 0 nπ
∞
1 X (−1)n − 1 (−1)n+1

f (x) = + cos nπx + sin nπx
4 n=1 n2 π 2 nπ
f is continous on the interval

1 π 1 π 2 1
ˆ ˆ
5. a0 = f (x) dx = x dx = π 2
π −π π 0 3
ˆ π ˆ π π ˆ π !
1 1 1 x2 2
an = f (x) cos nx dx = x2 cos nx dx = sin nx − x sin nx dx

π −π π 0 π π n 0
0
2(−1)n
=
n2
ˆ π π !
1 1 x2 2 π
ˆ
bn = x2 sin nx dx = − cos nx + x cos nx dx

π 0 π n n 0
0
π 2
= (−1)n+1 + 3 [(−1)n − 1]
n n π
∞
π 2 X 2(−1)n 2[(−1)n − 1]

π n+1
f (x) = + cos nx + (−1) + sin nx
6 n2 n n3 π
n=1
1 π 1 0 2 1 π 2 5
ˆ ˆ ˆ
π − x2 dx = π 2

6. a0 = f (x) dx = π dx +
π −π π −π π 0 3
1 π 1 0 2 1 π 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ
π − x2 cos nx dx

an = f (x) cos nx dx = π cos nx dx +
π −π π −π π 0
π !
1 π 2 − x2 2 π 2
ˆ
= sin nx + x sin nx dx = 2 (−1)n+1

π n n 0 n
0
ˆ π ˆ 0
1 1 1 π 2
ˆ
2
π − x2 sin nx dx

bn = f (x) sin nx dx = π sin nx dx +
π −π π −π π 0
π ˆ π !
π 1 x 2 − π2 2 π 2
= [(−1)n − 1] + cos nx − x cos nx dx = (−1)n + 3 [1 − (−1)n ]

n π n n 0 n n π
0
∞
5π 2 2[1 − (−1)n ]

X 2 π
f (x) = + (−1)n+1 cos nx + (−1)n + sin nx
6 n2 n n3 π
n=1

1 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
7. a0 = f (x) dx = (x + π) dx = 2π
π −π π −π
1 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos nx dx = (x + π) cos nx dx = 0
π −π π −π
1 π 2
ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = (−1)n+1
π −π n
∞
X 2
f (x) = π + (−1)n+1 sin nx
n=1
n
1 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
8. a0 = f (x) dx = (3 − 2x) dx = 6
π −π π −π
1 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos nx dx = (3 − 2x) cos nx dx = 0
π −π π −π
1 π 4
ˆ
bn = (3 − 2x) sin nx dx = (−1)n
π −π n
∞
X (−1)n
f (x) = 3 + 4 sin nx
n
n=1
1 π 1 π 2
ˆ ˆ
9. a0 = f (x) dx = sin x dx =
π −π π 0 π
ˆ π ˆ π ˆ π
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = sin x cos nx dx = (sin (1 + n)x + sin (1 − n)x) dx
π −π π 0 2π 0
1 + (−1)n
= forn = 2, 3, 4, . . .
π(1 − n2 )
ˆ π
1
a1 = sin 2x dx = 0
2π 0
1 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = sin x sin nx dx
π −π π 0
ˆ π
1
= (cos (1 − n)x − cos (1 + n)x) dx = 0 forn = 2, 3, 4, . . .
2π 0
ˆ π
1 1
b1 = (1 − cos 2x) dx =
2π 0 2
∞
1 1 X 1 + (−1)n
f (x) = + sin x + cos nx
π 2 n=2
π(1 − n2 )

π/2
2 2 π/2 2
ˆ ˆ
10. a0 = f (x) dx = cos x dx =
π −π/2 π 0 π
ˆ π/2 ˆ π/2
2 2
an = f (x) cos 2nx dx = cos x cos 2nx dx
π −π/2 π 0
π/2
1 2(−1)n+1
ˆ
= (cos (2n − 1)x + cos (2n + 1)x) dx =
π 0 π(4n2 − 1)
π/2 π/2
2 2
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin 2nx dx = cos x sin 2nx dx
π −π/2 π 0
π/2
1 4n
ˆ
= (sin (2n − 1)x + sin (2n + 1)x) dx =
π 0 π(4n2 − 1)
∞
1 X 2(−1)n+1

4n
f (x) = + cos 2nx + sin 2nx
π π(4n2 − 1) π(4n2 − 1)
n=1
1
2 ˆ 0 1
1 1 1
ˆ ˆ
11. a0 = f (x) dx = −2 dx + 1 dx =−
2 −2 2 −1 0 2
2 ˆ 0 1
1 nπ 1 nπ nπ 1 nπ
ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos x dx = (−2) cos x dx + cos x dx =− sin
2 −2 2 2 −1 2 0 2 nπ 2
2 ˆ 0 1
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin x dx = (−2) sin x dx + sin x dx = 1 − cos
2 −2 2 2 −1 2 0 2 nπ 2
∞
1 X 1 nπ nπ 3 nπ nπ
f (x) = − + − sin cos x+ 1 − cos sin x
4 nπ 2 2 nπ 2 2
n=1
Converges to −1 at x = −1, − 21 at x = 0, and 1

2 at x = 1.
2 ˆ 1 2
1 1 3
ˆ ˆ
12. a0 = f (x) dx = x dx + 1 dx =
2 −2 2 0 1 4
2 ˆ 1 2
ˆ ˆ
an = f (x) cos x dx = x cos x dx + cos x dx = cos − 1
2 −2 2 2 0 2 1 2 n2 π 2 2
2 ˆ 1 ˆ 2
1 nπ 1 nπ nπ
ˆ
bn = f (x) sin x dx = x sin x dx + sin x dx
2 −2 2 2 0 2 1 2
2 nπ nπ
= 2 2 sin + (−1)n+1
n π 2 2
∞
3 X 2 nπ nπ 2 nπ nπ n+1
nπ
f (x) = + cos − 1 cos x + sin + (−1) sin x
8 n2 π 2 2 2 n2 π 2 2 2 2
n=1

5 ˆ 0 ˆ 5
1 1 9
ˆ
13. a0 = f (x) dx = 1 dx + (1 + x) dx =
5 −5 5 −5 0 2
ˆ 5 ˆ 0 ˆ 5
1 nπ 1 nπ nπ
an = f (x) cos x dx = cos x dx + (1 + x) cos x dx
5 −5 5 5 −5 5 0 5
5
= [(−1)n − 1]
n2 π 2
5 ˆ 0 ˆ 5
1 nπ 1 nπ nπ 5
ˆ
bn = f (x) sin x dx = sin x dx + (1 + x) cos x dx = (−1)n+1
5 −5 5 5 −5 5 0 5 nπ
∞
9 X 5 n nπ 5 n+1 nπ
f (x) = + [(−1) − 1] cos x+ (−1) sin x
4 n2 π 2 5 nπ 5
n=1
1 2
ˆ 0 ˆ 2
1
ˆ
14. a0 = f (x) dx = (2 + x) dx + 2 dx = 3
2 −2 2 −2 0
1 2
ˆ 0 ˆ 2
nπ 1 nπ nπ 2
ˆ
an = f (x) cos x dx = (2 + x) cos x dx + 2 cos x dx = 2 2 [1 −
2 −2 2 2 −2 2 0 2 n π
n
(−1) ]
1 2
ˆ 0 ˆ 2
nπ 1 nπ nπ 2
ˆ
bn = f (x) sin x dx = (2 + x) sin x dx + 2 sin x dx = (−1)n+1
2 −2 2 2 −2 2 0 2 nπ
∞
3 X 2 n nπ 2 n+1 nπ
f (x) = + [1 − (−1) ] cos x+ (−1) sin x
2 n2 π 2 2 nπ 2
n=1
1 π 1 π x 1
ˆ ˆ
15. a0 = f (x) dx = e dx = (eπ − e−π )
π −π π −π π
ˆ π
1 (−1)n (eπ − e−π )
an = f (x) cos nx dx =
π −π π(1 + n2 )
ˆ π ˆ π
1 1 (−1)n n(e−π − eπ )
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = ex sin nx dx =
π −π π −π π(1 + n2 )
∞
eπ − e−π X (−1)n (eπ − e−π ) (−1)n n(e−π − eπ )

f (x) = + cos nx + sin nx
2π n=1
π(1 + n2 ) π(1 + n2 )
1 π 1 π x 1
ˆ ˆ
16. a0 = f (x) dx = (e − 1) dx = (eπ − π − 1)
π −π π 0 π
ˆ π ˆ π
1 1 [eπ (−1)n − 1]
an = f (x) cos nx dx = (ex − 1) cos nx dx =
π −π π 0 π(1 + n2 )
1 π 1 π x
ˆ ˆ
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = (e − 1) sin nx dx
π −π π 0
1 neπ (−1)n+1 (−1)n

n 1
= + + −
π 1 + n2 1 + n2 n n
∞
eπ − π − 1 X eπ (−1)n − 1
f (x) = + 2)
cos nx
2π n=1
π(1 + n
(−1)n − 1

n π
+ 2
e (−1)n+1 + 1 + sin nx
1+n n
17. y
x
-3 Π -2 Π -Π Π 2Π 3Π
18. y
x
-6 -4 -2 2 4
19. The function in Problem 5 is discontinuous at x = π, so the corresponding Fourier series
converges to π 2 /2 at x = π. That is,
∞
π2 π 2 X 2(−1)n 2[(−1)n − 1]

π n+1
= + cos nπ + (−1) + sin nπ
2 6 n=1
n2 n n3 π
∞ ∞
π 2 X 2(−1)n π2 X 2 π2

n 1 1
= + (−1) = + = + 2 1 + 2 + 2 + ···
6 n2 6 n2 6 2 3
n=1 n=1
and
π2 π2 π2

1 1 1
= − =1+ 2
+ 2 + ··· .
6 2 2 6 2 3
At x = 0 the series converges to 0 and
∞
π 2 X 2(−1)n π2

1 1 1
0= + = + 2 −1 + 2 − 2 + 2 − · · ·
6 n2 6 2 3 4
n=1
so
π2 1 1 1
= 1 − 2 + 2 − 2 + ··· .
12 2 3 4
20. From Problem 19
π2 π2 π2

1 1 2 2 1 1
= + = 2 + 2 + 2 + ··· =1+ + + ··· .
8 2 6 12 2 3 5 32 52
21. The function in Problem 7 is continuous at x = π/2 so

∞
3π π X 2 n+1 nπ 1 1 1
=f =π+ (−1) sin = π + 2 1 − + − + ···
2 2 n 2 3 5 7
n=1
and
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ··· .
4 3 5 7
12.3 Fourier Cosine and Sine Series 921
22. The function in Problem 9 is continuous at x = π/2 so

∞
π 1 1 X 1 + (−1)n nπ
1=f = + + 2
cos
2 π 2 π(1 − n ) 2
n=2
1 1 2 2 2
1= + + − + − ···
π 2 3π 3 · 5π 5 · 7π
and
π 2 2 2
π =1+ + − + − ···
2 3 3·5 5·7
or
π 1 1 1 1
= + − + − ··· .
4 2 1·3 3·5 5·7
23. Writing
a0 π nπ π nπ
f (x) = + a1 cos x + · · · + an cos x + · · · + b1 sin x + · · · + bn sin x + ···
2 p p p p
we see that f 2 (x) consists exclusively of squared terms of the form
a20 nπ nπ
, a2n cos2 x, b2n sin2 x
4 p p
and cross-product terms, with m 6= n, of the form

nπ nπ mπ nπ
a0 an cos x, a0 bn sin x, 2am an cos x cos x,
p p p p
mπ nπ mπ nπ
2am bn cos x sin x, 2bm bn sin x sin x.
p p p p
The integral of each cross-product term taken over the interval (−p, p) is zero by orthogonality.
For the squared terms we have
a20 p
ˆ p ˆ p
a2 p nπ nπ
ˆ
dx = 0 , a2n cos2 x dx = a2n p, b2n sin2 x dx = b2n p.
4 −p 2 −p p −p p
Thus v
u
u1 ∞
2 1X 2
RM S(f ) = t a + (a + b2n ) .
4 0 2 n=1 n
12.3 Fourier Cosine and Sine Series
1. Since f (−x) = sin (−3x) = − sin 3x = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.
2. Since f (−x) = −x cos (−x) = −x cos x = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.
3. Since f (−x) = (−x)2 − x = x2 − x, f (x) is neither even nor odd.

