i¸

Skylab
A GUIDEBOOK
ii
Skylab
A GUIDEBOOK

by
LELAND F. BELEW

and

ERNST STUHLINGER

GEORGE C. MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price: $2.10, domestic postpaid; $1.75, GPO Bookstore
Stock Number 3300-00508
 pRECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FKLMED

Acknowledgments

This document describes the result of the work of several thousand

engineers and scientists who, over the last ten years, have conceived, designed,
developed, built, and tested Skylab, the most complicated space system in
the American space flight program so far. As we are completing our writing
just a few months before the launching of Skylab, we extend our apprecia-
tion and gratitude to all of those who have supported us in writing this
booklet. Members of many organizations at NASA Headquarters in Wash-
ington, at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, the Goddard Space Flight
(3enter, the John F. Kennedy Space Center, and the George C. Marshall
Space Flight Center have provided valuable advice and help. The Life
Sciences Directorate at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center and the Office
of Life Sciences at NASA Headquarters made substantial contributions to
the chapter on Life Sciences Projects. Dr. G .C. Bucher, M. I. Kent, and
R. M. Nicholson of the G. C. Marshall Space Flight Center were rspon-
sidle for organizing the material and composing most of the booklet in its
present form.

LELAND F. BELEW ERNST STUHLINGER

Manager, Skylab Program O_ice Associate Director for Science
MSFC, Huntsville, AL MSFC, Huntsville, AL
 pRECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FIL_

Preface

Skylab will be the first manned project in the space program of the
United States with the specific purpose of developing the utility of space
flight in order to expand and enhance man's wellbeing on Earth. Experi-
ments and observations will be carried out on Skylab in a number of
different areas, among them observations of the Earth, solar astronomy,
stellar astronomy, space physics, geophysics, biomedical studies, zero-gravity
biological studies, zero-gravity technology studies, and spacecraft
environment.
In all these areas, exciting observations and discoveries already have
been made during the brief history of space flight. However, Skylab will
offer decisive improvements over earlier space projects. It is an experi-
mental space station that will provide a comfortable shirts|eeve environ-
ment for its three-man astronaut-scientist crew. Three crews will occupy
Skylab in three shifts for periods of 28, 56, and 56 days. During Skylab's
eight-month operational lifetime, some instruments will work in automated
modes, transmitting their data directly to Earth or storing them on tapes
or film. Other instruments will be operated or monitored by the astronauts.
In these observations, man will contribute his unique capabilities for on-the-
spot judgment, decision-making, analyzing and interpreting unusual situa-
tions, recognizing unexpected developments, changing the course of an
experiment, selecting a new target of study, adjusting and reorienting instru-
ments, learning quickly from experience, adapting readily to new conditions,
and discussing his observations with specialists on the ground. These quali-
ties, so valuable to the scientist on Earth, will give the scientist in space
the power to advance research far beyond the limits set by the earthly
environment. The Skylab mission will utilize man as an engineer and as a
research scientist, and it will give him the opportunity of assessing his
potential capabilities for future space missions.
Skylab will have several distinct goals: to enrich our scientific knowledge
of the Earth, the Sun, the stars, and cosmic space; to study the effects of
weightlessness on living organisms, including man; to develop methods for
the processing and manufacturing of materials utilizing the absence of
gravity; and, in perhaps its most important objective, to develop means of
observing and monitoring the Earth's surface in support of earthly needs.
In addition, a program of student projects will be carried out on Skylab,
designed to stimulate interest in science and technology among high school
students. More than 3,400 boys and girls in secondary schools submitted
proposals for space experiments and demonstrations on Skylab; 19 of these
proposed experiments were selected to be carried out during the Skylab
missions.
vii
 With a total length of about 35 meters (117 ft.),1 Skylab has the size of
an average house. Its launch weight is 90,606 kilograms (199,750 lbs.).2
Skylab's orbital altitude will be 432 km (268 statute miles or 234 nautical
miles) ;3 it will orbit the Earth once every 93 minutes. With its relatively
steep orbital inclination of 50 degrees, it will be visible from the earth under
lighting conditions which prevail during several hours after sundown and
before sunrise, in all regions other than the Arctic and Antarctic. The orbital
trajectories of Skylab will sweep out an area which covers 75 percent of the
Earth's surface, 80 percent of its food-producing regions, and 90 percent of
its population.
Skylab will represent a milestone of paramount importance in the Ameri-
can space program. It may turn out to be the beginning of man's permanent
foothold and settlement in space. This booklet will give a brief overview of
Skylab, its history, its design, its operation, and its program of experiments
and observations.
Skylab is the most diversified and most complex orbiting spacecraft of the
U.S. space program so far; its potential returns in experience and knowledge
will be of decisive value to science, and they will help us in our effort to cope
with many of the problems which beset man's life on Earth.

