3327hd - Ludman Compaction PDF

CONCEPT TO COMPLETION.
IT ALL BEGINS WITH MATRIX.
MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017
4 0 33+
subsidiaries incident safety culture years of experience
Matrix is a leader in construction, fabrication, repair and maintenance and offers

premier global engineering services for ammonia and urea systems, material handling
for fertilizer and grain facilities, sulfur technology from liquid storage, forming to
melting and construction services for balance of plant.
866 367 6879

matrixservicecompany.com
FUELING THE FUTURE.
Across the natural gas value chain – from gas processing to petrochemical plants,
large- and small-scale LNG and NGL terminals, there’s a reason leading energy
companies turn to Matrix for world-class engineering, procurement, construction,
fabrication, maintenance and repair.
866 367 6879 | matrixservicecompany.com

03 Comment
CONTENTS 55 The Red Carpet Treatment
Dr Gene Shelp and Dr John Motto, ENPAR Technologies Inc.,
05 World News Canada, look at effective ammonia treatment for commercial,
industrial and municipal applications.
12 Paying the Price
Neil Fleishman, Green Markets, USA, overviews the challenging 61 From Recovery to Remelting
global outlook for NPK prices. Mark Gilbreath, Matrix PDM Engineering, USA, outlines
infrastructure considerations for global dry sulfur logistics.
18 Keeping Pace
Meena Chauhan, Integer Research, UK, provides an outlook on 64 Finishing Touches
the global sulfur and sulfuric acid market. Wilfried Dirkx and Barbara Cucchiella, Stamicarbon, the
Netherlands, explore some of the latest developments in
23 A Focus on Efficiency fertilizer granulation technologies.
Catalyst gauze systems for ammonia oxidation and N2O
reduction are a key component in nitric acid plants. 70 The Bigger Picture
Oliver Henkes, Heraeus Precious Metals, Germany, illustrates this Gelmer Bouwman, Kreber, the Netherlands, considers how
via a series of technical case studies. efficient prilling towers can help to cope with the growing
global demand for fertilizers.
26 Making a Difference
Mårten Granroth, Haldor Topsoe, Denmark, explains how using 74 Granulation: An Evolving Industry
the right catalyst can affect sulfuric acid production. Nick Reckinger, FEECO International, Inc., USA, compares
traditional and novel approaches to granular fertilizer
32 Acid Plants of the Future production.
Urmish Shah and Michael Fenton, Chemetics Inc., Canada,
consider both the benefits of high performance sulfuric acid 81 Risky Business
equipment and options for increasing energy recovery. Chris Jones, Australia, and Charles Thomas, New Zealand,
Quest Integrity, and David Keen, Incitec Pivot Ltd, Australia, look
39 Sulfuric Acid Gas Cleaning at inspection options for mitigating high temperature hydrogen
Gary Siegel, Beltran Technologies, Inc., USA, explains the
attack.
effectiveness of simple modern electrostatic precipitator
designs. 89 Tackling Tough Environments
Raquel Rodríguez, Tubacex Innovation, Spain, outlines a study
41 The Pursuit of Performance of steel grades in harsh high temperature and high pressure urea
Douglas Azwell, MECS, USA, explores the impact of mist
environments.
eliminators on sulfuric acid tower performance.
45 A Story of Progress 94 Practice Makes Perfect
Dieter Krenz, Linde, Germany, Manel Serra, Inprocess, Spain,
Filippo Colucci, Solex Thermal Science Inc., the Netherlands,
and Theron Strange, Simplot Phosphates, USA, discuss dynamic
compares conventional fluid bed coolers and indirect plate
process simulation in an ammonia plant startup.
coolers, with a focus on energy consumption.
51 Feeling the Heat 101 Simulation For Safety
Todd Jaco, Emerson, USA, explains how using an effective
Alex Lattimer, Flexitallic Ltd, UK, explains how to overcome
ammonia plant operator training system can greatly reduce
bolted joint integrity issues during high temperature fertilizer
startup time.
production.
105 Increased P2O5
Curtis Griffin, PegasusTSI, USA, and Shannon Griffin, University
of South Florida, Chemical Engineering, USA, detail process
technology and pilot plant results for the recovery of P2O5 from
phosphate mine tailings and clays.
MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

112 15 Facts
This month we give you 15 facts on North America.
ON THE COVER
Increased oil and gas production, as well as environmental regulatory demand for lower sulfur levels in
transportation fuels, has created a need for efficient sulfur storage and transportation logistics. Industry
leader, Matrix PDM Engineering, outlines the infrastructure considerations for doing so.
For more information: www.matrixpdm.com
Copyright © Palladian Publications Ltd 2017. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this journal are those of the respective contributors
follow follow like join and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither does the publisher endorse any of the claims made in the
@WorldFertilizer World World World advertisements. Printed in the UK. Uncaptioned images courtesy of www.shutterstock.com
Fertilizer Fertilizer Fertilizer
+ =
!$$6!,5%
!$$02/&)4
3/,54)/.3&/2-5,4)̉.542)%.4
&%24),)3%202/$5#4)/.
From mixing of liquid melts and solid Inline mixing of liquid and
additives, through environmentally-friendly solid suspensions
Rotoform pastillation, to downstream Uniform, dust-free Rotoform pastilles
handling and bagging, our continuous Ultra-versatile production for easy
process solutions open the door to new product switchover
POSSIBILITIESINPROǆTABLEINNOVATIVEAND Low investment, low operating costs
EǅECTIVEMULTI NUTRIENTFERTILISERS Single source, end-to-end capability
CONTACT US TO FIND OUT HOW WE CAN ENHANCE YOUR PRODUCTS
Sandvik Process Systems

$IVISIONOF3ANDVIK-ATERIALS4ECHNOLOGY$EUTSCHLAND'MB(
3ALIERSTR&ELLBACH'ERMANY
4EL u&AX uINFOSPSDE SANDVIKCOM www.processsystems.sandvik.com
COMMENT
JAMES LITTLE, MANAGING EDITOR
CONTACT US
H
MANAGING EDITOR urricanes, typhoons and tropical storms are a fact of
James Little life in many parts of the world and no less so than
james.little@worldfertilizer.com
parts of the US and the Caribbean. Nonetheless, 2017
ASSISTANT EDITOR has been a particularly brutal year. Although the hurricane
David Rowlands
david.rowlands@worldfertilizer.com season is not officially over until the end of November,
a series of category 3 or greater hurricanes have already
ADVERTISEMENT DIRECTOR churned through the region wreaking unprecedented havoc
Rod Hardy
rod.hardy@worldfertilizer.com and destruction over a vast area. A number of Caribbean
islands have been left almost entirely destroyed, without
ADVERTISEMENT MANAGER
Chris Atkin power and with many thousands of people displaced from
chris.atkin@worldfertilizer.com their homes. The clean-up and rebuilding operation across the
ADVERTISING EXECUTIVES region will take years and with the majority of these islands
Will Powell heavily reliant on the tourism industry, the fallout from the 2017 hurricane season will be
will.powell@worldfertilizer.com
David Ramsden severe.
david.ramsden@worldfertilizer.com The southern US states of Texas, Louisiana and Florida were hit hard and in quick
PRODUCTION
succession by hurricanes Harvey and Irma with significant infrastructural damage and
Ben Munro the loss of over 100 lives. For the US, 2017 ranks as the 17th deadliest hurricane season
ben.munro@worldfertilizer.com since 1900. The 2005 season, still fresh in the minds of many, which included Katrina and
SUBSCRIPTIONS Rita, ranks in fifth place, whilst the most deadly season on record was in 1900 when the
Laura White Galveston hurricane lead to an estimated 8000 deaths.
laura.white@worldfertilizer.com
It is clear that the damage and disruption caused by Harvey and Irma will have an impact
WEBSITE MANAGER on the energy and chemicals sectors in the US. Texas is home to 31% of US refining capacity
Tom Fullerton
tom.fullerton@worldfertilizer.com and the Houston chemical complex accounts for almost two thirds of US primary plastics
production and 45% of basic chemical production. Many facilities were inundated with
WEBSITE EDITOR
Callum O'Reilly floodwaters in the wake of record rainfalls and the media was full of images of submerged
callum.oreilly@worldfertilizer.com refineries and petrochemical plants. Arkema’s Crosby plant grabbed the headlines with
DIGITAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANT reports of its impending explosion due to floodwaters knocking out its primary and backup
Angharad Lock refrigeration systems, bringing back vivid memories of the 2013 West Fertilizer Company
angharad.lock@worldfertilizer.com
ammonia nitrate explosion. However, in the event, whilst the initial storm impacts were
REPRINTS severe, the longer term effect on the energy and chemicals industry appears to be short
reprints@worldfertilizer.com
lived. Refineries and chemical plants, including the worse hit such as the Motiva refinery in
Port Arthur, are steadily coming back onstream. The Mosaic Company’s phosphate facilites
in Florida appeared initially to be the greatest concern within the fertilizer sector but the
SUBSCRIPTIONS company was quickly able to report only limited damage.
World Fertilizer Subscription rates:
It appears that a combination of improved weather forecasts from the
Annual subscription: £50 UK including postage US National Weather Service and lessons learned from previous hurricanes in the
£60 overseas (postage airmail)
Two year discounted rate: £80 UK including Gulf of Mexico have had a major impact on the energy and chemical sector’s ability to
postage £96 (postage airmail)
prepare for disaster. The Financial Times reports Karen Harbert, President of the Global
Subscription claims: Energy Institute at the US Chamber of Commerce, as saying, “The industry learnt a lot from
Claims for non receipt of issues must be
made within 3 months of publication of the Rita and Katrina, and invested in resiliency. They hardened a lot of facilities to withstand
issue or they will not be honoured without
charge. wind and flood damage.” Examples of this are widespread and include better backup
Applicable only to USA & Canada.
systems, control rooms and substations relocated to higher ground and the construction of
World Fertilizer (ISSN No: 2398-4384) improved floodwater defences.
is published bimonthly by Palladian
Publications Ltd, GBR, and distributed in the That these measures have had such an immediate impact is encouraging especially in
USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave,
Monroe NJ 08831. Periodicals postage paid the light of research into global warming and warnings of the increased threat of severe
New Brunswick, NJ, and additional mailing weather events escalating in years to come. Clearly there are lessons still to be learnt as the
offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes
to World Fertilizer, 701C Ashland Ave, Arkema Crosby plant demonstrates, but that they are being heeded is good news indeed
Folcroft PA 19032.
for this critical industrial sector located as it is in the hurricane belt.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 3

WORLD NEWS
BRUNEI thyssenkrupp awarded EPC contract for fertilizer plant
t hyssenkrupp has received a new order from state-owned

Brunei Fertilizer Industries for the engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC) of a new fertilizer
thyssenkrupp’s scope of supply for this fertilizer complex
will include the engineering, supply of equipment, erection,
supervision of construction and commissioning, as well as
production facility. The order was signed on 26 August and is various offsite and related utility systems.
expected to come into effect later this year. Brunei is one of the world’s largest producers and
The new fully integrated Brunei Fertilizer Industries exporters of natural gas. This project will support the
greenfield fertilizer complex will have a production capacity government’s long-term development strategy to diversify the
of 2200 tpd of ammonia and 3900 tpd of urea. After its country’s economy. As one of the key investment sectors, the
planned completion in 2021, the plant will use parts of development of downstream activities in the petrochemical
Brunei’s large natural gas reserves as feedstock to produce industry will help better utilise the main economic resources
high quality nitrogen fertilizer mainly for the export market. available: oil and gas.
CANADA K+S Potash Canada celebrates Port Moody terminal opening
K +S Potash Canada (KSPC) and Pacific Coast Terminals (PCT)

have celebrated the opening of a state-of-the-art potash
handling and storage facility at PCT’s Port Moody terminal.
innovative of its kind in the world.
Modifications to the site include a railcar unloading
facility; underground and above ground conveyor belts; new
The port facility is the western port destination for potash transfer towers; and a 263 m storage warehouse with capacity
from KSPC’s new multi-billion dollar Bethune mine in southern for 160 000 t of product. The facility is able to unload a
Saskatchewan. 18 000 t train in just four and a half hours. Ships with a
In 2014, KSPC and PCT signed a long-term agreement capacity of 70 000 t can be loaded at the quay.
for the delivery of products from KSPC’s Bethune mine to Potash from Bethune will be transported to the new
international clients. The agreement included modifications facility in unit trains pulled by up to five Canadian Pacific
to PCT’s existing facility, as well as the construction of a locomotives, at a total length of approximately 3 km.
new potash storage building on the site. Now that these Potash delivered to PCT’s site will be destined for China,
modifications have been completed, PCT’s site is the most Southeast Asia, India, Brazil and other international locations.
ARGENTINA PhosAgro considers DAP sales to Argentina
F ollowing the decision taken by Argentinian President

Mauricio Macri to cancel the 6% import duty on high
quality diammonium phosphate (DAP) from Russia, PhosAgro is
companies,” Guryev commented.
Both Russian fertilizer producers and Argentine farmers will
benefit from the development. Customers will benefit from
considering increasing its sales of fertilizers to Argentina. additional volumes of 300 000 – 350 000 t of high quality DAP
According to Andrey Guryev, CEO of PhosAgro, President products that are free from potentially harmful contaminants.
of the Russian Association of Fertilizer Producers and Guryev explained that agricultural products and mineral
Chairman of the Russian-Argentine Council of Entrepreneurs fertilizers, which are necessary for increasing the efficiency of
from the Russian side, this was a joint effort of federal agricultural production, constitute one of the most important
authorities, including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and and largest areas of trade between Russia and Argentina.
the Ministry of Economic Development, as well as the The Russian fertilizer industry views both Argentina and the
intergovernmental Russian-Argentine commission for rest of Latin America as a high-priority market, alongside the
co-operation in trade, science and technology, the Russian Russian domestic market. In 2016, Russian fertilizer exports to
Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs and the Chamber Argentina grew by 1.6 times year-on-year to 521 000 t, making
of Commerce and Industry. The interests of Russian business up 43% of Russia’s overall exports to Argentina.
have been upheld by lifting restrictive measures on the trade “The illogical situation in which high quality Russian DAP,
of high quality Russian mineral fertilizer products. which is free from potentially harmful contaminants, was
“We are grateful to the Argentine authorities for the subject to import duties, while fertilizer containing harmful
constructive dialogue and willingness to bolster mutually substances were allowed without being subject to duties, has
beneficial cooperation between Russian and Argentine now been resolved,” he concludes.

WORLD NEWS USA Vivakor acquires strategic intellectual
properties from QSI
IN BRIEF
USA V ivakor Inc. has released a statement

claiming that it has acquired
strategic intellectual properties (IP) from
a ‘drop-in’ solution. This is key when
introducing and commercialising a
catalyst enhancement technology in the
AMECO has announced that it has finished
QuantumSphere Inc. (QSI). chemicals industry.
the commissioning of a fit-for-purpose portal
In an all-stock transaction, Vivakor In 2015, FeNIX product efficacy
reclaimer for a major global producer.
secured patented Nanocatalyst IP was demonstrated in two commercial
The portal reclaimer can handle 480 tph
from QSI. This technology produces ammonia plants. The plants, located in
of urea with a rail span of 54 m at a nitrogen
a number of catalytic elements in the central China, reported an improvement
operations facility in Texas, US.
30 – 60 nanometer range. Vivakor of up to 15%. Because of the increase
AMECO designed and supplied an innovative
claims that the result is a catalyst that in catalytic activity, higher production
urea storage solution with a portal reclaimer
has a high surface area yielding greater conversion rates can help to reduce
capable of dragging urea up to 20 degrees below
catalytic activity. Approximately 90% consumption of energy and increase
ground.
of all chemical processes make use of production output. As a result, this
The portal reclaimer reportedly allows the
catalysts and, due to the requirement for provides greater profits to chemical
facility to increase its storage capacity by 50%
cleaner fuels and more efficient chemical plant owners and operators.
compared to other solutions.
production processes, worldwide In the statement, Vivakor claims that
demand for catalysts is forecasted at it will leverage QSI’s patented capabilities
over US$20 billion in 2019, according to and existing commercial relationships
Canada Vivakor. in order to help penetrate the US$100
In order to match supply to market demand,
FeNIX is QSI’s lead product, and is an billion ammonia market. The company
and to utilise its lowest-cost Rocanville
iron-based nanocatalyst designed for use will also use QSI’s IP to develop catalysts
facility, Potash Corp. has announced that it will
in ammonia production. It is applied as a for other chemicals markets, including
temporarily curtail potash production at two
coating to existing standard commercial methanol, hydrogen, light olefins, and
Canadian mines.
ammonia catalysts and is considered other hydrocarbon-based processes.
Allan will reportedly curtail production for
a 10-week period, commencing 19 November
2017. Lanigan, meanwhile, will curtail production CANADA Two fertilizer terminals completed
for an eight-week period, commencing
3 December 2017.
The amount of temporary layoffs associated
F ederated Co-operatives Ltd (FCL)
has commissioned state-of-the-art,
high-throughput fertilizer terminals
five full-time employees, while the
Brandon facility has four.
More than 125 Co-op Agro Centres
with these adjustments has not been determined. in Brandon, Manitoba, and Hanley, across Western Canada currently
Instead, the company says that it is assessing Saskatchewan, Canada. Both facilities provide agricultural producers with
opportunities for reassigning employees during blend and distribute a complete suite important crop supplies, including
these periods to essential services, capital of crop nutrition products for Co-op crop protection products and seed.
projects and maintenance activities. locations and agricultural producers Of those, 77 locations currently offer
throughout the Canadian Prairies. fertilizer and more are expected to
The 68 000 ft2 terminal in Manitoba include it among the products and
India has the capacity to house 27 500 t of services they provide in the future.
The Arab Potash Co. has reached agreements fertilizer, while the second terminal in Each terminal can load a super B
to supply 550 000 – 600 000 t of potash to Saskatchewan is 96 000 ft2 and has the trailer of blended fertilizer in 10 min.
Indian Potash Ltd and Zuari Chemicals. These capacity to store 45 000 t of fertilizer. and dispense up to 400 t of straight
quantities will be shipped from Aqaba port The facilities were constructed on a fertilizer in an hour. Rail access
to Indian ports in 2017 and in 1H18. The prices combined budget of CAN$75 million. allows both facilities to efficiently
and terms of these contracts will be in line Construction of the facilities was receive product from domestic and
with market conditions globally and in India. announced in 2016 and was completed international suppliers, while each
on schedule. Both terminals began terminal is centrally located for
receiving and shipping product in distribution to Co-op Agro Centres
April. The Hanley facility currently has across Western Canada.
6 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Producing tailor-made urea granules of
the highest possible quality
• Large reductions in formaldehyde addition compared to

other technologies
• Unprecedented uninterrupted run times- exceeding 150
days
• Unmatched, low dust and ammonia emissions from
the granulation vent stack, meeting the most stringent
environmental emission standards
• Lean design with minimum equipment requirement
• Low urea dust formation, resulting in a lower wet-recycle
and a lower OPEX cost
• Possiblity to upscale to a multi-functional granulation-
design (e.g. addition of micronutrients, or a large range of
ammonia sulphate concentrations from 0-50 wt %)
For more information visit:

https://www.stamicarbon.com/launch-finishing-technology-video
The innovation & license company

of Maire Tecnimont
WORLD NEWS
GERMANY Minister President of Hesse visits
NEWS Werra Verbund plant
HIGHLIGHTS
K +S has announced that
Volker Bouffier, the
Minister President of Hesse, Germany,
ground and that potash miners could
always rely on his word. A close dialogue
with the Board of Executive Directors,
has visited the Werra Verbund plant plant management and employees is
to gain a greater understanding of the indispensable.”
current economic situation of the potash K+S claims that Bouffier was informed
district. in detail on the status of work on the
During the visit, Bouffier also new KCF facility, which will reduce saline
praised the company’s efforts to make wastewater by a further 20% in future.
production more environmentally In addition to this, he also asked about
friendly using the latest technology. the extent to which the facilities erected
K+S claims that a focal point was the as part of the initial package of water
progress on developing a new kainite protection measures at the Werra plant
cystallisation and flotation facility (KCF) sites had fulfilled expectations in practice.
to decrease wastewater. The Chairman of the K+S Board of
• Ethiopia considers Bouffier said: “The state government Executive Directors, Burkhard Lohr,
new partner in of Hesse remains committed to creating emphasised that the Werra Verbund
potash mine a stable environment to safeguard jobs
in the Werra potash district. However,
plant occupies a firm place in the global
K+S Group production network. He
development we expect K+S to continue to stand said: “The extraction of domestic raw
• Aguia completes by its obligation to deploy innovative
processes and technologies to conserve
materials and the protection of the
environment are compatible with each
modelling and the environment in the future as well.” other. Our new facility will result in
update of phosphate Timo Lübeck, the local Bundestag
candidate, noted that he was pleased
further innovations becoming reality. To
make this perfectly clear, we are engaged
resource that the minister president had accepted in a close dialogue with political circles,
• JBS invests in fertilizer his invitation to visit the region, adding
that it was “important to have Hesse’s
our site local communities as well as
environmental associations and civic
plant in Brazil Minister President actually on the initiative.”
USA Mosaic provides detail on impact of

Hurricane Irma
Visit our website for more news:
www.worldfertilizer.com
M osaic Co. has released a
statement providing an update
on its third quarter business performance
from the hurricane, it does expect
approximately 250 000 – 350 000 t of
lower production in September. Added
in connection with Hurricane Irma. to the damage at the company’s Bartow
Before the hurricane, Mosaic claims warehouse, Mosaic claims that this
that profitability metrics were originally could result in a loss of up to 400 000 t
tracking ahead of the third quarter of finished phosphate product.
guidance, with both good demand and The company will provide further
strong operational performance. details on the hurricane’s financial
Whilst the company says it was lucky impact in the month of September as
not to have endured significant damages part of its third quarter earnings release.

An Absolute
Indication of
HTHA in Parent
Material...
The presence of Hydrogen in industrial plants is a source of damage.

HTHA (High Temperature Hydrogen Attack) is a form of degradation
due to the formation of Methane (CH4) by reaction with carbon in steel.
HTHA can occur either in the parent material or in the weld itself and
manifests itself in several types of alloys.
Methane formed by the reaction ADVANTAGES OF HTHA INSPECTION:

accumulates at internal voids on the
6LJQLȌFDQWUHGXFWLRQRIULVNUHVXOWV
grain boundaries, where under certain
from using the Mistras inspection
conditions the build-up can produce methodology
micro-cracks. In the weld material this
+7+$1'7LVPRUHFRVWHIȌFLHQWWKDQ
leads mostly to a leak before break predictive replacement
situation but when the damage is in
Actions can be taken immediately, as
the parent material, the result is
WKHRULJLQRILQGLFDWLRQVDUHFODVVLȌHG
mostly catastrophic for people and
with extremely high reliability
the environment.
Attack can be detected at an early
The inspection methodology uses stage when the asset still has an
advanced techniques including Time extreme low risk of failure
Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD), Advanced The examination is non-intrusive,
ultrasonic backscatter technique resulting in major cost savings
(AUBT), and velocity ratio measurements. No false calls since starting the
HTHA inspections
This inspection methodology meets
The Inspection methodology is
the HTHA inspection approach
based on more than 27 years of
proposed in API 941.
traceable experience.
For more information on HTHA detection please contact:

Dr Jonathan Burns | +44 (0)1954 231612 | jonathan.burns@mistrasgroup.co.uk
One Source for

Asset Protection Solutions www.mistrasgroup.co.uk
WORLD NEWS
SAUDI ARABIA Production commences at
DIARY DATES Umm Wu’al phosphate project
Sulphur 2017
6 – 9 November 2017
Atlanta, USA
https://events.crugroup.com/sulphur/home
A ccording to Fluor Corp.,
Ma’aden Wa’ad Al-Shamal
Phosphate Company’s (MWSPC)
bring this facility to production.
We look forward to continuing
our partnership with Ma’aden in
Umm Wu’al phosphate project in developing their next phase of
Saudi Arabia has started production mining projects in Saudi Arabia
of ammonia, merchant-grade through our recently signed
Energy Efficiency Conference 2017
13 – 15 November 2017 acid and fertilizer. MWSPC is a memorandum of understanding.”
Athens, Greece joint venture between The Saudi Production has begun on
https://ertc.wraconferences.com/ Arabian Mining Company (Ma’aden), diammonium phosphate (DAP)
The Mosaic Company and fertilizer, merchant-grade acid
Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. and ammonia. Phosphate serves
Iranian Nitrogen + Syngas 2017 (SABIC). as a key element in fertilizer for
25 – 26 November 2017 Fluor is providing overall agricultural crops. As one of the
Tehran, Iran programme management largest integrated phosphate
https://events.crugroup.com/iraniannitrogensyngas/home services, as well as engineering, fertilizer plants, the facility will
procurement and operations and help meet global food supply
readiness services for various needs by delivering 3 million tpy
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia scopes of this US$8 billion of diammonium phosphate and
12 – 14 December 2017 megaproject. nitrogen, phosphorous and potash
Houston, USA “As part of Saudi Arabia’s Vision fertilizers.
http://tps.tamu.edu/ 2030, this world-class project With a peak site workforce
will have a long-lasting impact of 28 000 from more than 50
on the region, as it diversifies nationalities, Fluor implemented
Nitrogen + Syngas 2018 the country’s economy and its world-class safety programmes,
26 February – 1 March 2018 creates local job opportunities including its Life CriticalSM
Göteborg, Sweden for citizens,” said Tony Morgan, programme, to support the
https://events.crugroup.com/nitrogenandsyngas/home President of Fluor’s Mining and project. As a result of these
Metals business. “After less than programmes, the project has
four years from the start of the achieved more than 46 million
Phosphates 2018 execution phase, we are proud to consecutive work hours without a
12 – 14 March 2018 have partnered with Ma’aden to lost-time incident.
Marrakesh, Morocco
https://events.crugroup.com/phosphates/home USA Montana to receive fertilizer plant by
December 2017
Middle East Sulphur 2018
18 – 21 March 2018
Abu Dhabi, UAE
https://events.crugroup.com/middleeastsulphur/home
T own & Country Supply
Association has announced
plans to open a 22 800 tpy
be used at the plant. A spur line
will be installed for railcars (85
cars).
fertilizer plant in eastern “We think we’re going to be
Montana, US, by December 2017. more timely in getting product
The plant will be capable out to be spread,” commented
of blending 240 tph, and will General Manager Wes Burley,
Register to store approximately 9000 t adding that the plant will “allow
receive a regular copy of urea nitrogen as well as us to quickly produce quality
www.worldfertilizer.com a 5000 t monoammonium custom blends based on what
phosphate (MAP) bin. Ammonium the soil tests recommended for
nitrate (AN) is not expected to various crops in huge quantities.”

TO INNOVATIVE INDIRECT HEAT EXCHANGE TECHNOLOGY AND OPTIMIZED EFFICIENCY.
Achieve unprecedented improvements in

energy efficiency through greater heat recovery
and significantly lower energy losses, as well
as a reduced physical footprint. Deliver more
consistent outputs through customizable indirect
heat transfer area and flow channel configuration.
Put our 30 plus years of research & development

to work for you today. Your bottom line will thank
you tomorrow.
FIND OUT MORE.

VISIT US AT ANNA CONFERENCE
AUSTIN, TEXAS
VISIT WWW.SOLEXTHERMAL.COM
OR CALL 1.866.379.3500
PAYING THE PRICE Neil Fleishman,
Green Markets, USA,
overviews the challenging
global outlook for NPK prices.
G
lobal commodity prices are currently in a
super-cycle and, like most commodities,
fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium; NPK) are also oversupplied.
While global macro-economic issues are a factor,
the dynamic that got the market to this point is
straightforward: a sustained period of high fertilizer
prices led to over investment. Long-term demand
estimates at the start of the expansion cycle also
failed to meet high expectations, compounding the
current over capacity problem.
Questions arise regarding when this super-cycle
will shift and how much price support would be
necessary to do so. While each nutrient category
has different market characteristics, the path out of
oversupply is rooted in long-term demand growth
for all three of the major commodities.
Potash
Potash is the most highly concentrated of the three
fertilizer markets, with the bulk of world trade being
made by only a few players operating out of Canada,
Russia and Belarus, and exporting approximately 78%
of globally traded product. For 2017, potash
nameplate production capacity has been estimated
to be approaching 87 million t versus an estimated
mid-point demand of 62 million t. This nameplate
capacity figure includes slack capacity in Canada,
recent global capacity additions and any potential
brownfield expansions. Against nameplate capacity,
Canada currently controls approximately 37% of
capacity, with Russia controlling 14% and finally
Belarus with 12%.
It is important to note that whilst operational
potash capacity is lower than nameplate capacity,
there is still significant oversupply. While it would
take lead time for a company running at reduced
rates to ramp back up, significantly higher prices
and/or increased demand would pull product into
the market, given enough lead time.
The Russian and Belarusian Trade Association
(BPC) dismantled nearly four years ago and doing
so decreased prices sharply in a move towards
12
13
largest producers also continue to
expand production. Moreover, there is
also no shortage of junior players
looking for funding as over 55 such
projects have been tracked as of
mid-July (not including dormant
efforts). While supply management
could potentially push potash prices
higher, it would ultimately incentivise
even more capacity, slack or
otherwise, to enter the market.
Figure 1. Global potash supply and demand. For 2017, Green Markets continues
to track solid potash demand globally.
However, historically, this potash
demand is highly elastic and
suggestive of demand being
predicated on a low-pricing
environment. With the potash market
now facing a long-term threat of new
capacity, it will be a tough road to
sustained higher pricing.
Phosphate
Phosphate supply has medium
concentration but large players (Mosaic,
Figure 2. Global DAP/MAP supply and demand. Ma’aden and OCP) control over 25% of
the global diammonium phosphate/
volume-over-price marketing. Before BPC dissolved, the two monoammonium phosphate (DAP/MAP) capacity. Green
major export associations (BPC and Canpotex, the Canadian Markets has estimated that DAP/MAP nameplate capacity for
export arm) focused on price-over-volume marketing. 2017 will reach approximately 46.5 million t (nutrient) versus
Canpotex members currently take a disciplined approach to mid-point demand of 30 million t (nutrient). North America
their production, whereas former BPC members run their currently accounts for approximately 15% global capacity, with
production levels at maximum levels in a bid to pick up Africa at approximately 14% and China at approximately 31%.
market share. Over the past decade, Ma’aden and OCP built
Many players in the market continue to watch for signs mega-projects that brought close to 8 million t into the
of improved co-operation between Russia and Belarus, as market. OCP, located in Morocco, is now the world’s largest
this would increase prices. However, this revived producer of both processed phosphates and phosphate rock.
collaboration is likely elusive for the foreseeable future Notably, both OCP and Ma’aden plan continued expansion,
given long standing differences between the two countries. predicted to potentially add another 7 million metric t of
Belarus’ Alexander Lukashenko has noted that the country’s additional capacity in the next five to seven years (depending
interests must be forefront in any potential agreement. For on financing). At current demand levels, this incremental
the moment, it remains clear that both sides are far apart on supply (along with other potential projects) would continue
the negotiating table for near-term co-operation. A return to push the usage rates lower in the near to medium-term.
to price-over-volume marketing strategies for all major Supply management from some of these players has been
players in the market is, therefore, unlikely. effective in creating price support in recent years and these
Low prices have also led producers to capacity expansions are likely to be managed to continue to reflect this
rationalisation and consolidation, with companies such as discipline.
PotashCorp and Intrepid shutting in their higher cost capacity. Historically, North America was one of the key producing
The PotashCorp and Agrium (Nutrien) merger is a prime phosphate regions. North American production has been
example of companies joining forces in order to capitalise declining in recent years due the region’s high relative cost
and shield against unfavourable market conditions. structure compared to the Middle East and North Africa.
The global potash market’s long-term pricing outlook North American producers have shifted some production
suffers from significant slack capacity from established towards higher value specialty products, a trend that is
players combined with a capacity overhang. Recent projects unlikely to reverse. China remains one of the world’s largest
that are now online include K+S’ Bethune (formerly Legacy) producers and exporters. In 2016, Green Markets tracked
mine in Canada at 2 million t and Tajikistan’s Garlyk deposit record exports from the country. With capacity still projected
at 1.4 million t. There is also incremental capacity on the to grow further in China, excess exports from the country
horizon from multiple greenfield projects, for example from could continue to weigh on global pricing.
Eurochem, and over the next decade from Belaruskali, The current pricing environment has also led to
Uralkali and BHP Billiton – all of whom have substantial consolidation in the phosphate market with Mosaic buying
projects either under evaluation or progressing. China’s Vale’s assets. Further consolidation in the market could be