4. Since f (−x) = (−x)3 + 4x = −(x3 − 4x) = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.
5. Since f (−x) = e|−x| = e|x| = f (x), f (x) is an even function.
6. Since f (−x) = e−x − ex = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.
7. For 0 < x < 1, f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.
8. For 0 ≤ x < 2, f (−x) = −x + 5 = f (x), f (x) is an even function.
9. Since f (x) is not defined for x < 0, it is neither even nor odd.
10. Since f (−x) = (−x)5 = x5 = f (x), f (x) is an even function.

(
π, −1 < x < 0
11. Since f (x) = is an odd function, we have
−π, 0 ≤ x < 1
1
2 h cos nπx i1
ˆ
bn = (−π) sin nπx dx = 2π
1 0 nπ 0
2 2
= (cos nπ − 1) = [(−1)n − 1].
n n
Thus
∞
X (−1)n − 1
f (x) = 2 sin nπx.
n
n=1
12. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

ˆ 2
a0 = 1 dx = 1
1
2
nπ 2 nπ
ˆ
an = cos x dx = − sin .
1 2 nπ 2
Thus
∞
1 X −2 nπ nπ
f (x) = + sin cos x.
2 nπ 2 2
n=1
2 π
ˆ
a0 = x dx = π
π 0
2 π 2
ˆ
an = x cos nx dx = 2 [(−1)n − 1].
π 0 n π
Thus
∞
π X 2
f (x) = + [(−1)n − 1] cos nx.
2 n=1 n2 π
14. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

π
2 2
ˆ
bn = x sin nx dx = (−1)n+1 .
π 0 n
Thus
∞
X 2
f (x) = (−1)n+1 sin nx.
n
n=1

1
2
ˆ
a0 = 2 x2 dx =
0 3
 1 
1 2 ˆ 1
x 2 4
ˆ
an = 2 x2 cos nπx dx = 2  sin nπx − x sin nπx dx = 2 2 (−1)n .

0 nπ nπ 0 n π
0
Thus
∞
1 X 4
f (x) = + (−1)n cos nπx.
3 n2 π 2
n=1

 1 
1 ˆ 1
x22
ˆ
bn = 2 x2 sin nπx dx = 2 − cos nπx + x cos nπx dx

0 nπ nπ 0
0
2(−1)n+1 4
= + 3 3 [(−1)n − 1].
nπ n π
Thus
∞
2(−1)n+1

X 4 n
f (x) = + [(−1) − 1] sin nπx.
nπ n3 π 3
n=1

π
2 4
ˆ
a0 = (π 2 − x2 ) dx = π 2
π 0 3
π !
π
2 2 π 2 − x2 2 π 4
ˆ ˆ
2 2
an = (π − x ) cos nx dx = sin nx + x sin nx dx = 2 (−1)n+1 .

π 0 π n n 0 n
0
Thus
∞
2 X 4
f (x) = π 2 + (−1)n+1 cos nx dx.
3 n2
n=1

π !
π
2 2 x3 3 π 2
ˆ ˆ
3
bn = x sin nx dx = − cos nx + x cos nx dx

π 0 π n n 0
0
π
2π 2 12
ˆ
= (−1)n+1 − 2 x sin nx dx
n n π 0
π !
2π 2 12 x 1 π 2π 2 12
ˆ
= (−1)n+1 − 2 − cos nx + cos nx dx = (−1)n+1 + 3 (−1)n .

n n π n n 0 n n
0
Thus
∞
2π 2

X
n+1 12 n
f (x) = (−1) + 3 (−1) sin nx.
n n
n=1

π
2 2(π + 1) 2
ˆ
bn = (x + 1) sin nx dx = (−1)n+1 + .
π 0 nπ nπ
Thus
∞
X 2(π + 1) n+1 2
f (x) = (−1) + sin nx.
nπ nπ
n=1

ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1
bn = 2 (x − 1) sin nπx dx = 2 x sin nπx dx − sin nπx dx
0 0 0
1
1 x 1 2
= 2 2 2 sin nπx − cos nπx + cos nπx = − .
n π nπ nπ 0 nπ
Thus
∞
X 2
f (x) = − sin nπx.
n=1
nπ

1 2
3
ˆ ˆ
a0 = x dx + 1 dx =
0 1 2
1 2
nπ nπ 4 nπ
ˆ ˆ
an = x cos x dx + cos x dx = 2 2 cos −1 .
0 2 1 2 n π 2
Thus
∞
3 X 4 nπ nπ
f (x) = + 2 2
cos − 1 cos x.
4 n=1 n π 2 2

1 π
ˆ 2π
n n 4 nπ 2
ˆ
bn = x sin x dx + π sin x dx = 2 sin + (−1)n+1 .
π 0 2 π 2 n π 2 n
Thus
∞
X 4 nπ 2 n+1 n
f (x) = 2
sin + (−1) sin x.
n π 2 n 2
n=1

2 π 4
ˆ
a0 = sin x dx =
π 0 π
2 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
an = sin x cos nx dx = (sin (1 + n) x + sin (1 − n) x) dx
π 0 π 0
2
= (1 + (−1)n ) for n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
π(1 − n2 )
1 π
ˆ
a1 = sin 2x dx = 0.
π 0
Thus
∞
2 X 2[1 + (−1)n ]
f (x) = + cos nx.
π π(1 − n2 )
n=2
24. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series. [See the solution of Problem 10
in Exercises 12.2 for the computation of the integrals.]
ˆ π/2
2 4
a0 = cos x dx =
π/2 0 π
ˆ π/2
2 nπ 4(−1)n+1
an = cos x cos x dx =
π/2 0 π/2 π (4n2 − 1)
Thus
∞
2 X 4(−1)n+1
f (x) = + cos 2nx.
π π (4n2 − 1)
n=1
ˆ 1/2
25. a0 = 2 1 dx = 1
0
1/2
2 nπ
ˆ
an = 2 1 · cos nπx dx =
sin
0 nπ 2
ˆ 1/2
2 nπ
bn = 2 1 · sin nπx dx = 1 − cos
0 nπ 2
∞
1 X 2 nπ
f (x) = + sin cos nπx
2 nπ 2
n=1
∞
X 2 nπ
f (x) = 1 − cos sin nπx
n=1
nπ 2
ˆ 1
26. a0 = 2 1 dx = 1
1/2
1
2 nπ
ˆ
an = 2 1 · cos nπx dx = − sin
1/2 nπ 2
1
2 nπ
ˆ
bn = 2 1 · sin nπx dx = cos + (−1)n+1
1/2 nπ 2
∞
1 X 2 nπ
f (x) = + − sin cos nπx
2 nπ 2
n=1
∞
X 2 nπ
f (x) = cos + (−1)n+1 sin nπx
n=1
nπ 2
π/2
4 4
ˆ
27. a0 = cos x dx =
π 0 π
π/2 π/2
4 2 4(−1)n
ˆ ˆ
an = cos x cos 2nx dx = [cos (2n + 1)x + cos (2n − 1)x] dx =
π 0 π 0 π(1 − 4n2 )
π/2 π/2
4 2 8n
ˆ ˆ
bn = cos x sin 2nx dx = [sin (2n + 1)x + sin (2n − 1)x] dx =
π 0 π 0 π(4n2 − 1)
∞
2 4(−1)nX
f (x) = + cos 2nx
π n=1 π(1 − 4n2 )
∞
X 8n
f (x) = sin 2nx
π(4n2 − 1)
n=1
π
2 4
ˆ
28. a0 = sin x dx =
π 0 π
π π
2 1
ˆ ˆ
an = sin x cos nx dx = [sin (n + 1)x − sin (n − 1)x] dx
π 0 π 0
2[(−1)n + 1]
= for n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
π(1 − n2 )
2 π 1 π
ˆ ˆ
bn = sin x sin nx dx = [cos (n − 1)x − cos (n + 1)x] dx = 0 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
π 0 π 0
1 π
ˆ
a1 = sin 2x dx = 0
π 0
2 π 2
ˆ
b1 = sin x dx = 1
π 0
f (x) = sin x
∞
2 2 X (−1)n + 1
f (x) = + cos nx
π π n=2 1 − n2
!
π/2 π
2 π
ˆ ˆ
29. a0 = x dx + (π − x) dx =
π 0 π/2 2
!
π/2 π
2 2 nπ
ˆ ˆ
n+1
an = x cos nx dx + (π − x) cos nx dx = 2 cos + (−1) − 1
π 0 π/2 n2 π 2
!
π/2 π
2 4 nπ
ˆ ˆ
bn = x sin nx dx + (π − x) sin nx dx = 2
sin
π 0 π/2 n π 2
∞
π X 2 nπ n+1