i 1 meter=l m:3.28 ft:39.37 in.

2 1 kilogram: 1 kg:2.2 lb.
8 1 kilometer:l km:0.622 statute mile:O.54 nautical mile.

viii
Contents

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V

PREFACE VII

I. SCIENCE FROM ORBIT--AN INTRODUCTION TO SKYLAB ........ I

I. An Outpost in Space ................................ l
2. Operation Above the Earth's Atmosphere .............. 2
3. Zero-Gravity Environment ........................... 3
4. Broad View of the Earth's Surface .................... 3

II. HISTORY OF THE SKYLAB PROGRAM ...................... 6

III. PROFILE OF THE SKYLAB MISSION ....................... I1

I. Mission Objectives .................................. I1
2. Skylab Elements ................................... 14
3. Mission Plan ....................................... 18
4. Rescue Capabilities ................................. 24
5. Crew Activities ..................................... 28
6. Crew Training Program ............................. 36
7. Skylab Crew Members .............................. 41
8. Launch Preparations ................................ 55

IV. SKYLAB DESIGN AND OPERATION ......................... 61

I. Skylab Components ................................. 61
a. Orbital Workshop (OWS) ......................... 62
b. Instrument Unit (IU) ........................ •...... 68
c. Airlock Module (AM) ............................. 69
d. Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) .................. 70
e. Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) .................... 73
f. Command and Service Module (CSM) .............. 80
g. Integration, Testing, and Quality Assurance .......... 84
2. Skylab Operational Systems .......................... 88
a. Attitude and Pointing Control System ............... 89
b. Environmental Control System ..................... 98
c. Data and Communications Systems ................. 99
d. Crew Accommodations ............................ I03
e. Electric Power System ............................. 107

|x
 Page
V. RESEARCH PROGRAMS ON SKYLAB ........................ 114
1. Space Science Projects .............................. ll5
a. Solar Studies .................................... 115
b. Studies in Stellar Astronomy ...................... 135
c. Space Physics Studies ............................ 139
2. Earth Resources Experiment Program ................. 145
a. Photography .................................... 148
b. Infrared Observations ............................ 153
c. Microwave Studies ............................... 155
3. Life Sciences Projects ............................... 157
4. Space Technology Projects ........................... 185
a. Astronaut Tools and Equipment ................... 186
b. Materials Science and Manufacturing in Space ...... 187
c. Zero-Gravity Systems Studies ...................... 196
d. Spacecraft Environment .......................... 201
5. Skylab Student Project .............................. 210
6. Postflight Data Evaluation ........................... 218

VI. GROUND-BASED SUPPORTING PROJECTS ................... 220

1. Ground-Based Astronomy Program ................... 220
2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Sup-
port to ATM ...................................... 224
3. Earth Resources Ground Truth Activities .............. 226
4. Aircraft Underflight Support ......................... 226
VII. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ............................... 227