50 Years of HPD® Evaporation &
Crystallization Expertise for Fertilizers
WATER TECHNOLOGIES
Veolia’s fertilizer industry experience ensures

industry leading technologies, process design,
and project execution
HPD® Crystallization Technologies combined with
Veolia’s experience, state-of-the-art testing facilities,
and project execution capabilities is a reliable partner
in NPK fertilizers projects development.
Contact us for greenfield projects, capacity

expansions, or systems evaluations. We also
specialize in optimizing non-Veolia systems. Scan for information.
USA
Tel: +1 815-609-2000
www.veoliawatertech.com
hpd.info@veolia.com
long since been shelved or cancelled,
the first wave of new production
capacity has already impacted markets
and led to a reduction in imported
product.
This increased localisation of
production in North America is a
global trend. Multiple countries,
including India, are also looking to
decrease dependency on imported
product. However, feedstock sources
Figure 3. Global urea supply and demand. remain a challenge. Notably, export
availability from other regions (outside
on the horizon but vertical integration, synergies and a low of China), such as the Middle East, North Africa and
cost of production would be key. Southeast Asia, have also increased, leading to a glut of urea
It must be noted that multiple DAP/MAP projects on the global market at the same time that import needs
(outside of China) have faced significant issues, leading to are being reduced.
only a handful with a clear path to increased supply. There This expansion in urea capacity pushed usage rates
are multiple reasons for this: a low price environment with lower and reduced the need for Chinese exports. During
current oversupply; announcements by the largest players of 2016, the market saw a reduction in exported Chinese
their goals for continued expansion; and political difficulties product coupled with even lower prices. This trend has
in the regions of intended projects. continued into 2017. While the pace of expansion in urea
Overall, this suggests that the phosphate market will capacity is beginning to slow, Green Markets is tracking a
begin to bottom heading into 2020. Green Markets backlog of projects that could continue to take shape if
forecasts that it will take several years for rates to recover prices were to recover. Any meaningful near-term recovery
meaningfully and provide price support. in urea pricing would also likely pull Chinese product into
the market, muting any upside to pricing.
Urea Most importantly, the market is faced with the reality of
Urea is the least concentrated of the three major nutrient the supply and demand balance for urea. In 2013, the global
markets with some of the world’s largest producers only utilisation rate of urea production was 85%; in 2017,
accounting for fractions of global supply. Supply Green Markets estimates it has fallen to 76%. Meanwhile,
management from producers would have almost no impact benchmark prices in the US have fallen by as much as 32% in
on global pricing. Global urea capacity is estimated to reach 2017, and it is thought that the supply and demand balance
approximately 232 million t (including China) in 2017 versus will bottom into 2020, moving slowly and only slightly
mid-point of demand at 180 million t. Consolidation in higher from there. Thus, while the pace of supply
nitrogen markets has been limited following fragmentation expansions is curtailing, the market will be challenged to
in the market and has diminished the impact mergers would absorb the significant supply increases of the last few years.
have had on supply volumes.
Urea is the most ubiquitous nitrogen fertilizer globally, Conclusion
largely due to its ease of application and relatively low cost The current low price environment for primary fertilizers is
of transportation. The vast majority of the world’s recent likely to continue in the near-term and the market is likely
nitrogen expansions has been focused on urea in low cost to stay challenged as a result of significant over capacity.
areas of production. China is the world’s largest global urea Fertilizer commodities are in a super-cycle of oversupply
producer and is also thought of as the marginal cost and the path out is long-term global demand growth
supplier to the world. alongside a slowdown in capacity expansion. While each
China has been through a period of rapid capacity nutrient has its own dynamic with regards to market
expansion over the past 15 years with capacity doubling. concentration and potential for supply management, all
The country now accounts for approximately 40% of three are facing oversupply with potential continued
global urea capacity. With low prevailing global urea expansion on the horizon.
prices, China has moved to curtail production and The potash market has the highest concentration of
permanently shut down less efficient capacity. Nearly 70% players, fractured supply discipline, and faces a capacity
of the nation’s urea capacity is based on coal gasification, overhang for the foreseeable future. The phosphate market
which has led to environmental concerns. As steps are has medium concentration of players with several large
taken to limit production and curtail exports, the established companies who continue to build supply. The
importance of Chinese product on the global market has nitrogen (urea) market is highly fragmented and significant
significantly reduced with global expansion picking up the capacity growth means it will take time for demand to catch
balance. up. Many urea global urea projects that are currently stalled
North America has been a centrepiece of the global or in difficult regions to build could come to fruition if
nitrogen expansion: with a sustained outlook for low-priced prices were to rise. Nevertheless, recovery may take longer
natural gas feedstock, there have been over 40 potential than some in the market are professing and the path higher
projects announced in the past five years. While many have will likely be muted when that happens.

KEEPING
PACE
18
Meena Chauhan, Integer Research, UK,
provides an outlook on the global sulfur and sulfuric acid market.
he global sulfur market has seen global supply and a 66% increase on regional supply
T significant growth in recent years, on

the back of the rise in demand for
energy and petrochemicals. There has
been a marked drive in investment in the sour gas and
heavy oil sectors, which has led to increased sulfur
since 2011. The region overtook North America as the
leading sulfur producer in the world last year, with a
large scale sour gas project in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) adding an additional 3 million tpy of sulfur
capacity alone. The UAE has become the largest sulfur
recovery across the world. Due to the hydrogen sulfide producing country in the Middle East, with its supply
(H2S) content in sour gas, the scale of growth in gas exceeding 6 million tpy. Due to limited domestic
processing has been a leading factor in supply changes in consumption of sulfur in the UAE, trade patterns have
many regions. A main shift in the sulfur industry over the shifted. Increased volumes are now being exported to
last decade has been a rise of sulfur production in the markets such as Brazil, China and North Africa.
Middle East region. This has led to changing dynamics
across global pricing benchmarks and trade flows. Medium and long-term sulfur outlooks
In 2016, Middle East sulfur production totalled over The medium-term outlook for global sulfur supply is
16 million t, representing approximately 27% of total for strong growth, with projects that are already in the
19
US$/tonne Sulphur prices, 2014 – 2017 potential ramp-up date of this project, with numerous

China CFR
Middle East FOB
technical delays pushing the startup timeline forward.
Vancouver FOB spot
Integer now expects the first phase of the project to
begin production in 2018. The project comprises two

phases, due to start in quick succession of one another.

At capacity, Barzan would add over 800 000 tpy of
sulfur, impacting the export market significantly. Based

on expected project developments in Qatar, Iran, the

UAE and Saudi Arabia, the Middle East is set to remain
the leading global producing region of sulfur in the

medium to long-term. As a result, increased competition

Jan-15 Mar-15 May-15 Jul-15 Sep-15 Nov-15 Jan-16 Mar-16 May-16 Jul-16 Sep-16 Nov-16 Jan-17 Mar-17 May-17 Jul-17 is likely to emerge between suppliers across all regions
due to the lower cost of moving sulfur from plants to
Figure 1. Global sulfur prices have been firming since May ports for most Middle East producers, versus higher
as demand in key markets including China emerged. logistical costs for some producers in other regions such
as the Former Soviet Union and North America.
One issue impacting long-term developments for
sulfur supply is the sustained low oil price environment.
This has taken its toll on some refinery and energy
projects, with many cancellations or delays due to
investment freezes. Oilsands development in
Western Canada has seen a drop, as well as some
refining projects in Asia. This slowdown in investment
signals the potential for lower growth rates for sulfur
supply in the long-term and a tighter balance in the
market. However, in the medium-term, almost every
region is set to see supply increases.
Western Europe and North America are the
exceptions to this trend. While the US is set to remain
Figure 2. Sulfur-based acid production gained market the leading global producer of oil-based sulfur supply
share in 2017 to represent 63% of global output. over the next 10 years, gas-based supply is expected to
see a dip in the country. This trend is mirrored in
Morocco monthly acid imports, 2015-2017
Canada, where there has been a structural decline in this
‘000 tonnes
160 sector for many years, leading to a net decline in total
140
sulfur production. Sour gas well depletion and
Other
challenging economics have been drivers of this
120
Norway downturn. Meanwhile, in Western Europe, gas-based
Germany
100
India production is also expected to decline, and there is
Sweden
80 Canada little scope for any growth from the oil refining sector.
Poland
60 Belgium In recent years, numerous oil refineries in the region
Bulgaria
40 Spain have closed or been converted to terminals in the
Japan
20 Mexico
region, creating pockets of tightness.
The Philippines
The majority of elemental sulfur is used to produce
0
sulfuric acid in the production of processed phosphates.
Feb-15
Jul-15
Jan-15
Mar-15
Apr-15
May-15
Jun-15
Aug-15
Sep-15
Oct-15
Nov-15
Dec-15
Jan-16
Feb-16
Mar-16
Apr-16
May-16
Jun-16
Jul-16
Aug-16
Sep-16
Oct-16
Nov-16
Dec-16
Jan-17
Feb-17
Mar-17
Sulfuric acid is also used in the chemical industries,

including caprolactam and titanium dioxide, with
Figure 3. Moroccan sulfuric acid imports have remained numerous applications outside the fertilizer sector. The
strong in 2017, with 1Q17 up by over 25% year-on-year,
continuing to support European acid prices. main hotspot for sulfur demand growth is the
Middle East, North Africa (MENA) region due to the
expansion of processed phosphates production. In
pipeline due to come online in the period up until 2022. Morocco, OCP’s Jorf Lasfar hub expansions have led to
In Kazakhstan, the long-delayed Kashagan project has changes in sulfur and sulfuric acid trade to the country
started oil production. This is set to add over due to the absence of domestic sulfur production. In
1 million tpy of sulfur at capacity. The first sulfur export Saudi Arabia, processed phosphates production is also
shipment is expected in late 2017. If the project ramps set to rise significantly, leading to a 100% increase in
up to capacity on schedule, this points to a more domestic sulfur consumption in the medium-term. The
bearish sentiment for the market due to increased country is also the leading sulfur supplier to China,
availability of supply. reaching 2.5 million t in 2016 on this trade route. The
Another project on the horizon that is set to add to changing tide of demand in Saudi Arabia has led to
the global supply balance significantly is RasGas’ Barzan questions over whether it will maintain its ranking in
project in Qatar. There is uncertainty around the China’s trade. Based on production expectations from

ARE YOU
AT RISK FOR
UNPLANNED
DOWNTIME?
In today’s competitive syngas markets, the costs

associated with unplanned downtime are high.
Quest Integrity’s Reformer Care solution is an integrity management system for the entire
steam reformer. Our proprietary inspection technologies capture 100% of the data for the
internal and external tube surfaces. Combined with our advanced engineering analysis
and assessments, Quest Integrity enables you to minimize the risk of unplanned downtime
and make confident real-time operating decisions.
s&AILUREMECHANISMSIDENTIlEDANDQUANTIlED
s&ITNESS FOR SERVICEANDREMAININGLIFEASSESSMENTSINACCORDANCETO
!0)!3-%&&3
s4EMPERATURECORRECTIONSOFTWAREFORMOREACCURATETUBETEMPERATUREMEASUREMENT
Get the information you need to confidently make decisions on your steam reformers.
To learn more about our inspection and engineering solutions, visit our website.
QuestIntegrity.com
CHALLENGE CONVENTION
planned projects, sulfur output would exceed 6 million t Chile’s acid imports have been declining in recent
in the outlook and offshore exports would likely remain years, owing to shifting demand from the copper sector.
strong. Since 2013, annual trade to the country has dropped from
Global sulfur prices have been mixed through 2017. A over 3 million tpy, to just 1.7 million t in 2016. However, in
weak 2Q17 weighed on prices, which gave way to a firmer 2017, this trend has seen a complete reversal due to major
start to 3Q17 due to improved import demand in China. outages from smelters in the region, including Peru. As a
Low refinery run rates led to an erosion of inventories, result, acid imports to Chile saw an 18% increase
and buyers re-entered the market. The run up in pricing is year-on-year in 1Q17. January – May 2017 data shows a 6%
expected to continue in the short-term. However, going rise, as the situation began to normalise. In the coming
into 2018, there is a question over how much additional years, Integer expects that sulfuric acid consumption in
supply will enter the market to influence the global Chile will drop, leading to further decreases in acid
balance, which may put downwards pressure on pricing. imports.
Project delays could keep prices in a higher range. For the remainder of the year, support continues for
sulfuric acid prices to remain stable to firm, driven by
Sulfuric acid tightness in major regions. Northeast Asia is set to remain
Global sulfuric acid production totalled close to short of spot availability throughout 4Q17, keeping Japan
268 million t in 2016, with over 60% produced from and South Korea’s sulfuric acid export prices firm. Trade
elemental sulfur. This share of supply largely represents data for the year to date reflects how both planned and
consumers producing acid for captive consumption unplanned outages at smelters have impacted availability
across the fertilizer and industrial sectors. In some cases, and prices so far. Trade from Japan in January – May 2017
sulfur-based acid is produced solely for sale and trade. totalled 1.1 million t, representing a 10% drop on a year
Approximately 28% of global acid supply is metallurgical earlier, adding to the tighter balance in the region.
based, produced as a byproduct from the metals sector. It Meanwhile, South Korean acid exports have also dipped,
is this portion of the market that has the most impact on with 1H17 data showing a 7% drop to 1.4 million t.
global trade and sulfuric acid pricing. Despite the scale of Sulfuric acid trade to Morocco has seen a major shift
acid produced worldwide, only around 8 – 9% of total in recent years, and this is set to remain an influential
output is actually traded. Other than metallurgical and factor for the market in the short to medium-term.
sulfur-based acid, the remaining portion of supply is split Historically, direct acid imports to Morocco were in the
across other types, including acid from pyrite ore roasting region of 400 000 – 500 000 tpy. Since 2014, this has
– this is the one source of acid expected to contract. In been on the rise and more than doubled in 2016, with
2017, Integer estimates pyrites represented 7% of global trade totalling 1.3 million t. Supply sources have also been
supply, which is set to decline to 5% in the medium to evolving along with the volume increase, with 2016 trade,
long-term. This is driven largely by changes expected to including Canada, the Philippines, Japan and Mexico.
materialise in China due to the rise of other forms of European sulfuric acid producers are reliant on this
domestic acid production. market as an outlet for surplus acid, particularly with the
China is currently the leading global producer of loss of Cuba, a major market. The Moa nickel and cobalt
sulfuric acid, with its share of metallurgical supply also project in Cuba previously imported part of its sulfuric
set to grow significantly due to the spate of investments acid requirement, with annual imports totalling between
in copper smelters. While China is a net importer of acid 400 000 t and 500 000 t. However, since the startup of a
due to the size of its consumption needs, volumes of acid new 2000 tpy sulfuric acid plant at the project in 2016,
are also exported during periods of high demand or high imports have dwindled, leading to a displacement of this
pricing. China’s acid supply is forecast to rise by 2% in the volume from countries including Spain, Germany and
medium-term, by approximately 1.8 million t in volume Italy.
terms. Acid imports to China average around 1 million tpy.
A key question for the acid industry going forward is Conclusion
whether demand in the country will also grow apace with Regarding sulfuric acid demand, Integer expects to see
new supply. Along with the expected slowdown in new growth in almost all regions for the fertilizer sector in the
capacity additions in China’s fertilizer sector, overall acid medium-term, with the exception of North America and
consumption growth rates are expected to slow in the Central Europe. It also assumes that there are limited
medium-term view. Any surplus acid in the market would prospects for demand growth in China as capacity at
thus mean increased potential for a rise in exports. processed phosphates fertilizer plants continue to
Global sulfuric acid prices have been firming through operate at low levels due to ample local supply. The main
much of 2017, with major benchmarks edging up on the hubs for sulfuric acid consumption growth will be Africa
back of stretched supply. European export prices crept up and the Middle East. However, the trend in the
into the high-US$20s/t FOB in 3Q17 as deals into Middle East would not impact acid trade due to its
Latin America boosted the market. Major smelter captive production of sulfuric acid from sulfur. The
turnarounds have been limited in Europe in 2017, but non-fertilizer sector meanwhile is estimated to grow by
prices have been buoyed by changes in availability, a 8% in the medium-term. East Asia, led by China, is set to
reflection of tight supply and healthy demand. Supply see growth in this area in the forecast, representing the
issues in Latin America have had a major impact on global largest share of regional consumption at approximately
benchmarks due to a spate of spot purchases from Chile. 30%.

A FOCUS ON
EFFICIENCY
Catalyst gauze systems for ammonia oxidation and N2O
reduction are a key component in nitric acid plants.
Oliver Henkes, Heraeus Precious Metals, Germany,
illustrates this via a series of technical case studies.
T
o ensure that a catalyst gauze system provides high performance for
ammonia oxidation, nitrous oxide (N2O) reduction is an important factor for
nitric acid plants. When used in nitric acid reactors, the structure of the
catalysts changes, improving their efficiency. Over a period of several months,
however, catalytic activity diminishes as the surface of the gauzes becomes contaminated
and their structure modifies. Because of this, the gauzes must be replaced periodically. This is
the normal way of life for any platinum gauze. Besides that, high quality technical service from
the gauze supplier can make a huge difference for nitric acid plant efficiency.
Plant improvement projects or limiting production losses after an unexpected incident are
examples of beneficial technical service. Particularly in emergencies, quick and reliable feedback from
the supplier is of the utmost importance in order to detect and eliminate the root cause of the
problem and quickly bring the plant back to normal performance levels. Technical service teams for
customers in America, Europe, Africa, and Asia/Australia are available to customise this gauze and
catalyst system solution, install it on site and check the process parameters while in operation.
This article provides a series of case studies, which demonstrate the technical services that
Heraeus has provided in recent years. The examples cover various scenarios, from mechanical
damages or contamination of catalyst gauze systems, to partial replacement of gauze packs with
inadequate laughing gas emissions or the development of scenarios for possible root causes of
unusual low gauze efficiency and high N2O emissions. The article will investigate the process data
and environmental conditions followed by working out action plans depending on the situation,
which only becomes visible after plant shutdown.
A further area where supplier support is a key factor is in secondary catalyst N2O reduction
projects, including planning, designing, manufacturing and installing catalyst baskets. Secondary
catalysts have been installed by Heraeus in numerous reactors, with satisfied customers running
the company’s secondary catalyst technology for over 10 years to reduce up to 95% of N2O. N2O is
generated as a byproduct during the ammonia oxidation. More than 60 million t of nitric acid are
23
necessary diameter, enabling an immediate restart of the plant.
This emergency solution, in turn, allowed for continuous
production at a reasonable performance until the new gauze
system was supplied to the plant.
Studying the root causes of an efficiency drop

After about one-third of the nominal campaign, a customer
Figure 1. Repairing a torn gauze pack. reported that the conversion efficiency showed a sudden
decreasing trend, from more than 96.5% to below 94% within a
few days. An emergency shutdown took place in this phase, but it
did not seem to be related to the efficiency issue. Days later, the
situation slightly improved back to nearly 96% before it worsened
again to almost 93%. The N2O emissions showed a corresponding
behaviour with increasing N2O at lower conversion efficiency.
Generally, the following reasons could have been responsible
for the observed behaviour and were therefore discussed:
Contamination of gauzes from the process gas.

Lower gauze temperature.
Mechanical damage of the gauze system.
According to the customer, the process parameters and plant

Figure 2. The efficiency drop within the campaign. load were similar to the previous campaign where this behaviour
was not noted. The campaign did not show an unusual amount of
stops and the gauze pack had no damages through the inspection
glass.
The focus was then put on the environmental conditions
outside of the plant during the timeframe of the performance
disturbances. It was reported that, along with the efficiency
changes, a sandstorm was noted in the plant area. Because the
filter exceeded the maximum specified operation pressure drop,
some air filter cartridges underwent an online replacement once
the storm had calmed down. This made potential contamination
of the gauze pack more likely and, as the efficiency reduced
further to 87%, it was decided to open the burner hood.
Although a contamination now seemed to be the clear reason
for the issue, it was still not clear which kind of contamination
Figure 3. N2O emission increase after changing the gauze had harmed the gauze pack. Therefore, two scenarios and
system. actions were defined:
produced across the world annually, with an estimated Contamination with loose sand particles: in this case, a
500 000 t of N2O – the equivalent to carbon dioxide emissions procedure for careful vacuum cleaning without directly
from over 60 million mid-sized cars. touching the gauze pack was given.
No visual contamination of the gauze pack: in this case,
Performance loss in a plant micro-scale contaminants were expected to be responsible.
For this, an instruction for pickling (treatment of the gauzes
Repairing a torn gauze pack with acid solution) of the gauzes was provided.
In one case, a customer reported an incident that happened
during the ignition procedure of its plant. The gauze pack was Upon opening the burner, it was immediately clear that high
damaged by the rotating gauze ignition system due to them levels of sand were evident on the gauze pack, which resulted in
being in close proximity. The gauze showed a large tear over the performance drop. The dust was, therefore, carefully removed
almost the entire diameter, with a few smaller tears in other by vacuum cleaning. After the catalyst pack was reinstalled, the
areas of the gauze. As the customer did not hold any spare gauze plant was started up again and went back into operation with the
material and because of bureaucratic obstacles for short-term previously recorded conversion efficiency of more than 96.5%.
precious metal imports into the country, an immediate supply of
gauze material on site for repair or exchange was not possible. N2O abatement projects: secondary
The only remaining option was to repair the gauze without catalyst basket implementation
any additional gauze material. To enable a quick restart of nitric In 2012 – 2013, Heraeus installed several catalyst baskets for nitric
acid production, a Heraeus engineer was sent to the customer acid plants. These plants either had no secondary catalyst installed
with welding equipment. After a day of precision work, the torn beforehand or the installed solutions until then were not suitable
gauze pack was fully repaired, and slightly stretched again to the to reach a sufficiently low N2O emission level that would either

fulfil certain N2O emission limits or generate a sufficient amount
of carbon credits.
Heraeus offers the following N2O abatement services within
ammonia burners:
Designing secondary catalyst and containment systems to

fulfil customers’ N2O targets.
Inspecting the current situation in the burner and identifying
principle solutions, depending on space restrictions or
pressure drops.
Putting together basic and detailed design proposals with
its engineering partners.
Selecting suitable manufacturing partners and inspecting
manufacturing processes.
Supervising of basket installation.
Installing secondary catalyst and catalyst gauze systems.
These services allow customers to have a single partner that

is responsible for all components of N2O abatement (gauze
system, secondary catalyst and catalyst basket). This assures the
customer that no time is wasted on the identification of
responsibilities between different parties. Instead, immediate
solutions are developed to re-establish a high-level performance
in case of problems.
Increased N2O emissions

A medium-pressure nitric acid plant in Europe was originally
equipped with a Heraeus FTC gauze system for low N2O
emissions and a below installed secondary catalyst. The nitric
acid producer decided to change the catalyst gauze technology,
deviating from the FTC gauze system.
With this system and the secondary catalyst underneath,
typical N2O emissions were 50 – 60 ppm by volume at
campaign start and approximately 150 ppm by volume at
campaign end. With the new gauze system, the initial N2O
emissions were already at a level of 170 ppm by volume at
campaign start, which would have meant exceeding the
EU-ETS III benchmark level from the beginning.
An emergency Heraeus gauze set for a partial system
exchange was then designed and supplied within one week.
With the help of the partial gauze system exchange, N2O levels
were brought back to levels that enabled the plant to stay below
the N2O benchmark level on average.
Conclusion
Normally, any platinum gauze for nitric acid production must
be replaced periodically after several months. This is because
catalytic activity diminishes the surface of the gauze. However,
problems with the effectiveness of the gauzes can also occur
during operation, such as mechanical damages or
contamination of catalyst gauze systems, partial replacement
of gauze packs with inadequate N2O emissions or the
development of scenarios for possible root causes of unusual
low gauze efficiency and high N2O emissions.
In all of these cases, high-quality technical service from
gauze suppliers, such as Heraeus, can make a huge difference
to nitric acid plant performance. This is particularly the case in
emergencies where quick and reliable feedback from the
supplier is of the utmost importance to detect and eliminate
the root cause of the problem and quickly bring the plant back
to normal performance levels.
MAKING A
DIFFERENCE
Mårten Granroth, Haldor Topsoe, Denmark,
explains how using the right cattalyst can affect
sullfuric acid pro
oductio
on.
26
H
istorically, many different methods for
producing sulfuric acid have been used,
perhaps most notably the lead chamber
process. However, since the early
20th Century, the vast majority of sulfuric acid has
been produced using different varieties of the
so-called ‘contact’ process. The contact process is
‘so-called’ because the central concept is to react
sulfur dioxide (SO2) to sulfur trioxide (SO3), a
precursor to sulfuric acid, in contact with solid
catalyst pellets. While platinum-based catalysts were
originally used, their associated high cost and
catalyst deactivation issues meant that they were
replaced by vanadium pentoxide catalyst. Due to its
comparatively low price and robustness, vanadium
pentoxide-based catalysts have continued to be the
industry standard since they were developed in the
early 20th Century.
Most contact sulfuric acid plants today are dry
gas plants, meaning that they operate with gases free
of water vapour. This is achieved by drying the air
that is used for sulfur combustion, or, in metallurgical
plants, by drying the SO2 gas before processing it.
Sulfuric acid is produced in such dry gas plants by
27
vapour forms liquid sulfuric acid. Wet gas plants, such as those
based on Haldor Topsoe’s wet gas sulfuric acid (WSA) process,
are mainly used for smaller capacity plants. They are also used
in special applications, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas
treatment and spent acid regeneration, where the removal of
the water vapour would result in dilute sulfuric acid
production, bad operation economy or production of
unproportionally large amounts of waste water. Figure 1 shows
a WSA plant.
Regardless of whether a plant is based on dry or wet gas,
vanadium pentoxide catalyst is used today to convert the SO2
to SO3. Having been around for more than a century does not
mean that the vanadium pentoxide catalysts have not
Figure 1. A wet gas sulfuric acid (WSA) plant designed by improved. Vanadium pentoxide catalysts for sulfuric acid
Haldor Topsoe. production are available in a number of the different shapes,
sizes and formulations to maximise the performance of acid
plants. Figure 2 provides an overview of different shapes and
types available for Haldor Topsoe’s VK sulfuric acid catalyst
series. Being at the heart of sulfuric acid plants, the choice and
optimisation of catalyst loading will influence everything from
cycle length, power consumption, steam production,
production capacity and stack SO2 emissions.
Minimising stack emission

High conversion levels of SO2 to SO3 have always been
Figure 2. Different sizes and shapes of sulfuric acid important for sulfuric acid plants that are based on burning
catalyst. sulfur to maximise sulfur utilisation and reduce costs. However,
this is only true to a certain degree since the increasing costs
that are associated with achieving higher conversion will
eventually outweigh the sulfur cost savings. With an awareness
of the environmental issues relating to acid rain in the 1960s and
1970s, there has been an understanding that SO2 conversion
needs to be higher than what is justified by plant economics.
Sulfuric acid producers across the world are facing more
and more challenging emissions legislations. Plants that were
originally designed for approximately 99.7% conversion are
now asked to meet conversion levels of 99.9% or more.
Figure 3. The increased catalyst demand for a sulfur Therefore, something in these plants needs to change to allow
burning plant that is running 11.5% SO2.
them to continue operating. Simultaneously, with increasing
legislative demand on emissions, competition within both the
general bulk chemical market and the sulfuric acid business in
particular is fierce. Plants need to run as efficiently as possible
in order to stay profitable. However, the two are often not
compatible, as reducing the cost per tonne of acid produced or
gas volume treated means trying to maximise productivity for
the plant. Emissions reduction, on the other hand, require
production capacity cuts, expensive revamps or operating
scrubbers, which add to operational costs and potentially add
waste. A solution that is considerably less expensive than other
Figure 4. The difference in achievable emissions at options is to upgrade the catalyst loading in the plant.
different loadings between a standard catalyst and VK69
loadings for a sulfur burning plant running 11.5% SO2. Increasing catalyst volumes
A basic solution for improving catalyst performance is to
absorption of SO3 in sulfuric acid, but this absorption would simply increase the volume. If there is room in the converter
not work properly with water vapour in the gas. and there are no temperature limitations that force the use of a
Since the mid 20th Century, some contact sulfuric acid more advanced catalyst, it will be both an effective and
plants have been designed as wet gas plants. In these plants, relatively inexpensive way of boosting SO2 conversion. As more
water vapour is not removed, but instead passes through the and more catalyst is added, higher conversion gets
plant. In such plants, sulfuric acid is produced by gas phase exponentially harder, as Figure 3 shows in a sulfur burning plant.
reaction between SO3 and water vapour. The sulfuric acid The main issue for most older plants is that their capacity
vapour and subsequent condensation of the sulfuric acid has been increased multiple times. The effect of this is that

are introduced. It can also be used as a quick solution to
compensate for lacking performance in other catalyst beds or
parts of the plant. The LEAP5 catalyst can be employed either
in the third bed of 3+1 or 3+2 plants, or in the last beds of single
absorption plants. Figure 5 shows how LEAP5 catalyst can be
used in an existing double absorption plant to achieve a higher
conversion level.
Figure 5 suggests that the sulfur burning plant in the
example could reduce its emissions by around 40% when
Figure 5. The difference in achievable emissions at using LEAP5 and VK69. This improvement is well in line with
different loadings between standard catalyst, VK69 and what has been seen in the industry. Operators installing the
LEAP5 loadings for a sulfur burning plant running 11.5% SO2. LEAP5 catalyst have seen an average emissions reduction of
approximately 50% when replacing a used catalyst.
250
Maximising cycle length and fighting

Normalized pressure drop, Bed 1 [mbar]
200 pressure drop

As with any other industrial chemical plant, minimising
150
downtime and maximising on-stream time is critical for
With dust protection profitability. Although an effective maintenance plan is
100
Without dust protection important for achieving this, the cycle length of many sulfuric
acid plants will be dictated by the pressure drop over the plant
50
in general and the catalyst in particular. The pressure drop
0
typically builds up due to plugging of the first catalyst bed by
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Run time [days]
deposition of dust.
As the dust deposits in the catalyst bed, the pressure drop
will continue to increase. Finally, a point will be reached where
Figure 6. The effect on pressure drop buildup over the
first pass of using dust protection catalyst. either the blower cannot maintain design gas flow or the
structural pressure drop limits of the SO2 converter have been
the available room in the converter is now a bottleneck, both reached. At this point, the plant is typically shut down to allow
for lower emission and for further capacity increases. for screening of one or more catalyst beds. This tends to result
in a 10 day loss of production. Decreasing the effect of dust
Changing to more advanced catalyst deposition and the pressure drop buildup rate is very
If the converter is full or if the temperature required to reach a beneficial.
high enough equilibrium conversion is too low for a standard Although decreasing the feed gas flow through use of
catalyst, it is still possible to use a catalyst solution to achieve higher feed gas strength will slightly improve campaign length
lower emissions. One solution is to replace some, or all, of the by reducing the overall pressure drop, it will not address the
final bed with a more advanced cesium promoted catalyst. Due underlying cause of the pressure drop problem – dust
to its unmatched activity throughout the temperature range that deposition. Reducing the amount of dust that enters with the
is used in the last pass of a double absorption plant, feed gas would be possible through upgrading the sulfur and
Haldor Topsoe’s cesium promoted VK69 offers a step change in air filtration. However, this would require a substantial
performance in a plant. Figure 4 is an illustration of the investment, which may be hard to justify financially. A solution
conversion and emissions that are achievable at different catalyst that targets the dust issue directly, but does not require any
loadings in the same plant as presented in the previous section. substantial investment, is installing a layer of dust protection
As can be seen in Figure 4, a plant achieving 99.8% catalyst on the top of the first bed. This has the added
conversion in a 11.5% SO2 feed gas with standard catalyst can advantage of being possible to install with very little
boost its conversion to 99.9% by replacing the standard preparation and it takes very little time to carry out. It could
catalyst in the fourth bed with VK69. From Figure 4, it is also easily be implemented during the next shutdown.
apparent that if there is enough available room in the converter Dust protection catalysts will not reduce the amount of
and there are no temperature limitations in the plant, very high dust coming in with the feed gas. Instead, they allow more dust
conversion is possible with this solution. The amount of VK69 to deposit in the bed before the pressure drop increases. The
in the last bed can be tailored to meet emissions legislations to larger dust capacity is achieved through using larger catalyst
take the specific limitations of the plant in question, as well as pellets with larger void space to increase the penetration
the performance of the other beds. Although the example depth of the dust particles. Increasing the catalyst pellet size
presented in Figure 4 is for a plant with a 3+1 configuration, the from 12 to 25 mm will increase the penetration depth by 100%,
trends will be similar for 2+1, 3+2, or 2+2 configurations as well. which also increases dust capacity and operating cycle length
The Haldor Topsoe LEAP5TM catalysts offer plant operators by the same amount.
who already use cesium catalysts in the final bed another leap Once the dust protection catalyst is installed in the client’s
in performance towards higher conversion and lower plant, the operating cycle length is improved greatly. This saves
emissions. Having the option of using a more active catalyst the client significant sums in lost production and turnaround
can help the operator avoid costly plant revamps and avoid costs. A comparison between before and after the dust
cutting production rates if more stringent emission legislations protection catalyst is installed is shown in Figure 6.