f (x) = + 2 cos + (−1) − 1 cos nx
4 n2 π 2
n=1
∞
X 4 nπ
f (x) = 2
sin sin nx
n=1
n π 2
2π
1 π
ˆ
30. a0 = (x − π) dx =
π π 2
2π
1 n 4 nπ
ˆ
an = (x − π) cos x dx = 2 (−1)n − cos
π π 2 n π 2
2π
1 n 2 4 nπ
ˆ
bn = (x − π) sin x dx = (−1)n+1 − 2 sin
π π 2 n n π 2
∞
π X 4 n nπ n
f (x) = + 2
(−1) − cos cos x
4 n π 2 2
n=1
∞
X 2 n+1 4 nπ n
f (x) = (−1) − 2 sin sin x
n=1
n n π 2 2
1 2
3
ˆ ˆ
31. a0 = x dx + 1 dx =
0 1 2
1
nπ 4 nπ
ˆ
an = x cos x dx = 2 2 cos −1
0 2 n π 2
1 2
nπ nπ 4 nπ 2
ˆ ˆ
bn = x sin x dx + 1 · sin x dx = 2 2 sin + (−1)n+1
0 2 1 2 n π 2 nπ
∞
3 X 4 nπ nπ
f (x) = + 2 2
cos − 1 cos x
4 n π 2 2
n=1
∞
X 4 nπ 2 n+1 nπ
f (x) = 2 2
sin + (−1) sin x
n=1
n π 2 nπ 2
1 2
3
ˆ ˆ
32. a0 = 1 dx + (2 − x) dx =
0 1 2
1 2
nπ nπ 4 nπ
ˆ ˆ
an = 1 · cos x dx + (2 − x) cos x dx = 2 2 cos + (−1)n+1
0 2 1 2 n π 2
1 2
nπ nπ 2 4 nπ
ˆ ˆ
bn = 1 · sin x dx + (2 − x) sin x dx = + 2 2 sin
0 2 1 2 nπ n π 2
∞
3 X 4 nπ n+1
nπ
f (x) = + 2 2
cos + (−1) cos x
4 n π 2 2
n=1
∞
X 2 4 nπ nπ
f (x) = + 2 2 sin sin x
nπ n π 2 2
n=1
1
5
ˆ
33. a0 = 2 (x2 + x) dx =
0 3
1
1 2 + x) ˆ 1
2(x 2
ˆ
2
an = 2 (x + x) cos nπx dx = sin nπx − (2x + 1) sin nπx dx

0 nπ nπ 0
0
2
= [3(−1)n − 1]
n2 π 2
ˆ 1 1 ˆ 1
2(x 2 + x) 2
2
bn = 2 (x + x) sin nπx dx = − cos nπx + (2x + 1) cos nπx dx

0 nπ nπ 0
0
4 4
= (−1)n+1 + 3 3 [(−1)n − 1]
nπ n π
∞
5 X 2
f (x) = + [3(−1)n − 1] cos nπx
6 n=1 n2 π 2
∞
X 4 n+1 4 n
f (x) = (−1) + 3 3 [(−1) − 1] sin nπx
n=1
nπ n π
2
4
ˆ
34. a0 = (2x − x2 ) dx =
0 3
2
nπ 8
ˆ
an = (2x − x2 ) cos x dx = 2 2 [(−1)n+1 − 1]
0 2 n π
2
nπ 16
ˆ
bn = (2x − x2 ) sin x dx = 3 3 [1 − (−1)n ]
0 2 n π
∞
2 X 8 nπ
f (x) = + 2 2
[(−1)n+1 − 1] cos x
3 n π 2
n=1
∞
X 16 nπ
f (x) = 3 3
[1 − (−1)n ] sin x
n=1
n π 2
2π
1 8
ˆ
35. a0 = x2 dx = π 2
π 0 3
2π
1 4
ˆ
an = x2 cos nx dx =
π 0 n2
2π
1 4π
ˆ
bn = x2 sin nx dx = −
π 0 n
∞
4 2 X 4 4π
f (x) = π + cos nx − sin nx
3 n=1
n2 n
π
2
ˆ
36. a0 = x dx = π
π 0
π
2
ˆ
an = x cos 2nx dx = 0
π 0
π
2 1
ˆ
bn = x sin 2nx dx = −
π 0 n
∞
π X1
f (x) = − sin 2nx
2 n
n=1
ˆ 1
37. a0 = 2 (x + 1) dx = 3
0
ˆ 1
an = 2 (x + 1) cos 2nπx dx = 0
0
1
1
ˆ
bn = 2 (x + 1) sin 2nπx dx = −
0 nπ
∞
3 X 1
f (x) = − sin 2nπx
2 n=1 nπ
2
2
ˆ
38. a0 = (2 − x) dx = 2
2 0
2
2
ˆ
an = (2 − x) cos nπx dx = 0
2 0
2
2 2
ˆ
bn = (2 − x) sin nπx dx =
2 0 nπ
∞
X 2
f (x) = 1 + sin nπx
n=1
nπ
39. The periodic extensions for the cosine, sine, and Fourier series are shown below:
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
–3L –2L –L L 2L 3L
43. We have π
2 10
ˆ
bn = 5 sin nt dt = [1 − (−1)n ]
π 0 nπ
so that
∞
X 10[1 − (−1)n ]
f (t) = sin nt.
n=1
nπ
P∞
Substituting the assumption xp (t) = n=1 Bn sin nt into the differential equation then gives
∞ ∞
X X 10[1 − (−1)n ]
x′′p + 10xp = Bn (10 − n ) sin nt = 2
sin nt
nπ
n=1 n=1
and so Bn = 10[1 − (−1)n ]/nπ(10 − n2 ). Thus

∞
10 X 1 − (−1)n
xp (t) = sin nt.
π n(10 − n2 )
n=1
44. We have
1
2 2
ˆ
bn = (1 − t) sin nπt dt =
π 0 nπ
so that
∞
X 2
f (t) = sin nπt.
nπ
n=1
P∞
Substituting the assumption xp (t) = n=1 Bn sin nπt into the differential equation then gives
∞ ∞
X X 2
x′′p + 10xp = Bn (10 − n2 π 2 ) sin nπt = sin nπt
n=1 n=1
nπ
and so Bn = 2/nπ(10 − n2 π 2 ). Thus

∞
2X 1
xp (t) = sin nπt.
π n=1 n(10 − n2 π 2 )
45. We have
π
2 4 2
ˆ
a0 = (2πt − t2 ) dt = π
π 0 3
π
2 4
ˆ
an = (2πt − t2 ) cos nt dt = −
π 0 n2
so that
∞
2π 2 X 4
f (t) = − cos nt.
3 n2
n=1
Substituting the assumption

∞
A0 X
xp (t) = + An cos nt
2 n=1
into the differential equation then gives

∞ ∞
2π 2 X 4

1 ′′ X 1 2
x + 12xp = 6A0 + An − n + 12 cos nt = − cos nt
4 p 4 3 n2
n=1 n=1
and A0 = π 2 /9, An = 16/n2 (n2 − 48). Thus

∞
π2 X 1
xp (t) = + 16 2 2
cos nt.
18 n=1
n (n − 48)
46. We have
1/2
2 1
ˆ
a0 = t dt =
1/2 0 2
1/2
2 1
ˆ
an = t cos 2nπt dt = [(−1)n − 1]
1/2 0 n2 π 2
so that
∞
1 X (−1)n − 1
f (t) = + cos 2nπt.
4 n2 π 2
n=1
Substituting the assumption

∞
A0 X
xp (t) = + An cos 2nπt
2
n=1
into the differential equation then gives

∞ ∞
1 ′′ X 1 X (−1)n − 1
xp + 12xp = 6A0 + An (12 − n2 π 2 ) cos 2nπt = + cos 2nπt
4 4 n2 π 2
n=1 n=1
and A0 = 1/24, An = [(−1)n − 1]/n2 π 2 (12 − n2 π 2 ). Thus

∞
1 1 X (−1)n − 1
xp (t) = + 2 cos 2nπt.
48 π n2 (12 − n2 π 2 )
n=1
√ √
47. (a) The general solution is x(t) = c1 cos 10 t + c2 sin 10 t + xp (t), where
∞
10 X 1 − (−1)n
xp (t) = sin nt.
π n(10 − n2 )
n=1
The initial condition x(0) = 0 implies c1 + xp (0) = 0. Since xp (0) = 0, we have c1 = 0

√ √ √
and x(t) = c2 sin 10 t + xp (t). Then x′ (t) = c2 10 cos 10 t + x′p (t) and x′ (0) = 0
implies
∞
√ 10 X 1 − (−1)n
c2 10 + cos 0 = 0.
π n=1 10 − n2
Thus √ ∞
10 X 1 − (−1)n
c2 = −
π 10 − n2
n=1
and
∞
10 X 1 − (−1)n 1 √

1
x(t) = sin nt − √ sin 10 t .
π 10 − n2 n 10
n=1
(b) The graph is plotted using eight nonzero terms in the series expansion of x(t).
x
4
t
20 40 60 80
–2
–4
√ √
48. (a) The general solution is x(t) = c1 cos 4 3 t + c2 sin 4 3t + xp (t), where
∞
π2 X 1
xp (t) = + 16 2 (n2 − 48)
cos nt.
18 n=1
n
The initial condition x(0) = 0 implies c1 + xp (0) = 1 or

∞
π2 X 1
c1 = 1 − xp (0) = 1 − − 16 2 (n2 − 48)
.
18 n=1
n
√ √ √ √
Now x′ (t) = −4 3c1 sin 4 3 t + 4 3c2 cos 4 3 t + x′p (t), so x′ (0) = 0 implies
√
4 3c2 + x′p (0) = 0. Since x′p (0) = 0, we have c2 = 0 and
∞ ∞
!
π2 X 1 √ π2 X 1
x(t) = 1 − − 16 cos 4 3 t + + 16 cos nt
18 n2 (n2 − 48) 18 n2 (n2 − 48)
n=1 n=1
∞
π2 2 √ √ i

π X 1 h
= + 1− cos 4 3 t + 16 cos nt − cos 4 3t .
18 18 n=1
n2 (n2 − 48)
(b) The graph is plotted using five nonzero terms in the series expansion of x(t).
x
1.5
0.5
t
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
–0.5
–1
49. (a) We have

L
2 w0 x nπ 2w0
ˆ
bn = sin x dx = (−1)n+1
L 0 L L nπ
so that
∞
X 2w0 nπ
w(x) = (−1)n+1 sin x.
n=1
nπ L
P∞
(b) If we assume yp (x) = n=1 Bn sin (nπx/L) then
∞
X n4 π 4 nπ
yp(4) = Bn sin x
L4 L
n=1
(4)
and so the differential equation EIyp = w(x) gives
2w0 (−1)n+1 L4
Bn = .
EIn5 π 5
Thus
∞
2w0 L4 X (−1)n+1 nπ
yp (x) = 5 5
sin x.
EIπ n L
n=1
50. We have
2L/3
2 nπ 2w0 nπ 2nπ
ˆ
bn = w0 sin x dx = cos − cos
L L/3 L nπ 3 3
so that
∞
X 2w0 nπ 2nπ nπ
w(x) = cos − cos sin x.
nπ 3 3 L
n=1
P∞
If we assume yp (x) = n=1 Bn sin (nπx/L) then
∞
X n4 π 4 nπ
yp(4) (x) = Bn sin x
L4 L
n=1
(4)
and so the differential equation EIyp (x) = w(x) gives
cos nπ 2nπ
3 − cos 3
Bn = 2w0 L4 .
EIn5 π 5
Thus
∞
2w0 L4 X cos nπ 2nπ
3 − cos 3 nπ
yp (x) = 5 5
sin x.
EIπ n L
n=1
51. The graph is obtained by summing the series from n = 1 to 20. It appears that
(
x, 0<x<π
f (x) =
−π, π < x < 2π
S20
3
2
1
x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
–1
–2
–3
52. The graph is obtained by summing the series from n = 1 to 10. It appears that
(
1 − x, 0 < x < 1
f (x) =
0, 1<x<2
S20
0.5
x
2 4 6 8 10
53. The function in Problem 51 is not unique; it could also be defined as



 x, 0<x<π

f (x) = 1, x=π


−π, π < x < 2π.
The function in Problem 52 is not unique; it could also be defined as