VIII. LISTING OF SKYLAB EXPERIMENTS ....................... 228

IX. RECORD OF MANNED SPACE FLIGHTS (UNOFFICIAL) ........ 233

X. BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 936

XI. GLOSSARY ............................................ 237

XII. ACRONYMS ........................................... 244

CHAPTER I

Science From Orbit--

An Introduction to Skylab

1. AN OUTPOST IN SPACE

"Unlimited vacuum of outer space and the absence of gravitational forces

in an orbiting satellite," said Professor Hermann Oberth 1 in 1993, "make
an Earth-circling spacecraft an ideal site for the observation of stars, the
Moon, the Sun, the planets, and particularly our Earth." Barely 35 years
later, these prophetic words began to transform into reality. Today, hundreds
of instruments already have observed the sky and the Earth from satellite
orbits. More than 80 astronauts and cosmonauts have seen our earth from
vantage points above the atmosphere and from as far away as the moon.
Impressive discoveries were made with unmanned probes and satellites;
among them X-rays from the sun and numerous other stellar objects; the
radiation belts around the Earth, the magnetosphere, 2 the solar wind, and
the geocorona, not to speak of the vast improvement of our capabilities for
meteorological and other Earth-oriented observations. Apollo proved the
usefulness and efficiency of man in space as a pilot and navigator, a tech-
nician, a troubleshooter, and particularly as an observer and a research
scientist.

Our first projects in space provided us with a harvest of scientific under-

standing and of technological experience beyond any expectations. The
value of the space program for the enrichment of life on Earth has become
manifest in three distinct ways: space flight presents a new frontier of
exploration; it opens the doors to a huge source of scientific knowledge; and
it offers direct help in many of our earthly needs. Early pioneers of space
flight, anticipating these benefits from Earth-orbiting outposts, have often
suggested that long-time stations in orbit be established. These stations
would be equipped with instruments to observe the sky and the Earth, with
receivers and transmitters for global communications, and with processing
machinery which utilizes the state of weightlessness; they would be manned
by astronauts who use, operate, and service the instruments with an efficiency
and a flexibility not attainable with automated equipment. An orbiting
station would operate for years, while its crew members would be rotated
every few weeks or months. As space flight began to evolve about 95 years
ago, interest and work concentrated at first on high altitude rocket probes,

1 Professor Hermann Oberth, Hungarian-born rocket expert and pioneer of space

flight, lives in Feucht, West Germany.
Scientific and technical terms are explained in the Glossary, page 237.
and then on small automated satellites. Plans for manned orbitin_ stations
had to wait. However, with Apollo, large Earth-to-orblt transportation sys-
tems and life support facilities were developed. Instruments for the observa-
tion of astronomical objects, of the space environment, and of the Earth
became available from numerous science and applications projects. Solar-
electric power supplies, communication equipment, data systems, and attitude
control systems were developed and operated from the early 1960's on. Con-
ditions for the development of a manned orbiting space station, therefore,
become favorable during the past decade, and plans for a first station in orbit
began to materialize early in the sixties. Project work was started a few years
later. Named "Skylab" in 1970, the first manned space station of the U.S. will
be ready for launch in May, 1973. In its large and comfortable interior, three-
man crews will conduct an exciting program of experiments and observa-
tions. Several of the experiments were developed by scientists in foreign
countries. NASA has invited world-wide participation in the analysis and
interpretation of Skylab data.