When comparing the data in Figure 6, it can be seen that

the pressure drop increase operating with a dust protection

catalyst for 325 days is approximately the same as when
operating without it for around 150 days. Although the plant Where Q is the difference in energy consumption per year
had not yet shut down when the data was taken, based on (kWh), G is the flowrate (Nm3/h) and ∆p is the pressure drop
these trends, it can be expected that the improvement in difference (mm Wc). If the data pressure drop formula above is
campaign length is close to the 100% that theoretical applied to the example plant, the yearly savings in terms of
calculations indicate. Over a 10 year period, a longer campaign power usage can be calculated to 4 GWh. With an average
length would result in a decrease in the number of necessary electricity price in the EU of €0.119/kWh. This corresponds to
shutdowns for catalyst screening from 13 to six. Assuming that annual savings of approximately €475 000.
10 days are required for a shutdown to screen bed one, an An important side effect of adding a dust protection
additional 70 days of production will be achieved. Furthermore, catalyst to reduce the average pressure drop over the campaign
each shutdown that can be avoided will result in further is added dust capacity. Added dust capacity will reduce the risk
savings in costs for screening contractors, make-up catalyst and of the plant having to shut down prematurely due to a higher
fuel for startup and purge. than normal dust load. In such an event, the dust protection
will yield similar savings as presented for the example plant.
Using catalyst to reduce energy costs
The cycle length of many sulfuric acid plants is limited by the Conclusion
pressure drop buildup over the catalyst and can fully utilise Modern sulfuric acid production technology is more or less
the larger dust capacity to achieve increased campaign synonymous with contact plants. Depending on the SO2
length. However, this is not the case for all plants. Other source, these plants could operate under either dry
plants may have different bottlenecks that make a longer conditions or wet conditions, such as Haldor Topsoe’s WSA
campaign length impossible, but even these plants may process.
benefit from installing a dust protection catalyst to achieve a Being at the heart of the sulfuric acid plant, the SO2
lower average pressure drop over the plant. To demonstrate oxidation catalyst will have a profound effect on how a plant
how such a plant could benefit from using a layer of dust performs. With modern SO2 oxidation catalysts, such as VK69
protection catalyst, an example is set up below, based on the and LEAP5, very low SO2 emission can be achieved. The effect
industrial data shown in Figure 6. Energy savings that are of choosing the right catalyst solutions is not limited to
achieved by a lower pressure drop can be calculated with the emission control, but can also help to improve capacity, cycle
following formula: length and decrease pressure drop.
Acid Plants Of The
32
Future
URMISH SHAH AND MICHAEL FENTON, CHEMETICS INC., CANADA,
CONSIDER BOTH THE BENEFITS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE SULFURIC ACID
EQUIPMENT AND OPTIONS FOR INCREASING ENERGY RECOVERY.
I
n any phosphate fertilizer complex, the sulfuric acid amount of work that needs to be done in a hazardous
plant plays a critical role. This is because it provides environment, while also reducing the installation and
not only the sulfuric acid that is needed in the maintenance time and costs.
phosphoric acid plant, and potentially the fertilizer
granulation plant, it also provides the electrical power Modular converter
and steam that is required for other plants at the The converter is at the heart of the sulfuric acid
complex. If the sulfuric acid plant is not able to operate process. It is the vessel containing the series of
reliably at desired operating rates, this can result in catalyst beds that are required to convert SO2 to
difficult or impossible operation of the linked sulfur trioxide (SO3). In earlier days, this vessel was
phosphoric acid, power and fertilizer granulation plants. manufactured from partially brick-lined carbon steel
Having all of the plants on site running consistently at and cast iron. Although many hundreds of these
design capacity for long periods and without conventional units are installed around the world and
unplanned stoppages is the fastest way for operators to are still in use today, most have caused the owners
maximise return on their investment. significant operating and maintenance problems.
Sulfuric acid plants deal with aggressive chemicals, Changing the construction material to stainless steel
including sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and using an all welded design has resulted in the
which puts a lot of stress on the plant equipment. elimination of many maintenance issues.
Operators of sulfuric acid plants are thus continually Chemetics’ converter design can further
trying to find more suitable technology that is incorporate one or two internal gas exchangers
characterised by the following criteria: and/or superheaters inside the core of the converter.
This eliminates the hot gas ducting between beds 1
A capability to comply with and often exceed all and 2, which is well known as a continual maintenance
statutory environmental regulations. problem for many plants due to very high gas and
Self-evident potential for low maintenance and metal temperatures (Figure 1).
high reliability. Typically, converters that are too large to be
A capability to achieve enhanced energy use. shipped fully fabricated are built piece by piece
Cost-competitive and safe to operate and on-site. On-site fabrication has substantial risks
maintain. associated with it due to the concurrent risks of
Simplified and innovative designs that allow inclement weather conditions, proximity to operating
simple installations or retrofit. equipment, as well as the lack of available skilled
welders and fitters local to the plant site.
In response to these challenges, Chemetics has Since the early 2000s, Chemetics has switched to
been working to eliminate many of the persistent supply virtually all of its stainless converters in a
deficiencies with enhanced process and mechanical modular form to minimise field construction. The
equipment design. converter is shipped to the site as prefabricated
Sulfuric acid plants are considered as a source of modules before they are assembled on-site. This
energy for steam production and electric power method reduces construction time by approximately
generation. Extracting more of the energy that is 70 – 85% and improves the overall quality of
released during the production of H2SO4 is construction as the majority of the welding and fitting
increasingly important to create additional revenue is completed off-site in a fabrication shop under ideal
for plant operators and so they can have less reliance conditions (Figure 2).
on external power grids for energy.
In order to achieve up to 99% energy recovery from Acid towers
the sulfuric acid process, Chemetics has developed a Silicon-containing stainless steel, such as SARAMET®, in
family of process add-on systems that recover hot strong sulfuric acid service have been replacing the
additional energy without sacrificing plant availability. traditional standard of ductile iron acid piping and,
more recently, in certain acid tower and acid cooler
Equipment designs applications. In retrofit situations, when the shutdown
To eliminate the recurring maintenance problems that time is short, using alloy acid towers to replace existing
are associated with traditional sulfuric acid plant brick-lined acid towers can be an attractive solution.
designs, the company has been working on recent Alloy towers have the advantage of allowing for the
innovations that allow operators to minimise the prefabrication of either the entire tower or the tower
33
modules, including internals off-site. The use of alloy towers Acid distributors
eliminates the premium cost and additional brick settling The acid distributor in the acid tower provides uniform
time required when using specialist contractors to complete distribution of acid into the packing section. Common
the acid bricking installation on-site. issues such as blocked downcomer tubes, unequal flow due
to gas channelling, and/or uneven level of distributors can
lead to poor SO3 and water absorption. Ultimately, this
leads to accelerated corrosion in downstream equipment or
high stack emissions.
Chemetics fabricates its acid distributors from
SARAMET austenitic stainless steel, which has corrosion
and erosion resistant properties in strong sulfuric acid
service. The distributors provide uniform acid tower
irrigation thanks to a high downcomer tube density, a
stable acid level inside the trough due to a calming plate
design, and individual tube orifice flow control.
The ISO-FLOW TM construction is not sensitive to acid
inlet velocities or trough levelling. It is, therefore, more
forgiving than overflow weir style designs. Calming plates
incorporate filter screens that are easy to clean and
prevent any debris from entering the acid distribution
tubes making this design resistant to suspended solids,
such as packing chips and mortar pieces. The internal
filters prevent the plugging of downcomers during normal
operation.
Improvement in the ease of assembly to reduce the
shutdown time required for installation can be achieved in
the SWIFTLOCKTM design by eliminating field installation
Figure 1. A converter with an internal superheater and gas hardware and reducing the site assembly parts to as few as
exchanger.
possible.
Segmental tube in gas exchangers

As the size of acid plants continues to increase, demand
for larger gas-gas heat exchangers continues concurrently.
Even though a modern gas exchanger is significantly more
efficient than a traditional design, they require very large
exchangers, which can weigh in excess of 200 t. This
approach of field fabrication results in many or all of the
critical tube to tubesheet welds being done in the field in
non-ideal environmental conditions. Additionally, the time
required for fabrication and the lack of skilled trades for
work on-site makes the cost often prohibitive.
To overcome the issues of fabricating large gas
exchangers, Chemetics has developed a method where the
tube bundle is modularised into segments that can be
Figure 2. Converter modules being assembled in-field. assembled easily and safely on-site. With this
methodology, approximately 85% of the gas exchanger
assembly time and over 90% of the critical welding is done
in a shop environment. The remaining welding and fitting
can be accomplished by a small team of experienced
fitters and welders on-site.
Combining a gas exchanger and catalyst

A conventional acid plant is limited to 12 – 13% SO2 at the
converter inlet to keep the gas temperature from leaving
the first pass of the catalyst bed below the thermal stability
of vanadium-based catalyst (approximately 630°C). To
counteract this limitation, Chemetics offers
Cooled Oxidation Reaction (CORE®) converter technology
– a pseudo-isothermal reactor system that can convert high
Figure 3. A complete SARAMET alloy acid tower being strength SO2 gas without diluting the gas with air or
lifted into position. recycling process gas. Its first commercial installation was in

STOP WELDING PLUGS
Welding plugs into your Waste Heat Boilers can

damage the tubes & tubesheet resulting in costly
unplanned downtime. Minimize circumferential
cracking damage by eliminating welding and
pre-heat/post-weld heat treatment.
Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System

Pop-A-Plug Tube Plugs are pressure rated up to 7000 PsiG (483 BarG) and conform to ASME PCC-2-2015
recommended tube plugging repair methods, offering a permanent mechanical solution to safely seal leaking heat
exchanger tubes without welding or hot work. Installation takes only minutes, providing superior reliability for
critical processes. Full material traceability documentation available.
Maximize uptime by visiting cw-estgroup.com/wf09 today! EST Group

Germany, where it has been operating continuously for more than Continuous removal of reaction heat on the shell side
eight years. A second larger plant was commissioned in February allows the process temperature to be controlled
2017 and passed its performance test in April 2017 (Figure 5). within the operating limit of the catalyst. Energy
This converter system for SO2 oxidation uses conventional recovered from the heat removal system can be used
vanadium-based catalysts with SO2 gas flows through the tubes. for preheating the process gas and generating high
pressure steam (Figure 6). The pseudo-isothermal
process operates further away from the equilibrium
curve than a traditional multi-pass adiabatic process,
as shown in Figure 7. This results in lower overall
catalyst loading and significantly higher SO2
conversion in a single pass.
Energy recovery
Traditionally, in sulfuric acid plants, only the high
grade energy from the hot process gas is recovered as
this can be used to generate high pressure
(superheated) steam, which can then be used as a
heat or power source in the complex. In recent years,
lower grade energy from the liquid streams is
increasingly being looked at to provide additional
revenue for plant operators. The main source of low
grade energy at temperatures of 100 – 200°C, is the
Figure 4. Modular gas-gas heat exchanger. absorption energy, released when the acid leaves the
intermediate absorption tower with much smaller
amounts available from other streams.
The Chemetics Acid Low Pressure Heat from
Absorption (ALPHATM) system produces valuable steam
from the energy that is released during the absorption
of SO3 into strong acid in the tower. Steam is produced
at pressures up to 10 Barg. This add-on system with a
separate hot absorption tower allows the acid plant to
remain fully operational, even when the system is not
in use. One of the main benefits of this design is that it
can be stopped or started independent of the rest of
the sulfuric acid plant, allowing for easier and more
flexible plant operation.
Another solution for extracting energy from acid
streams is the CES-HWSTM (Hot Water System). This
produces hot water from the acid in the absorber
circuits. For this process, the anodically protected
acid coolers in the absorption circuit are specially
designed to allow significantly higher water side
temperatures. If higher water temperatures than
approximately 105 – 110°C are required, they can be
reached using SARAMET coolers. To benefit from hot
Figure 5. The CORE® add-on installation. water production, it is necessary to have a user within
reasonable distance that can use this hot water.
The CES-DSW TM system, or Desalinated Sea Water,
is a further evolution of the CES-HWS. Hot water is
generated in the acid plant, but it is used in a closed
loop to produce desalinated water from sea water or
brackish water using a multiple effect distillation
(MED) system. Generated at 90 – 95°C, the hot water
flows from the acid plant to the MED unit where it is
used in sea water heaters to create low pressure
(0.5 bara) flash steam (Figure 9). This flash steam is, in
turn, the energy source for the MED to produce
desalinated water. Depending on the efficiency of the
MED unit, up to 10 kg of desalinated water can be
produced from each kilogram of steam that enters
Figure 6. The CORE system. the unit.

It is easily understood that the combination of a equipment benefitted with lower CAPEX, lower emissions,
sulfuric acid plant together with a multiple ease of operation with lower maintenance, higher
desalination unit is a very economical way to produce reliability and acid plant commissioning time of less than
desalinated water in areas where fresh water is not three weeks to achieve the designed production rate.
readily available. Compared to sea water reverse
osmosis, the MED provides better quality water, has
fewer operational issues and lower production cost.
Operation of the MED system is easy and requires
minimal attention from the operator.
The following should be considered when
evaluating the preceding options:
Producing hot water is significantly less

expensive than producing steam. It also
recovers a greater percentage of the energy.
If a useful outlet can be found for hot water,
then this is the most cost-effective and most
reliable solution.
For locations where fresh water is scarce and
desalinated water is required, the CES-DSW
system is often one of the lowest cost
solutions to produce desalinated water. Figure 7. SO2 conversion curve of conventional adiabatic process
vs pseudo-isothermal process.
For locations where no outlet for hot water is
available, the production of steam and/or power
should be considered. In this case, the client should
select a technology that provides steam at the lowest
cost and the lowest risk to their main process. The
CES-ALPHA, which can be completely bypassed if
required while maintaining full acid and steam
production, is a good example of such a system.
Conclusion
A number of options are available for recovering
energy from acid plant absorption circuits, including
low pressure steam generation, hot water generation
and desalination water generation. With hot water Figure 8. A schematic flow diagram of the CES-ALPHA system.
and desalination water generations options, around
7% more heat can be captured while comparing with
the low pressure steam generation option. These
options have different cost implications and
advantages. In order to determine the best solution
for the site, it is important to utilise a technology
provider that can offer a variety of options.
Sulfuric acid plants with high performance
equipment can be operated for extended periods of
time, i.e. higher than 98.5% plant availability.
End-users of Chemetics’ higher performance Figure 9. Integration of a sulfuric acid plant with a MED unit.
BUNGARTZ
MASTERPIECES
SEAL OF TRUTH
Representing the groundbreaking special centrifugal pumps
from the Bungartz collection, series production
As a leading representative from the era of long-lasting creations,

we present the horizontal centrifugal pump M-UMOR.
Its hydrodynamic seal shines thanks to its complete safety.
Possible explosions are nipped in the bud, so it‘s perfect for
abrasive and volatile media. A magnificent acquisition!
More under 0211 57 79 05 - 0 and: www.bungartz.de/masterpieces6

Hallwood Modular Buildings offers
the lease, sale, and servicing of:
Single Modules
Expandable Modules
Stackable Modules
Guard Shacks
Operator and Control Buildings
Restroom Modules
Custom Designs
Blast Resistant Doors
Where Safety & Service Unite
+1 337 393 2575 | info@hallwoodmodular.com | hallwoodmodular.com
31st
Nitrogen + Syngas 2018

26 February - 1 March 2018, Gothia Towers, Gothenburg, Sweden
Promoting and developing best practice and innovation in the global nitrogen industry
6
6 great reasons to attend Nitrogen + Syngas 2018: Who will you meet in Gothenburg?
9 Share operational experience and best practice with 700+

professionals from 50+ countries
Delegates by business activity
9 Expand your knowledge with technical papers covering 43%

syngas, ammonia, urea, and nitrates
9 Develop practical solutions to operational problems through
Engineering/Process/
Technology Providers 4%
Other
detailed case studies
9 Learn about the latest technological and process innovations
9 Address your technical challenges with a range of 80+
world-class exhibitors 13%
%
9 Understand the global and regional drivers shaping industry in 40 Plant Machinery/
Producer: Fertilizer/ Materials and
2018 and beyond
Feed/Industrial Equipment
Sponsors:
Official Publications
and Supporters:
For more information and to book your place, visit www.nitrogensyngas.com

SULFURIC
ACID GAS
CLEANING
Gary Siegel, Beltran Technologies, Inc., USA, explains the effectiveness of
simple modern electrostatic precipitator designs.
I
ndustrial grade sulfuric acid is still the most widely used condensable organic compounds and other contaminants from
industrial chemical in the world. It continues to be sourced input gas streams as possible. This high level of gas cleaning
primarily as a non-discretionary byproduct from the roasting, efficiency is necessary to prevent poisoning of the catalysts, as
smelting and refining of non-ferrous metals (70%), as well as well as fouling or plugging of the catalyst beds. An optically pure
from natural gas processing, electric power generation, and spent input gas is essential for avoiding the formation of a ‘black’ or
acid regeneration. These industries tend to be heavy emitters of contaminated acid end product. Proper gas cleaning also helps
particulates, sulfur and nitrogen oxide gases, and sulfuric acid protect sensitive acid plant components against corrosion
mists, amongst other pollutants. They are also subject to damage, thus lowering long-term expenditures for maintenance
increasingly strict environmental regulations. and equipment replacement. Ultimately, cleaner gas streams
When concentrations of sulfur dioxide from these operations facilitate the production of stronger concentrations of sulfuric
exceed 5 – 7% of exhaust gas volumes, a common and acid that is suitable for a wider range of end uses.
cost-effective solution is incorporating a downstream sulfuric
acid manufacturing plant. Owners of these facilities can capitalise Wet electrostatic precipitators
on the high industrial market value of purified sulfuric acid, while Modern gas cleaning and emission control strategies continue to
achieving greater operating efficiencies and easier regulatory evolve in response to the increasing complexity, toxicity and
compliance. corrosiveness of industrial exhaust and process gases – not to
However, an efficient sulfuric acid manufacturing process mention increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Sulfuric
requires as much removal of fine particulates, acid mists, acid plant owners have employed several gas cleaning techniques,
39
specific type of advanced precipitator technology that offers
proven high performance and efficiency – the wet electrostatic
precipitator (WESP). WESPs can vary greatly in their design,
materials, gas flow rates and durability, as well as collection
efficiency. As a result, it is important for engineers to recognise the
key differences among these various systems.
Primarily targeted at capturing sub-micron scale particulate
matter, saturated sulfuric, or other acid aerosols and condensable
organic chemicals, Beltran Technologies’ WESP uses aqueous
flushing nozzles to clean the collection surfaces. The particles that
are captured are cleansed from the collection surfaces by
recirculating water sprays. Residues, including aqueous sulfuric
acid, are also extracted for further use or disposal. The cleaned gas
is then ducted to downstream equipment or to the stack,
depending on the application. A well-designed and
correctly-operated WESP can clean complex gaseous emissions of
Figure 1. Beltran WESPs installation at Hindustan Zinc Ltd. particulates and acid mists down to sub-micron scale (PM 2.5) with
up to 99.9% efficiency, and very low energy drain.
including wet or dry scrubbers, cyclones and fabric filters. These The WESP concept is basic, which makes it versatile for use
systems can capture larger particulates, but are usually across a range of industries, applications, operating conditions and
energy-inefficient or impractical to use on fine particulates, acid gas chemistries. This adaptability is critical to metallurgical and
mists, oily residues or condensed organic compounds. Therefore, petroleum refining operations, where source gases can be highly
many plant operators find that the best solution for removing variable.
these contaminants is a modern adaptation of a traditional Taking advantage of the inherently low pressure drop of
technology: the electrostatic precipitator (ESP). ESPs, Beltran Technologies’ staff devised a multistage system of
The basic ESP design features an array of discharge electrodes, ionising rods bristling with star-shaped discharge points. These
such as negatively charged wires or rods, which can generate a are encased within square or hexagonal tubes to maximise the
strong corona field. Each electrode in the array is surrounded by a collection surface area and minimise overall space requirements.
positively charged or grounded collection surface, traditionally The unique electrode geometry generates a corona field that is
the interior of a square or cylindrical tube. In operation, the source approximately four or five times more intense than that of
gas is passed through the array as the ionising electrodes induce a conventional wet or dry ESPs resulting in greater particle
negative charge in even the most minute, sub-micron sized migration velocity and adhesivity. The multistage charging
particles. These are instantly propelled towards the interior configuration also avoids corona quenching due to high particle
collection surfaces, where they adhere as the cleaned gas is densities, and assures maximum corona field strength with a
passed through. minimum of energy load.
This basic design concept offers several inherent advantages,
the primary one being the ability to capture fine, sub-micron sized Overcoming challenges
particulates and acid mist droplets, whose minimal mass enables A persistent challenge facing traditional dry-operating
them to escape through scrubbers and other mechanical precipitators is the re-entrainment of particles from collection
equipment. surfaces back into the gas stream due to the use of mechanical or
Another advantage that is inherent to precipitators in general acoustical rapping units. Beltran Technologies’ design uses a
is the extremely low pressure drop that is experienced as gases vertical flow and continuous aqueous flushing of WESPs to
pass through the system, which can reach as low as 1 – 2 kPa. With significantly minimise this problem. By eliminating the need for
virtually no mechanical impedance or obstruction of target rappers, WESPs also reduce both the higher cost and energy drain
pollutant particles travelling through the ESP, both gas velocities imposed by that equipment. For industries that generate oily or
and operating efficiency can be extremely high. This enables plant sticky residues, the aqueous flushing also prevents particle
designers to use smaller-scale, less costly equipment and still build-up, overcomes electrostatic resistivity and back-sparking on
achieve high quality collection efficiencies compared to other the WESP collection surfaces.
systems. Other critical features to look for in WESP equipment are
For engineers and plant designers in the field of gas cleaning, sophisticated electronic controls that are linked to a
several operational goals stand out: close-coupled gas flow management system. These can optimise
operating parameters, such as gas velocity, saturation,
Achieving the highest level of particle collection efficiency. temperature and corona intensity, to achieve maximum
Cleaning greater volumes of source gases, with faster efficiency.
throughput speeds. A major threat to the cost-effectiveness of a WESP is
Achieving the greatest reductions in costs related to capital equipment corrosion caused by the harsh chemical components
investment, operating costs, energy consumption, equipment of treated gases. To prevent premature deterioration, critical
maintenance and long-term equipment replacement. surfaces are constructed with advanced protective materials, such
as fibre-reinforced plastics or high nickel-chromium alloys. The
To help sulfuric acid plants achieve these goals, high voltage insulators are continuously purge-air cleaned to
Beltran Technologies, Inc. has been researching and developing a further reduce maintenance costs.

The Pursuit of
Performance
P
Douglas Azwell, MECS, USA, roper performance of absorption towers in sulfuric acid plants is a
critical step in the path towards optimum plant performance. Much
explores the impact of mist time and effort is expended, and rightly so, on inlet gas temperature,
inlet acid temperature, acid concentration, acid flowrate, distributor
eliminators on sulfuric acid type, packing type, packing depth, etc. However, there is another piece of
equipment that is key to the proper operation of towers: mist eliminators.
tower performance. Choosing the correct mist eliminator type and style can make a tremendous
41
difference to tower performance, affecting not only stack There are a number of mist eliminator options on the market
appearance. It can also make a huge difference in terms of that are intended to capture liquid droplets in sulfuric acid plants,
maintenance of downstream equipment, ductwork and catalyst as but they do not all function in the same way. These devices rely
years of operation pass. on three different mechanisms for capturing mist: impaction,
interception and diffusion. MECS® mist eliminators use all three of
these mechanisms to achieve optimum performance. The
impaction mechanism is used predominantly with impaction
devices (such as mesh pads and CSTM candles), the interception
method is used in a variety of systems, while the diffusion
mechanism is featured in the Brownian diffusion devices. These
mist eliminator devices are frequently installed in sulfuric acid
plants for long-term, regulatory compliant and reliable operations.
Brownian diffusion fibre beds collect a variety of droplets in
process gases, ranging from less than 1 μm to those that are
Figure 1. A MECS ES angle wrapped mist eliminator.
substantially larger than 3 μm. These devices are able to collect
the droplets efficiently by means of the three previously
mentioned mechanisms.
The focus of this article is on diffusion bed mist eliminators,
which are predominantly used in interpass absorption tower (IPAT)
and final absorption tower (FAT) installations in modern acid
plants. However, notably, there are some plants that operate
impaction/interception type mist eliminators in various parts.
Brownian diffusion bed mist eliminators are produced by
Figure 2. A parallel wrapped mist eliminator. either:
Compressing bulk glass fibre between two acid-resistant

metal cages (as is the case with the HETM or high efficiency
brink mist eliminator).
Wrapping glass fibre (in rope form) around an inner cage that
is constructed of acid-resistant metals (as is the case with the
ESTM type or energy saver brink mist eliminator).
Angle wrapping
In the case of the rope form of fibre placement, which MECS calls
the ES type, the positioning of fibre has a significant impact on the
efficiency of the final product. If there are gaps between the fibre
ropes, there is a path of least resistance for the gas to follow,
which entails diminished efficiency. The effect of fibre placement
on performance is easily demonstrated if a thermal camera is used
to produce an image of a mist eliminator with gas flow, as
demonstrated in Figures 1 and 2. Angle wrapped mist eliminators
Figure 3. 3D velometry of an angle wrapped mist show fewer areas of gapping, while the gap between every rope
eliminator. can be easily seen in a parallel rope packed bed.
While thermographic imaging provides a qualitative measure
of a mist eliminator’s quality, it is possible to quantify the
performance with a device to measure bed velocity over the
surface of a fibre bed. Velometry testing of angle wrapped and
parallel wrapped mist eliminators shows that the packing style
used plays a significant role in overall performance of a mist
eliminator. As shown in Table 1, parallel packed beds have velocity
excursions that are over six times the worst case compared to
angle wrapped ES fibrebeds. These excursions contribute to mist
penetration and reduced efficiency.
In addition, a 3D representation of a fibre bed’s velocity profile
can be produced from this data, illuminating problem areas on the
mist eliminator. Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the visualisation
potential of the 3D graph generated from using data that was
taken during velometry testing.
Most of the mist carryover from a mist eliminator that has a
Figure 4. 3D velometry of a parallel wrapped mist velocity profile similar to Figure 4 would be in the form of large
eliminator. 5 – 10 μm re-entrainment. These droplet sizes would lead to

Steel Belt Systems for the
Chemical & Petrochemical Industry
SBS Group designs and builds continuous

process plants, equipped with steel belts from
Berndorf Band, for a wide range of applications
in the chemical, petrochemical, rubber and food
industry.
Having been pioneers in the development of

pastillating units, SBS is able to supply also
FRPSOHWHSDFNDJHVIRUWKHVROLGL¿FDWLRQRIOLTXLG
SBS Steel Belt Systems USA
sulphur into pastilles. Phone: +1 847 841 3300
info@steelbeltsystemsusa.com
Rolldrop® and Accudrop® are
registered trademarks of SBS Group. www.steelbeltsystems.com
www.berndorfband-group.com
Partner of
performance. A bi-component fibre bed with specially-engineered
collecting and drainage media allows collected liquid particles to
find open pathways in the drainage media and to drain by gravity to
the bottom of the element.
Though the concept itself is relatively simple, it is important to
note that drainage layer design is a complex science that involves
intricate interplay between fibre diameter, density, permeability
and more. When properly balanced, these complex relationships
can be leveraged to optimise element drainage and ultimately
reduce re-entrainment. When improperly engineered, drainage will
be negatively impacted and re-entrainment will occur.
Laboratory testing that has been conducted by MECS illustrates
this concept. The tests show that drainage layer performance can
Figure 5. Depiction of re-entrainment. vary widely, and that properly engineered drainage layers are a
complex and crucial component of proper element design.
The blue line in Figure 6 would be a good choice for minimising
re-entrainment because its overall efficiency (as shown on the Y
axis) is higher than many other designs, particularly for larger
particle sizes (as shown on the X axis). This is indicative of low
re-entrainment. By contrast, the green line in Figure 6 would be a
poor choice for minimising re-entrainment as its efficiency for
larger particle sizes is worse than using no drainage layer at all.
As re-entrainment has the potential to generate relatively large
mist particles, minimising its occurrence is of the utmost
importance. Both angle wrapping and drainage layer design have
important roles to play. When done correctly, mist carryover is
minimised, emissions are low and downstream equipment damage
can be avoided. When done poorly, the results can be reasonably
Figure 6. Laboratory test results for drainage layer
optimisation. costly for owners and operators.
Proper sealing
Table 1. Velometry data of the ES mist eliminator As well as the type of mist eliminator chosen and the design of the
packing style
element itself, the method of attachment to a tower’s tubesheet
Mist eliminator Test bed Maximum Minimum also plays a role in the effectiveness of the installation. Sulfuric acid
type velocity bed bed
(FPM) velocity velocity producers must be keenly aware that the gasket, hardware torque,
(FPM) (FPM) attachment style (direct attachment or pedestal style), seal leg
Standard packed 30 102 1
condition and the process all play a part in the overall operation of
(angle wrapped) the tower. If issues such as excessive drain rate or stack tail with the
installation are identified, other potential problems, such as acid
Hand packed 30 685 4
(parallel wrapped) vapour/sulfur trioxide carryover, acid strength, acid circulation,
inlet gas temperature, distribution issues and a myriad of other
items, must be sorted out first in order to determine whether the
downstream ductwork and heat exchanger corrosion if, after an issue has been caused by the mist eliminators themselves.
IPAT, or in the case of a FAT installation, the acid would drain from
the stack. Conclusion
Re-entrainment occurs when a portion of the captured mist In the case of mist eliminators, it is what is inside that counts. While
draining by gravity from the fibre bed is regenerated into mist many designs look similar, details such as angle wrapping vs parallel
particles that are carried back into the gas stream, eventually wrapping and drainage layer design can have significant impacts on
resulting in downstream stack emissions and/or equipment element performance. For mist eliminators to perform properly,
damage. This phenomenon can occur when the gas velocity details and experience matter. When managed properly, the results
through the mist eliminator is sufficiently high so as to cause can be very beneficial for owners and operators, resulting in
interaction with draining liquid from the fibre bed. This results in well-performing towers, improved mist capture, low emissions,
liquid particle separation. Thus, high velocity spikes in a fibre bed reduced maintenance costs and low pressure drop.
will, necessarily, lead to zones of high re-entrainment and high mist However, as the test results in Figure 6 demonstrate, such
carryover downstream in the process, as depicted in Figure 5. achievements in mist eliminator technology are not a simple
matter, and there is a great depth to mist eliminator science.
Drainage Fortunately, the science has come a long way and through a full
While angle wrapping is a highly effective means of reducing understanding of that science it is possible to leverage the latest
re-entrainment (by preventing velocity spikes), proper drainage industry technologies in a way that allows owners and operators to
layer design is another effective technique that can be employed manage harsh process environments and meet tough design and
to reduce re-entrainment and improve overall mist eliminator regulatory requirements.