0, −2 < x < −1




x + 1,

−1 < x < 0
f (x) =


 −x + 1, 0 < x < 1


0, 1 < x < 2.
54. The cosine series converges to an even extension of the function on the interval (−π, 0). Since
the even extension of f (x) is f (−x), in this case f (−x) = e−x on (−π, 0).
55. No, it is not a full Fourier series. A full Fourier series of f (x) = ex , 0 < x < π, would
converge to the π-periodic extension of f . The cosine and sine series converge to a 2π-
periodic extension (even and odd, respectively). The average of the two series converges to a
2π-periodic extension of ( x
e , 0<x<π
f (x) =
0, −π < x < 0.
56. (a) If f and g are even and h(x) = f (x)g(x) then
h(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = f (x)g(x) = h(x),
and h is even.
(c) If f is even and g is odd and h(x) = f (x)g(x) then
h(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = f (x)[−g(x)] = −h(x),
and h is odd.
(d) Let h(x) = f (x) ± g(x) where f and g are even. Then
h(−x) = f (−x) ± g(−x) = f (x) ± g(x) = h(x),
and h is even.
(e) If f and g are odd and h(x) = f (x) ± g(x) then
h(−x) = f (−x) ± g(−x) = −f (x) ± [−g(x)] = −[f (x) ± g(x)] = −h(x)
and h is odd.
(f ) If f is even then
ˆ a ˆ 0 ˆ a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx ←− u = −x, du = −dx
−a −a 0
ˆ 0 ˆ a
= f (−u)(−du) + f (x) dx ←− f is an even function
a 0
ˆ a ˆ a ˆ a
= f (u) du + f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
0 0 0
(g) If f is odd then

ˆ a ˆ 0 ˆ a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx ←− u = −x, du = −dx
−a −a 0
ˆ 0 ˆ a
= f (−u)(−du) + f (x) dxf ←− f is an odd function
a 0
ˆ a ˆ a
= [−f (u)] du + f (x) dx = 0.
0 0
12.4 Complex Fourier Series
In this section we make use of the following identities due to Euler’s formula:
einπ = e−inπ = (−1)n , e−2inπ = 1, e−inπ/2 = (−i)n .
1. Identifying p = 2 we have
1 2
ˆ 0 ˆ 2
1
ˆ
−inπx/2 −inπx/2 −inπx/2
cn = f (x)e dx = (−1)e dx + e dx
4 −2 4 −2 0
i i 1 − (−1)n
−1 + einπ + e−inπ − 1 = [−1 + (−1)n + (−1)n − 1] =

=
2nπ 2nπ nπi
and
2
1
ˆ
c0 = f (x) dx = 0.
4 −2
Thus
∞
X 1 − (−1)n inπx/2
f (x) = e .
n=−∞
inπ
n6=0
2. Identifying 2p = 2 or p = 1 we have
2
2 2
1 1 1 −inπx
ˆ ˆ
−inπx −inπx
cn = f (x)e dx = e dx = − e
2 2 2inπ

0 1
1
1 1 i
e−2inπ − e−inπ = − [1 − (−1)n ] = [1 − (−1)n ]

=−
2inπ 2inπ 2nπ
and
2 2
1 1 1
ˆ ˆ
c0 = f (x) dx = dx = .
2 0 2 1 2
Thus
∞
1 i X 1 − (−1)n inπx
f (x) = + e .
2 2π n=−∞ n
n6=0
3. Identifying p = 1/2 we have

1/4
1/2 1/4
1 −2inπx
ˆ ˆ
−2inπx −2inπx
cn = f (x)e dx = e dx = − e
2inπ

−1/2 0
0
1 ih 1 i
=− e−inπ/2 − 1 = − [(−i)n − 1] = [(−i)n − 1]
2inπ 2inπ 2nπ
12.4 Complex Fourier Series 939
and
1/4
1
ˆ
c0 = dx = .
0 4
Thus
∞
1 i X (−i)n − 1 2inπx
f (x) = + e .
4 2π n=−∞ n
n6=0
4. Identifying p = π we have
π ˆ π
1 1
ˆ
−inx/π
cn = f (x)e dx = xe−inx/π dx
2π −π 2π 0
π
1 π ix −inx/π π(1 + in) −in π
= + e = e − 2
2 n2 n 2n2 2n
0
and π
1 π
ˆ
c0 = x dx = .
2π 0 4
Thus
∞
π π X 1
(1 + in)e−in − 1 einx .

f (x) = + 2
4 2 n=−∞ n
n6=0
5. Identifying 2p = 2π or p = π we have
ˆ 2π ˆ 2π
1 1
cn = f (x)e−inx dx = xe−inx dx
2π 0 2π 0
2π
1 1 ix −inx 1 + 2inπ 1 i
= + e = − 2 =
2π n2 n 2n2 π 2n π n
0
and
2π
1
ˆ
c0 = x dx = π.
2π 0
Thus
∞
X i inx
f (x) = π + e .
n=−∞
n
n6=0
6. Identifying p = 1 we have
1 1
ˆ 0 ˆ 1
1
ˆ
−inπx x −inπx −x −inπx
cn = f (x)e dx = e e dx + e e dx
2 −1 2 −1 0
 0 1 
1 1 1
= − e(1−inπ)x − e−(1+inπ)x 

2 1 − inπ 1 + inπ
−1 0
e − (−1)n 1 − e−1 (−1)n 2[e − (−1)n ]

= + = .
e(1 − inπ) 1 + inπ e(1 + n2 π 2 )
Thus
∞
X 2[e − (−1)n ] inπx
f (x) = 2π2 )
e .
n=−∞
e(1 + n
7. The fundamental period is T = 4, so cn

0.6
ω = 2π/4 = π/2 and the values of nω are 0,
±π/2, ±π, ±3π/2, . . . . From Problem 1, 0.4
c0 = 0 and |cn | = (1−(−1)n )/nπ. The table 0.2

shows some values of n with corresponding
frequency
values of |cn |. The graph is a portion of the − 5π
2
− 3π
2
− π2 π
2
3π
2
5π
2
frequency spectrum.
n –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cn 0.1273 0.0000 0.2122 0.0000 0.6366 0.0000 0.6366 0.0000 0.2122 0.0000 0.1273
8. The fundamental period is T = 1, so ω = 2π cn

0.25
and the values of nω are 0.2
0, ±2π, ±4π, ±6π, . . .. From Problem 3, 0.15
0.1
c0 = 14 and |cn | = |(−i)n − 1|/2nπ, or c1 = 0.05
√
c−1 = 2/2π, c2 = c−2 = 1/2π, c3 = c−3 = frequency
√ √ −10π −6π −2π 2π 6π 10π
2/6π, c4 = c−4 = 0, c5 = c−5 = 2/10π,
√
c6 = c−6 = 1/6π, c7 = c−7 = 2/14π, c8 = c−8 = 0, . . . . The table shows some values of n
with corresponding values of |cn |. The graph is a portion of the frequency spectrum.
n –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cn 0.0450 0.0000 0.0750 0.1592 0.2251 0.2500 0.2251 0.1592 0.0750 0.0000 0.0450
9. Identifying 2p = π or p = π/2, and using sin x = (eix − e−ix )/2i, we have

f
π
1
ˆ
−2inx/π 4
cn = f (x)e dx
π 0 3
π
1
ˆ
= (sin x)e−2inx/π dx 2
π 0
π 1
1 1 ix
ˆ
= (e − e−ix )e−2inx/π dx x
π 0 2i −2π −π π 2π
ˆ π
1
= e(1−2n/π)ix − e−(1+2n/π)ix dx
2πi 0
cn

1 1
= e(1−2n/π)ix 0.6
2πi i(1 − 2n/π)
π 0.4
1 −(1+2n/π)ix
+ e 0.2
i(1 + 2n/π) 0
frequency
π(1 + e−2in ) −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
= .
π 2 − 4n2
12.4 Complex Fourier Series 941
The fundamental period is T = π, so ω = 2π/π = 2 and the values of nω are

0, ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . . Values of |cn | for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, and ±5 are shown in the table.
The bottom graph is a portion of the frequency spectrum.
n –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cn 0.0198 0.0759 0.2380 0.4265 0.5784 0.6366 0.5784 0.4285 0.2380 0.0759 0.0198
10. Identifying 2p = π or p = π/2, and using cos x = (eix − e−ix )/2, we have
f
π
1
ˆ
cn = f (x)e−2inx/π dx 1
π 0
0.8
π/2
1
ˆ
0.6
= (cos x)e−2inx/π dx
π 0 0.4
π/2 0.2
1 1 ix
ˆ
= (e − e−ix )e−2inx/π dx −π π
x
π 0 2 −2π 2π
π/2
1
ˆ
(1−2n/π)ix −(1+2n/π)ix
= e −e dx
2π 0 cn
0.3
1 1
= e(1−2n/π)ix 0.2
2π i(1 − 2n/π)
π/2 0.1
1
+ e−(1+2n/π)ix frequency
i(1 + 2n/π) 0 −10 −5 5 10
2ne−in + iπ
= .
π 2 − 4n2
The fundamental period is T = π, so ω = 2π/π = 2 and the values of nω are

0, ±2, ±4, ±6, . . . . Values of |cn | for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, and ±5 are shown in the table.
The bottom graph is a portion of the frequency spectrum.
n –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
cn 0.1447 0.1954 0.2437 0.2833 0.3093 0.3183 0.3093 0.2833 0.2437 0.1954 0.1447
11. (a) Adding cn = 12 (an − ibn ) and c−n = 21 (an + ibn ) we get cn + c−n = an . Subtracting, we
get cn − c−n = −ibn . Multiplying both sides by i we obtain i(cn − c−n ) = bn .
(b) From
2(−1)n sinh π

n sinh π 1 − in 1 + in
an = cn + c−n = (−1) + = , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
π n2 + 1 n2 + 1 π(n2 + 1)
and

n sinh π 1 − in 1 + in n sinh π 2in
bn = i(cn − c−n ) = i(−1) − = i(−1) − 2
π n2 + 1 n2 + 1 π n +1
2(−1)n n sinh π
= ,
π(n2 + 1)
the Fourier series of f is