A STORY OF
PROGRESS
Filippo Colucci, Solex Thermal Science Inc.,
the Netherlands, compares conventional
fluid bed coolers and indirect plate coolers,
with a focus on energy consumption.
F
ertilizer processing plants have continually been
under pressure to revamp operations in order to
remain competitive in today’s market. They are also
dealing with tight operating margins and the need to
comply with current and new environmental regulations.
Just over 20 years ago, a new technology was introduced
to the fertilizer industry by Solex Thermal Science Inc. – an
indirect plate heat exchanger that was used as the final
cooling step before the product was stored. This method of
cooling provided an alternative to the traditional fluid bed
cooler or drum cooler, which was the previous industry
standard. It offered several key advantages compared to the
fluid bed cooler, including lower energy consumption, lower
air volumes, and a smaller footprint. There were also savings
in installed capital cost by eliminating the large air handling
system for the air coolers, which were needed for the fluid
bed cooler.
45
gaining a thorough understanding of the
science behind cooling a fertilizer product.
Having a full understanding of this
supported the design of a fertilizer cooler
that guaranteed efficient cooling and long,
reliable run times between scheduled
cleaning in all climatic conditions.
To date, the majority of indirect plate
cooler installations in fertilizer plants have
been for retrofit projects and, in most cases,
the primary driver was to provide catch up
on the cooling capacity when the upstream
plant had been debottlenecked. The
technology is a logical fit in this type of
project; low air emissions do not put
Figure 1. The typical granulation process using a fluid bed cooler. additional loading on the air scrubbing
system and a small footprint fits well into a
crowded building.
Indirect plate coolers have recently been
selected for the final stage of granule
cooling by major process licensors in some
of the latest generation fertilizer plants in
the US. This has come about for two
reasons. First, the technology is proven. It
will perform the cooling duty and operate
for long periods between scheduled
cleanings. The second reason is the much
lower energy consumption as a result of
eliminating the high horsepower fans and air
chiller needed with a fluid bed cooler.
So, how do conventional fluid bed
coolers and indirect plate coolers match up?
This article will take an in-depth look at and
compare both units.
Figure 2. Changing to an indirect plate cooler eliminates the need for
several pieces of equipment associated with a fluid bed cooler.
The conventional fertilizer
cooling process
The conventional process for fertilizer
cooling is to use a fluid bed cooler. Figure 1
shows a typical granulation layout. In this
conventional layout, there are three main
power draws: the forced draft fan, induced
draft fan, and the air chiller. The fan load is
straightforward and is a function of air flow
rate and pressure drop across the bed. The
air chiller load is more complex and will
vary throughout the year, depending on
ambient conditions. In many cases, the air
chiller power draw will be the largest of the
system.
Air chiller
A typical specified temperature of urea for
storage is in the range of 40 – 45°C. Ambient
Figure 3. Fertilizer cooling is simplified and more energy-efficient using air cannot be used directly to achieve this
an indirect plate cooler. temperature. Even in temperate climates
such as Alberta, Canada, where summer
There have been significant advancements in indirect ambient temperatures can be 30 – 35°C, it is too warm to
plate heat exchanger technology behind the indirect achieve specified discharge temperatures. In warmer and
plate cooler since it was first introduced to the fertilizer more humid climates, the problem only gets worse. This
industry. Of these, the most major advancement was means that the air must be chilled.

Our ideas make
prof itable plants
World class phosphoric acid technology

We offer advanced solutions for : Our services include : With more than
- phosphoric acid production - process design 50 years’ experience,
- phosphoric acid concentration PLANTSURVEYSANDREVAMPING
Prayon Technologies
ÛUORINERECOVERY EFÛUENTSURVEYS
- gas scrubbing - process training has developed a unique
PHOSPHORICACIDPURIÚCATION - phosphate rock tests expertise in designing
GYPSUMPURIÚCATION
URANIUMRECOVERY
phosphoric acid plants.
Our mission is to
Prayon Technologies s.a.
optimise your plant
Rue J. Wauters, 144 performance
B-4480 Engis Belgium
Tel : + 32 4 273 93 41 and increase its
Fax : + 32 4 275 09 09
Email : prt@prayon.com PROÚTABILITY
www.prayon.com/technologies
The air for the secondary fluid bed cooler needs to be To give an idea, for a typical air chiller in a 3600 tpd
chilled to approximately 10°C and then reheated to about urea plant located on the US Gulf Coast on a hot day in
20°C so it is no longer saturated. The relative humidity July, where the temperature can reach 35°C and 94% RH,
(RH) of the air entering the fluid bed cooler must be the heat load would be approximately 20 million kJ/hr. It
below the critical relative humidity (CRH) of the product will require a chiller drive of almost 2 MW. This is a major
to avoid the product picking up moisture from the air drive for the plant and a significant capital expenditure.
and becoming sticky. Table 1 gives the calculation for the heat load and
At 20°C, chilled air temperature is still an adequate chiller drive rating for this 3600 tpd Gulf Coast example.
temperature difference between the air and the required The airflow is taken as 180 000 Nm3/hr, chilled to 10°C
product exit temperature to achieve effective cooling dewpoint and reheated to 20°C drybulb.
efficiency. In a hot, humid climate, there is considerable A second consideration is the annual operating cost.
heat load needed to chill the air. There is the This will vary depending on ambient conditions and local
combination of the heat load to chill the air, plus the power cost. Using the above example, on an average day in
heat load to chill the water vapour in the air and the January, the ambient temperature is 14°C at an RH of 70%.
latent heat of condensing the water out of the air. The air In these conditions, the chiller is barely ticking over,
chiller has to be rated for the worst case conditions, drawing only about 40 kW for the thermal load, compared
otherwise it becomes the bottleneck and production to over 1 MW on an average day in July, when the
needs to be cut back. temperatures are approximately 29°C and RH of 75%.
Looking over 12 months, the average chiller load is about
500 kW, and at a power cost of 10 c/kWh, and 8000 hr/yr,
Table 1. Maximum heat load and chiller drive rating this is an annual electrical cost of US$400 000.
Table 2 gives the average chiller thermal load and
Ambient conditions
power draw by month.
Average temperature 35°C
Air chiller compressor 94 RH Fans
In a fluid bed cooler system, there are typically fans
Enthalpy upstream (forced draft) and downstream (induced draft) of
Ambient 124 kJ/kg the fluid bed. Estimated power consumption is 180 kW for
the forced draft fan and 360 kW for the induced draft fan.
11˚C, 100% RH 29.6 kJ/kg An overall summary of the estimated power draw for a
Delta 94.4 kJ/kg fluid bed cooler is detailed in Table 3.
Chiller load
Progress in fertilizer cooling
Average chiller load 20 390 400 kJ/hr As mentioned previously, the alternative to the fluid bed
cooler is the indirect plate cooler system. Incorporating an
Chiller power 1887 kW
indirect plate cooler system eliminates the need for a
chiller unit and scrubber
fans. The typical process
Table 2. Average chiller thermal load and power draw by month flow of the secondary
Ambient conditions Enthalpy Chiller load
cooling in a urea
granulation plant using an
Average Air chiller Ambient 11˚C, Enthalpy Average Chiller indirect plate cooler is
temperature compressor (kJ/kg) 100% RH delta chiller load power
shown in Figure 3. The
(°C) (RH) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/hr) (kW)
power draws for this
January 14 70 31.64 29.6 2.04 440 640 41 system are the water
February 15 75 35.2 29.6 5.6 1 209 600 112 pump on the water
March 21 73 49.94 29.6 20.34 4 393 440 407 module and the bucket
elevator, and these draws
April 21 72 49.54 29.6 19.94 4 307 040 399 are substantially lower
May 25 72 61.62 29.6 32.02 6 916 320 640 than a fluid bed cooler, as
June 28 71 71.36 29.6 41.76 9 020 160 835 shown in Table 4.
Making a comparison
July 29 75 77.71 29.6 48.11 10 391 760 962 of the fluid bed cooler
August 28 78 75.74 29.6 46.14 9 966 240 923 configuration in Figure 1
and the newer indirect
September 26 77 67.71 29.6 38.11 8 231 760 762
plate cooler system
October 20 71 46.41 29.6 16.81 3 630 960 336 configuration in Figure 3 in
November 14 69 31.38 29.6 1.78 Not in use - terms of energy
consumption, it can be
December 14 74 32.65 29.6 3.05 658 800 61
observed that there are
Average 21.25 73.08 52.58 29.6 22.98 5 378 793 498 substantial energy savings

Table 3. Estimated power draw for a fluid bed cooler
Consumption in kW
Forced draft fan 180
Induced draft fan 360
Air chiller compressor 500
Table 4. Power draws for the indirect plate cooler

process
Consumption (kW)
Purge air blower 45
Waste pump 20
Extra bucket elevator 20
Table 5. Total energy costs – fluid bed cooler versus

indirect plate cooler
Fluid bed cooler Indirect plate cooler
(kW) (kW)
Air chiller 498 -
Air blower 180 45

Fans ID 360 -
Cooling water - 20
pump
Bucket elevator - 20
Total power 1.038 85

consumption
Total energy
savings per hour
953 Dry granulation
with the new configuration. Table 5 shows a comparison of
of fertilizers
the total energy costs.
The verdict Our technology has been recognized around the world
Indirect plate coolers have proven to be reliable and
efficient for cooling fertilizers. There are now over 100 in for dry granulation of MOP / SOP and NPKs. Our services
service across the world in every type of fertilizer cover pilot plant tests, basic engineering, equipment
processing, including urea, ammonium nitrate, NPKs and supply, start-up supervision, and commissioning. Typical
phosphates. Some of these units have been in service for
flake capacities are in the range of 10 –130 t / h or more.
more than 25 years, and developments over the last few
years have addressed some of the early concerns with
caking. These concerns were tackled by carefully We have received orders for more than 0 fertilizer
controlling the water temperature and by adding low
compactors of latest Köppern technology since the
volume dry purge air to achieve reliable operation and
long run times between cleaning. year 2000. The total installed flake capacity of these plants
Reduced energy costs have been the primary focus of is exceeding ,000,000 tpa.
this article and the example suggests that there is Köppern – Quality made in Germany.
significant energy, and thus operating cost, savings per year
with the indirect plate cooler. A large component of the
cost savings is the elimination of the air chiller. In addition • State of the art technology
to operating cost savings, three large energy drains of • Process technology know-how
180kW, 360kW, and 2000 kW are eliminated and replaced
• High plant availability
by two small pieces of equipment that total less than
50 kW in energy usage. This serves as an example of • Quick roller replacement
forward progress within a long-standing industry.
www.koeppern.de
The Summit will cover:
Market and Trade Dynamics Water Soluble Fertilizers
Advanced NPK Compounds Ca/Mg/S and Micronutrients
Over 6% year on year Primary Nutrients

Political and Regulatory Impact
New Concept Fertilizers
Biostimulants
growth forecast for

the value added Excellent summit for new
information and networking.
Petronas
A well organized
and informative
fertilizer sector summit. Stimulating.

Omnia +3!SIA0ACIlC
over the next decade.

Excellent! Great participation!
Very informative! A lot of new technology,
International Finance Corporation (IFC) very impressive.
Stanley Agriculture Group
Value Added Fertilizer Summit Asia 2018 Great opportunity to meet

others in the industry. Great to An excellent collection of talent,
Improving margins with new technologies, solutions and application rates IB>OKÐLCÐAFCi@RIQFBPÐTBÐ>IIÐC>@BÐ new product initiatives, networking
in marketing these products. with producers, clearing doubts.
6-7 February Singapore Ravensdown Fertilisers Coromandel International Limited
SPECIALTY FERTILIZERS NPK COMPOUNDS PREMIUM MICRONUTRIENTS
Book your discounted delegate ticket: Request more information:

Early Bird Discount* www.integer-research.com/conferences/vafsa-2018 e: conferences@integer-research.com | t: +44 20 7503 1265
SAVE $600 *Early Bird Discount must end 20th October 2017. Please use worldfertilizer as your discount code at the checkout page.
For group ticket discounts please contact us using the email or phone number above.
PERFORMANCE
GUARANTEED
AT TECHNOPHOS,
OUR EXCELLENCE CENTER, A TEAM
OF 50 PEOPLE DEMONSTRATES ALL
ECOPHOS PROCESS MODULES
AT AN INDUSTRIAL SCALE.
WANT TO PEEK INTO THE FUTURE ?

WWW.ECOPHOS.COM
CHANGE YOUR MIND ABOUT PHOSPHATE

INDUSTRIAL SERVICES
FEELING THE
M
ALEX LATTIMER, FLEXITALLIC LTD, UK, inimising downtime and maximising plant
efficiencies remain among the key priorities
EXPLAINS HOW TO OVERCOME BOLTED
across the chemicals and process industries,
JOINT INTEGRITY ISSUES DURING which rely on the innovation of
HIGH-TEMPERATURE FERTILIZER technology-led companies from within its supply chain
PRODUCTION. to meet essential targets.
51
Flexitallic has been delivering gasket and
sealing solutions to the industry for over a
century, focusing on the particular challenges
faced by sectors, such as the ammonium nitrate
and nitric acid production sector, with the aim of
improving the integrity of bolted joints for piping
systems and process equipment in order to
achieve leak-free operations.
The cyclical nature of the temperature ranges
handled by heat exchangers employed in the
production process has, in the past, led to
leakages becoming a chronic issue and a
challenge to plant engineers.
Although specific process designs differ,
typically downstream of the burner vessel are a
series of heat exchangers that are subject to high
temperatures and an oxidising service. Whilst the
burner gaskets are changed when the catalyst
Figure 1. A Flexitallic Change gasket.
changeover is required, the nitric acid heat
exchanger train gaskets are not changed. Instead
they are exposed to the shutdown and restart
thermal cycle, which adds an additional strain on
the bolted joint especially the gasket.
The multiple cycles of extreme temperatures
and pressures in heat exchangers can lead to
unplanned maintenance and downtime due to the
need to replace any gaskets that are unable to
tolerate these tough conditions.
Previously, the sealing options available have
been unable to operate across a broad
temperature spectrum, which has led to leak
mitigation rather than eradication. However, even
a single gasket failure can lead to costly plant
shutdowns and lost production time, while gasket
replacement during inspection and maintenance
programmes can extend the planned shutdown,
thereby impacting plant operations.
Flexitallic’s ChangeTM gasket offers a major
Figure 2. Typical heat exchanger equipment. benefit to the fertilizer industry as it addresses
these issues through its specialist design. It is
capable of operating at high temperatures in an
oxidising environment, and can also cope with
repeated extreme thermal cycles.
The Change gasket is particularly effective
when used within heat exchangers, which makes
it suitable for the extreme process demands used
in the manufacturing of nitrate acid and the
production of syngas. High temperatures
alongside a highly oxidising process media and
extreme thermal cycling are the most challenging
environments for the fluid sealing industry.
Processes at fertilizer plants involving heat
exchangers can be particularly demanding and
can involve elevated temperatures, high pressures,
and cyclic operation, especially in heat trains and
burner applications. This is compounded by the
fact that equipment is often old. Additional
requirements for improved asset efficiency and
emissions compliance place ever-increasing
Figure 3. Pressure versus cycle number results. demands on gasket performance.

VALUE CREATION
Separations Technologies to
Enhance Your Fertilizer Process
Engineered to optimize your plant performance.
Operators of fertilizer plants are constantly working to improve the profitability
of their production assets. The ability to expand the capacity of an operation
by selecting the vessel internals best suited for a specific application can result
in a cost effective solution as well as a shorter turnaround.
While capacity is of primary interest, Koch-Glitsch can also help operators

address concerns with efficiency, product purity, operation reliability, and the
environmental impact of processing operations.
The selection and design of column internals and mist eliminators that will
achieve the maximum benefits is not a simple task. Reviewing your project
requirements with Koch-Glitsch, a company with proven knowledge and
experience, can help in making the best equipment choices.
For vessel revamps or new construction, contact Koch-Glitsch for the design
and supply of a solution to optimize your plant performance.
YOU
YO U CA
CAN
N RE
RELY ON
LY O N US
US..™
United States (316) 828-5110 | Canada (905) 852-3381 | Italy +39-039-6386010 | Belgium +32-3-647-2847 | Singapore +65-6831-6500
For a complete list of our offices, visit our Web site.
www.koch-glitsch.com
For related trademark information, visit http://www.koch-glitsch.com/trademarks.
To address such issues, extensive research and Change has also consistently performed in tough
development work was undertaken that resulted in the environments. For example, CVR Energy recently
production of the Change gasket. It has been designed to installed the gasket in one of its nitric acid plants. The
provide the optimum combination of both stiffness and initial installation was in a steam superheater heat
resilience, so is capable of creating a high performance exchanger with NOX operating at 125 psi and 965˚F. The
seal under the conditions of a long-term cyclic service. previous gasket was a double jacketed gasket. The unit
Change offers substantial benefits over traditional was located between an air heater and primary waste
gasket styles that are more commonly used in heat heat boiler.
exchangers, including metal jacket gaskets, corrugated After three to four thermal cycles, both the
metal gaskets, spiral-wound gaskets and kammprofile upstream and downstream process flanges would
gaskets. It also offers long-term sealing performance, develop leaks and gaskets were replaced at every gauze
particularly in bolted connections that are subject to change. In October 2013, Change gaskets were installed
thermal transients. in both process flanges. The original Change gaskets
The manufacturing approach to Change involved remained in service for several leak-free years. The
producing a gasket from a wire strip, in order to offer gaskets were replaced in 2016 due to a tube leak in the
both maximum manufacturing flexibility and cost superheater and also remain in service leak-free after
savings alongside optimum material usage. The strip is numerous thermal cycles.
spirally wound; however, the strip profile and thickness There are several other reported successes from
differs significantly from that used in a standard fertilizer facilities using the Change gasket in various
spiral-wound gasket, being five times thicker. applications, including process piping, natural gas
Upon winding, the unique profile and increased preheater exchangers, ammonia burners and tail gas
thickness of the wire results in a stiff yet resilient heat exchangers. The gasket is also being used in a
interlocked structure with improved handling range of applications in other industries, such as the
characteristics compared to that of standard refining, power and petrochemical sectors.
spiral-wound gaskets. This gasket can create a tight seal that responds to
The gasket’s capabilities have been proven through temperature cycles without the risk of overtightening
a series of studies, including radial shear testing (RAST), or loosening of bolted joints to compensate. This
shell extended thermal cycling, leakage and efficacy can be enhanced by the use of filler materials,
compression testing, which all yielded positive results. which are incorporated during the gasket winding
For example, across a 24-cycle ‘pressure versus process.
thermal cycle’ test at 302˚C (replicating industry Once wound, both gasket sealing faces are covered
conditions), a bolted joint using Change lost just 1.5 psi, with a layer of soft facing material, providing
outperforming other gasket tested by at least nine low-stress sealing and good performance on
thermal cycles. poorly-finished flange surface faces. For chemical
Compression tests revealed that, based on the high processes, materials such as PTFE can be applied or, in
level of stored energy, Change recovers almost five the case of fertilizer production, Flexitallic’s
times better than kammprofile and double jacketed high-temperature material, Thermiculite©, is often used.
gaskets. RAST (originally developed by PVRC/ASME Based on naturally-occurring vermiculite,
along with Ecole Polytechnique at the University of Thermiculite materials are able to operate at both ends
Montreal), was undertaken to simulate the differential of the temperature spectrum, including up to
expansion and contraction of heat exchanger flanges. temperatures in excess of 1000˚C. This makes it
The test was conducted over 100 thermal cycles with suitable for nitric acid production. Nitric acid heat
nitrogen pressurising to 40 bar and leak test every 20 train exchangers undergo regular heat cycles as the
cycles. reactor catalyst is replaced every 70 – 90 days.
The flange was a tongue and groove type, as is However, during this very exothermic process, gaskets
typical of a heat exchanger, and the gasket size was are often not replaced, and with temperatures reaching
453 x 427 mm (nominal 3.2 mm thick). The lower flange up to 871˚C, sealing products can be put under extreme
was cycled to 300˚C and the upper flange was water pressure and can become prone to failure.
cooled, thus maximising differential growth in the However, because vermiculite is an inorganic
system and generating approximately 0.8 mm radial silicate, Thermiculite possesses a strong resistance to
shear on the gasket. The key measurement however, very high temperatures and aggressive chemicals, and
was the bolt relaxation as this is considered a measure has passed the stringent API 6FB fire test.
of the resistance of the gasket to radial shear. Thermiculite and Change can be used as a single
The gasket survived the test with negligible visible solution, replacing the need for a range of materials
damage, and showed only a 15% relaxation in bolt – none of which have provided a lasting solution at
stress after 100 cycles. By comparison, the next best elevated and cycling temperatures. Real savings can be
performing was the spiral-wound gasket with a bolt made in terms of reduced maintenance costs, reduced
relaxation of approximately 25%. Flexitallic’s gasket downtime, rationalisation of inventory, emissions
exhibited no major leakage in the test, which was in compliance and improved safety through
stark contrast to the jacketed type gasket. vastly-improved joint integrity.

THE
RED CARPET
TREATMENT
Dr Gene Shelp and Dr John Motto, ENPAR Technologies

Inc., Canada, look at effective ammonia treatment for
commercial, industrial and municipal applications.
E
ffective ammonia treatment systems are becoming more important in an increasingly
environmentally conscious world. ENPAR’s AmmEL systems represent cost-effective
and environmentally sound treatment processes for the removal of dissolved
ammonia from industrial and municipal water, including wastewater, storm water,
sewage effluent and mine wastewater.
At the core of the system is an electrochemical reactor that converts the total ammonia
directly into gaseous nitrogen without producing carcinogenic nitrate or the greenhouse gas
55
remotely monitored, therefore requiring little
maintenance.
The system incurs a lower capital cost than current
conventional systems of similar size and capabilities.
There is no bio-fouling of columns and, therefore, no
reduction in ammonium adsorption efficiency.
There are two versions of the AmmEL system:

AmmEL-LC and AmmEL-HC. Table 1 gives the
specifications for each version.
AmmEL-LC
AmmEL-LC is a two-stage continuous process that
incorporates high efficiency ion exchange columns that
are linked to an electrochemical reactor. The process
Figure 1. The AmmEL-LC process. involves pumping wastewater-containing ammonia into
sequential ion exchange columns that contain a naturally
Table 1. Difference between AmmEL-LC and AmmEL-HC occurring ion exchange material. Loaded columns are
specifications regenerated using a simple salt solution. The sequence of
Specification AmmEL-LC AmmEL-HC loading and regeneration changes automatically to
provide maximum treatment.
Operational < 200 mg/l > 200-1000s mg/l
NH3-N ENPAR’s research team developed a modified natural
concentration ion exchange material capable of maintaining high
ammonium removal rates while precluding the absorption
Ammonia Ion exchange Strip and scrub
removal method of calcium, magnesium and strontium ions. These ions,
when transferred to the regenerant solution of the
Ammonia N2 (destructive via N2 (destructive),
recovery method electrochemical or (NH4)2SO4 (can AmmEL-LC system, had been targeted as a source of
reactor) be recovered and fouling of the electrochemical reactor. The modified ion
re-used) exchange material allows the calcium, magnesium and
strontium to be carried through with the treated effluent
nitrous oxide. Responsibly managing ammonia will reduce while maintaining a high rate of ammonium removal,
the toxicity, inhibit the proliferation of algae and improve precluding the transfer of hardness to the regenerant
the overall water quality of receiving water bodies. solution.
In contrast to conventional biological processes, low Municipal wastewater treatment plants can employ
temperatures do not negatively affect the efficacy of AmmEL-LC to treat clarified secondary effluent, and it
ENPAR’s electrochemically based systems. This enables can function as a complementary system for treatment
the management of ammonia in northern regions of the facilities during cold weather conditions when effluent
globe even under extremely cold conditions (0°C). temperatures approach 0˚C and nutrient removal in
The system takes the ‘N4O Approach’ to ammonia biological reactors slows down. With a high removal rate
treatment: immediately upon startup and the ability to maintain
high ammonia removal efficiency when treating waste
No nitrate: as it is a carcinogen. streams at 0˚C, the system can be applied as a polishing
No nitrous oxide: as it is a known greenhouse gas. step to remove ammonia during the final treatment stage
No reduction in water quality. prior to discharge.
No algae.
Only environmentally-friendly nitrogen gas. Treating contaminated groundwater
ENPAR was contracted by an engineering firm to design,
Some of the advantages of the AmmEL technology manufacture and deliver an AmmEL-LC ammonia
compared to conventional systems include: treatment system to a project site in the Middle Atlantic
region of the US. The source of the ammonia-N (NH3-N)
It is capable of achieving very low concentrations of was minor releases of diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) due to an
ammonium in the treated water (<1 mg/l). end-user error (spillage) during the filling of DEF tanks on
Neither nitrate nor nitrous oxide is produced diesel vehicles. During periods of rain or snowmelt, or
(releasing 1 kg of N2O into the atmosphere is when the ground near the filling stations was washed, the
reported as being equivalent to 298 kg of CO2),1 so DEF was washed away and collected in a retention pond
the system should qualify for greenhouse credits. near the site. Over time, the DEF was converted to
The efficacy is independent of temperature. ammonia by bacteria present in the pond water.
Water with high hardness, high-suspended solids and Concentrations of NH3-N in the collection pond
limited organic compounds can be treated. derived from the urea in the DEF resulted in exceedances
The system has a relatively small footprint with rapid of the site’s permitted ammonia discharge limit. In order
startup and shutdown, and is fully automated and to meet the discharge requirements, ENPAR delivered a

Superior Binders for the Manufacture
of Quality Fertilizer Granules
Borregaard LignoTech offers a wide range of economically-beneficial and environmentally-friendly
binders for the manufacture of quality granular fertilizers. Derived from lignin, the natural
polymer that binds trees together, these bio-polymers produce granules with high crush strengths
and abrasion resistances. Fertilizers made with our lignin-based binders are less dusty, store well,
and bulk blend easily with other granular fertilizers.
The most recommended and most widely used

binders in the industry because they...
• Bind a wide range of substrates
• Optimize pellet (prill) characteristics
• Reduce in-process dust control
• Produce durable granules with superior handling and storage properties
An Excellent Granulation Aid for Fertilizer Manufacturers

• Cost effective
• High on organic carbon
• Agronomically beneficial
• Derived from renewable materials
For more information on economical solutions for your manufacturing needs

email us at lignotechagro@borregaard.com or visit lignotechagro.com/contact
www.lignotechagro.com
mobile AmmEL-LC unit, which was constructed in a 45 ft AmmEL reduced the concentration of NH3-N to
shipping container. The unit was designed to reduce <2.6 mg/l with an average value of 0.55 NH3-N mg/l.
concentrations of NH3-N from 200 mg/l to less than Assuming an average value of 17 mg/l for the inlet
1.5 mg/l. The unit operates at a maximum system stream, this represented a 96% reduction in the total
flowrate of 5 gal./min. (18.9 l/min.) under the most concentration of NH3-N in the storm water after
adverse treatment conditions created by the range of treatment.
water chemistry parameter values encountered at the Following the initial testing period, the system was
site. operated on a 24 hr basis for one week. The inlet NH3-N
Following commissioning, the automated AmmEL concentration was 2.25 mg/l due to extended periods of
plant met the specified design criteria resulting in rain and dilution in the retention pond. However,
ammonia concentrations of less than 0.2 mg/l NH3-N in following treatment, an average NH3-N concentration of
the treated water. This system was designed to operate 0.35 mg/l was measured in the outlet samples. This
continuously or intermittently during periods of limited corresponded to an average of 84% removal of the total
precipitation. NH 3-N in the storm water samples after treatment.
This pilot-scale test of the AmmEL system
Ammonia removal from storm water run-off demonstrated that the technology is both a viable and
ENPAR’s AmmEL-LC system was also used in a pilot study practical method for removing ammonia from
at a municipal bio-solids storage facility located in contaminated water. It has the additional advantage of
Southern Ontario, Canada. The objective of the converting ammonia directly to N 2 gas. As nitrate is not
pilot-scale tests was to demonstrate that the system produced in the process, it is possible to reduce the total
could reduce the concentration of ammonia in the storm nitrogen loading and not just the ammonia loading. This
water pond to below 3.0 mg/l NH3-N. These guidelines is extremely valuable, given that regulators are now
were required by a Certificate of Approval issued to the contemplating the implementation of discharge
region by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment regulations based on total nitrogen (NO3-N and NH3-N)
regarding the direct discharge of water during the loading.
periods 1 March – 31 May and 1 November – 15 December.
The region had recently been granted approval by the AmmEL-HC
Ministry of the Environment to expand the existing AmmEL-HC is a two-stage ammonia removal process
storm water management pond. ENPAR needed to consisting of strip and scrub columns that are linked to an
demonstrate that the AmmEL system could treat the electrochemical reactor. At the core is an electrochemical
additional storm water on-site at a lower cost when reactor, which converts ammonia directly to gaseous
compared to the alternative of hauling storm water to a nitrogen without producing nitrates or greenhouse gases.
municipal sewage treatment plant. This technology is suited for treatment of municipal
Initial testing was performed with the system wastewater and storm water, as well as industrial process
operating for 6 hr a day for three weeks. During that water and contaminated groundwater.
period, samples of inlet and treated water were taken Municipal wastewater treatment plants can employ
twice during each 6 hr run. A total of 72 samples (36 inlet AmmEL-HC after sludge dewatering processes in order to
samples and 36 outlet samples) were analysed for NH3-N prevent ammonia toxicity in the activated sludge process.
concentration by ion selective electrode within 24 hr of Like its counterpart, the AmmEL-HC can function as a
arriving at ENPAR’s facility. complementary system for treatment facilities during
The NH3-N concentration of the inlet storm water at cool weather conditions when nutrient removal in
the beginning of the testing period was >20 mg/l and biological reactors slows down. With a high removal rate
decreased gradually to approximately 14 mg/l by the end immediately upon startup, it is able to divert excess
of the test period. Treatment of the storm water using loading from existing activated sludge processes during
acclimation periods or system upsets.
The strip and scrub approach comprises three phases:
Stripping ammonia gas from the wastewater.

Scrubbing the ammonia back into a liquid stream.
Electrochemically converting the ammonia to free
nitrogen gas.
The pH of the wastewater is increased before being

pumped into the top of the stripping column. Air that is
pumped into the bottom of the column transfers the
ammonia from the wastewater to the liquid in the
scrubbing column. The scrubbing liquid is then transferred
to the electrochemical reactor where the ammonia is
converted to nitrogen gas.
An alternative version of the AmmEL-HC, the
Figure 2. The AmmEL-HC process. AmmEL-Rx has application for treating high ionic

.HHSFDOPDQGRSWLPL]H
*HWWKHPRVWIURP\RXUDPPRQLDSODQWDVVHWV
$VDZRUOGFODVVSURYLGHURIV\QJDVWHFKQRORJLHVDQG $GGLWLRQDOXSJUDGHVDQGVHUYLFHVZHSURYLGH
SODQWVZHGHOLYHUFRVWHꡜHFWLYHVROXWLRQVWRJHWWKH Ř5HIRUPHUDQG36$UHOLIHXSJUDGHVDQGUHYDPSVWR
PRVWRXWRI\RXURSHUDWLRQ LPSURYHRYHUDOOHꡝFLHQF\FDSDFLW\DQGVDIHW\
Ř)LWQHVVIRUVHUYLFHDVVHVVPHQWV
Ř2XWDJHSODQQLQJDQGRSWLPL]DWLRQVHUYLFHV
Ř5HFRYHU\RIYDOXDEOHE\SURGXFWVIURPSXUJHJDV
Ř5HWURÀWVRIH[LVWLQJLQVWDOODWLRQVIRUIHHGVWRFN
ÁH[LELOLW\
Ř6SDUHSDUWVLQYHQWRU\DXGLWVDQGVXSSO\
/HDUQPRUH
ZZZOHDPHULFDVFRPDPPRQLD
/LQGH(QJLQHHULQJ1RUWK$PHULFD,QF
VDOHV#OHDPHULFDVFRP
immediately before it entered the
Table 2. AmmEL-HC optimisation experiments for centrate at 24˚C stripper column. The pilot-scale unit
Run code Unit 416 414 415 417 was operated at a liquid flowrate of
Centrate flow rate l/min. 3 4 4 5 3 – 5 l/min., and a gas flowrate of
12 m3/min.
pH of stripper inlet 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1
Within the range of conditions
pH of stripper outlet 8.2 8.2 9.6 9.5 tested by the EWMCE technical team,
Reactor current A 500 600 500 600 the system proved capable of removing
Inlet NH3-N mg/l 903 960 823 906 up to 90% of the ammonia in the waste
stream and converting virtually all of
Outlet NH3-N mg/l 69 234 215 247
the captured ammonia to nitrogen gas.
NH3-N removal % 92 76 74 73 The ammonia concentration measured
Mass NH3-N removed 3
kg/m centrate 0.83 0.73 0.61 0.66 in the reactor exhaust air stream was
Reactor power kWh/m centrate 3 16.9 15.8 12.7 12.8 below the 5 mg NH3-N/l detection
limit. The cost of treatment (including
Power other kWh/m3 centrate 14.3 10.7 10.7 8.6
the power and chemicals) was
3
Power cost at US$/m centrate 2.81 2.39 2.11 1.93 approximately US$4.25/m3 – US$5.51 of
US$0.09/kWh centrate containing 825 – 960 mg
HCl consumption l/m3 centrate 3.52 3.68 1.35 1.33 NH3-N/l and at 24˚C (Table 2).
HCl cost at US$0.20/l US$/m centrate3 0.7 0.74 0.27 0.27 The operating costs were reduced
3 significantly when using higher centrate
NaOH consumption l/m centrate 3.99 3.85 3.96 4.11
temperature. The higher temperature
3
NaOH cost at US$/m centrate 2.00 1.93 1.98 2.06 AmmEL-HC feed water translated to a
US$0.50/l
reduced NaOH consumption, as
Total operating cost US$/m3 centrate US$5.51 US$5.05 US$4.36 US$4.25 ammonia solubility in water is
Total operating cost US$/kg NH3-N US$6.61 US$6.96 US%7.17 US$6.45 decreased at higher temperatures.
removed Therefore, a smaller pH adjustment was
necessary.
strength waste streams containing a high chloride The AmmEL technology is a disruptive technology
concentration (e.g. >5000 mg/l chloride). In this case, that efficiently and effectively converts ammonia to
the ammonia in the wastewater stream can be treated nitrogen gas. Two versions of the AmmEL are available
directly by the electrochemical reactor, bypassing the depending on the ammonia concentration of the
need for an initial strip and scrub stage. wastewater. The AmmEL-LC is an effective approach for
wastewater with ammonia-nitrogen concentrations
Ammonia removal from municipal centrate below 200 mg/l, producing treated effluent containing
waste streams less than 1 mg/l NH3-N. The AmmEL-HC is best suited
The removal of high concentrations of ammonium for treating wastewater with NH3-N concentration
(>800 mg/l) from a municipal centrate waste stream above 200 mg/l. Both technologies convert ammonia
was successfully demonstrated using ENPAR’s to nitrogen gas whilst bypassing formation of the
AmmEL-HC small scale commercial system at the carcinogen nitrate or the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide
Wastewater Research Training Centre, operated by the and effectively reducing total nitrogen loading in the
Edmonton Waste Management Centre of Excellence environment.
(EWMCE) in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. The AmmEL system is a viable ammonia solution to
The AmmEL system consisted of countercurrent the fertilizer industry, for the treatment of groundwater,
air-stripping and air-scrubbing packed columns storm water and air scrubber condensate water
operated in a closed-loop, alongside an containing elevated levels of ammonia. The AmmEL-LC
electro-chemical reactor. The stripper column was system can be utilised in a continuous operation
40.6 cm in diameter and 5.8 m in height, while the pump-and-treat programme to treat groundwater that
scrubber column was 40.6 cm in diameter and 4.3 m in contains ammonia. For the treatment of
height. The stripping column and scrubbing tower ammonia-containing storm run-off water, the
transferred the ammonia from the waste stream to a AmmEL-LC can be used as a tertiary process or used in
brine solution. The brine solution contained the a batch treatment mode. The AmmEL-HC can be utilised
electrolyte of the closed-loop electrochemical circuit, to treat air scrubber condensate, which may contain
which was pumped through the electrochemical reactor higher levels of ammonia. When used in these
where the ammonia was then oxidised to nitrogen gas. applications, both the AmmEL-LC and AmmEL-HC
The nitrogen gas was subsequently released to the convert ammonia to environmentally-friendly nitrogen
atmosphere. gas that can be safely released to the atmosphere.
The electrochemical reactor was operated at a
current between 500 and 600 A, and at a potential of Reference
6.2 V. The pH of the centrate was adjusted to a value 1. 'CO2 equivalents', Climate Change Connection, https://
between 8 and 10 (depending on centrate temperature), climatechangeconnection.org/emissions/co2-equivalents/

FROM RECOVERY
TO REMELTING
MARK GILBREATH,
MATRIX PDM ENGINEERING,
USA, OUTLINES INFRASTRUCTURE
CONSIDERATIONS FOR GLOBAL DRY
SULFUR LOGISTICS.
ulfuric acid – the most commonly used chemical content in transportation fuels. The result is an
S in the world – is a primary feedstock in the

production of fertilizers, as well as in the
manufacturing processes of many other products.
Today, more and more sulfur is being generated as a
result of increased global oil and gas production and
evolving need for efficient sulfur storage and
transportation logistics, which has, in turn, led to
increased reliance on the production and
transportation of dry formed sulfur that can be carried
in bulk collier ships. Concurrently, large new facilities
environmental regulations that demand lower sulfur that have the capacity to form over 1000 tpd of sulfur
61
Degassing units
Sulfur that has been degassed to lower hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) results in a higher quality and much safer formed
dry sulfur prill. Claus liquid sulfur contains
250 – 350 ppmw of dissolved H2S/H2Sx. With a long
logistic supply chain, dangerous H2S is released during
storage, handling and transportation. This is particularly
dangerous due to potential H2S buildup in a ship’s hold
during ocean transportation.
Key drivers for sulfur degassing are safety, health
and environmental improvements. Degassing units that
include contactor, cooler and mechanical systems are
readily available in vertical modular packages.
Figure 1. Wet prilled sulfur being conveyed from a sulfur
prilling unit to a pile for open storage. Sulfur forming units
Products that can be handled as dry bulk solids are
formed by either dry pastillation, granulation, or wet
prilling. The objective is to solidify molten sulfur into a
product with a shape and integrity that will create the
minimum amount of fine sulfur particles during
transport, transfer, storage and reclamation. Sulfur dust
is both a health hazard and presents potential for
explosion if collected in a confined space with an
ignition source.
Pastillation units spray water under a steel belt on
which sulfur drops are deposited to produce pastilles.
Meanwhile, granulation units use water sprayed into a
rotating drum for cooling the liquid sulfur that is
sprayed onto a seed curtain to form granules.
Prilling introduces liquid sulfur at the top of a
forming tank for direct countercurrent heat exchange
with water to produce prills that are withdrawn from
the bottom of the forming tank via screens. Unlike a
Figure 2. Material handling system including marine pastillation or granulation unit, prilling units are readily
structures and shiploaders designed to handle either
molten or prilled sulfur. adaptable for modular construction. Major components
include the forming tray, fume hood and scrubber (if
required), forming tank, dewatering screen and dry
product conveyors. Mechanical equipment includes the
process water and cooling tower supply pumps and
cooling tower with fan units.
This wet formed prill also benefits from modern
process improvements for moisture control (2%), size
uniformity, high capacity and ability to meet
international commercial specifications. Apart from in
very cold climates, process building enclosures are not
required.
Dry sulfur material handling

A major advantage of dry sulfur in the global logistics
chain is the ability to store, handle and transport it as a
dry bulk product. Depending on facility owner
Figure 3. A 1 million tpy sulfur remelter with lime silo,
external heat exchangers and a scrubber. preferences, it is acceptable to store dry sulfur in open
storage stock yards. However, these yards are subject to
windborne contamination (such as sand) and increases
are being constructed in Canada, India, Iran, Kuwait, in free moisture due to rain. While dry storage in
Malaysia, Mexico, Turkey and Vietnam. buildings will protect the sulfur from the elements, it
From recovery of molten sulfur, to dry bulk solid, also requires greater dust management.
and back to molten sulfur, this process requires Wet prilled sulfur (Figure 1) is less dusty from the
specialised technology and infrastructure to ensure safe time it is produced. There are also a number of
handling, transportation and storage. This article commercially-available dust suppression products that
focuses on those processes and infrastructure. work effectively if properly distributed at transfer

points along the material handling conveyor
system.
Control of acidity is an important
consideration for protecting material handling
equipment and facilities. While total stainless
steel construction would be ideal, it tends to be
more expensive than most facilities can justify.
Experienced providers of sulfur material handling
systems understand this and will generally be able
to offer a more cost-effective solution. That said,
regardless of whether open or dry building storage
is used, sulfur acidity will biologically increase
over time. The use of additives before a material
is placed in ship holds or at ports of storage for
Figure 4. Three modular pressure leaf filter units at a 1 million tpy
periods of over a few weeks can slow this activity. sulfur remelting facility.
Shiploading and unloading

Being able to load ships with dry sulfur at the origin or the use of external heat exchangers, without the use of
unload ships at the consumption destination is greatly internal coils in the melter vessel. External heat
enhanced if existing dock facilities are available exchangers are much more efficient to maintain and
(Figure 2). The capital expense for basic new dock operate than systems that include internal coils.
construction in the US starts at over US$30 million, Dry sulfur is added to the melter vessel at a
excluding the cost of material handling conveyor controlled rate. Heated molten sulfur is also added at
systems, stockpiles and shiploading/unloading the top of the melter. Properly designed mixing and the
equipment. creation of a controlled vortex facilitate the highly
Co-location of sulfur handling ship facilities at an efficient melting of the dry sulfur. Molten sulfur then
existing dock can lower capital construction costs. flows from the melter vessel into an elongated pump
However, berth occupancy minimum times and potential tank. The pump tank and associated vertical shaft pumps
per diem ship costs for a shared dock must also be circulate the molten sulfur through the heat exchanger/
considered. melter vessel system. Importantly, the pump tank also
Large heavy longitudinal travelling allows for non-meltable contaminates and any foam to
shiploaders/unloaders provide the greatest flexibility for settle out.
working vessels at rates of over 3000 tpd. These
machines also have the highest installed capital cost, Filtering and molten sulfur storage
requiring substantial existing and new dock structure to The last step before molten sulfur can be stored is
support. In many cases, smaller fixed-arm shiploading post-melting filtering. This is typically completed using
equipment will have the lowest capital cost, but will also pressure leaf filter units at the remelter facility (Figure 4).
mean lower unloading rates (approximately 1000 tpd) These units use filter leafs that are pre-coated with filter
and, unless one hold is being loaded for small cargo, the media, such as diatomaceous earth. As filter efficiency
ship must be repositioned during loading/unloading. decreases, the filters are taken offline, opened and the
Ships can be loaded/unloaded with dry sulfur using filter cake removed.
basic cranes and ships gear. While these simple systems These properly sized and designed leaf filter units are
have low capital costs, they require more manpower and readily adaptable to modular fabrication away from
have higher operating costs over the life of the facility. jobsite and transported as complete units by truck, barge
or ship. Polishing cartridge filters can also be provided
Land transportation depending on the acid plant ash specification in cases
If the sulfuric acid plant and associated melter is a where adequate filter screens and pre-coat is not
distance from the ship dock, dry sulfur can be available.
transported by rail or truck. The capital and operating Molten sulfur is then pumped from the filter system
costs of rail or truck loading/unloading facilities need to to the molten sulfur storage tanks that provides feed to
be taken into account accordingly. Often, only the cost the sulfuric acid plant. Molten sulfur storage tanks
of transportation is included in a business model, with require proper design and construction in order to
truck and rail facilities easily overlooked or maintain uniform heat and temperature control, as well
underestimated. as proper and safe venting.
Sulfur remelting facility Conclusion

A sulfur remelter is required to transform dry sulfur to Taking note of the necessary considerations and
molten sulfur, to then feed the sulfuric acid plant. Single requirements for the production of dry sulfur, global
melter vessel systems using external heat exchangers ocean transportation and remelting is an important
(Figure 3) can be provided with a capacity of well over factor as decisions are made regarding changes in
4500 tpd, which adds heat to the melter system through markets, new facility locations and type.

FINISHING
TOUCHES
Wilfried Dirkx and Barbara Cucchiella, Stamicarbon, the Netherlands, explore
some of the latest developments in fertilizer granulation technologies.
A
fter initial development activities were conducted in the granulator as so-called seeds. The on-spec product in the
the 1970s, the first commercial test facility was outlet of the main screens is cooled to storage temperature in a
contracted in 1998 at the Grodno Azot plant, Belarus, solid flow cooler, which makes use of cooling water and no
in which a small granulation unit was completely fluidisation air.
converted to Stamicarbon’s granulation process. After this The dust loaded air from the granulator and all the
successful introduction, scaling up took place at the Agrium urea de-dusting points is collected and fed to a single granulator
complex in Fort Saskatchewan, Canada. Here, two existing scrubber. The reduced number of equipment items compared to
granulation lines of 625 tpd were converted to the Stamicarbon the original process flow diagram resulted in a reasonable
granulation process. The plant commenced granulation reduction of overall plant costs.
production in 2003 and is still performing to the satisfaction of Total CAPEX cost reductions are not only achieved by taking
the customer today. out equipment, but there are also savings in transportation
A flow diagram of the original Stamicarbon granulation (shipping) cost, cost of insurance, effect of reduced footprint,
process is shown in Figure 1. Key to the success of the process are construction, etc. Having less equipment will also result in a
the film spraying nozzles (Figure 2).1, 2 Due to the characteristics of reduction in maintenance costs and OPEX savings.
the film spraying nozzle, as well as the fact that the Stamicarbon To reduce the amount of fluidisation cooling air on hot
granulation process applies a 98.5% melt concentration, the working days, a water injection system is provided in the
process results in a high-quality end product because the discharge of the fluidisation air fan. This is only operated on hot
granules are built up layer by layer. Before a new layer of liquid days to increase relative humidity and reduce air consumption.
melt is applied on the seed particle, the layer on the particle is
completely solidified. The Shahjalal experience
Compared to other fluidised bed granulation processes, In 2011, Stamicarbon signed a 1760 million tpd melt and
considerable OPEX savings can be achieved due to a reduced granulation licensing contract for the Shahjalal plant (located
formaldehyde content in the final product and the low dust close to Sylhet, Bangladesh), where its simplified granulation
formation, leading to less interruptions for cleaning. design was implemented. Startup and commissioning of the
plant successfully took place in 2015 (Figure 4).
Simplified design With a minimal amount of equipment, this plant
To save on both investment and operating costs, Stamicarbon demonstrated an investment saving of at least 20%. It started up
omitted two fluid bed coolers and their related equipment, easily, showing reliable and smooth operation with minimal
introducing a simpler concept in 2008. The fluid bed granulator operator attention required. The plant’s power consumption
cooler was dispensed by increasing the length of the cooling meets expectations and is 20% lower than the conventional
zone in the original granulator.2 The fluid bed product cooler was design. Maintenance costs were reduced by the elimination of
replaced by a solids flow cooler. The respective granulator cooler three fans and other equipment.
scrubber with all necessary pumps and fan were omitted. To reduce the CAPEX of the granulation plant further,
The liquid melt is fed to the granulator at a temperature of Stamicarbon is working to reduce the total height of the building
140°C and in a concentration of 98.5% urea plus biuret. In the by relocating strategic equipment to lower elevations.
granulator, bed temperatures are maintained at 102 – 110°C.
However, at the last stage, the end product is cooled further Scrubber technology
(85°C) compared to the original design. To meet the more stringent particulate matter emission
After passing the lump screen, the product is lifted using a regulations, EnviroCare and Stamicarbon have developed a
bucket elevator to the classification equipment. The complete multi-stage process for effective and efficient scrubbing of urea
solid product flows through the main screens. The coarse particulate matter and ammonia from granulation plants. With
product is fed to the crusher after cooling to 70°C. The crushed this technology, emissions of less than 10 mg/Nm3 for dust and
product and the fine recycle flow are combined and recycled to ammonia can be achieved.3, 4
64
65
The concentrated urea solution is typically 35 – 45% urea (by
weight).
Downstream of the first quench zone, a secondary quench
is used for stage two. In this second quench, a dilute solution of
urea (approximately 1%) is used to further cool and humidify
the gas flow. This is an important step to assure that remaining
sub-micron particulate is exposed to saturated gas, where
particles can grow substantially through condensation.
Inside the scrubber vessel, several dual-orifice conditioning
(DOI) trays can be installed to further condition the gas stream
(stage three).
Multiple parallel MMV tubes are installed vertically on a
diaphragm in the vessel (stage four). The diaphragm forces the
gas flow to accelerate through the tubes. Each MMV tube
Figure 1. A process flow diagram of Stamicarbon’s original includes a converging conical section (the inlet) where the gas
granulation process. is accelerated to throat velocity and a cylindrical throat. The
diffuser outlets of the MMV tubes are aerodynamically
designed to reduce the overall pressure drop by slowing down
the gas and recovering the energy. In the MMV tubes, gases
interact with the particulates and droplets twice (acceleration
and deceleration).
Downstream of the MMV stage, ammonia acidic scrubbing
takes place (stage five). The DOI tray is flooded from above
with acidified water and the acid flowrate is controlled by a pH
measurement. Typically, sulfuric acid or nitric acid is used to
react with NH3, forming an ammonia salt. The remaining
suspended water droplets are removed from the gas stream in
the mist eliminator before the gases leave the scrubber. Fresh
(clean) water is continuously sprayed on the mist eliminator to
catch and wash away dirty particles (stage six).
An optional wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP) can be
integrated on top of the MMV scrubber to further reduce
overall emissions. The basic operating principle is that particles
acquire a charge. As the charged particles continue to flow
Figure 2. Stamicarbon film spraying nozzles. through the electric field, the field forces them towards the
walls of the tubes. Because the surfaces are wet, when a
charged particle hits the wall, it adheres to the wet surface for
washing into a collection hopper.
Ammonium salts reworking processes

Processing the salts generated in the ammonia removal section
is often a problem. Several options have been developed to
avoid having extra waste streams during the required emission
control process.
In plant sites where nitric acid is not available, sulfuric acid
is used as a scrubbing agent. It is widely available and contains
sulfur, for which there is increasing demand as supplementary
plant nutrient. The liquid urea ammonium sulfate (UAS) needs
Figure 3. A process flow diagram of Stamicarbon’s simplified to be recycled and concentrated in order to have the salt
granulation process. leaving the granulation plant in a solid form after combination
with melt urea. Ammonium nitrate (AN) also can be reworked
During the granulation process, sub-micron dust is generated, by feeding it to a UAN or AN plant. Product AN preferably
which is largely responsible for higher emission values. While leaves the plant as an aqueous solution, which is then sent to a
scrubbers of older technologies easily scrub larger particles, the neighbouring AN/UAN plant for further processing.
presence of a high degree of sub-micron dust requires a new In a standard configuration, the AN solution is not recycled
capture approach. Moreover, to efficiently remove ammonia, an to the urea granulation plant. For this reason, the final urea
acid solution needs to be injected. product will be pure.
The EnviroCare MicroMistTM Venturi (MMV) scrubber (Figure 5) A specific configuration of the industrial park can lead to a
contains six stages that progressively treat and clean the off-gas.5 certain level of integration between the plants (Figure 6). Based
In stage one, the exhaust gas is cooled, saturated and most of on how the liquid and the gas waste streams are integrated
the coarse particulate urea dust is collected from the gas stream. within the plants, two different concepts are described:

T +49 2961 7405-0
Made
in
Germany
Your Specialist
for
PRESSURE RELIEF
© REMBE | All rights reserved
Consulting. Engineering. Products. Service.
Gallbergweg 21 | 59929 Brilon, Germany | F +49 2961 50714 | www.rembe.de

production of granulated urea that contains higher ammonium
sulfate concentrations.6 While sulfur can be made available to plants
as sulfate leaching or elemental sulfur, Stamicarbon has given priority
to the development of ammonium sulfate as a sulfur source instead
of elemental sulfur for the following reasons:
Ammonium sulfate is a non-flammable substance, whereas

elemental sulfur is flammable substance in both solid and liquid
state.
Ammonium sulfate is non-explosive, whereas elemental sulfur
dust is explosive.
Elemental sulfur is a good electric insulator and has the
potential to build up electric charges by triboelectric charging.
Solid elemental sulfur sublimes easily and will be deposited as
scale on cold surfaces, such as the inside of off-gas ducts and
Figure 4. The Shahjalal melt and granulation plant. equipment. Ammonium sulfate does not have that property.
Elemental sulfur is practically insoluble in water, or aqueous (urea

melt). To dissolve elemental sulfur in urea and keep it in solution, an
additive is needed, which will contaminate the rest of the process
equipment and creates foam formation in the granulator scrubber.
The properties of elemental sulfur make its application in a urea
granulation plant less desirable. It is more complex, more difficult to
develop and engineer, and more expensive. According to agronomic
studies, bacteria needs a minimum of two years to convert
elemental sulfur to ammonium sulfate, so it becomes available for
take-up by plants.
In the UAS granulation process, four main modules can be
distinguished (Figure 7).
Suspension module
Granulation is suitable for UAS production with an ammonium
sulfate content of 0 – 50 Wt%. The additional solid ammonium
sulfate is homogenised, milled (to a size of less than 1 mm), and
suspended in urea melt. If the dosed ammonium sulfate
concentration is above its solubility, the UAS suspension is fed to
compartments one and two of the granulator. Moreover, to give
them a smooth surface as an end product, a solid-free UAS melt is
fed to compartment three of the granulator.
Figure 5. A sectional view of the scrubber design with the
six stages indicated.
Granulation module
UAS granules are produced using the standard granulation process.
Liquid waste stream integration.
Liquid and gas waste streams. Evaporation module
The liquid effluent from the scrubber is concentrated and recycled
In the first concept, acidic salty condensate from the off-gas back to the melt feed to the granulation module. The process is
treatment section of the AN/UAN plant is used in the scrubbing optimised to prevent fouling in the evaporation section.
system as make-up water, reducing the amount of process
condensate needed. Conversely, a recycle from the granulation is Scrubbing module
routed into the AN/UAN plant. In that way, no liquid waste streams Off-gases from the entire granulation plant are cleaned and treated
are sent to battery limits. as previously described. The first-built UAS plant has almost reached
In the second concept, a further simplification is introduced that mechanical completion and is expected to commence in 2018. This
completely eliminates the emissions coming from the AN/UAN project covers the entire scope of the UAS technology. The same
plant. The idea is to route the ammonia off-gas that is coming from modular granulation process can be used to add many other macro
the AN/UAN synthesis section directly to the scrubbing system of and/or micro-nutrients (including zinc, boron and copper) to
the granulation plant. This solution leads to an efficient integration produce urea granules.
with a single emission point for all the plants.
Dry flashing
Modular UAS granulation/multi-product In a classical urea finishing section, the heat of crystallisation is
granulation dissipated into cooling air. The amount of air required for this cooling
Because of the increasing demand for granulated urea containing is vast, and cleaning is a costly and energy-intensive process since
sulfur, Stamicarbon has developed a flexible modular process for the concentrations are relatively low. Dry flashing is a newly developed

process that opens up the possibility of a practically zero emission dust 3. 'High-Efficiency scrubbing technology for urea fluid-bed granulator
and ammonia finishing technology for fertilizer grade urea (Figure 8).7 exhaust gas', Nitrogen + Syngas Conference, (2014).
4. 'Granulation and Scrubbing', Nitrogen + Syngas 328, (March – April 2014).
In the urea-water phase diagram, there is a pressure and 5. 'Multi-stage scrubbing for granulators and prilling towers',
temperature region where a urea solution will spontaneously split into Nitrogen + Syngas 347, (May – June 2017).
two phases: solid urea and water vapour. This can be performed in a 6. 'Urea/Ammonium Sulphate (UAS), killing two birds with one stone',
Fertilizer Focus, (May – June 2013).
pressure-controlled flash vessel.
7. 'Dry finishing', Nitrogen + Syngas 348, (July – August 2017).
The urea produced in this process step is in the form of a fine
powder (average particle sizes are a magnitude of 100 – 150 μm), which
needs to be further treated into the final shape required. Condensate
and overhead vapours from the process system can be treated in the
existing melt plant and will not lead to any extra ammonia or urea
losses.
In this process, urea solution is concentrated to the desired extent
in a pressure and temperature controlled evaporator. The urea solution
from the evaporation step is introduced into the flash vessel, where the
pressure is kept at a sufficiently low sub-atmospheric pressure by Figure 6. Available plants for ammonium nitrate
means of a dedicated vacuum system. The solid urea that is formed is reworking.
extracted from the flash vessel through a vacuum lock and is
transported for further processing.
A contact condenser is introduced to deal with urea particles that
are entrained in the water vapour leaving the flash vessel overhead. The
overhead vapours from both vacuum systems (evaporator and dry flash
vessel) are combined and processed in the atmospheric absorber of the
urea melt plant.
A further advantage of this process concept is that the produced
urea contains significantly less biuret than conventionally granulated
urea. Because the urea melt solution does not have to be concentrated
to the same extent as a conventional granulation, the final product
contains low biuret. This make the process a perfect tool for producing
diesel engine fluid (DEF) or cattle feed. The solid urea product can be
transported to the DEF reseller or distribution centre without a huge
Figure 7. A modular analysis of the Stamicarbon UAS
amount of water. In the DEF distribution centre, the urea is dissolved at
fluid bed granulation plant.
the concentration needed.
The ultimate goal of this dry flashing technology is to produce
fertilizer grade urea. The produced urea should be of a comparable
quality to the currently available granulated product. Stamicarbon
expects that such a new urea finishing process for industrial scale
fertilizer application will be launched to the market at the end of 2018.
Conclusion
Finishing technologies have been used in urea production for a long
time. Changing markets and business situations, as well as increasingly
strict environmental requirements and legislation, have all been drivers
for Stamicarbon to innovate its finishing processes.
References
1. 'Nitrogen Fertilizer Finishing – Better product quality', Nitrogen + Syngas 319,
(September – October 2012).
2. 'Granulation of urea: Diamonds, Pearls and Stamicarbon granules',
Fertilizer Focus, (May – June 2013).
Figure 8. Solid urea from a dry flash.
e st cho ice
ys t h e b
Alwa
Waste Heat Recovery Systems for ammonia, methanol and hydrogen plants
- Well proven and reliable state-of-the-art technology - Unique design features
&XVWRPPDGHVROXWLRQVDOZD\VLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWK\RXULQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWV +LJKO\TXDO¿HGVWDႇ
- Constantly high quality standards meeting all requirements for excellent performance, operational safety and long service life
70
Gelmer Bouwman, Kreber,
the Netherlands, considers
how efficient prilling
towers can help to cope
with the growing global
demand for fertilizers.
T
he global population is growing, which means natural convection. However, there are several
that there is a concurrent increasing demand for limitations and problems observed with prilling towers,
food. There is already difficulty in keeping food such as the maximum achievable prill size and the
production up with current demand, yet control of emissions.
fertilizers can enhance the growth of food and,
therefore, aid in meeting global food demand. Prill size
Fertilizers such as urea and ammonium nitrate are The size and size distribution of prills is a topic of
produced at large capacity to reduce their market much debate. For the bulk mixing of fertilizers, the size
price. Expanding the production of these fertilizers should be similar to that of the other fertilizers, which
comes with the cost of increased emissions. The is uniform in most cases. A uniform distribution makes
recently signed Paris climate agreement demonstrates the operation of finishing processes easier as there will
a growing concern over global warming, especially the be less caking and more predictable cooling properties.
effect of emissions. This will result in increased efforts On the other hand, most farmers prefer a wide range
and demands to significantly reduce emissions. It is of prill sizes since this enables the efficient spreading
expected that in the near future only well-integrated of the fertilizer. Also, varied particle sizes result in a
equipment will be employed. bulk density increase, which is favoured for shipping.
In recent years, Kreber has changed its focus from The final choice is dependent on the required prill
merely producing equipment, towards developing properties. Notwithstanding, dust formation and its
knowledge. The company’s R&D department emission is undesired.
collaborates with Delft University of Technology to To reduce the amount of dust in the final product
work on the development of fundamental knowledge and limit the formation of satellites (droplets that are
with respect to topics that include, but are not limited typically 100 μm in diameter), Kreber is exploring
to, vibrating buckets, stationary prillers, bulk solids possibilities to eliminate the scraper at the bottom of
handling equipment, and emission reduction solutions; the tower and develop vibro technology for prilling
all within the scope of prilling towers. buckets. The scraper, which collects the prills, however
gently, causes collisions and abrasion between the
Why prilling towers? prills, which results in dust formation. Hence, the need
A prilling tower is a finishing section in the fertilizer for an innovative prill collection system. While
production process. Even with considerable efforts at applying vibration to a prilling bucket is known to
developing granulation technology over the past enhance the uniformity of prills, in a rotating high
decades, prilling is still the most economically viable capacity bucket there are several obstacles that need
finishing technology. A natural draft prilling tower has to be overcome. Currently, a prototype bucket has
low operational expenses, as well as limited capital been designed and will be tested in an industrial
expenses. This is the reason why most new towers that environment in collaboration with a launching
are built in China, India, and Russia are designed with customer.
71
reactant of the productions process. The main fraction of
ϱϱй Ϯϲй unreacted ammonia is recovered by evaporation. Melt is
WƌŝůůŝŶŐ ƚŽǁĞƌƐŝŶƐŝĂ 'ƌĂŶƵůĂƚŝŽŶ
pumped from the evaporator to the prilling bucket. Here,
the ammonia concentration is low and the temperature is
typically just above the melting point of urea,
ϭϯй ϲй approximately 135°C. These conditions favour the
WƌŝůůŝŶŐ ƚŽǁĞƌƐŝŶ KƚŚĞƌ͖
ŽƚŚĞƌĐŽŶƚŝŶĞŶƚƐ ŽŵďŝŶĂƚŝŽŶŽĨ hydrolysis of urea (reverse formation of urea) and the
ƉƌŝůůŝŶŐ͕ŐƌĂŶƵůĂƚŝŽŶ͕
ĂŶĚ ƉĂƐƚŝůůĂƚŝŽŶ͘ formation of biuret. Ammonia is a product of both
reactions. Other reactions, such as the formation of
triuret, are also present, albeit very limited due to the
Figure 1. An overview of global urea finishing
technologies. At least 68% of urea production facilities process conditions and the low residence time.2
make use of a prilling tower, which illustrates the The ammonia can enter the gas phase when urea is in
importance of emission reduction.1 the liquid phase. It enters the prilling bucket and in the
first part of cooling, i.e. when a droplet of urea melt is
formed. When the droplet reaches the melting point, a
Emissions thin shell of the prill is solidified. At this point, free
The emissions from free convection prilling towers are ammonia is captured within the prill. The concentration of
excessive and are difficult to control. The amount of ammonia is reduced when it reacts with isocyanic acid
emissions is at least an order of magnitude larger than the (HNCO) to form dust, as described below.
emissions in prior process steps in fertilizer production. Free ammonia that is present in the molten urea is
The emissions considered here are dust and ammonia. For either not recovered by evaporation or formed due to
many processes, filters and scrubbers are used to treat the biuret formation. It enters the gas phase from urea in the
off-gas. However, with free convection, it is difficult to liquid phase and is removed from the gas phase when it
install filters since the driving force (density difference) is reacts with HNCO to form dust. The concentration of
not large enough to overcome the relatively large pressure ammonia in the off-gas from prilling towers is typically
drop over a filter. low, in the order of 100 ppm. However, due to the large
Emissions regulation in Asia are less strict than those in volume of air moving through prilling towers, ammonia
the US and Europe. It is, therefore, possible to construct emission can exceed 2 tpd.3
low-cost prilling towers in less regulated countries.
However, with recent developments on climate change, Dust emission
regulations worldwide are expected to become tighter. In Dust particles present in the off-gas from prilling towers
order to limit emissions and reduce impacts on air quality, have different sizes. The difference in size is due to
it is important to develop a solution that is compatible different mechanisms by which the dust particles are
with free convection prilling towers. Kreber has conducted created. Particles in the order of magnitude of 1 μm, can be
an intensive study with Delft University of Technology to formed by either deposition of HNCO and ammonia or
explore innovative possibilities. deposition of urea vapour. The vapour pressure of liquid
The goal of the study was to develop a system that urea at 135°C is noticeable, i.e. urea vaporises under these
reduced emissions from a free convection prilling tower, conditions. Larger dust particles can be formed by either
while meeting the following design objectives: solidification of satellite droplets at the top of the prilling
tower or due to prill degradation at the bottom of the
Low operational expenses. prilling tower, as a result of collisions and abrasion of
Low capital expenses. prills.4
Low complexity. Table 1 presents a summary of dust formation in a
Good prill quality. prilling tower. The values are rough estimates and give an
Long lifetime. indication of different types of dust that are formed. The
size resembles the order of magnitude of the dust
There are several difficulties faced when treating particles. The fraction of dust will differ for each tower
emissions. First, the dust and ammonia concentration in design. For example, the fraction of satellites is dependent
the air stream is low. Next, the amount of air flowing on the type of bucket.
through the prilling tower is large. Furthermore,
introducing a treatment section results in a pressure drop, Separation of flows
which needs to be overcome. All three aspects encumber The majority of dust emissions are formed in the top
the design of a feasible system. In order to design an section of the prilling tower, particularly near the prilling
innovative system, companies must have a proper bucket. The polluted stream leaving the tower is very
understanding of the problem, which includes knowledge dilute due to vast amounts of air passing through the
on the source and composition of the emissions. prilling tower. This dilution makes it difficult to design a
feasible system to remove pollution from the stream. The
Ammonia emission proposed concept has two streams leaving the prilling
The ammonia (NH3) that is present in the off-gas from tower; one dilute stream and one stream with a high dust
prilling towers has multiple sources. Ammonia can be load and high ammonia concentration.3 The concentrated
found in the feed towards the prilling bucket since it is a stream funnels the air from around the bucket to a