∞
sinh π 2 sinh π X (−1)n n(−1)n

f (x) = + cos nx + 2 sin nx .
π π n=1
n2 + 1 n +1
12. From Problem 11 and the fact that f is odd, cn + c−n = an = 0, so c−n = −cn . Then
bn = i(cn − c−n ) = 2icn . From Problem 1, bn = 2i[1 − (−1)n ]/nπi = 2[1 − (−1)n ]/nπ, and
the Fourier sine series of f is
∞
X 2[1 − (−1)n ] nπx
f (x) = sin .
nπ 2
i=1
12.5 Sturm–Liouville Problem
1. For λ ≤ 0 the only solution of the boundary-value problem is y = 0. For λ = α2 > 0 we have
y = c1 cos αx + c2 sin αx.
Now
y ′ (x) = −c1 α sin αx + c2 α cos αx
and y ′ (0) = 0 implies c2 = 0, so
y(1) + y ′ (1) = c1 (cos α − α sin α) = 0 or cot α = α.
The eigenvalues are λn = α2n where α1 , α2 , α3 , . . . are the consecutive positive solutions
of cot α = α. The corresponding eigenfunctions are cos αn x for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Using a
CAS we find that the first four eigenvalues are approximately 0.7402, 11.7349, 41.4388, and
90.8082 with corresponding approximate eigenfunctions cos 0.8603x, cos 3.4256x, cos 6.4373x,
and cos 9.5293x.
2. For λ < 0 the only solution of the boundary-value problem is y = 0. For λ = 0 we have
y = c1 x + c2 . Now y ′ = c1 and the boundary conditions both imply c1 + c2 = 0. Thus, λ = 0
is an eigenvalue with corresponding eigenfunction y0 = x − 1.
For λ = α2 > 0 we have

y = c1 cos αx + c2 sin αx
and
y ′ (x) = −c1 α sin αx + c2 α cos αx.
The boundary conditions imply
c1 + c2 α = 0
c1 cos α + c2 sin α = 0
12.5 Sturm–Liouville Problem 943
which gives
−c2 α cos α + c2 sin α = 0 or tan α = α.
The eigenvalues are λn = α2n where α1 , α2 , α3 , . . . are the consecutive positive solutions
of tan α = α. The corresponding eigenfunctions are α cos αx − sin αx (obtained by taking
c2 = −1 in the first equation of the system.) Using a CAS we find that the first four positive
eigenvalues are 20.1907, 59.6795, 118.9000, and 197.858 with corresponding eigenfunctions
4.4934 cos 4.4934x − sin 4.4934x, 7.7253 cos 7.7253x − sin 7.7253x,
10.9041 cos 10.9041x − sin 10.9041x, and 14.0662 cos 14.0662x − sin 14.0662x.
3. For λ = 0 the solution of y ′′ = 0 is y = c1 x + c2 . The condition y ′ (0) = 0 implies c1 = 0, so

λ = 0 is an eigenvalue with corresponding eigenfunction 1.
For λ = −α2 < 0 we have y = c1 cosh αx + c2 sinh αx and y ′ = c1 α sinh αx + c2 α cosh αx.
The condition y ′ (0) = 0 implies c2 = 0 and so y = c1 cosh αx. Now the condition y ′ (L) = 0
implies c1 = 0. Thus y = 0 and there are no negative eigenvalues.
For λ = α2 > 0 we have y = c1 cos αx + c2 sin αx and y ′ = −c1 α sin αx + c2 α cos αx. The
condition y ′ (0) = 0 implies c2 = 0 and so y = c1 cos αx. Now the condition y ′ (L) = 0 implies
−c1 α sin αL = 0. For c1 6= 0 this condition will hold when αL = nπ or λ = α2 = n2 π 2 /L2 ,
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . These are the positive eigenvalues with corresponding eigenfunctions
cos(nπx/L), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
4. For λ = −α2 < 0 we have
y = c1 cosh αx + c2 sinh αx
y ′ = c1 α sinh αx + c2 α cosh αx.
Using the fact that cosh x is an even function and sinh x is odd we have
y(−L) = c1 cosh (−αL) + c2 sinh (−αL)

= c1 cosh αL − c2 sinh αL
and
y ′ (−L) = c1 α sinh (−αL) + c2 α cosh (−αL)

= −c1 α sinh αL + c2 α cosh αL.
The boundary conditions imply
c1 cosh αL − c2 sinh αL = c1 cosh αL + c2 sinh αL
or
2c2 sinh αL = 0
and
−c1 α sinh αL + c2 α cosh αL = c1 α sinh αL + c2 α cosh αL
or
2c1 α sinh αL = 0.
Since αL 6= 0, c1 = c2 = 0 and the only solution of the boundary-value problem in this case
is y = 0.
For λ = 0 we have
y = c1 x + c2
y ′ = c1 .
From y(−L) = y(L) we obtain

−c1 L + c2 = c1 L + c2 .
Then c1 = 0 and y = 1 is an eigenfunction corresponding to the eigenvalue λ = 0.
For λ = α2 > 0 we have
y = c1 cos αx + c2 sin αx
y ′ = −c1 α sin αx + c2 α cos αx.
The first boundary condition implies
c1 cos αL − c2 sin αL = c1 cos αL + c2 sin αL
or
2c2 sin αL = 0.
Thus, if c1 = 0 and c2 6= 0,
n2 π 2
αL = nπ or λ = α2 = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
L2
The corresponding eigenfunctions are sin (nπx/L), for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Similarly, the second
boundary condition implies
2c1 α sin αL = 0.
If c1 6= 0 and c2 = 0,
n2 π 2
αL = nπ or λ = α2 = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
L2
and the corresponding eigenfunctions are cos (nπx/L), for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
5. The eigenfunctions are cos αn x where cot αn = αn . Thus

1 1
1
ˆ ˆ
k cos αn xk2 = cos2 αn x dx = (1 + cos 2αn x) dx
0 2 0
1
1 1 1 1
= x+ sin 2αn x = 1+ sin 2αn

2 2αn 2 2αn
0

1 1 1 1
= 1+ (2 sin αn cos αn ) = 1+ sin αn cot αn sin αn
2 2αn 2 αn

1 1 1
1 + sin2 αn .

= 1+ (sin αn ) αn (sin αn ) =
2 αn 2
6. The eigenfunctions are sin αn x where tan αn = −αn . Thus

1 1
1
ˆ ˆ
2 2
k sin αn xk = sin αn x dx = (1 − cos 2αn x) dx
0 2 0
1
1 1 1 1
= x− sin 2αn x = 1 − sin 2α

n
2 2αn 2 2αn

0

1 1 1 1
= 1− (2 sin αn cos αn ) = 1− tan αn cos αn cos αn
2 2αn 2 αn

1 1 1
−αn cos2 αn = 1 + cos2 αn .

= 1−
2 αn 2
7. (a) If λ ≤ 0 the initial conditions imply y = 0. For λ = α2 > 0 the general solution of the
Cauchy-Euler differential equation is y = c1 cos (α ln x) + c2 sin (α ln x). The condition
y(1) = 0 implies c1 = 0, so that y = c2 sin (α ln x). The condition y(5) = 0 implies
α ln 5 = nπ, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Thus, the eigenvalues are n2 π 2 /(ln 5)2 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
with corresponding eigenfunctions sin [(nπ/ ln 5) ln x].
(b) The self-adjoint form is

d λ
[xy ′ ] + y = 0.
dx x
(c) An orthogonality relation is
5
1 mπ nπ
ˆ
sin ln x sin ln x dx = 0, m 6= n.
1 x ln 5 ln 5
√
8. (a) The roots of the auxiliary equation m2 + m + λ = 0 are 12 (−1 ± 1 − 4λ ). When λ = 0
the general solution of the differential equation is c1 + c2 e−x . The boundary conditions
imply c1 + c2 = 0 and c1 + c2 e−2 = 0. Since the determinant of the coefficients is not
0, the only solution of this homogeneous system is c1 = c2 = 0, in which case y = 0.
When λ = 41 , the general solution of the differential equation is c1 e−x/2 + c2 xe−x/2 . The
boundary conditions imply c1 = 0 and c1 + 2c2 = 0, so c1 = c2 = 0 and y = 0. Similarly,

if 0 < λ < 14 , the general solution is
1
√ 1
√
y = c1 e 2 (−1+ 1−4λ )x
+ c2 e 2 (−1− 1−4λ )x
.
In this case the boundary conditions again imply c1 = c2 = 0, and so y = 0. Now, for
λ > 41 , the general solution of the differential equation is
√ √
y = c1 e−x/2 cos 4λ − 1 x + c2 e−x/2 sin 4λ − 1 x.
√
The condition y(0) = 0 implies c1 = 0 so y = c2 e−x/2 sin 4λ − 1 x. From
√
y(2) = c2 e−1 sin 2 4λ − 1 = 0
√
we see that the eigenvalues are determined by 2 4λ − 1 = nπ for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Thus,
the eigenvalues are n2 π 2 /42 + 1/4 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , with corresponding eigenfunctions
e−x/2 sin(nπx/2).
(b) The self-adjoint form is

d x ′
[e y ] + λex y = 0.
dx
(c) An orthogonality relation is

2 ˆ 2
mπ −x/2 nπ mπ nπ
ˆ
x −x/2
e e sin x e cos x dx = sin x cos x dx = 0.
0 2 2 0 2 2

1
9. We divide by lead coefficient of the differential equation to obtain the form y ′′ + −1 + y′ +
x
n
y = 0. The integrating factor is then
x
´
(−1+1/x) dx
e = e−x+ln x = e−x eln x = xe−x .
Thus, the differential equation is
xe−x y ′′ + (1 − x)e−x y ′ + ne−x y = 0
and the self-adjoint form is

d −x ′
xe y + ne−x y = 0.
dx
Identifying the weight function p(x) = e−x and noting that since r(x) = xe−x , r(0) = 0 and
limx→∞ r(x) = 0, we have the orthogonality relation
ˆ ∞
e−x Lm (x)Ln (x) dx = 0, m 6= n.
0
2
´
10. To obtain the self-adjoint form we note that an integrating factor is e −2x dx = e−x . Thus,
the differential equation is
2 2 2
e−x y ′′ − 2xe−x y ′ + 2ne−x y = 0
and the self-adjoint form is

d h −x2 ′ i 2
e y + 2ne−x y = 0.
dx
2 2
Identifying the weight function p(x) = e−x and noting that since r(x) = e−x ,
lim r(x) = lim r(x) = 0, we have the orthogonality relation
x→−∞ x→∞
ˆ ∞
2
e−x Hm (x)Hn (x) dx = 0, m 6= n.
−∞
11. (a) The differential equation is
λ
(1 + x2 )y ′′ + 2xy ′ + y = 0.
1 + x2
Letting x = tan θ we have θ = tan−1 x and
dy dy dθ 1 dy
= = 2
dx dθ dx 1 + x dθ
d2 y
2
d 1 dy 1 d y dθ 2x dy
2
= 2
= 2 2
− 2 2
dx dx 1 + x dθ 1+x dθ dx (1 + x ) dθ
1 d2 y 2x dy
= 2 2 2
− 2 2
.
(1 + x ) dθ (1 + x ) dθ
The differential equation can then be written in terms of y(θ) as
d2 y

2 1 2x dy 1 dy λ
(1 + x ) 2 2 2
− 2 2
+ 2x 2
+ y
(1 + x ) dθ (1 + x ) dθ 1 + x dθ 1 + x2
1 d2 y λ
= + y=0
1 + x2 dθ 2 1 + x2
or
d2 y
+ λy = 0.
dθ 2
The boundary conditions become y(0) = y(π/4) = 0. For λ ≤ 0 the only solution of
the boundary-value problem is y = 0. For λ = α2 > 0 the general solution of the
differential equation is y = c1 cos αθ + c2 sin αθ. The condition y(0) = 0 implies c1 = 0
so y = c2 sin αθ. Now the condition y(π/4) = 0 implies c2 sin απ/4 = 0. For c2 6= 0 this
condition will hold when απ/4 = nπ or λ = α2 = 16n2 , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . These are
the eigenvalues with corresponding eigenfunctions sin 4nθ = sin(4n tan−1 x), for n = 1,
2, 3, . . . .
(b) An orthogonality relation is
1
1
ˆ
sin (4m tan−1 x) sin (4n tan−1 x) dx = 0, m 6= n.
0 x2 +1
12. (a) Letting λ = α2 the differential equation becomes x2 y ′′ + xy ′ + (α2 x2 − 1)y = 0. This is
the parametric Bessel equation with ν = 1. The general solution is
y = c1 J1 (αx) + c2 Y1 (αx).
Since Y is unbounded at 0 we must have c2 = 0, so that y = c1 J1 (αx). The condition

J1 (3α) = 0 defines the eigenvalues λn = α2n for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The corresponding
eigenfunctions are J1 (αn x).
(b) Using a CAS or Table 5.1 in the text to solve J1 (3α) = 0 we find 3α1 = 3.8317, 3α2 =
7.0156, 3α3 = 10.1735, and 3α4 = 13.3237. The corresponding eigenvalues are λ1 =
α21 = 1.6313, λ2 = α22 = 5.4687, λ3 = α23 = 11.4999, and λ4 = α24 = 19.7245.
13. When λ = 0 the differential equation is r(x)y ′′ + r ′ (x)y ′ = 0. By inspection we see that y = 1
is a solution of the boundary-value problem. Thus, λ = 0 is an eigenvalue.
14. (a) An orthogonality relation is

ˆ 1
cos xm x cos xn x dx = 0
0
where xm 6= xn are positive solutions of cot x = x.
(b) Referring to Problem 1 we use a CAS to compute

ˆ 1
(cos 0.8603x)(cos 3.4256x) dx = −1.8771 × 10−6 ≈ 0.
0
15. (a) An orthogonality relation is

ˆ 1
(xm cos xm x − sin xm x)(xn cos xn x − sin xn x) dx = 0
0
where xm 6= xn are positive solutions of tan x = x.
(b) Referring to Problem 2 we use a CAS to compute

ˆ 1
(4.4934 cos 4.4934x − sin 4.4934x)(7.7253 cos 7.7253x − sin 7.7253x) dx = −2.5650 × 10−4
0
≈ 0.
12.6 Bessel and Legendre Series 949
12.6 Bessel and Legendre Series
1. Identifying b = 3, we have α1 = 1.2772, α2 = 2.3385, α3 = 3.3912, and α4 = 4.4412.
2. By (6) in the text J0′ (2α) = −J1 (2α). Thus, J0′ (2α) = 0 is equivalent to J1 (2α). Then
α1 = 1.9159, α2 = 3.5078, α3 = 5.0867, and α4 = 6.6618.
3. The boundary condition indicates that we use (15) and (16) in the text. With b = 2 we obtain
2
2
ˆ
ci = xJ0 (αi x) dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
4J12 (2αi ) 0
ˆ 2αi
1 1
= · tJ0 (t) dt
2J12 (2αi ) α2i 0
ˆ 2αi
1 d
= 2 2 [tJ1 (t)] dt [From (5) in the text]
2αi J1 (2αi ) 0 dt
2αi
1 1
= tJ (t) = .

2 2 1
2αi J1 (2αi ) αi J1 (2αi )

0
Thus
∞
X 1
f (x) = J0 (αi x).
αi J1 (2αi )
i=1
2
2
2 2 x2
ˆ
c1 = x dx = = 1,
4 0 4 2
0
2
2
ˆ
4J02 (2αi ) 0
ˆ 2αi
1 1
= · tJ0 (t) dt
2J02 (2αi ) α2i 0
ˆ 2αi
1 d
2αi J0 (2αi ) 0 dt
2αi
1 J1 (2αi )
= tJ (t) = .

2 2 1
2αi J0 (2αi ) αi J02 (2αi )

0
Now since J0′ (2αi ) = 0 is equivalent to J1 (2αi ) = 0 we conclude ci = 0 for i = 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Thus the expansion of f on 0 < x < 2 consists of a series with one nontrivial term:
f (x) = c1 = 1.
5. The boundary condition indicates that we use (17) and (18) in the text. With b = 2 and
h = 1 we obtain
2
2α2i
ˆ
(4α2i + 1)J02 (2αi ) 0
ˆ 2αi
2α2i 1
= · tJ0 (t) dt
(4α2i + 1)J02 (2αi ) α2i 0
ˆ 2αi
2 d
(4αi + 1)J0 (2αi ) 0 dt
2αi
2 4αi J1 (2αi )
= tJ (t) = .

2 2 1
(4αi + 1)J0 (2αi ) (4α2i + 1)J02 (2αi )

0
Thus
∞
X αi J1 (2αi )
f (x) = 4 J0 (αi x).
i=1
(4α2i + 1)J02 (2αi )
6. Writing the boundary condition in the form
2J0 (2α) + 2αJ0′ (2α) = 0
we identify b = 2 and h = 2. Using (17) and (18) in the text we obtain
2
2α2i
ˆ
(4α2i + 4)J02 (2αi ) 0
ˆ 2αi
α2i 1
= · tJ0 (t) dt
2(α2i + 1)J02 (2αi ) α2i 0
ˆ 2αi
1 d
2(αi + 1)J0 (2αi ) 0 dt
2αi
1 αi J1 (2αi )
= tJ (t) = 2 .

2 2 1
2(αi + 1)J0 (2αi ) (αi + 1)J02 (2αi )

0
Thus
∞
X αi J1 (2αi )
f (x) = J0 (αi x).
i=1
(α2i + 1)J02 (2αi )
7. The boundary condition indicates that we use (17) and (18) in the text. With n = 1, b = 4,
and h = 3 we obtain
4
2α2i
ˆ
ci = xJ1 (αi x)5x dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
(16α2i − 1 + 9)J12 (4αi ) 0
ˆ 4αi
5α2i 1
= · t2 J1 (t) dt
4(2α2i + 1)J12 (4αi ) α3i 0
ˆ 4αi
5 d 2
= 2 2 [t J2 (t)] dt [From (5) in the text]
4αi (2αi + 1)J1 (4αi ) 0 dt
4αi
5 2
20αi J2 (4αi )
= t J2 (t) = .

4αi (2α2i + 1)J12 (4αi ) (2α2i + 1)J12 (4αi )
0
Thus
∞
X αi J2 (4αi )
f (x) = 20 J1 (αi x).
i=1
(2α2i + 1)J12 (4αi )
8. The boundary condition indicates that we use (15) and (16) in the text. With n = 2 and
b = 1 we obtain
1
2
ˆ
c1 = 2 xJ2 (αi x)x2 dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
J3 (αi ) 0
ˆ αi
2 1
= 2 · 4 t3 J2 (t) dt
J3 (αi ) αi 0
ˆ αi
2 d 3
= 4 2 [t J3 (t)] dt [From (5) in the text]
αi J3 (αi ) 0 dt
αi
2 2
= 4 2 t3 J3 (t) = .

αi J3 (αi ) αi J3 (αi )
0
Thus
∞
X 1
f (x) = 2 J2 (αi x).
αi J3 (αi )
i=1
3
2 3 2 2 x4 9
ˆ
c1 = xx dx = = ,
9 0 9 4 2
0
3
2
ˆ
ci = 2 xJ0 (αi x)x2 dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
9J0 (3αi ) 0
3αi
2 1
ˆ
= 2 · 4 t3 J0 (t) dt
9J0 (3αi ) αi 0
3αi d
2 d u = t2 dv = dt [tJ1 (t)] dt
ˆ
= t2 [tJ1 (t)] dt
4
9αi J02 (3αi ) 0 dt du = 2t dt v = tJ1 (t)
 3αi 
ˆ 3αi
2 3

= t J1 (t) − 2 t2 J1 (t) dt .

9α4i J02 (3αi ) 0
0
With n = 0 in equation (6) in the text we have J0′ (x) = −J1 (x), so the boundary condition
J0′ (3αi ) = 0 implies J1 (3αi ) = 0. Then
 3αi 
ˆ 3αi
2 d 2 2 2

ci = −2 t J (t) dt = −2t J (t)

2  2
9α4i J02 (3αi ) dt 9α4 J 2 (3α )
0 i 0 i
0
2 −4J2 (3αi )
−18α2i J2 (3αi ) = 2 2

= .
9α4i J02 (3αi ) αi J0 (3αi )
Thus
∞
9 X J2 (3αi )
f (x) = −4 2 J 2 (3α ) J0 (αi x).
2 α i
i=1 i 0
10. The boundary condition indicates that we use (15) and (16) in the text. With b = 1 it follows
that
ˆ 1
2
x 1 − x2 J0 (αi x) dx

ci = 2
J1 (αi ) 0
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
2 3
= 2 xJ0 (αi x) dx − x J0 (αi x) dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
J1 (αi ) 0 0
ˆ αi ˆ αi
2 1 1 3
= 2 tJ0 (t) dt − t J0 (t) dt
J1 (αi ) α2i 0 α4i 0
ˆ αi ˆ αi d
u = t2

2 1 d 1 2 d dv = dt [tJ1 (t)] dt
= 2 [tJ1 (t)] dt − t [tJ1 (t)] dt
J1 (αi ) α2i 0 dt α4i 0 dt du = 2t dt v = tJ1 (t)
" αi αi ˆ αi !#
2 1 1 3

2
= 2 tJ1 (t) − 4 t J1 (t) − 2 t J1 (t) dt

J1 (αi ) α2i αi 0
0 0
ˆ αi " αi #
2 J1 (αi ) J1 (αi ) 2 d 2 2 2 2
= 2 − + 4 t J2 (t) dt = 2 t J (t)