treatment section, while the other stream conducts the ϳ
main portion air, which contains limited amounts of
pollution.
ϰ
Separating the flow enables a feasible design of a ϭ
treatment section for the concentrated emissions stream.
The separation of flows is realised by placing an exhaust in ϯ
both the centre and outer circumference of the prilling
tower. This design should allow concentrated air to exit
through the centre exhausts. The concentrated stream can ϲ
be treated by a cleaning section after which it is vented Ϯ
into the atmosphere. The diluted air leaves through the
outer exhausts of the tower and is directly vented.
ϱ
Treatment section
Removing the ammonia from the gas stream can be
accomplished with an adsorption column and an option for
the adsorbent is biochar. When the adsorption capacity of
the biochar is reached, it can be sold as a fertilizer to the
local market. Other adsorbents, such as activated carbon,
can also be used for the adsorption column, meaning that
the activity of the adsorbent can be enhanced by activating Figure 2. A schematic illustration of the topside of a
the adsorbent with phosphoric acid.5 prilling tower. Melt (1) entering the prilling bucket (2) is
Dust removal from prilling towers is a complex task distributed in the top section of the tower. On top of the
due to the range of the particle sizes found within. The tower, a treatment section is placed consisting of a filter
(3) and a bladeless fan (4). The main fraction of cooling
majority of the dust particles can be measured in microns.
air leaves the tower untreated through an exhaust (5). The
Plenty of systems are available to remove dust particles
polluted air (6) is sucked through the filter and vented to
from the dust laden air streams. Both the ammonia and the atmosphere (7).5
dust treatment in off-gases will result in a pressure drop
that has to be overcome by either a compressor or fan. An
innovative idea is to make use of bladeless fans on the Table 1. Summary of dust formation in a prilling tower 4
much smaller separated and concentrated air streams. This Dust type Size (μm) Fraction (%)
type of fan will require lower maintenance since it is not
Urea vapour deposition 1 50
possible for dust to accumulate on the blades. However,
because it is a novel technology, industrial sized HNCO and NH3 deposition 1 20
applications are not yet available, which it may initially Satellite droplets 100 5
result in higher capital expenditures.
Prill degradation 100 25
Prevention instead of treatment
A different concept to reduce emissions from a prilling
tower is to inject an additive into the urea feed stream. Prevention of emissions using the injection of an acid
The central idea of this concept is to bind free ammonia at in the melt before prilling.
the source of origin, something that can be done with an
acid to yield a salt. Challenges with this design are: The separation of flows and introduction of relatively
choosing which acid to inject; choosing where to inject small bladeless fans are innovative solutions that may be
the acid; and knowing what the effect of acid injection an alternative to the application of conventional scrubbers
will be on both emissions reduction and prill quality. The and will be subject to further research.
technology of injecting acids looks promising when Global needs and requirements, as well as market
addressing the design objectives presented above, and on demands, give insight into which knowledge adds most
the results from the literature study performed.5 value. Kreber has a strong desire to continue developing
and increasing its knowledge base. The company is keen to
Conclusion collaborate as working towards a better future should be a
With the desired long-term increase in production collaborative effort.
capacity of fertilizer, reflecting on reducing emissions is
unavoidable. Three options for emission reduction have References
been presented in this article: 1. BROUWER, M., ureaknowhow.com, (2015).
2. MEESSEN, J. H., ‘Urea’, in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, (2010).
Elimination of dust at the source to prevent satellite 3. BABOO, P., ‘Energy Saving and Pollution Control in Urea Plant
droplet formation in molten stage and omitting the Though Prilling Tower and Other Equipments’, (2016).
use of a bottom scraper. 4. BROUWER, M., 'Dust emission from Prilling Towers', (2010).
5. HUANG, C. C., VAN MULLEM, J. S., MULDBAK, M.,
Treatment of concentrated emissions with a filter and
MEIJERS, R. J. E., FRANCKE, S., ‘Final Report Conceptual Design
an adsorption column. Project’, Delft University of Technology, (2017).

N A L , I N C., USA,
TIO
, F E E CO INTERNA P PROACHES
KIN G E R OV E L A
NICK REC D IT IO N AL AND N N.
COMPAR
ES TRA
IZ E R P RODUCTIO
TIL
O G R A N ULAR FER
T
74
S
ince the advent of the Tennessee Valley or organic matter) to be incorporated into the
Authority’s (TVA) approach to granulation in product.
the 1950s, widespread, commercial-scale use of
the process has become the backbone of the Factors pushing growth in granulation
fertilizer industry. And while many of the principles While the benefits of granulation have facilitated its
around granulation have remained the same, some widespread use, a number of factors have spurred a
variations and novel approaches to the process have renewed interest in the process in recent years.
been developed. As companies look for increasingly
efficient ways to produce even better products, R&D Use in precision agriculture
efforts are ongoing. Precision agriculture is an up and coming technology
whereby fields are mapped out using geolocation
Benefits of granulation technology to pinpoint precise nutrient requirements
The use of a granular product over a material in ‘raw’ within a given area to address in-field variability.
form offers a number of benefits that have allowed Variable rate technology (VRT) is used for precise
granulation to become a staple in agriculture. Among application of the nutrients to meet the fluctuating
these benefits: needs throughout the field. A granular product is a key
Granulation mitigates many of the issues associated
with dust, ultimately improving handling,
transportation and application. Product loss via
dust is also reduced, improving the bottom line
and providing more predictable results.
Product appearance and characteristics are
improved, creating a marketable premium product.
Caking, lump formation and segregation are
reduced with a granular product.
Granulation can be used to create an all-in-one
granular product, where each individual granule
contains the desired nutrient formulation.
Granulation can be a highly flexible
process, allowing various
additives (such as
micronutrients
75
Approaches to granulation
There are many approaches to producing a granular
fertilizer, with the most common of them outlined
below. Fertilizer granulation can be divided into
two major categories: those that utilise binder and
movement to form granules (non-pressure), and
those that utilise pressure to form granules
(pressure agglomeration).
Non-pressure granulation techniques

Non-pressure granulation, also referred to as
tumble growth or agitation agglomeration, utilises
a binder combined with a tumbling action to
promote granule formation. Non-pressure
approaches typically yield a product in the form of
a rounded granule.
Figure 1. A 3D model of a FEECO pipe reactor that is integrated into
a granulation drum. Rotary drum granulation
The major equipment utilised in this approach
includes a granulation drum (granulator), rotary
dryer, rotary cooler, coating drum, and screens. The
process is typically used for inorganic fertilizer
products, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (NPK), MAP, DAP, AS, TSP, SSP, sulfur
enhanced products, etc.
The rotary drum is the basis of this fertilizer
granulation process. The approach may include a
chemical reaction or no reaction, and along with a
tumbling action, the granulator can create various
grades of fertilizer.
Feedstock components for this process can be
powdered raw materials, ammonia, acids or
pre-reacted materials from a pre-neutraliser. The
Figure 2. A FEECO rotary dryer is prepared for shipment. materials, along with recycle material, are fed into
the granulation drum where the rotation of the
component in the success of this practice as it allows for drum imparts a tumbling action on the bed of material to
measured and accurate dispensing of the nutrients. form granules. The ‘green’ (wet) pellets are then dried in a
rotary dryer to remove moisture and polish the granules
Customisable product formulations before being transferred to a rotary cooler to stop any
As more is understood about creating a sustainable ongoing reaction and to cool the product for subsequent
relationship between crop production and nutrient handling, storage or bagging. The material is screened
delivery, a one-size-fits-all approach is no longer prior to product loadout where the undersize and
acceptable, causing demand for products that are crushed oversize materials are sent back to the
tailored to a specific application, crop or region to granulator. Often, a coating drum is added before
increase. This has fertilizer producers creating customised product storage to minimise dust and caking for
products through granulation to meet their specific shipment.
needs. Key advantages of the rotary drum granulation
method include it being a time-tested, simple approach
A need for sustainable solutions in manure that is flexible. Moreover, the product has significantly
management reduced dust compared to those produced via pressure
Large scale farming operations and centralised animal techniques.
feeding operations have become the agricultural norm in
recent years. This has farms producing more manure than Pipe reactor granulation
they can economically and sustainably manage. Paired The major equipment utilised in this approach includes a
with increasing attention around nutrient runoff, farmers granulation drum, pipe reactor (or cross-pipe reactor),
are in need of a better approach to manure management. rotary dryer, rotary cooler, coating drum, and screens.
This has many looking at granulation as a possible Typical applications of the process include: ammonium
solution; manure can be granulated into a dry product, sulfate, high reaction NPK grades, and some novel
reducing transportation costs, aiding in nutrient organic-based fertilizers.
management, as well as improving on-farm logistics and Pipe reactor granulation is similar to the drum
economics. granulation approach. However, it employs a cross-pipe

N LEAKS
NO COSTLY SHUTDOWNS
NO UNPLANNED MAINTENANCE EVENTS
Developed by Flexitallic in direct response to customers’
long-term heat exchanger sealing problems, Change™ is
E E D
NT
a highly-resilient metal-wound gasket, designed to deliver
the most dynamic static sealing technology ever.
A R A
Proven track record – No leaks, No maintenance, No problem. GU
GET FLEXITALLIC SAFE – GET CHANGE
Time to change call +44 (0)1274 300 330

Or visit ZZZŴH[LWDOOLFHX
Figure 3. A simplified mixer-dryer granulation system for manure.
While a pipe reactor is not required in any system, in

the right setting, it can offer significant energy savings
because the captured heat of reaction helps to dry the
material, in turn reducing the energy required for the
dryer.
The method works by feeding phosphoric or sulfuric
acid into one side of the pipe while gaseous or liquid
ammonia is fed into the reaction chamber. This results in
a hot ‘melt’ of either ammoniated phosphate or
ammonium sulfate. Scrubber water is also added to
control the reaction. The melt is sprayed onto the bed of
material in the granulator to form the granules and much
of the moisture is flashed off. The wet pellets are then
dried in a rotary dryer to remove moisture and polish the
Figure 4. Manure granules created via granulation in the granules. As in the previously described granulation drum
FEECO Innovation Center.
approach, cooling, screening and coating typically follow
the dryer.
A key advantage of this method is that it has
potential for significant energy savings. Moreover, the
process can be retrofitted into existing systems easily, it
only uses liquids and gases for feed materials, and, again,
the product has significantly reduced dust compared to
those produced via pressure techniques.
Mixer-dryer granulation
The mixer-dryer approach is similar to the drum
granulation method, but instead of a drum, this process
relies on a mixer to granulate the material. This
granulation method requires a pug mill (paddle mixer),
rotary dryer, rotary cooler, and screens. It is typically
Figure 5. Ammonium sulfate granules created in the used for organic-based fertilizers.
FEECO Innovation Center. Feedstock, binder and dried recycle are fed into the
pug mill at a continuous, specified rate. Here, granules are
reactor to facilitate the reaction of the acid(s) and formed as they move down the length of the mixer. After
ammonia. The pipe reactor is integrated into the the necessary retention time, the ‘green’ pellets are
granulation drum, as shown in Figure 1. For retrofits, this carried via conveyor to a rotary dryer, where the
setup can replace the pre-neutralising step. moisture content is reduced. Again, the tumbling action

2761 Saturn St., Suite A
Brea, CA 92821, USA
Tel: 714-577-0168
Fax: 714-577-0298
Contact: Danny Wang, P.E.
www.spectruminspection.org danny@spectruminspection.org
HTHA AUBT and High Frequency Phased Array Inspection
of the rotating drum further rounds and polishes the In some cases, a polishing drum may be utilised to
pellets, and cooling and screening typically follow the knock off any loose granule edges and round the hard
dryer. edges of the material to reduce the occurrence of
This process allows for a highly customisable product attrition. A glazing step may also be employed.
that has significantly reduced dust compared to those Key advantages of this method include lower
produced via pressure techniques. operating costs compared to non-pressure methods and,
typically, no drying is needed.
Disc pelletiser granulation
The disc pelletiser method of granulation employs a disc Choosing the best approach
pelletiser, pin mixer or pug mill (recommended), and a Choosing the most effective approach for a specific
rotary dryer. It is typically used for ammonium sulfate material or process setting requires careful consideration
and soil amendments as it is better suited to more finely of a number of factors. Some of the most important
divided solids (such as chicken litter) or when a refined considerations are reviewed here.
product is of utmost importance.
Feed materials and binder are fed simultaneously at a Product requirements
continuous rate onto the disc pelletiser. As the disc The product requirements will often help in choosing the
rotates, the tumbling action, in combination with the best suited granulation method for a given scenario.
binder, causes the fines to become tacky and pick up What form is the feedstock material in? Is the material
more fines as they roll along the disc and against each capable of being processed via pressure techniques (not
other, forming pellets. all materials will adhere to themselves under pressure)? Is
Alternatively, a pin mixer or pug mill preceding the a customised product desired? Is dust and product loss a
disc pelletser can be used to thoroughly mix feedstock major concern? Will the product require fast breakdown
ingredients with the binder to create a homogeneous upon application? These are all things that need to be
mixture and begin forming seed pellets. This considered when choosing a granulation approach for a
recommended step creates a more refined pellet product.
product, allows for improved size control, increases
production and reduces binder use, as densification is a Cost
result of the action imparted by the mixer instead of Cost is a major factor in any decision, and with so many
additional binder. options, it is no less important when it comes to
Using this method produces a premium product with choosing the best granulation method for a given project.
more on-size pellets. The process allows for increased While compaction granulation requires a higher initial
throughput compared to mixer-dryer granulation and capital investment, it offers lower operating costs
allows for a highly customisable product. compared to non-pressure methods. Conversely, the
non-pressure agglomeration methods require higher
Pressure agglomeration techniques operating costs, but produce a premium product that is
highly marketable.
Compaction granulation
The main equipment used in this process includes a roll Batch and pilot testing
compactor, a flake breaker, a polishing drum (where One way of taking some of the guesswork out of
applicable) and rotary dryer (where applicable). Typical choosing the best approach to granulation is through
applications include the production of ammonium sulfate testing.
and potash. Having a material run through a batch and/or pilot
Compaction granulation is a widely-used pressure testing facility, such as the FEECO Innovation Center, can
granulation technique throughout the fertilizer industry. help to define process variables, determine which
Unlike the non-pressure methods that create a rounded method of granulation will produce the desired results,
pellet product, compaction granulation creates granules and produce a recipe for process scale-up.
with jagged edges.
Raw feed material is fed into the roll compactor. The Conclusion
material is fed between two counter rotating rolls, which While fertilizer granulation itself has not changed much
come together to press the material into a compacted since TVA implemented its approach, improvements and
sheet. As the sheet of material moves through the rolls, it variations of the process have developed to meet more
passes through a flake breaker and granulator, which specific industry needs. Various approaches to
breaks the sheet up into the desired size particles. granulation are now available, with most processes
Because pressure is used to form the granules in this offering a high degree of customisation.
process, a binder is typically not needed. Though, in Choosing the most effective approach is a balance of
some cases, the addition of a small amount of binder can finding a method that suits the product requirements and
be helpful. As such, this is typically a dry process, material characteristics that can be commercialised on an
meaning that a drying step is not required. However, economic scale. For more novel products and systems,
when a binder is employed, a drying step is necessary this is often determined through testing at both batch
after granulation to remove the added moisture. and pilot scale.

RISKY
CHRIS JONES, AUSTRALIA, AND CHARLES THOMAS,
NEW ZEALAND, QUEST INTEGRITY, AND DAVID KEEN,
INCITEC PIVOT LTD, AUSTRALIA, LOOK AT INSPECTION OPTIONS
FOR MITIGATING HIGH TEMPERATURE HYDROGEN ATTACK.
BUSINESS
M
anaging the risk of damage due to high This article describes recent experiences relating to
temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) has been a damage found in equipment that may have been considered
major problem for the synthesis gas industries. safe using traditional approaches to managing risk, as well as
The reasons for this are largely twofold: firstly, the inspection techniques required to detect that damage.
the likelihood of HTHA occurring has proven difficult to
predict and, secondly, the detection of HTHA by inspection is HTHA
problematic. Given the potential for extreme consequences in The process of HTHA requires the dissolution of atomic
the event of a catastrophic release of hydrogen (as seen in the hydrogen. This is normal as all ferritic steels operating in
Tesoro Anacortes incident in 2010),1 the need for a hydrogen at an elevated temperature and pressure will
multifaceted approach based upon an integrated risk dissolve hydrogen. The higher the temperature and pressure,
management plan is imperative. The risk is illustrated in the greater the amount of dissolved hydrogen. Another
Figure 1, which shows the hydrotreater exchanger that failed at manifestation of this phenomenon is the frequent need to
Tesoro and resulted in seven fatalities. This photograph is ‘bake-out’ or heat treat steels in order to remove the
much reproduced but remains an important reminder of the dissolved hydrogen before attempting the welding of steels.
potential for catastrophe caused by unchecked HTHA damage. The dissolved hydrogen is reactive; it will react with any free
81
growing number of cases of HTHA damage occurring in
carbon-½molybdenum steels. As a result, the
carbon-½molybdenum curve was removed from the API 941
guideline, thereby placing a large volume of
carbon-½molybdenum equipment in limbo alongside the
recommendation that the material should be treated as carbon
steel as far as its resistance to HTHA was concerned. Due to
this API 941 addendum, a large number of affected equipment
already in-service and designed to the original carbon-
½molybdenum curve was operating above the carbon steel
curve.
An attempt was made to rationalise the experience with
carbon-½molybdenum steel by providing different risk factors
for annealed and normalised material.3 The implication is that
Figure 1. Damaged heat exchanger at Tesoro.1 the metallurgical condition of the material, in this case the
form and stability of the carbides, was significant. There is,
however, no reason to believe that such an effect is unique to
carbon-½molybdenum steel or indeed parent metal as
opposed to weld and HAZ material. An attempt to quantify risk
factors using a parameter Pv dependent on pressure,
temperature and operating pressure was included in the 2008
version of API 581,3 but this was removed from the 2016
version.4
The second major change occurred in the wake of the
Tesoro incident and the subsequent Chemical Safety Board
Report.1 The investigation concluded that failure of the
exchanger occurred due to HTHA in a carbon steel pressure
shell that was operating below the Nelson Curve. Significantly,
the exchanger had not been post weld heat treated, and all the
observable damage was present in the heat affected zone.
API 941 contains comprehensive information concerning the
influence of stress on the risk of HTHA. The 2016 edition
Figure 2. Example of internal fissuring caused by HTHA. contains the first attempt to quantify this by introducing a new
curve for carbon steel that has not been post weld heat
carbon or internal carbides, both of which have significant treated.
influence on material strength. As in the case of metallurgical condition, there is no reason
This carbon and/or carbide reaction generates methane to believe that the effect of stress is unique to one particular
gas. The more stable the carbides in the steel, the less likely the grade of steel. However, it is very likely that more highly
reaction is to occur. Consequently, more alloyed grades are alloyed grades will be post weld heat treated. As API 941
more resistant to HTHA. Methane is not soluble, and forms in details, the risk of HTHA in steels that operate within the ASME
small pockets around internal inclusions. The localised allowable stress limits, and below the Nelson Curves, is
pressures here can be extremely high, and localised high stress negligible. The influence of stress does need to be taken into
levels are generated leading to the formation of internal account when severe stresses (such as weld residual stress,
fissures and micro-cracks. Near-surface pockets of methane thermal stress or high piping loads) exist. Being aware of the
can lead to blistering. The formation of micro-fissures and the existence of such stresses is an essential part of any risk
loss of carbon results in serious reductions in strength, ductility management plan.
and toughness. The reduction of these material properties will Despite these limitations, API 941 and the Nelson Curves
ultimately result in the component being unable to withstand remains the principal guide to managing the risk of HTHA. It is
the normal service loads, and catastrophic failure will occur an experience-based document and continuous modification in
(Figure 1). Figure 2 shows an example of the internal the light of new information is to be expected. By themselves,
micro-fissuring caused by HTHA, which must be either the Nelson Curves do not guarantee freedom from HTHA.
prevented or detected by advanced inspection.
Risk assessment
The Nelson Curves As noted above, the API 581 approach to establishing risk levels
For many years, significant confidence has been placed in the using a single quantifiable parameter Pv has been removed
Nelson Curves, as described in API 941, to predict the likelihood from the recommended practice.3 The 2016 version has
of HTHA.2 These curves are based on reported performance adopted a very conservative approach, particularly for carbon
and have been subject to a number of significant changes as and carbon-½molybdenum steels. For these steels, the current
new experiences come to light. Figure 3 shows the Nelson version API 581 assigns high susceptibility for any component
Curve from API 941. This set of curves represents the core operating above 177˚C (350˚F) with a hydrogen partial pressure
information in the API standard. In the 1990s, there was a exceeding 0.345 MPa (50 psia). This is very conservative relative

Maximizing Plant Profits via
Innovative Process & Equipment Solutions
Turn-around Research
& Inspection &
Services Development
Multi-Discipline
Follow-up
Engineering
Support
Cycle Design
for
Commissioning
Success Project
Engineering
Services
& Management
Proprietary
Installation Equipment
Services Design &
Fabrication
Full Range of Services for the Sulphuric Acid Industry

$QRGLFDOO\3URWHFWHGDQG6$5$0(T ®$FLG&RROHUV &RPSOHWH(3(3&$FLG3ODQW3URMHFWV 6$5$0(T ®RU%ULFN/LQHG$FLG7RZHUV
,62)/2:$FLG'LVWULEXWRUVZLWK6:,)7/2&. (PLVVLRQV5HGXFWLRQ'HERWWOHQHFNLQJ +HDW5HFRYHU\±&(6$/3+$RU&(6'6:
6WDLQOHVV6WHHO5DGLDO)ORZ&RQYHUWHUV 3ODQW7HFKQLFDO,QVSHFWLRQV 6XOSKXUDQG5HJHQ)XUQDFHV
5DGLDO)ORZ*DV*DV+HDW([FKDQJHUV (QJLQHHULQJ6WXGLHV 6$5$0(T ®3LSLQJDQG$FLG3XPS7DQNV
Chemetics Inc. Chemetics Inc.

(headquarters) (fabrication facility)
Suite 200 – 2930 Virtual Way, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V5M 0A5 2001 Clements Road, Pickering, ON, Canada, L1W 4C2
Tel: +1.604.734.1200 Fax: +1.604.734.0340 Tel: +1.905.619.5200 Fax: +1.905.619.5345
email: chemetics.info@jacobs.com email: chemetics.equipment@jacobs.com
www.jacobs.com/chemetics Chemetics Inc., a Jacobs company

Figure 3. Operating limits for steels in hydrogen service to avoid HTHA.2
to the API 941 Nelson Curves for both post weld heat treated and Inspection history.
non-post weld heat treated carbon steels. It is acknowledged, Heat treatment.
however, that this is an interim measure while a more quantitative
method is under development. Step 3: develop a risk management plan
For low alloy steels, the calculation of risk factor has also been A primary objective would be to reduce the risk for those assets
simplified through the acknowledgement that the Nelson Curves in which the risk is assessed to lie within the ‘high risk’ (red) area
do not represent an absolute measure of risk, but that assigning a of a risk assessment matrix. This may be achieved in the
risk level based upon the margin by which any component short-term to allow operation to the next scheduled outage by
operates below the Nelson Curve is advisable (Figure 4). reducing operating conditions, usually by adjusting temperature.
This high level of conservatism on the one hand, and Long-term solutions involve:
scepticism around the reliability of the Nelson Curves on the
other, has led some owners to develop their own methodologies. Developing robust inspection test plans (ITP). This may
An example approach is summarised below. include destructive testing.
Enact inspection to be conducted at scheduled outages.
Step 1: identifying susceptible equipment If HTHA is found, the consideration of equipment
All equipment in hydrogen service is identified and categorised replacement with upgraded metallurgy is advisable.
as:
Step 4: integrate with asset integrity management
High susceptibility: operating on or above the Nelson Curve. plan
Low susceptibility: operating below but within a 50˚F and It is critical for ongoing risk management that knowledge and
50 psi below the curve. operational limits be understood and acted upon within the
No susceptibility: operating more than 50˚F and 50 psi below wider organisation. Key issues that must be addressed include:
the curve.
Knowledge, training and knowledge management: it is
Step 2: undertake risk assessment essential that the significance and risk of HTHA (and indeed
For all equipment that is identified as being susceptible to HTHA, all potential damage mechanisms) are understood
a risk assessment is performed. Using standard risk throughout the organisation.
methodologies, a risk matrix can be generated. The factors to be Establishment of integrity operating windows (IOWs): the
taken into account for HTHA include: risk of HTHA is strongly influenced by operating conditions.
Establishing and implementing IOWs is required to ensure
Temperature. continuing operation. This should include reporting
Hydrogen partial pressure. protocols so that the impact of any excursion can be
Material of construction. assessed.
Exposure time. Plant standard operating procedures (SOPs): the impact of
Stress. HTHA should acknowledge the significance and risk of
Cladding. HTHA and the control measures that are in place to manage
Previous failures. that risk.

Management of change (MOC): robust MOC procedures are
required to ensure that any changes to operating conditions
do not impact negatively on the reliability of the plant.
Inspection
The risk management plan for each piece of equipment that is
deemed susceptible to HTHA inevitably calls on inspection to
determine the presence and extent of HTHA. The ultimate
control of HTHA is to replace at-risk equipment. This is usually a
costly solution and justification would normally require evidence
that HTHA damage had indeed occurred. API 941 contains
commentary on the various candidate inspection techniques and
concludes that no single inspection technique is ideally suited to
detection of HTHA damage, particularly in its embryonic stage
when micro-fissuring is just beginning to form.2
Ultrasonic inspection (UT) has been found to have the best
chance of detecting HTHA. Four generic types have been used,
as listed below:
Backscatter techniques.
Velocity methods.
Attenuation.
Spectral analysis.
These are illustrated schematically in Figure 5. Backscatter

UT involves irradiating the test material with moderately high
frequency ultrasound and measuring the backscatter noise that Process solutions
is reflected from HTHA. This can be used to detect HTHA and
also to provide an estimate of the concentration and through for agrochemicals
thickness extent of damage.
Velocity methods make use of the fact that the altered
microstructure from HTHA produces material with different GEA offers a complete range
shear wave ultrasound velocity than the unaffected material, of proven industrial processing
whereas compression wave ultrasound velocity is relatively systems
unaffected.
The backwall reflection is essentially a wall thickness test:
the extent to which the signal is attenuated by the presence of
HTHA can be used to characterise the extent of HTHA and Working with GEA means having a solid
differentiate HTHA from other forms of damage. partnership every step of the way, from
An extension of this technique is spectral analysis in which process testing and design throughout
the dependence of attenuation on the frequency of the project execution to the start-up and
ultrasonic signal is analysed. The higher frequency spectrum operation of your plant. Concentration,
from the reflected backwall of a broad band ultrasonic signal is crystallization, separation, drying, cooling,
more extensively attenuated. Such analysis can help calcining, wastewater management and
differentiate between HTHA and other apparent damage, such pollution control - we have the expertise,
as embedded defects. The success of this approach is technology, and equipment to match your
dependent on the sampling technique, which can be impaired needs.
by the following factors: With thousands of references worldwide,
we maintain our leading position by
Non-parallel material geometry. focusing on product quality, system
Thin wall tube. reliability, energy savings and
Austenitic clad material. emission control.
Localised damage at weldments.
Inherently attenuative material. For contact details: gea.com/contact
None of these techniques are ideal, and an inspection

methodology has been developed that uses all four. This is the
advanced ultrasonic backscatter technique (AUBT). In this
methodology, backscatter methods are used as screening tool
to locate damaged areas, and based upon the backscatter
pattern observed, one or more of the other UT techniques are
Table 1. Results of the inspection programme personnel have been largely unsuccessful. However, the
Item Result inspections performed by inspectors in which the owner had
Equipment items assessed susceptible to 75 confidence have proven very successful. In this context, a
HTHA ‘qualified’ inspector is one that has verified that the methods,
Equipment items inspected for HTHA 36 and procedures employed during the inspection have a very
high chance of detecting HTHA, if present. It does not mean
Equipment items confirmed to have HTHA 22 (61% of
inspected items) that the inspector has a certificate confirming attendance to an
HTHA training course.
HTHA identified by AUBT 1
Given the absence of any single or reliable UT technique to
HTHA identified by AUBT with qualified 18 detect HTHA, the findings at IPL have been that the experience
operator and the knowledge of the inspector is paramount to the
HTHA confirmed by metallurgical sample 2 success of the inspection programme. The importance of a
robust asset integrity management programme was noted
previously, and a number of the activities that go to make such
a programme were highlighted. The results of the HTHA
inspection programme at IPL firmly emphasised the importance
of other factors in such a programme, including:
Approval procedures for service providers.