4 2
J1 (αi ) αi αi αi 0 dt J1 (αi ) αi

0
4J2 (αi )
= .
α2i J12 (αi )
Thus
∞
X J2 (αi )
f (x) = 4 J0 (αi x).
α2 J 2 (αi )
i=1 i 1
11. (a) y
4
x
5 10 15 20 25 30
−2
−4
(b) Using FindRoot in Mathematica we find the roots x1 = 2.9496, x2 = 5.8411,

x3 = 8.8727, x4 = 11.9561, and x5 = 15.0624.
(c) Dividing the roots in part (b) by 4 we find the eigenvalues α1 = 0.7374, α2 = 1.4603,
α3 = 2.2182, α4 = 2.9890, and α5 = 3.7656.
(d) The next five eigenvalues are α6 = 4.5451, α7 = 5.3263, α8 = 6.1085, α9 = 6.8915, and
α10 = 7.6749.
12. (a) From Problem 7, the coefficients of the Fourier-Bessel series are
20αi J2 (4αi )
ci = .
(2α2i + 1)J12 (4αi )
Using a CAS we find c1 = 26.7896, c2 = −12.4624, c3 = 7.1404, c4 = −4.68705, and

c5 = 3.35619.
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
(b) 20 20 20 20 20
15 15 15 15 15
10 10 10 10 10
5 5 5 5 5
x x x x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
S10
(c) 20 S10
20
15 15
10
10
5
5 x
10 20 30 40 50
x −5
1 2 3 4
−10
13. Since f is expanded as a series of Bessel functions, J1 (αi x) and J1 is an odd function, the
series should represent an odd function.
y
14. (a) Since J0 is an even function, a series expansion of a 2
function defined on (0, 2) would converge to the even 1.5
extension of the function on (−2, 0). 1
0.5
x
−2 −1 1 2
y
(b) In Section 5.3 we saw that J2′ (x) = 2J2 (x)/x − J3 (x). Since J2 is
20
even and J3 is odd we see that
J2′ (−x) = 2J2 (−x)/(−x) − J3 (−x) 15
= −2J2 (x)/x + J3 (x) = −J2′ (x),

10
so that J2′
is an odd function. Now, if f (x) = 3J2 (x) + 2xJ2′ (x),
we see that 5
f (−x) = 3J2 (−x) − 2xJ2′ (−x)

x
−4 −2 2 4
= 3J2 (x) + 2xJ2′ (x) = f (x),
so that f is an even function. Thus, a series expansion of a function defined on (0, 4)

would converge to the even extension of the function on (−4, 0).
S5
15. We compute
1
1 1 1 1
1
ˆ ˆ
c0 = xP0 (x) dx = x dx = 0.5
2 0 2 0 4
3 1 3 1
1
ˆ ˆ
x
c1 = xP1 (x) dx = x2 dx = −1 −0.5 0.5 1
2 0 2 0 2
5 1 5 1
1 5
ˆ ˆ
c2 = xP2 (x) dx = (3x3 − x) dx =
2 0 2 0 2 16
1 1
7 7 1
ˆ ˆ
c3 = xP3 (x) dx = (5x4 − 3x2 ) dx = 0
2 0 2 0 2
1 1
9 9 1 3
ˆ ˆ
c4 = xP4 (x) dx = (35x5 − 30x3 + 3x) dx =
2 0 2 0 8 32
1 1
11 11 1
ˆ ˆ
c5 = xP5 (x) dx = (63x6 − 70x4 + 15x2 ) dx = 0
2 0 2 0 8
1 1
13 13 1 13
ˆ ˆ
c6 = xP6 (x) dx = (231x7 − 315x5 + 105x3 − 5x) dx = .
2 0 2 0 16 256
Thus
1 1 5 3 13
f (x) = P0 (x) + P1 (x) + P2 (x) − P4 (x) + P6 (x) + · · · .
4 2 16 32 256
The figure above is the graph of S5 (x) = 14 P0 (x) + 12 P1 (x) + 5

16 P2 (x) − 3
32 P4 (x) + 13
256 P6 (x).
S5
16. We compute
3
1 1 x 1 1
1
ˆ ˆ
c0 = e P0 (x) dx = ex dx = (e − e−1 )
2 −1 2 −1 2 2
3 1 x 3 1 x
ˆ ˆ
c1 = e P1 (x) dx = xe dx = 3e−1 1
2 −1 2 −1
5 1 x 5 1 1
ˆ ˆ
x
c2 = e P2 (x) dx = (3x2 ex − ex ) dx −1 −0.5 0.5 1
2 −1 2 −1 2
5
= (e − 7e−1 )
2
7 1 x 7 1
1 7
ˆ ˆ
c3 = e P3 (x) dx = (5x3 ex − 3xex ) dx = (−5e + 37e−1 )
2 −1 2 −1 2 2
9 1 x 9 1
1 9
ˆ ˆ
c4 = e P4 (x) dx = (35x4 ex − 30x2 ex + 3ex ) dx = (36e − 266e−1 ).
2 −1 2 −1 8 2
Thus
1 5
f (x) = (e − e−1 )P0 (x) + 3e−1 P1 (x) + (e − 7e−1 )P2 (x)
2 2
7 9
+ (−5e + 37e−1 )P3 (x) + (36e − 266e−1 )P4 (x) + · · · .
2 2
The figure above is the graph of S5 (x).
17. Using cos2 θ = 12 (cos 2θ + 1) we have
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 1
P2 (cos θ) = (3 cos2 θ − 1) = cos2 θ − = (cos 2θ + 1) − = cos 2θ + = (3 cos 2θ + 1).
2 2 2 4 2 4 4 4
18. From Problem 17 we have

1 4 1
P2 (cos θ) = (3 cos 2θ + 1) or cos 2θ = P2 (cos θ) − .
4 3 3
Then, using P0 (cos θ) = 1,

4 1 4 4 4 4
F (θ) = 1 − cos 2θ = 1 − P2 (cos θ) − = − P2 (cos θ) = P0 (cos θ) − P2 (cos θ).
3 3 3 3 3 3
19. If f is an even function on (−1, 1) then

ˆ 1 ˆ 1
f (x)P2n (x) dx = 2 f (x)P2n (x) dx
−1 0
and ˆ 1
f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx = 0.
−1
Thus
1 ˆ 1
2(2n) + 1 4n + 1
ˆ
c2n = f (x)P2n (x) dx = 2 f (x)P2n (x) dx
2 −1 2 0
ˆ 1
= (4n + 1) f (x)P2n (x) dx,
0
c2n+1 = 0, and
∞
X
f (x) = c2n P2n (x).
n=0
20. If f is an odd function on (−1, 1) then

ˆ 1
f (x)P2n (x) dx = 0
−1
and ˆ 1 ˆ 1
f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx = 2 f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx.
−1 0
Thus
1 ˆ 1
2(2n + 1) + 1 4n + 3
ˆ
c2n+1 = f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx = 2 f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx
2 −1 2 0
ˆ 1
= (4n + 3) f (x)P2n+1 (x) dx,
0
c2n = 0, and
∞
X
f (x) = c2n+1 P2n+1 (x).
n=0
21. From (26) in Problem 19 in the text we find S4

ˆ 1 ˆ 1 1
1
c0 = xP0 (x) dx = x dx =
0 0 2
0.5
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1 5
c2 = 5 xP2 (x) dx = 5 (3x3 − x) dx =
0 0 2 8 x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1 3
c4 = 9 xP4 (x) dx = 9 (35x5 − 30x3 + 3x) dx = −
0 0 8 16
and
1 1
1 13
ˆ ˆ
c6 = 13 xP6 (x) dx = 13 (231x7 − 315x5 + 105x3 − 5x) dx = .
0 0 16 128
Hence, from (25) in the text,
1 5 3 13
f (x) = P0 (x) + P2 (x) − P4 (x) + P6 + · · · .
2 8 16 128
On the interval −1 < x < 1 this series represents the function f (x) = |x|.
S4
22. From (28) in Problem 20 in the text we find
ˆ 1 ˆ 1 1
3
c1 = 3 P1 (x) dx = 3 x dx = ,
0 0 2
0.5
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1 7
5x3 − 3x dx = − ,

c3 = 7 P3 (x) dx = 7 x
0 0 2 8 −1 −0.5 0.5 1
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1 11 −0.5
63x5 − 70x3 + 15x dx =

c5 = 11 P5 (x) dx = 11
0 0 8 16
and −1
1 1
1 75
ˆ ˆ
429x7 − 693x5 + 315x3 − 35x dx = −

c7 = 15 P7 (x) dx = 15 .
0 0 16 128
Hence, from (27) in the text,
3 7 11 75
f (x) = P1 (x) − P3 (x) + P5 (x) − P7 (x) + · · · .
2 8 16 128
On the interval −1 < x < 1 this series represents the odd function
(
−1, −1 < x < 0
f (x) =
1, 0 < x < 1.
23. Since there is a Legendre polynomial of any specified degree, every polynomial can be repre-
sented as a finite linear combination of Legendre polynomials.
24. We want to express both x2 and x3 as linear combinations of P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x,

P2 (x) = 12 (3x2 − 1), and P3 (x) = 12 (5x3 − 3x). Setting

1 3 3
2
x = c0 P0 (x) + c1 P1 (x) + c2 P2 (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 (3x − 1) = c0 − c2 + c1 x + c2 x2 ,
2
2 2 2
we obtain the system

1
c0 − c2 = 0
2
c1 = 0
3
c2 = 1.
2
The solution is c0 = 31 , c1 = 0, c2 = 23 . Thus, x2 = 1

P0 (x) + 23 P2 (x). Setting
3

3 1 2 1 3
x = c0 P0 (x) + c1 P1 (x) + c2 P2 (x) + c3 P3 (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 (3x − 1) + c3 (5x − 3x)
2 2

1 3 3 5
= c0 − c2 + c1 − c3 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 ,
2 2 2 2
we obtain the system

1
c0 − c2 = 0
2
3
c1 − c3 = 0
2
3
c2 = 0
2
5
c3 = 1.
2
The solution is c0 = 0, c1 = 53 , c2 = 0, c3 = 25 . Thus x3 = 3

5 P1 (x) + 25 P3 (x).
Chapter 12 in Review
´π
1. True, since −π (x2 − 1)x5 dx = 0
2. Even, since if f and g are odd then h(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f (x)[−g(x)] = f (x)g(x) = h(x)
3. cosine, since f is even
4. True
5. False; the Sturm-Liouville problem,

d
[r(x)y ′ ] + λp(x)y = 0, y ′ (a) = 0, y ′ (b) = 0,
dx
on the interval [a, b], has eigenvalue λ = 0.
6. Periodically extending the function we see that at x = −1 the function converges to 21 (−1 +
0) = − 21 ; at x = 0 it converges to 12 (0 + 1) = 21 , and at x = 1 it converges to 21 (−1 + 0) = − 12 .
Chapter 12 in Review 959
7. The Fourier series will converge to 1, the cosine series to 1, and the sine series to 0 at x = 0.
Respectively, this is because the rule (x2 + 1) defining f (x) determines a continuous function
on (−3, 3), the even extension of f to (−3, 0) is continuous at 0, and the odd extension of f
to (−3, 0) approaches −1 as x approaches 0 from the left.
8. cos 5x, since the general solution is y = c1 cos αx + c2 sin αx and y ′ (0) = 0 implies c2 = 0.
´1 1
´1
9. True, since 0 P2m (x)P2n (x) dx = 2 −1 P2m (x)P2n (x) dx = 0 when m 6= n.
10. Since Pn (x) is orthogonal to P0 (x) = 1 for n > 0,