Critical review and statistical analysis of inspection results.
In the case of HTHA, it is strongly recommended that plant

owners develop an inspection programme for HTHA in
partnership with their selected inspection provider, and that
these relationships be maintained in the long-term, in order to
fully optimise plant assets.
Conclusion
The experience of managing HTHA at IPL has highlighted the
importance of a robust asset integrity management
Figure 4. An example risk assessment for low alloy steels programme. HTHA cannot be effectively managed in isolation
in an HTHA environment (API 581).4 by simple inspection, and a number of factors must be
carefully considered in order to maximise the likelihood of
detecting and controlling the risk that this damage mechanism
presents. Operating such a programme is a continuous activity.
It is important to consider the link between risk level and
decision making, particularly as it relates to capital
expenditure. It is also critical to ensure that all staff appreciate
the risk. In order to guarantee this knowledge is gained, it is
important that ongoing IOWs, SOPs and training programmes
are developed to reflect the risk associated with HTHA.
Inspection for HTHA is an essential part of the asset
integrity management programme and it has been found that
such inspection is a particularly difficult task requiring
significant expertise. Successful detection and quantification of
Figure 5. Schematic illustrations of UT inspection HTHA requires the ability to select the most appropriate
techniques for HTHA. technique for any given inspection challenge and optimise that
technique. The skill and experience of the inspection personnel
employed to qualify the presence of HTHA damage. A rigid is paramount to the success of the inspection, and must be
approach to the characterisation of the damage from the demonstrable to standards embedded in company procedures
ultrasonic methods, in all situations, will not provide a and practices.
successful result. Success depends on the operator’s ability to
assess, select appropriate methodologies and analyse the data. References
The AUBT technique and its variants have been used 1. US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board Report 2010-01-I-
WA, (May 2014), http://www.csb.gov/tesoro-refinery-fatal-explosion-
extensively in the integrity management and inspection
and-fire/
programmes at Incitec Pivot Plants (IPL). The results are 2. ‘Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures
summarised in Table 1. in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants’, API Recommended
Historical analysis of HTHA inspection at IPL has indicated Practice 941, (February 2016).
3. ‘Risk-Based Inspection Technology’, API Recommended Practice 581,
a strong dependence on the knowledge and experience of the
(September 2008).
operator performing the inspection. AUBT inspections that 4. ‘Risk-Based Inspection Technology’, API Recommended Practice 581,
have been contracted without first qualifying the inspection (April 2016).

Buying & Selling
Used Fertilizer Plants
Nitric Acid Plants for Sale
IMPROVE THE RELIABILITY

OF YOUR AMMONIA PLANT
SOLVING MECHANICAL CHALLENGES
WITH THE INNOVATIVE ARVOS | CASALE
PLUG-IN DESIGN
Schmidtsche®
Design Principle
500 TPD Nitric Acid Plant, Weatherly
450 TPD Nitric Acid Plant, Hercules Schmidt’sche® Double Tube /

Vertical Process Oval Header System
Gas Cooler
SCHMIDTSCHE® VERTICAL PROCESS GAS

COOLERS AND STEAM SUPERHEATERS
250 TPD Nitric Acid Plant, Chemico Schmidtsche® Steam Superheater
For more information

ARVOS GmbH
Ed Zhang Ȅplants@phxequip.com SCHMIDTSCHE SCHACK
www.phxequip.com www.schmidtsche-schack.com
Lavender International
Non-Destructive Testing USA, LLC
15200 Middlebrook Dr, St F
Houston, Texas, 77058, USA
Phone: 1-281-913-9064
Email: michelle@lavender-ndt.com
HTHA Detection and Sizing (HTHA-40)

Our advanced HTHA course is designed to educate Advanced UT inspectors in
methodologies and techniques to more reliably detect HTHA. This course is founded on
extensive work and experience gained during industrial trials as part of the E2G HTHA
JIP. Lavender are custodians of the extensive sample inventory and this will be used for
HTHA training and certification purposes. All samples have been validated by
metallography and are sourced from pressure retaining equipment retired from service.
Course Content:
The level 2 advanced course will address the following issues;
• The course will contain in depth training on advanced UT applications, fine tuning of
equipment parameters and data acquisition from a variety of thickness and states of
material degradation.
• Data analysis will consist of many forms of raw ultrasonic data including TOFD, PAUT,
TFM and backscatter techniques.
• Velocity ratio, attenuation and frequency analysis will also be addressed.
• Damage mechanisms of HTHA ranging from colonies of microscopic damage though

to through wall cracks will be experienced.
• Characterization of material degradation is a critical part of this course. Sources of

false positives will be discussed, material inclusions, stepwise HICC damage and weld
back cladding issues are also included.
The course will involve hands on testing as well as theoretical approach and offline data
analysis tutorials.
Duration:
40 hours held over 5days; end of course assessment exam included.
Pre-requisite:
Trainees should ideally hold Level 2 TOFD and PAUT certification.
Schedule:
Courses are scheduled throughout the year. Please contact us for details.
Specific Applications and Support:

Lavender International do not generally perform site inspections. We do however
provide company support by assisting in fine tuning inspection set-ups and overseeing
data analysis, and where necessary support specialist applications. Please contact
Michelle Chapman for more information.
www.lavender-ndt.com
TACKLING TOUGH
ENVIRONMENTS
Raquel Rodríguez, Tubacex
Innovation, Spain, outlines a study of
steel grades in harsh high temperature
and high pressure urea environments.
T
he materials used for the
construction of urea plants
often suffer strong
corrosion attacks by urea
synthesis process fluids (ammonia,
water, carbon dioxide, ammonium
carbamate, etc.). Corrosion is
particularly severe in urea units that
operate in high temperature and
high pressure conditions, such as
the stripper.
The function of a stripper is to
remove unconverted ammonium
carbamate from the urea solution.
As an intermediate compound
produced during urea synthesis,
ammonium carbamate is
characterised by its very intense
corrosivity. Furthermore, the
working pressure and temperature
of this vessel tends to be in the
region of 140 – 200 bar and
180 – 210˚C respectively. The high
temperature, high pressure and
presence of ammonium carbamate
make the conditions in the urea
stripper extremely harsh.
Preventing corrosion in the
stripper is key to guarantee the safe
and stable operation of urea plants.
As a preventive measure, oxygen is
usually injected into the process
fluid to facilitate passivation on the
surfaces of stainless steels.
However, this process tends to
involve high costs, lower plant
efficiency and more safety
problems due to the risk of
explosive gas mixtures forming.
Current trends are aimed at more
efficient urea synthesis processes,
with higher operating temperatures
89
example of manufactured stripper tubes
Table 1. Chemical compositions of the tested steel grades. Typical values in is presented in Figure 1.
weight (%)
Many different corrosion mechanisms
S31050 S31803 S32750 S32760 TUBACEX
UREMIUM29
can be used in urea environments. The
experiments outlined in this article were
Carbon 0.025 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 maximum developed to reproduce the very
maximum maximum maximum maximum
corrosive conditions of a urea stripper
Manganese 2 maximum 2 1.2 1 0.8 – 1.5 but without oxygen injection, making the
maximum maximum maximum
environment inside the experimental
Phosphorus 0.02 0.03 0.035 0.03 0.03 maximum setup more harsh than a real on-stream
maximum maximum maximum maximum situation. The main objectives of this
Sulfur 0.015 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03 maximum study were to identify the basic
maximum maximum maximum maximum mechanisms controlling the corrosion of
Silicon 0.4 1 0.8 1 0.8 maximum different stainless steels in the urea
maximum maximum maximum maximum synthesis process and to establish the
Nickel 20.5 – 23.5 4.5 – 6.5 6–8 6–8 5.8 – 7.5 relationship of these mechanisms with
Cromium 24 – 26 21 – 23 24 – 26 24 – 26 28 – 30 the chemical composition and the
microstructure of the tested steel
Molybdenum 1.6 – 2.6 2.5 – 3.5 3–5 3–4 1.5 – 2.6 grades.
Nitrogen 0.09 – 0.15 0.08 – 0.2 0.24 – 0.32 0.2 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.4 Autoclave immersion tests
The corrosion of different stainless
Copper - - 0.5 0.5 – 1 0.8 maximum
steels in high temperature and high
maximum pressure urea environments has been
analysed by means of autoclave
Other - - - W 0.5 - 1 -
immersion tests to investigate the
corrosion mechanism in each case. A
chromium-high (Cr-high) nickel-high
Table 2. Corrosion rate and maximum depth of attack after autoclave (Ni-high)-molybdenum (Ni-Mo)
immersion tests austenitic stainless steel that is
S31050 S31803 S32750 S32760 TUBACEX commonly used in urea equipment and
UREMIUM29 several duplex type stainless steels were
Corrosion rate 1.2510 0.6097 0.3380 0.4177 0.1331 involved in this study. The results
(mm/yr) showed that UNS S31050 experiences
Maximum 40 40 25 35 15 active corrosion due to the absence of
depth of oxygen in the experimental setup,
attack (μm) whereas TUBACEX UREMIUM29, a
superduplex stainless steel that was
developed specifically for use in urea plants, remains
passive and with the lowest corrosion rate.
To specify, the five materials investigated in this work
were as follows:
UNS S31050: 25Cr-22Ni-2Mo austenitic stainless steel.

UNS S31803: 22Cr-5Ni-3Mo duplex stainless steel.
UNS S32750: 25Cr-7Ni-4Mo superduplex stainless
steel.
UNS S32760: 25Cr-7Ni-3.5Mo-0.75W superduplex
stainless steel.
UNS S32906: 29Cr-7Ni-2Mo superduplex stainless
steel.
Each of these steel grades can be applied in a

Figure 1. Stripper tubes produced by Tubacex. different section of a urea plant, and are expected to
have good corrosion resistance in the urea environment.
and pressures and a drastic reduction of injected oxygen, More detailed chemical compositions are shown in
making the development of more suitable robust Table 1.
materials necessary. The specimens used in the experiments were
Tubacex currently manufactures tubes and pipes of machined from industrially-produced solution annealed
several corrosion resistant materials for use in urea tubes and pipes. The immersion tests were conducted in
plants, as well as specifically for urea strippers. An a 5 l zirconium autoclave, which had been designed

specifically for these tests. The autoclave was
equipped with adequate feed, discharge lines and a
stirrer. The test solution contained a mixture of
urea, ammonia and water, at concentrations that are
characteristic of the urea synthesis process. The
temperature and pressure of the experiments were
set in the upper level of the typical ranges that are
measured in a urea stripper, 180 – 210˚C and
140 – 200 bar. The test solution was deaereated
before starting the tests to remove oxygen from
the system.
The experiments were designed to simulate the
most severe conditions achievable in the stripper
of a urea plant without oxygen injection. Test
specimen preparation followed the ASTM G31
(Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion
Corrosion Testing of Metals) standard indications
and corrosion rate was measurement using the
Figure 2. Cross section of the S31050 test specimen after a 15 day gravimetric method.
immersion in the autoclave.
The testing procedure took 15 days. Once the
tests had been finalised, sections of the samples
were prepared and observed by optical microscopy
to analyse the type of attack experienced in detail.
Corrosion rate and corrosion

mechanisms
The corrosion rate and measured depth of attack
for each steel are summarised in Table 2. The
maximum depth of attack was calculated on the
surface of the remaining tube wall thickness.
As can be observed in Table 2, the corrosion
rates of the analysed materials in descending order
are as follows: S31050, S31803, S32760, S32750,
TUBACEX UREMIUM29.
TUBACEX UREMIUM29, a superduplex with very
high Cr content (approximately 29%), was specially
developed for application in the urea industry.
Figures 2 – 6 depict cross sections of the five
test specimens after 15 days of immersion in the
Figure 3. Cross section of the S31803 test specimen after a 15 day
immersion in the autoclave. autoclave. Considering the measured corrosion
rates and the metallurgical investigation on the test
specimens, the following aspects can be highlighted
for each steel grade:
UNS S31050
With the highest corrosion rate, UNS S31050
experienced a uniform attack. This high corrosion
rate is related to the absence of oxygen in the
autoclave, which prevents stable passivation. This
austenitic grade steel is an established, successful
material for use in urea environments, including
urea strippers, as its corrosion rate when oxygen is
present is low.
UNS S31803
The microstructure of UNS S31803 after chemical
etching reveals no preferential attack on the ferrite
or austenite phase. Under the test conditions, both
phases suffered some corrosion, and the corrosion
Figure 4. Cross section of the S32750 test specimen after a 15 day rate was quite high. The reason that this duplex
immersion in the autoclave. stainless steel behaves this way is the combination

of a lack of oxygen in the experimental setup and
insufficient chromium content in the matrix.
UNS S32750
Similar to UNS S31803, UNS S32750 experienced a
generalised attack of both the austenite and
ferrite phases. The corrosion rate of this
superduplex grade is lower than UNS S31803 due
to higher chromium and molybdenum contents in
the matrix. The measured corrosion rate and type
of attack indicated that the chromium content of
this steel is not enough to guarantee passivation
in the conditions reached in the autoclave.
UNS S32760
UNS S32760 showed similar behaviour to
UNS S32750, with an overall attack through both
the austenite and ferrite phases, but had a slightly
higher corrosion rate. This fact is possibly related
to the lower Mo content in the UNS S32760 Figure 5. Cross section of the S32760 test specimen after a 15 day
matrix, as this element is partially substituted by immersion in the autoclave.
tungsten in this grade. Tungsten can be less
effective for corrosion resistance in the
conditions achieved in the autoclave. The
chromium content of this grade is not considered
sufficient for it to be used under the harsh
conditions of a urea stripper.
TUBACEX UREMIUM29
Selective attack of the austenite phase were
detected on this superduplex grade during the
testing. TUBACEX UREMIUM29 showed the lowest
corrosion rate with the lowest depth of attack. Its
chromium content was high enough to guarantee
the passivity of ferrite phase under the conditions
inside the autoclave. The austenite phase suffered
a slight attack as no oxygen was present during
the test. This preferential attack of the austenite
has been reported to disappear at longer exposure
times, as anodic protection of the austenite phase
can occur when the ferrite/austenite area has
become large enough as a result of corrosion of Figure 6. Cross section of the TUBACEX UREMIUM29 test specimen
austenite. Even lower corrosion rates are then after a 15 day immersion in the autoclave.
expected as the time in service increases.
In this study, where the conditions in the
autoclave were extremely harsh (high temperature, high experienced the highest corrosion rate with a
pressure, corrosive test solution, and an absence of generalised attack as austenite cannot be passivated
oxygen), this grade showed high corrosion resistance. under the above-mentioned conditions. However, this
grade would have shown a very low corrosion rate if
Conclusion some oxygen was present. Duplex type stainless steels,
In the preceding study, autoclave immersion tests were such as UNS S31803, UNS S32750 and UNS S32760,
designed to simulate the highly corrosive conditions of showed medium corrosion rates and a uniform attack of
a urea stripper. Oxygen was eliminated from the austenite and ferrite phase. This occurred because the
experimental setup due to the current tendency of chromium content of these grades is not high enough to
decreasing the amount of oxygen that is injected in reach total passivity under the test conditions.
order to reduce costs, as well as increase plant TUBACEX UREMIUM29 (UNS 32906), a superduplex with
efficiency and safety. Thus, the atmosphere generated the highest chromium content and a chemical
inside the autoclave was more severe than that present composition, developed specially for urea environment,
in real strippers. showed the lowest corrosion rate and only a slight
During the testing of the five different steel grades, selective attack on the austenite phase due to the
high Cr-high Ni-Mo UNS S31050 austenitic stainless steel absence of oxygen.

P
rocess simulation is a technology used in many areas
Dieter Krenz, Linde, Germany, and project phases. Its usage ranges from the design
stage of a plant (initial concept and front-end
Manel Serra, Inprocess, Spain, and engineering [FEED]) to assistance in daily plant
operations, including planning, optimisation and monitoring.
Theron Strange, Simplot Phosphates, To a certain extent, the simulation lifecycle is similar to the
lifecycle of a process plant, bringing support and value to
multiple stages in the lifetime of a process plant.
USA, discuss dynamic process simulation Using Simplot Phosphates’ ammonia process plant in
Rock Springs, Wyoming, US, where dynamic process
in an ammonia plant startup. simulation has been used, as an example, this article focuses
on the implementation and benefits of an operator training
system (OTS) for the plant. It will explain this specific use of
the OTS, and will outline some experiences and results from
the point of view of the three parties involved in the project:
94
95
The scope of the OTS
To provide some context to this
case, its scope involved a new
Simplot Phosphates ammonia plant
project in Rock Springs that was
designed according to Linde’s
LAC.L1 concept, using a natural gas
feedstock. This is one of four of
Linde’s ammonia concepts, all of
which are shown in Figure 1. With
the LAC.L1 concept:
An inert-free ammonia synthesis

gas in the right H2 to N2 ratio is
generated.
Figure 1. Linde's four ammonia concepts. A steam reforming based H2
plant with an isothermal shift
reactor is used.
Pure hydrogen and pure
nitrogen (from an air separation
unit) are directly available from
the process streams.
The ammonia plant remains
energy efficient.
The basic LAC.L1 diagram in

Figure 1 became the actual design
used at the Rock Springs plant, as
shown in Figure 2. With the
exception of the demin water
system, all of the major units are
part of the scope of the OTS and
were modelled in the dynamic
Figure 2. A block diagram of the simulated ammonia plant. process simulator.
the licensor and engineering company in charge of the Simulation lifecycle

construction, Linde; the plant owner and operator, The primary objective of an OTS is to provide a plant specific
Simplot Phosphates; and the simulation services provider in simulation environment for both initial and refresher training
charge of developing and deploying the OTS, Inprocess of those who operate the control room or other plant
Technology and Consulting Group, S.L. equipment operators. Hence, as well as the importance of the
distributed control system (DCS) and safety instrumented
Ammonia plant training system (SIS) emulation, another key point to consider is the
After Simplot Phosphates decided to construct a new simulation model that will support the OTS. The virtual plant
ammonia plant to supply its Rock Springs site, the must be high in fidelity and have a wide scope for better
company also saw the need to provide appropriate training training. It must also run quickly, be robust and support a
to those who would eventually operate the plant. There range of operating conditions, from cold startup up to
were several reasons for looking carefully into training, maximum throughput.
including that the ammonia plant would introduce a new High fidelity, customised dynamic process models built
process that the current site operators were not familiar around software such as Aspentech’s HYSYS®, Honeywell’s
with and there would be a significant number of people UniSim® or VMG’s VMGSim®, and derived from the detailed
hired to operate the plant with limited experience in the design of the real plant process units, are powerful predictive
environment. tools. They can extrapolate process conditions far from
In addition, because Simplot Phosphates sought high nominal conditions, which extends the benefits that an OTS
operational performance, it also wanted to both gain an can provide beyond the training objectives. Figure 3
in-depth understanding of the process and push the limits summarises this extended OTS usage.
of its plants to increase efficiency and throughput. Quality The OTS model can be re-used for holistic evaluation of
training and excellence in operation crystallised into the project functionality throughout an entire project. The
OTS project that was co-ordinated and supported by Linde, simulation project will, in turn, benefit different project
delivered by Inprocess, and powered by a rigorous dynamic phases, including concept, FEED (pre-engineering), detail
simulation engine. Operator training using the system was engineering, commissioning, startup, and operation of the
delivered by Linde. plant. The complexity of the simulation model increases

during the execution of a project in order to fulfil specific
engineering requirements. The right level of detail is
You need
needed to predict realistic behaviour without having to
collect and use vast amounts of plant and design data.
hi-tech to
Using the same process model as a base for the
engineering studies, along with operational support and make me.
operator training systems, reduces the cost of developing
and maintaining tools. It also maximises return on the OTS
investment.
While lifecycle simulation projects are clearly suited to
grassroot plants, brownfield plants can still experience the
benefits of using high fidelity dynamic simulation models.
If developed and implemented correctly, the use of We’ve
high fidelity models throughout a plant’s lifecycle will
contribute to significant learning time reduction and greatly got it!
increase operators’ skills in terms of control. They can also
substantially boost confidence in operating procedures
while offering the possibility of testing new strategies for We supply fans and acces-
optimal, safe and energy-efficient operation, without sories that comply with
influencing the actual operation. international standards
for the chemical and
OTS and dynamic simulation models petrochemical industries.
Our engineering always
The hydrocarbon process industries have used OTSs with a
takes into consideration
key focus on accident prevention since the mid-1970s. An
the demands of the entire
OTS is often viewed as an important, if not critical, training system.
tool for grassroots plants and process units that are being
revamped or re-instrumented.
OTSs are suitable platforms to practice on because they
Long service life
provide an accurate representation of the plant, which Extremely reliable
allows trainees to perform unfamiliar process and control +LJKHQHUJ\HIÀFLHQF\
tasks in a safe environment. Any mistake or error can be
converted into a lesson learnt without any real life
consequences. It is key to keep practicing the procedures
regularly, particularly when a modification is implemented
in the plant or control/safety system.
When thinking of an OTS, the usual expectation is that
the system delivers an accurate replica, containing the
following components of the processing plants:
The process, represented by individual pieces of
equipment (such as columns, compressors, heat
exchangers and their connections).
Field instrumentation (such as manual valves, level
gauges).
DCS or programmable logic controllers (PLC) for
governing the plant and its equipment.
Sequential logic and emergency shutdown (ESD)
systems.
Control room operator consoles. We make air work for you.
The current trend in operator training simulators is to
Process gas fans
connect a dynamic simulation model (Figure 4) to a copy of
the actual plant DCS and a copy of the human machine Process gas cleaning plants
interface (HMI). Depending on how these copies are Dust collection plants
developed and implemented, different commercial
Recycling and waste treatment plants
solutions are offered.
The DCS can be reproduced in the same dynamic Ventilating and air-conditioning plants
simulation model, with the controllers available in the Exhaust air treatment plants
process simulation platform. Alternatively, a DCS emulation
software can be used for these purposes.
Similarly, the operator console HMI can be emulated by
a specific graphical and programmable software. An
Although a stimulated solution may have a
greater initial investment, it is an effective
solution in terms of its fidelity to the plant’s
actual control and safety, and in terms of ease
of maintenance. Also, the dependency of this
type of OTS on the availability of the DCS
database requires careful management of
schedules and a flexible project execution
methodology (supporting concepts such as a
staggered delivery approach) in greenfield
projects.
Figure 3. A simulation lifecycle and the benefits of the OTS. The OTS virtually emulates the plant in
detail. This includes all of the DCS points,
interlock logic, process controls and overall
plant operation, such that the trainee sees
minimal differences between the simulator and
the actual plant. All operator-related activities
that are performed in the real life main control
room can be conducted using the OTS.
The trainee uses the plant user interface to
control the simulated process via the
stimulated DCS. The instructor can set
malfunctions and other controls in the
simulation, while accessing the trainee’s station
screen to see their actions. The instructor also
tends to undertake field actions, as requested
by the operator.
Figure 4. A dynamic simulation model.
Uses and benefits of an OTS
As mentioned previously, OTSs are primarily used
to train control room operators on various
aspects of plants. An OTS can give trainees the
equivalent of about six years of on-the-job
training. Periodic training using the system,
especially on critical emergency scenarios, brings
operator skill levels as high as possible. Real time
dynamic allows trainees to experience every type
of operating condition in a ‘hands-on manner’,
virtually. Types of scenarios include: normal
operation, unusual operating scenarios, startup
Figure 5. The OTS types and elements compared to a real plant.
from cold conditions, restart from tripped
conditions, shutdowns, equipment malfunctions,
alternative is to replicate the operator console using the emergency conditions and process upsets, as well as
DCS HMI software or in DCS vendor consoles. communication with field operators.
The OTS for Rock Springs involves a stimulated or direct Instructors have tools to develop standard exercises for
connect OTS, as shown in Figure 5. testing and evaluating each student’s performance, as well as
A direct connect option is characterised by the fact that documenting the results of the training session. Training
dynamic process models and controls are separate sessions can be repeated to monitor and prove trainee
applications. Dynamic process models are generally improvements.
simulated by a high fidelity process simulator, while the Training using an OTS is cost-effective as it allows
controls (including ESD, FGS and PLCs) are simulated through trainees to experience more operating situations in a
proprietary DCS vendor software (and/or hardware, if relatively short period of time, while also under supervision.
required), reproducing the actual DCS controllers’ behaviour. This helps reduce personnel errors and maximise plant
Hence, the DCS-implemented logic for the simulator and availability, in turn increasing overall safety with reduced risk
the plant is the same. of expensive equipment damage. Using an OTS also provides
Consequently, standard OTS architecture allows for knowledge of dynamic processes, which allows for
communication between the replica DCS controller anticipation of the unexpected.
computer(s) and the process models computer(s), before Although the primary use of OTSs is operator training,
sending the signal to the user (instructor or operator) on they also allow control strategy tests to be performed, and
their screens, which, for a direct-connect OTS, are also an operating procedures to be developed, verified and
exact replica of the actual plant’s control panels. compared.

It can also debug and verify DCS configuration in a
dynamic ‘near plant’ environment, which results in less
interrupted commissioning. With these uses in mind, the
following benefits can be achieved using an OTS:
Minimisation of startup time and achieving steady

production more rapidly.
Achievement of an easier, stable and ongoing production.
Reduction or prevention of operating incidents,
unnecessary trips and emergencies, which leads to an
increased on-stream production rate and a reduced risk
of equipment damage.
Increased operator confidence, which allows plants to be
Figure 6. Simplot Phosphates’ Rock Springs OTS training
operated closer to product specifications and process
room during the OTS commissioning.
constraints.
OTS use in Rock Springs confidence to startup the plant and recognise unstable
In the Rock Springs case, the OTS was delivered before the conditions early on. This led to faster and more effective
plant's startup to accommodate the training requirements response times, as well as less lost time.
with the availability of the DCS database. This allowed the When implementing the OTS, bugs in the DCS
operator training to be undertaken in time, following a pace database were detected and eliminated. Running the
to match that of the startup of the different areas of the startup procedure allowed for an extensive evaluation of
plant. written procedures, pointing to the need for
During a three month training programme, clarifications, and the potential for changes and
Simplot Phosphates’ trainees were familiarised with the plant’s optimisation, which were later realised during the actual
startup procedures, DCS functionality (HMI, control logic, etc.) commissioning of the plant.
and how to communicate with field operators. OTSs give operators refreshment on the specifics of the
Although many trainees were not familiar with a DCS and plant, with the simulator being continuously used to maintain
the ammonia plant process, the training gave them sufficient and test operators’ skills.
Costacurta is an Italian company

founded in 1921 specialized in the
fabrication of reactor internals
manufactured in accordance
ZLWKWKHVSHFLÚFDWLRQVRIPDMRU
Technology Licensors. Main
applications for such internals
include catalytic reforming,
isomerization, hydrotreating,
hydrocracking, ammonia, urea
and methanol synthesis.
Along with top quality metal
components, Costacurta can
offer its customers in-house
mock-up tests, installation and
inspection of the components
in vertical position as well as
support in feasibility studies
aimed at product development,
manufacturing cost reduction
and quality improvements.
www.costacurta.it tcrc@costacurta.it
33rd
Oil | Gas | Fertilizers | Metallurgy | Industrial
Sulphur 2017
6-9 November 2017 • Hilton Atlanta, Atlanta, USA
For over 30 years, CRU Sulphur has been the industry’s premier gathering – attracting over 500 professionals from across the
sulphur and sulphuric acid value chains – from engineers, contractors and suppliers through to buyers, sellers and traders. The
four-day programme features in-depth exploration of the key technical and commercial issues shaping the industry, empowering
delegates to develop practical solutions to drive business success.
2017 PROGRAMME HIGHLIGHTS

Discuss practical solutions to operational problems through Meet key buyers and sellers of sulphur and Sulphuric acid and
peer-led interactive clinics and hands-on workshops discuss strategic business priorities for the year ahead
Interactive programme highlights include: 3 practical workshops; Understand which market factors will drive supply and demand in
2 interactive troubleshooting clinics; 1 immersive panel discussion: the short, medium and long term - New for 2017: The IMO 2020
Sulphur “This is your life” Sulphur Cap: Implications for industry
Learn how to improve plant efficiency and reliability, while adhering Knowledge share, network with your peers and meet new and
to the latest environmental standards existing customers
See new technology, equipment and processes in action and Hear exclusive insights from CRU’s market leading analysts
discuss your technical requirements with over 70 exhibitors
For sponsorship and exhibition enquiries please contact Michelle Fisk michelle.fisk@crugroup.com +44 (0)20 7903 2159
Sponsors:
Official Publications:
Supporting Publications:
For more information and to book you place please visit www.sulphurconference.com
The Doyle and EMT Alliance

Can provide you with all the Blending, Bagging
and Transport equipment you need.
High Speed Bagging Line

* For big bags - jumbo bags.
* Capacity 50 to 70 ton m³ per hour.
* 120 kg to 1250 kg bags.
* Suitable for granular and powder materials.
* Available with dust reducing system.
Weighcont Blender Shamrock Blender

* Capacity of 20 to 200 ton per hour * Capacity of 25 to 70 ton/m³ per hour.
* Unlimited number of hoppers. * Machine size 4,5-5,4-7-9-11,5-14 ton.
* Computer controlled. * Easy and gentle blending process.
* Custom built. * Blending and weighing are separated.
Small Bag Portable Container

* In two 10 foot/3 meter containers.
* Capacity 45 ton per hour.
* 900 bags of 25 or 50 kg per hour.
EMT
Molenpad 10, 1756 EE ‘t Zand Doyle Enterprises
The Nederlands. 6831 County Road 334, Palmyra, Mo, 63461
Tel.+31 (0) 224 591213 Doyle, Quincy, IL. USA. Tel. +1(217) 222-1592
email: emt@emt.tech Doyle, Palmyra, MO Tel. +1(573) 300-4009
www.emt.tech doyle@doylemfg.com, www.doylemfg.com
SIMULATION
FOR SAFETY
Todd Jaco, Emerson, USA, explains how using an effective ammonia plant
operator training system can greatly reduce startup time.
O
ne of the larger producers of nitric acid As supplies can be tight with so many operations
for use in fertilizers in the US uses making use of it, being able to produce your own
ammonia (NH3) as a key component in and sell the excess back to the market is largely
its operations. This company faced an beneficial for fertilizer producers.
issue: it had been purchasing ammonia from a The company not only had to work through the
pipeline but decided to build its own ammonia plant design, procurement and construction of its new
to gain a significant cost advantage. While fertilizers ammonia plant but also needed to find skilled
consume 80% of the total world production of workers to operate its facility. Its location is remote
ammonia, it can also be used in the production of enough that it is difficult to find a large number of
fibres, plastics and pharmaceuticals, to name a few. well-trained, experienced operators. In addition, the
101

used to prod the reaction along. The single pass ammonia

yield is only approximately 15%, but using multiple passes

boosts the yield to above 95%.
The block diagram in Figure 1 illustrates this multi-step

process. It requires careful control due to the presence of

hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide during
processing. These gases are poisonous, corrosive,

flammable and explosive. Hence, manufacturing ammonia

can require extensive capital investment to ensure proper
process control and safety.
Figure 1. A block flow diagram of the ammonia The production process includes primary and
production process. Source: Milton Beychok. secondary natural gas reformers that free the hydrogen.
There also are shift reactors to convert carbon monoxide
to carbon dioxide. Sulfur is removed from the feed at the
beginning of the process because it kills the catalysts and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is eliminated by reacting it with zinc
oxide. The final step before ammonia synthesis removes
small residual amounts of carbon monoxide or dioxide
from the hydrogen stream.
A solution
At first glance, it might seem that the ideal solution for
training operators for ammonia production would be to
have them practice startup, shutdown and responses to
various scenarios using actual equipment. However, taking
such an approach in the real world is not practical or
Figure 2. The Mimic modelling environment, efficient.
Simulation Studio, following IEC 61131-3. Most importantly, training with real equipment would
be expensive and dangerous. There is a specific sequence
plant faced hiring pressure from other industries vying to that must be followed to bring boilers and other process
hire the best of the limited pool of experienced workers. modules online that must be followed exactly. In addition,
Thanks to advanced simulation technology, the company high pressures must be dealt with, not to mention
was able to train operators in startup and shutdown, as dangerous gases. The correct sequence of actions is
well as how to handle rare process excursions that they specified in the plant’s standard operating procedures. The
may have not seen with even 10 years of experience. All of same documents also contain instructions about how to
this took place before the physical plant was built and handle common process problems, including stuck valves,
operational. pump failures and boiler mishaps.
Running an advanced simulator can be extremely If actual plant equipment is used, failure by operators
similar to running an actual ammonia plant. Not only are to follow recommended procedures could result in
the trainee operator stations at the simulator identical to damage to expensive equipment, harm to plant personnel
what they will see when the plant starts up, but the feel of or even cause an event that is noteworthy enough to make
running the equipment is very realistic. Simulation and the the national news. What is more, deliberately putting a
supporting models are a way to capture the expertise of plant in an unsafe operating condition as part of a training
skilled personnel. Initial and future training will instil this exercise could result in regulatory review or litigation, if
knowledge in operators, with the result being smoother and when the practice came to light, even if nothing
and more efficient plant operations. catastrophic happened.
Turning to the case introduced earlier, though the
The challenges of ammonia production experience pool was limited in the area, there were some
Starting an ammonia production plant from scratch can be seasoned industry veterans that the new plant could draw
a risky business. Making ammonia involves reacting one upon. With decades of experience, these professionals are
part nitrogen with three parts hydrogen at temperatures of capable of standing on the plant floor, listening to the
400 – 450°C and at pressures of up to 180 atmospheres. machinery and determining, despite the din, whether a
The operating pressure and temperature are a compromise particular pump is having problems and is in need of
between the need to produce ammonia and the cost of replacement soon. However, their long work history also
running pumps, as well as the added capital expense that means many are nearing retirement and will soon leave,
arises from using suitably strong pipes and reaction taking their expertise with them. An efficient solution,
vessels. therefore, would codify this accumulated knowledge and
In making ammonia, a hydrocarbon (such as natural gas) make it available for use by others.
is processed to produce hydrogen while atmospheric Training with a live plant is not the best way to transfer
nitrogen is the source for the other feedstock. Because the expertise from more to less experienced personnel.
nitrogen-nitrogen bond is strong, iron-based catalysts are Working in an actual plant would not ensure the capture

Your partner in stainless steel premium tubular solutions. tubacex.com
of knowledge because rare process upsets do not,

generally, occur very often. In fact, the client’s new
plant may not experience the upsets before many of
the experienced employees retire.
The virtual plant

Confronted by the need for safe and effective
training, as well as the requirement to capture scarce
expertise, the company decided that dynamic
simulation was the right solution. This approach
enabled trainees to run through startup and
shutdown procedures with no risk to anyone. Those
using the simulator can gain valuable experience and
the training can take place both before and during
plant construction. Also, a parallel training and SHAPING OUR PRODUCTS TO DEFINE YOUR SOLUTIONS
construction approach minimises delay in plant At TUBACEX, we are aware of the severe conditions the
materials need to withstand in a Fertilizer plant. Therefore
startup. we take an inside perspective to define tailor-made
solutions of high technological value, offering a full
In addition, using the simulator can allow range of products including:
Å&#/.&55É67$&5ÉDÉ2+2&5É(41/É//É61ÉaÉ
É+0É#%%14'#0%&É
scenarios such as pump failure, valves sticking open with all main licensors’ standards.
Å+66+0)5É(41/ÉkaÉ61ÉaO
or closed, pipe ruptures or other rare events to be Å2&%+#.É%1/210&065É7210É4&37&56O
devised. Familiarity with such process excursions
could be critical to the ability of operators to +(34) 94 671 93 00 fertilizer.sales@tubacex.com
successfully resolve them, should they occur.
This approach presented the company with its Tubacex group, sharing your challenge
own set of requirements. Chief among them was

that the simulation had to be lifelike. That is, there One Group of leading companies:
has to be an extremely high degree of similarity

between the simulation and the actual plant.
Otherwise, the training would be counterproductive,
with operators familiarising themselves with
something that diverged from the reality they would
face.
Robust - Reliable
Beyond training Granulator I Dryer I Cooler I Coater
Dynamic simulation offers a number of benefits
beyond operator training. It can aid in the capture of
the knowledge and the lessons learnt by
experienced operators, thereby ensuring that
expertise is not lost. It can also help in the analysis
of both safety and environmental risks. Dynamic
simulation can aid in process optimisation by
allowing process improvement studies. During the
capital phase of a project, it can also assist in testing
control systems for operational readiness by
allowing lifelike exercising of the distributed control
system. This testing can include both the basic
process control (BPC) and safety instrument systems
(SIS). There are also a number of other areas in the
capital and operational phase of a project that
could benefit from dynamic simulation.
In addition to high fidelity, other important
simulator characteristics are its ability to
communicate with external control systems and its
use of modelling standards. The first ensures that
control systems can be fully exercised, while the
second avoids problems that can arise from Based on 60 years of experience,
proprietary solutions. Promill supplies Rotating Drums in the Fertilizer industry.
Simulating and ammonia

After considering the alternatives, the company in
this case selected MimicTM simulation software from
the futu re together

Let’s build
not uncommon for complex ammonia plant simulations to
require nearly two years to develop, the company required
the simulator within a 16 month window. During that span,
a design specification would have to be devised and
approved, followed by development of the simulator. The
timeline ran from August 2014 to December 2015.
The control system for the plant was
Rockwell Automation’s PlantPAx®. The simulation uses the
actual plant control system configuration running in a
virtual environment so there is no need for the actual
control system hardware to be deployed for the simulator.
Because it offers integrated simulation of BPC and SIS,
both basic process control and safety instrumented system
modules can be designed and tested. Mimic simulation
software communicates directly with the control logic
Figure 3. Simulation allows small teams to fill in where through an API that was developed by MYNAH. The
large teams were once needed. control system believes that it is communicating with real
equipment in the field, providing a highly realistic
experience to the user.
By early October 2015, MYNAH had fully developed
the simulator for training new operators. There were some
minor updates that were required to finalise the delivery,
but the 60 plus operators were able to begin training on
the system. Though it was not part of the overall plan, the
engineering team was also able to use the simulator to
validate and test the turbine and combustion control
systems, speeding up the process of finalising those
systems.
Results
The simulator underwent FAT in late 4Q15, several months
Figure 4. Virtualisation greatly reduces the hardware before the projected completion of the plant and its
footprint of complex simulation systems. expected startup. Though there were mechanical setbacks
that impacted project completion, thanks to the use of
MYNAH Technologies. As of 19 May 2017, the simulator in operator training, the startup from an
MYNAH Technologies was acquired by Emerson. Among operations standpoint was extremely effective and ran
other things, the simulator has an ammonia plant module smoothly.
with OPC server access to all model parameters. The
simulator also offers direct IO simulation for most modern Conclusion
control systems. All model objects within the simulator The simulator has and will continue to positively impact
are industry standard IEC 1131 function blocks, as shown in operator training. Current employees will be well versed in
Figure 2. For ammonia production, the dynamic simulator how to start up and shut down plants, with the high
includes replicas of the following important process areas: reliability of the simulation ensuring that these training
exercises are effectively indistinguishable from the real
A natural gas primary reformer, coupled with a waste thing. Operators will have experience in how to handle
heat boiler. process excursions, with the result being that they will be
A natural gas secondary reformer. better prepared than they otherwise would have been for
High and low temperature shift reactors. these unusual occurrences.
An acid gas removal system. Importantly, the development of training scenarios is
A methanator. ongoing. As new ones are devised, these will capture the
An ammonia converter. expertise and knowledge of more skilled operators, which
Auxiliary separators, heat exchangers, fluid movers and will then be used to train new operators and develop the
piping. plant’s staff.
The result of this successful simulation has been a
Each of these areas is rigorously modelled, ensuring that more efficient and smoother operating plant, with the
the entire process can be simulated with a high degree of added benefit of a faster ramp to full production due to a
accuracy. Doing so involves dynamic real-time mass and well-prepared operations team. This assured that the
energy balances, vapour-liquid equilibrium, catalysed company’s ammonia plant will be able to meet the
reforming and oxidation reactions, along with other factors. production demands of the downstream process units at
Once its selection process was complete, the company the site, solving the problem that the plant was built to
approached MYNAH with a desired schedule. While it is tackle.

Curtis Griffin,
PegasusTSI, USA, and
Shannon Griffin, University
Increased of South Florida, Chemical

Engineering, USA, detail process
technology and pilot plant results
for the recovery of P2O5 from
phosphate mine tailings and
clays.
T
2 O
he phosphate ore beneficiation process
produces two reject streams called ‘clays
(slimes) and tailings’. Both the clays and
tailings can contain a significant amount of
P2O5, depending on how well the beneficiation
plants are operating. Operating conditions, such as
changes in the physical properties of phosphate
rock, production rates and ore particle size, can
have a significant impact on the amount of P2O5 in
the clays and tailings. The clays and tailings are PegasusTSI and EcoPhos. The phosphate clays were
efficiency
typically pumped to settling areas for storage and tested with the EcoPhos technology in a preliminary
the P2O5 in both reject streams is typically lost. evaluation phase. The objective was to demonstrate
Recovering the P2O5 in the clays and tailings would the feasibility of using phosphate clays to produce
result in increased revenue and mine life. dicalcium phosphate (DCP).
The study discussed in the following includes The pilot testing for the recovery of P2O5 from
pilot plant test runs that evaluated the recovery of tailings was performed as a combined effort with
P2O5 from phosphate clays and tailings. PegasusTSI and Florida Industrial and Phosphate
The pilot testing for the recovery of P2O5 from Research Institute (FIPR). Various flotation runs were
clays was performed as a combined effort with conducted using different reagents. The results
105
from each run included reagent dose rate, P2O5 grade into the that 80 men can do by hand. Steam dredges and barges came
flotation cell, P2O5 grade exiting the flotation cell and percent into use in hard rock areas where the water level was too high
recovery. The performance of each reagent as a function of for picks and shovels. Centrifugal pumps mounted on barges
dosage was also monitored. were also used to mine the river-pebble phosphate deposits
in the Peace River until river-pebble mining ended in 1908.
Florida phosphate mining Draglines, the current mining tool, came into use with the
Phosphate mining in Florida dates back to the first hard rock dawn of electricity and diesel power in the 1920s and 1930s.
deposits found near Hawthorne in Alachua County in 1883. In By 1930, these electrically driven draglines were adopted as
the early years, phosphate mining was done with the most economical way to mine land pebble. The following
wheelbarrows, picks, shovels and mule-drawn scrapers. is a basic timeline of the beneficiation evolution:
Mechanised excavation began between 1900 and 1905 with
steam shovels. Early steam shovels held only 1 yd3 of earth, 1906: Original flotation patent.
but one steam shovel operated by three men did the work 1925: Laboratory flotation of phosphate.
1927: First flotation pilot plant.
1931: High solids conditioning.
1935: Tall oil was used as flotation reagent.
1939: Sized flotation feed.
1949: Hydro-cyclones for de-sliming.
1976: Prototype column cell installed.
2002: Eriez float column introduced to phosphate
industry (Figure 1).
Beneficiation
Beneficiation is the second step in the mining process, after
removal of the ore from the ground. It is the technical term
describing the industrial process of mechanically separating
minerals from each other. The phosphate ore, or ‘matrix’ as it
is called locally, contains three different mineral groups,
which must be separated from each other:
Figure 1. A 1930 flotation cell with wooden launder and
floors.
Phosphate minerals.
Clay minerals.
Quartz or sand.
Two steps of the beneficiation process result in loss of

P2O5:
1. De-sliming with hydro-cyclones.

2. Flotation process as tailings (Figure 2).
Clays (slimes) generation

As mined, the phosphate and sand particles are embedded in
compacted mud, or ‘clay-balls’. Before separation can begin,
all of the particles must be liberated from the matrix of mud.
The very first unit operation in the beneficiation process is to
disaggregate the various particles; this actually starts while
the matrix is flowing through the multi-mile pipeline from the
mine to the beneficiation plant. While in the pipeline, the
matrix is exposed to shear forces as it passes through the
various centrifugal pumps along the pipeline. These intense
shear forces cause a significant percentage of the sand and
phosphate particles to be liberated from the clay-balls by the
time they arrive at the plant.
Once reaching the plant, the first goal is to finish
disaggregating the clay, and follow that by making a size
separation typically at 1 mm. This processing is conducted in
the washer. In all of the currently operating beneficiation
plants, the washer is a large structure that receives the matrix,
screens it and then discharges a +1 mm ‘pebble’ phosphate
product and a -1 mm slurry of liberated clay, sand and
phosphate particles.
Figure 2. Typical phosphate plant flowsheet.

The next process objective is to remove the clays, which
are finer than 0.1 mm. To reject the clay, all that is required is
to size at 0.1 mm and discard the fine fraction. The
beneficiation plant does this with hydro-cyclones. Slurry from
the washer is fed tangentially into the cyclone (a conical
chamber) at a high G force. The slurry swirls around inside the
cyclone until fines overflow the top of the chamber. Coarse
sand and phosphate particles swirl to the bottom of the
cyclone and exit. The fine clays are collected and pumped to
large ponds, a significant amount of P2O5 can be lost as clays.
The clays can be as high as 33% of the total matrix feed and
can contain as high as 15% P2O5 in some cases, typically a
much lower P2O5 content is seen (around 2 – 9% P2O5).
Recovery of P2O5 from clays is very difficult due to the
ultra-fine particle size and colloidal particle, typically 50%
below 1 μm.
Previous research
Hazen Research was issued a patent in 1969 on a process to
leach the clays with sulfuric acid, then to recover the %P2O5
from the acid leachate with mixtures of amine and alcohol in
a solvent extraction step. Ribas and Nickerson proposed to
recover the phosphate values by consolidating, calcining at Figure 3. Typical flotation cell.
870 – 1093˚C, and then digesting the clay in mineral acid to
produce phosphoric acid. The process was energy intensive The process
and created severe dusting problems during calcination The core process is based on the phosphate clays attack by
because of the dry, finely-divided particles. diluted hydrochloric acid, followed by a precipitation of the
The US Bureau of Mines carried out a detailed dissolved P2O5 as DCP. In this way, the P2O5 content of the
investigation in 1982 in which the clay was first sized using processed clay is recovered as a solid cake of DCP and the
hydro-cyclones and hydro-separators. Up to 96% of the plus P2O5 is concentrated to 42% by precipitation. The chloride
400 mesh material was recovered during the sizing step. coming from HCl is converted into calcium chloride.
Subsequent flotation of the plus 400 mesh fraction gave a
concentrate of over 30% P2O5 at an 88% recovery from this X-ray analysis
coarse fraction. However, P2O5 recovery from the total clay X-ray analysis was carried out to evaluate the P2O5
was low. compounds and assure the solubility of P2O5 in HCl. The x-ray
In 1983, the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research (FIPR) analysis showed the presence of the following compounds:
sponsored a project that used an autoclave acidulation
technique to recover the phosphate values from clays. At a Brushite: CaHPO4. 2H2O.
temperature of 175˚C, more than 90% of the P2O5 was Calcium hydrogen phosphate hydrate: Ca8H2(PO4)6. 5H2O.
extracted in less than an hour. After acid treatment, the clay Gismondine: CaAl2Si2O8.4H2O.
residue quickly consolidated to a 35 – 45% solids level. Calcium silicate: Ca2(SiO4).
Longer leaching time led to larger phosphor gypsum crystals, Calcium hydrogen phosphate iron aluminium silicate
which helped the entire mass to filter more readily. However, hydroxide.
the equipment investment and poor acid quality prevented Kirschsteinite: Ca(Fe0.77MgO0.22)(SiO4).
this process from being commercialised.
Other techniques investigated included flocculation, Results
microbial methods and flotation. A common conclusion from
most of the previous studies was that recovering phosphate Available P2O5
from the slimes is either technically impossible or X-ray analysis showed that most of the phosphate content in
economically prohibitive. the clay was in the form of brushite or calcium hydrogen
phosphate hydrate, which are species that are very soluble in
Pilot plant testing of clays (slimes) HCl. Analysis also showed a high aluminium and iron content,
indicating the probable presence of amorphous aluminium
The pilot plant and iron phosphate, which are poorly soluble in HCl and
The pilot work consisted of the chemical conversion of could induce some losses linked to insoluble P2O5.
phosphate contained in clays into DCP. The pilot work was
performed as a combined effort with PegasusTSI and Experimental method
EcoPhos. The phosphate clays were tested with the EcoPhos Step 1: The clays were dissolved in diluted HCl with
technology in a preliminary evaluation phase. The objective different HCl concentration at several HCl/Ca ratios. The
was to demonstrate the feasibility of the use of phosphate products were analysed to determine the process yield.
clays to produce DCP. The results show that a P2O5 recovery of 77.5% can be

reached based on total P2O5 (>90% based on soluble
P2O5). The results confirm the presence of insoluble P2O5
in the clays. Due to the low P2O5 in the clays, the
quantity of residue was very high. After removal of
fluoride, the quantity of solid residue was 0.95 t/t clay
input.
Step 2: The phosphate solution obtained in step 1 was
converted into DCP by addition of calcium carbonate.
Results showed that for 1 t of clay used, 0.27 t DCP was
produced and 0.77 t CaCl2 effluent solution was
generated. The overall quality of DCP was very good.
Conclusion
Figure 4. Air mineral contact diagram.
The batch tests performed shows a P2O5 recovery of 76% can
be obtained. The DCP obtained is animal feed quality
(Table 1).
Flotation process and tailings generation

Flotation overview
Before froth flotation can work, the ore to be treated may
need to be reduced to fine particles by crushing and grinding
so that the various minerals exist as physically separate grains.
This process is known as liberation.
Froth flotation is a highly versatile method for physically
separating particles based on the ability of air bubbles to
selectively adhere to specific mineral surfaces. The particles
with attached air bubbles are then carried to the surface and
removed, while the particles that are completely wetted stay
in the liquid phase. Chemicals known as collectors can be
used to alter mineral surfaces so that they have the necessary
properties for separation.
To be effective on a given ore slurry, the collectors are
chosen based upon their selective wetting of the types of
particles to be separated. A good collector will adsorb,
physically or chemically, with one of the types of particles.
This provides the thermodynamic requirement for the
particles to bind to the surface of a bubble. The wetting
Figure 5. Denver mechanical flotation cell. activity of a surfactant on a particle can be quantified by
measuring the contact angles that the liquid/bubble
interface makes with it. Another important measure for
Table 1. DCP from slimes attachment of bubbles to particles is induction time. The
induction time is the time required for the particle and
Unit Slimes DCP
bubble to rupture the thin film separating the particle and
P2O5 % 13.1 38.3 bubble. This rupturing is achieved by the surface forces
CaO % 17.92 36.54 between the particle and bubble.
Al2O3 % 11.7 0.07 The mechanisms for the bubble-particle attachment are
very complex, consisting of three steps: collision, attachment
Fe2O3 % 8.14 0.18
and detachment. The collision is achieved by particles being
MgO % 0.9 0.003 within the collision tube of a bubble and this is affected by
Na2O3 % 0.066 0.004 the velocity and radius of the bubble. The collision tube
K2O % 2.65 0.005 corresponds to the region in which a particle will collide with
the bubble, with the perimeter of the collision tube
As ppm 7.1 <0.5
corresponding to the grazing trajectory.
Cd ppm 1.4 <0.5 The attachment of the particle to the bubble is
Cr ppm 140 1.21 controlled by the induction time of the particle and bubble.
Pb ppm 3.9 5.5 The particle and bubble need to bind and this occurs if the
time in which the particle and bubble are in contact with
Sr ppm 1000 32.91
each other is larger than the required induction time. This
Hg ppm <0.1 0.2 induction time is affected by the fluid viscosity, particle and
F % 0.69 0.18 bubble size, and the forces between the particle and bubbles.

Table 2. Flotation of tailings – C series reagents
Sample ID Analysis Wt% %P2O5
recovery
P2O5 Insol MgO Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO
Reagent-dosage
C1 conc. 31.33 11.96 0.52 0.96 1.72 48.50 32.71
C1 tails 6.60 80.37 0.11 0.27 0.33 10.09
C2 conc. 29.52 9.74 0.50 0.88 1.52 46.14 82.41
C2 tails 1.92 94.18 0.04 0.12 0.09 3.00
C3 conc. 30.23 10.17 0.49 0.88 1.64 47.72 76.95
C3 tails 2.63 92.62 0.05 0.14 0.13 3.79
C4 conc. 29.36 9.93 0.50 0.89 1.57 44.61 69.58
C4 tails 3.25 89.51 0.06 0.17 0.16 5.00
C4 conc. 28.81 11.45 0.48 0.86 1.52 43.16 80.23
C5 tails 2.22 92.70 0.05 0.14 0.10 3.39
The detachment of a particle and bubble occurs when
the force exerted by the surface tension is exceeded by shear

and gravitational forces. These forces are complex and vary
within the cell. High shear will be experienced close to the Where:
impeller of a mechanical flotation cell and mostly
gravitational force in the collection and cleaning zone of a NC = PNic is the product of the probability of the particle
flotation column. being collected (P) and the number of possible particle
A common quantity used to describe the collection collisions (Nic).
efficiency of a froth flotation process is flotation recovery (R). dp is particle diameter.
This quantity incorporates the probabilities of collision and db is bubble diameter.
attachment of particles to gas flotation bubbles. The H is a specified height within the flotation, which the
following equation demonstrates this: recovery was calculated.
Tailings flotation pilot test results
Once the optimum type of collector and dosage rate
was determined, pilot test runs were performed to
determine the ability to recover P2O5 from the flotation
tailings (Tables 3 and 4).
Conclusion
Clays
The batch tests performed shows a P2O5 recovery of 76%
can be obtained. The DCP obtained is animal feed
quality.
Tailings
Figure 6. %P2O5 recovery versus collector addition. The pilot plant test results showed that 82.07% of the
P2O5 in the tailings could be recovered as concentrate
Table 3. Head sample analysis for further processing in the chemical plants. The sample
initially had 2.49% P2O5, and after the flotation, the P2O5 in
P2O5 Insol MgO Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO
the concentrate was 26.37%.
2.49 86.11 0.03 0.29 0.28 4.25
Economics
Table 4. Pilot plant flotation results Typically a beneficiation plant has a P2O5 recovery of about
Product P2O5 (%) P2O5 recovery (%) 90%, leaving 10% of the total P2O5 lost as clays and tailings.
The 10% P2O5 loss is typically 7% with the clays and 3% with
Concentrate 26.37 82.07
the tailings. The clay pilot testing showed that 76% P2O5
Tailings 1.95 17.93 recovery was achieved and tailings pilot work showed that
Weighted average 8.12 100 82.06% P2O5 recovery was achieved.
Assuming, 1 million short tpy P2O5 production with a 90%
Figure 4 shows the attachment of the air bubble to the P2O5 recovery or 10% loss, the 10% P2O5 loss was 7% as clays
particle. and 3% as tailings. The pilot plant work showed a 76% P2O5
recovery from clays and 82.04% P2O5 from tailings.
Tailings generation 1 million short tpy P2O5 with 10% loss gives 100 000 tpy
The beneficiation process recovers on average 90% of the P2O5 loss.
total P2O5 fed to the plant. Typically 30 – 33% of the matrix 7% as clays 70 000 short tpy P2O5 with 76% recovery.
feed is lost as tailings with a P2O5 content of 2 – 6%. The 53 200 short tpy recovered P2O5 converted to DCP.
ability to recover the P2O5 from the tailings will significantly 3% as tailings 30 000 short tpy P2O5 with 82.04%
increase revenue and mine life. recovery.
24 612 short tpy recovered P2O5 converted to DAP.
Pilot testing on recovery of mine tailings
The pilot plant testing was a combined effort between Profits
PegasusTSI and FIPR. Dr Haijun Liang performed flotation pilot Profit margin from making DCP: US$12.6 million/yr.*
testing with assistance from Shannon Griffin. Profit margin from making DAP: US$5.3 million/yr.**
Total potential profit margin of US$17.9 million/yr.
Pilot plant
The pilot plant consisted of a Denver mechanical flotation Note
cell with aeration. The collector was a fatty acid (as shown in *Assumes US$100/short t profit on DCP.
**Assumes US$350/short t DAP sale price and production cost of
Figure 5).
US$250/short t, US$100/short t profit.
Procedure Bibliography
Various collectors were evaluated to determine which 1. SAUCHELLI, V., 'Chemistry and Technology of Fertilizers', (1960).
2. NIELSSON, F. T., (ed.), 'Manual of Fertilizer Processing', (1987).
collector had the best recovery. The dosage amount was also
3. Fertilizer Manual, Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, (1996).
adjusted to determine the optimum dosage. Collector C2 4. SEPEHRI-NIK, E., 'Fertilizer Technical Data Book', (2000).
with a dosage rate of between 0.75 and 1 lb/t was found to 5. 'Flotation History and its Application in the Phosphate Industry',
be the optimum collector with an average recovery of 82.41%. AIChE 2012.
6. LAWVER, J., 'New Techniques in Beneficiation of Florida Phosphates
The collector was a fatty acid. The results of the collector
of the Future'.
testing are shown in Table 2. 7. TEAGUE, J., 'The Beneficiation of Ultrafine Phosphate'.
Once the optimum collector had been chosen, the 8. ZHANG, P., 'FIPR Recovery of Phosphate from Florida Phosphate
dosage rate was adjusted to determine the optimum dosage Clays'.
9. LAMONT, W. E., 'Characterization Studies of Florida Phosphate
rate for maximum recovery. The optimum dosage rate was
Slimes'.
found to be between 0.75 and 1 lb/t. The dosage rate versus 10. ATKINSON, B.W., 'Fundamentals of Jameson Cell Operation'.
recovery is shown in Figure 6. 11. Froth Flotation, Wikipedia.

AD INDEX
Arvos Group GmbH |
87 | 50 | Integer Research
SCHMIDTSCHE SCHACK
43 | Berndorf Band 53 | Koch-Glitsch
57 | Borregaard 49 | Köppern
69 | Borsig OBC | Kreber
37 | Bungartz 88 | Lavender International
17 | Casale 59 | Linde
83 | Chemetics 31 | Ludman Industries
OFC &
IBC | Cimbria | Matrix Service
IFC
99 | Costacurta 09 | Mistras Group Ltd
38 | CRU Nitrogen + Syngas 87 | Phoenix Equipment CADWorx Plant Professional
makes the creation of
100 | CRU Sulfur 2017 47 | Prayon Technologies intelligent plant designs quick
and easy. It has helped firms
35 | Curtiss Wright (EST Group) 103 | Promill Stolz produce the high-quality
deliverables their customers
50 | Ecophos 91 | Prozap Engineering have come to rely on for over
EMT Blending, Bagging & fifteen years.
100 | 21 | Quest Integrity
Transport Equipment
Capabilities
29 | Enersul 67 | Rembe
AutoCAD® or BricsCAD® Platform
04 | Enpar 02 | Sandvik Process Systems Intelligent 3D Piping Design
On-the-fly Collision Checking
77 | Flextillac 11 | Solex Thermal Science Structural Steel
Equipment
85 | GEA 79 | Spectrum Ducting/Cable Trays
Isogen® Isometrics
109 | Gemaco 07 | Stamicarbon P&ID Creation and Links
Gustav Eirich GmbH & Co. Links to Stress Analysis
25 | 103 | Tubacex Design Review
KG
38 | Hallwood Modular Buildings 97 | Venti Oelde hexagonppm.com/cadworx
111 | Hexagon PPM 15 | Veolia
©
2017 Hexagon AB and/or its subsidiaries and affiliates.
AutoCAD is a registered trademark of Autodesk, Inc.
BricsCAD is a registered trademark of Bricsys. All rights
reserved.
North America
15 FACTS
Despite being California’s official state animal, no
grizzly bears have been seen in the state since 1922.
The Mississippi-Missouri River There are 23

System is the continent’s longest
river. countries in
Canada owns nearly half of all North America.
known global potash reserves.
50% of US urea
North America covers 16.5% of
the earth’s land area.
consumption is in solid
fertilizer form.
Mexico is home to Although North America is
North America’s largest largely self-sufficient with
wildcat: the jaguar. regards to phosphate rock,
recently the continent has
The geological makeup of the supplemented resources with
continent can be dated back to the imports from Morocco and
Proterozoic era. Peru.
China, Morocco After Asia, North One in every
and the US are America is the second eight Canadian
responsible for largest producer of jobs pertains
two thirds of sulfuric acid. to agriculture.
global phosphate
production.
95% of Canada’s potash is exported.
The majority of North
American phosphate-
containing materials are Three oceans border North America: the
made from wet process
phosphoric acid. Atlantic, the Arctic, and the Pacific.
CIMBRIA.COM
OPTIMIZE FILLING
DEGREE IN TRAIN
WAGONS AND
CONTAINERS
Cimbria Moduflex - the world’s leading supplier

of dustless loading systems for loading bulk
commodities – has bespoken solutions for loading
fertilizer, ammonium, salt and other corrosive
products into rail wagons, tanker trucks, contain-
ers, ships, and stockpiling.
Cimbria Moduflex loading chutes can be equipped
with a range of accessories, among others a FlexFill
which ensures a significant increase in filling degree.
BENEFITS
• Increased profit = short ROI
• Increased efficiency at the loading point
• Automation at the loading station
• Improved working environment
• Forefront with ”state-of-the-art” equipment
• Moduflex - a well proven concept
CIMBRIA UNIGRAIN A/S Phone: +45 96 17 90 00

Praestejorden 6 | DK-7700 Thisted E-mail: unigrain@cimbria.com
CONVEYING | DRYING | SEED PROCESSING | ELECTRONIC SORTING | STORAGE | TURNKEY | SERVICE

THE THRILL OF A PERFECT PRILL
Turnkey Design Worldwide Designed & 50 year
prilling capacities up Parts & Services manufactured in track record
installations to 4000 mT/d The Netherlands
Contact us at:
Koningin Wilhelminahaven ZZ 25, 3134 KG, Harbour No. 651
Vlaardingen, The Netherlands, +31 10 2480222, info@kreber.nl
www.kreber.nl

3327hd - Ludman Compaction PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3327hd - Ludman Compaction PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

3327hd - Ludman Compaction PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CONCEPT TO COMPLETION.

IT ALL BEGINS WITH MATRIX.

MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Matrix is a leader in construction, fabrication, repair and maintenance and offers

866 367 6879

866 367 6879 | matrixservicecompany.com

MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

CONTACT US TO FIND OUT HOW WE CAN ENHANCE YOUR PRODUCTS

Sandvik Process Systems

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 3

t hyssenkrupp has received a new order from state-owned

CANADA K+S Potash Canada celebrates Port Moody terminal opening

K +S Potash Canada (KSPC) and Paciﬁc Coast Terminals (PCT)

ARGENTINA PhosAgro considers DAP sales to Argentina

F ollowing the decision taken by Argentinian President

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 5

USA V ivakor Inc. has released a statement

6 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

• Large reductions in formaldehyde addition compared to

For more information visit:

The innovation & license company

USA Mosaic provides detail on impact of

8 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

The presence of Hydrogen in industrial plants is a source of damage.

Methane formed by the reaction ADVANTAGES OF HTHA INSPECTION:

For more information on HTHA detection please contact:

One Source for

10 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Achieve unprecedented improvements in

Put our 30 plus years of research & development

FIND OUT MORE.

14 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Veolia’s fertilizer industry experience ensures

Contact us for greenﬁeld projects, capacity

16 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

T significant growth in recent years, on

Sulfuric acid is also used in the chemical industries,

20 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

In today’s competitive syngas markets, the costs

22 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Studying the root causes of an efﬁciency drop

 Contamination of gauzes from the process gas.

According to the customer, the process parameters and plant

24 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

 Designing secondary catalyst and containment systems to

These services allow customers to have a single partner that

Increased N2O emissions

Minimising stack emission

28 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Maximising cycle length and ﬁghting

200 pressure drop

30 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Segmental tube in gas exchangers

Combining a gas exchanger and catalyst

34 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Welding plugs into your Waste Heat Boilers can

Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System

Maximize uptime by visiting cw-estgroup.com/wf09 today! EST Group

36 | WORLD FERTILIZER | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2017

Contamination of gauzes from the process gas.

Designing secondary catalyst and containment systems to

Producing hot water is significantly less

Compressing bulk glass fibre between two acid-resistant

Stripping ammonia gas from the wastewater.

Ammonium sulfate is a non-flammable substance, whereas