ˆ 1 ˆ 1
Pn (x) dx = P0 (x)Pn (x) dx = 0.
−1 −1
1 1
11. We know from a half-angle formula in trigonometry that cos2 x = 2 + 2 cos 2x, which is a
cosine series.
12. (a) For m 6= n
L L
(2n + 1)π (2m + 1)π 1 n−m n+m+1
ˆ ˆ
sin x sin x dx = cos πx − cos πx dx
0 2L 2L 2 0 L L
= 0.
(b) From
L L
(2n + 1)π 1 1 (2n + 1)π L
ˆ ˆ
2
sin x dx = − cos x dx =
0 2L 0 2 2 L 2
we see that r
sin (2n + 1)π L

x
= 2 .
2L
13. Since
ˆ 0
a0 = (−2x) dx = 1,
−1
0
2
ˆ
an = (−2x)cos nπx dx = [(−1)n − 1],
−1 n2 π 2
and
0
4
ˆ
bn = (−2x) sin nπx dx = (−1)n
−1 nπ
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we have
∞
1 X 2 n 4 n
f (x) = + [(−1) − 1] cos nπx + (−1) sin nπx .
2 n=1 n2 π 2 nπ
14. Since
1
2
ˆ
a0 = (2x2 − 1) dx = − ,
−1 3
1
8
ˆ
an = (2x2 − 1) cos nπx dx = (−1)n ,
−1 n2 π 2
and
ˆ 1
bn = (2x2 − 1) sin nπx dx = 0
−1
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we have
∞
1 X 8
f (x) = − + (−1)n cos nπx.
3 n=1 n2 π 2
15. Since
1
2
ˆ
a0 = e−x dx = 2(1 − e−1 )
1 0
and
1
2 2
ˆ
an = e−x cos nπx dx = [1 − (−1)n e−1 ],
1 0 1 + n2 π 2
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , we have the cosine series
∞
X 1 − (−1)n e−1
f (x) = 1 − e−1 + 2 cos nπx.
n=1
1 + n2 π 2
Since
1
2 2nπ
ˆ
bn = e−x sin nπx dx = [1 − (−1)n e−1 ],
1 0 1 + n2 π 2
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , we have the sine series
∞
X n[1 − (−1)n e−1 ]
f (x) = 2π sin nπx.
n=1
1 + n2 π 2
f f
16. 3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
f (x) = |x| − x, −1 < x < 1 f (x) = 2x2 − 1, −1 < x < 1
f f
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
( −x ( −x
e , −1 < x < 0 −e , −1 < x < 0
f (x) = f (x) =
ex , 0<x<1 ex , 0<x<1
17. For λ = α2 > 0 a general solution of the given differential equation is
y = c1 cos (3α ln x) + c2 sin (3α ln x)
and
3c1 α 3c2 α
y′ = − sin (3α ln x) + cos (3α ln x).
x x
Since ln 1 = 0, the boundary condition y ′ (1) = 0 implies c2 = 0. Therefore
y = c1 cos (3α ln x).

Using ln e = 1 we find that y(e) = 0 implies c1 cos 3α = 0 or 3α = (2n − 1)π/2, for n = 1,

2, 3, . . . . The eigenvalues are λ = α2 = (2n − 1)2 π 2 /36 with corresponding eigenfunctions
cos [(2n − 1)π(ln x)/2] for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
18. To obtain the self-adjoint form of the differential equation in Problem 17 we note that an in-
´
tegrating factor is (1/x2 )e dx/x = 1/x. Thus the weight function is 1/x and an orthogonality
relation is ˆ e
1 2n − 1 2m − 1
cos π ln x cos π ln x dx = 0, m 6= n.
1 x 2 2
19. Since the coefficient of y in the differential equation is n2 , the weight function is the integrating
factor
√
1 ´ (b/a) dx 1 ´
− x 2 dx 1 1
ln (1−x2 ) 1 − x2 1
e = 2
e 1−x = 2
e 2 = 2
=√
a(x) 1−x 1−x 1−x 1 − x2
on the interval [−1, 1]. The orthogonality relation is
ˆ 1
1
√ Tm (x)Tn (x) dx = 0, m 6= n.
−1 1 − x2
20. Expanding in a full Fourier series we have
ˆ 2 ˆ 4
1
a0 = x dx + 2 dx = 3
2 0 2
ˆ 2 ˆ 4
(−1)n − 1

1 nπx nπx
an = x cos dx + 2 cos dx = 2
2 0 2 2 2 n2 π 2
ˆ 2 ˆ 4
1 nπx nπx −1
bn = x sin dx + 2 sin dx = 4
2 0 2 2 2 nπ
so
∞
(−1)n − 1

3 X nπx 2 nπx
f (x) = + 2 cos − sin .
2 n=1
n2 π 2 2 nπ 2
21. The boundary condition indicates that we use (15) and (16) of Section 12.6 in the text. With
b = 4 we obtain
ˆ 4
2
ci = xJ0 (αi x)f (x) dx
16J12 (4αi ) 0
ˆ 2
1
= xJ0 (αi x) dx t = αi x, dt = αi dx
8J12 (4αi ) 0
ˆ 2αi
1 1
= · tJ0 (t) dt
8J12 (4αi ) α2i 0
ˆ 2αi
1 d
= 2 [tJ1 (t)] dt [From (5) in 12.6 in the text]
8J1 (4αi ) 0 dt
2αi
1 J1 (2αi )
= tJ (t) = .

2 1
8J1 (4αi ) 4αi J12 (4αi )

0
Thus
∞
1 X J1 (2αi )
f (x) = J0 (αi x.
4 αi J12 (4αi )
i=1
22. Since f (x) = x4 is a polynomial in x, an expansion of f in Legendre polynomials in x must

terminate with the term having the same degree as f . Using the fact that x4 P1 (x) and
x4 P3 (x) are odd functions, we see immediately that c1 = c3 = 0. Now
1
1 1 1 4 1
ˆ ˆ
4
c0 = x P0 (x) dx = x dx =
2 −1 2 −1 5
5 1 4 5 1 1 4
ˆ ˆ
c2 = x P2 (x) dx = (3x6 − x4 ) dx =
2 −1 2 −1 2 7
9 1 4 9 1 1 8
ˆ ˆ
c4 = x P4 (x) dx = (35x8 − 30x6 + 3x4 ) dx = .
2 −1 2 −1 8 35
Thus
1 4 8
f (x) = P0 (x) + P2 (x) + P4 (x).
5 7 35
23. (a)
f (x) + f (−x) + f (x) − f (−x) 2f (x)
fe (x) + fo (x) = = = f (x)
2 2
(b)
f (−x) + f (−(−x)) f (−x) + f (x)

fe (−x) = = = fe (x)
2 2
f (−x) − f (−(−x)) f (−x) − f (x)
fo (−x) = = = −fo (x)
2 2
24.
f (x) + f (−x) ex + e−x
fe (x) = = = cosh x
2 2
f (x) − f (−x) ex − e−x
fo (x) = = = sinh x
2 2
25. If we let u = x + 2p then dx = du and we get

ˆ a ˆ a+2p
f (x) dx = f (u − 2p) du ←− since f is 2p − periodic, f (u − 2p) = f (u)
0 2p
ˆ a+2p
= f (u) du
2p
ˆ a+2p
= f (x) dx
2p
Therefore we get
ˆ a+2p ˆ 2p ˆ a+2p
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a 2p
ˆ 2p ˆ a
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a 0
ˆ a ˆ 2p
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx
0 a
ˆ 2p
= f (x) dx
0

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Chapter 12

Orthogonal Functions and Fourier Series

12.1 Orthogonal Functions

12. For m 6= n, we use Problems 11 and 10:

the functions are orthogonal.

= kφm (x)k2 + kφn (x)k2 .

we obtain c1 = 0 and c2 = −5/12.

19. Since sin nx is an odd function on [−π, π],

21. The fundamental period is 2π/2π = 1.

22. The fundamental period is 2π/(4/L) = 12 πL.

23. The fundamental period of sin x + sin 2x is 2π.

24. The fundamental period of sin 2x + cos 4x is 2π/2 = π.

26. The fundamental period of sin2 πx is 1 since

sin π(x + 1) = sin (πx + π) = sin πx cos π + cos πx sin π = − sin πx

sin2 π(x + 1) = (− sin πx)2 = sin2 πx.

(f3 , φ0 ) (f3 , φ1 ) (f3 , φ2 )

since [f1 (x)]2 > 0.

0 = (ai + bj + ck, i) = a(i, i) + b(j, i) + c(k, i) = a(1) + b(0) + c(0) = a.

Similarly, b = 0 and c = 0. Thus, the only vector in R3 orthogonal to i, j, and k is 0, so

12.2 Fourier Series

f is continous on the interval

f is continous on the interval

f is continous on the interval

f is continous on the interval

f is continous on the interval

f is continous on the interval

Converges to −1 at x = −1, − 21 at x = 0, and 1

f is continous on the interval

1 neπ (−1)n+1 (−1)n

21. The function in Problem 7 is continuous at x = π/2 so

22. The function in Problem 9 is continuous at x = π/2 so

we see that f 2 (x) consists exclusively of squared terms of the form

and cross-product terms, with m 6= n, of the form

12.3 Fourier Cosine and Sine Series

1. Since f (−x) = sin (−3x) = − sin 3x = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.

2. Since f (−x) = −x cos (−x) = −x cos x = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.

3. Since f (−x) = (−x)2 − x = x2 − x, f (x) is neither even nor odd.

4. Since f (−x) = (−x)3 + 4x = −(x3 − 4x) = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.

5. Since f (−x) = e|−x| = e|x| = f (x), f (x) is an even function.

6. Since f (−x) = e−x − ex = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.

7. For 0 < x < 1, f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = −f (x), f (x) is an odd function.

8. For 0 ≤ x < 2, f (−x) = −x + 5 = f (x), f (x) is an even function.

10. Since f (−x) = (−x)5 = x5 = f (x), f (x) is an even function.

12. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

13. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

14. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

15. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

16. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

17. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

18. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

19. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

20. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

21. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

22. Since f (x) is an odd function, we expand in a sine series:

23. Since f (x) is an even function, we expand in a cosine series:

and so Bn = 10[1 − (−1)n ]/nπ(10 − n2 ). Thus

and so Bn = 2/nπ(10 − n2 π 2 ). Thus

Substituting the assumption