2. OPERATION ABOVE THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

The shell of atmospheric gases which surrounds the earth as a source of

oxygen and carbon dioxide for animals and plants, and as a protection against
the dangerous radiations and the temperature extremes of space, sets a
narrow limit to Earth-bound observations of celestial objects because it
allows only a small portion of the total wavelength spectrum to reach instru-
ments near the Earth's surface. The light-scattering effect of the atmosphere
generates a background in the viewing field of an Earth-bound telescope
which sets a lower limit of about the 24th magnitude to the star images which
can be recorded from Earth. Furthermore, even the finest telescopes on the
ground can provide only limited optical resolution because of the image-
blurring effect of the atmosphere. Telescopes outside the Earth's atmosphere
are not subject to these limitations. Several solar telescopes on Skylab will
view the sun with a clarity and resolution, and in ultraviolet and X-ray
regions of the spectrum, which would be impossible from the Earth's surface.
These observations will substantially increase our knowledge of the Sun, of
its mechanisms to convert and to transport ener_2¢ , of the violent outbursts
of radiations and particles in solar flares, of thc strange behavior of hot
plasmas, and of the many ways in which the Sun influences our weather,
our environment, and, in fact, our lives on Earth. Skylab's stellar cameras
will greatly expand the capabilities of Earth-based observatories by extending
the range of measurements far into the ultraviolet regions which are in-
accessible from Earth. Cosmic ray particles which would not be able to
penetrate the Earth's atmosphere will be recorded during Skylab's flight
with emulsion plates and plastic detectors; meteoritic particles will be col-
lected on ultra-clean surfaces. Special optical sensors will observe the air-
glow in the highest layers of the atmosphere, and also the "Gegenschein" 1
which is probably caused by a reflection of light from dust clouds orbiting
the Sun.

Faint glow in the night sky in a direction opposite to the Sun.

2
3. ZERO GRAVITY ENVIRONMENT

On an orbiting spacecraft, the force of gravity, omnipresent in our earthly

environment, is counteracted by centrifugal force. The resulting force is
exactly zero at the center of gravity of the spacecraft. At other points within
the spacecraft, the small resulting force varies between plus and minus about
one millionth of the Earth's gravitational force at the surface, depending
upon the distance and direction from the center of gravity.
The state of weightlessness on Skylab will be utilized by a number of
experiments which study the influence of gravitational forces in biological,
chemical, physical, and metallurgical processes. The cleavage of living cells
may be triggered by a density stratification caused by gravity; cell metabo-
lism may depend on gravitational forces; the content of minerals in the bone
structure of animals and man may be influenced by gravity; vestibular func-
tions, pressure distribution within the body, muscle tension, blood circula-
tion, perhaps even the function of endocrine glands should be expected to
depend on the force of gravity. The study of these functions under weight-
lessness will help our understanding of the mechanisms that govern many of
the processes in living organisms.
Gravitational forces cause stratification of liquids which contain compo-
nents of different densities. The desired mixing of certain alloys in the molten
state, or of chemical reagents, is often difficult or even impossible on the
Earth's surface because of this gravitational separation effect. Under condi-
tions of zero gravity, fluids can be maintained in a state of perfect mixing.
Even the mixing of liquid metals with gases, resulting in foams, can be
achieved; the production of foam metals with extreme strength-to-weight
ratios may be one of the future activities on orbiting space stations. The
growth of single crystals from solutions, likewise, is often perturbed by effects
attributable to gravity. These perturbing effects will not exist in orbiting
laboratories, and single crystals of high purity may be obtainable in much
larger sizes under weightlessness than on Earth. Such crystals are of great
importance in the manufacturing of semiconductor components for electronic
circuits.

4. BROAD VIEW OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE

Skylab will fly ovei: about 75 percent of the Earth's surface. Each of its
93-minute orbital tracks will be repeated every five days. Photographic,
infrared, and microwave equipment will provide pictures and measurements
of the terrain underneath the spacecraft. The decisive advantage of viewing
from a satellite orbit, rather than from airplane altitude, lies in the fact that
a satellite sees a large area on Earth at the same time and under the same
lighting conditions. Comparison of different parts of an area with regard to
cloud cover, plant growth, irrigation, land use, urban expansions, crop con-
ditions, natural resources, air pollution, water management, topographical
features, geological formations, and other surface properties will be much
easier with the "synoptic" 1 capability of a satellite. As an example, Figure 1

t "Synoptic" is the capabiliw of seeing several different things at the same time and
under the same conditions.
4
shows two pictures of the same surface feature, a huge volcanic structure in
Mauritania in Central Africa. The first picture (a) is a composite of numer-
ous photographs taken from an airplane; the second (b) was taken from a
satellite. The superiority of satellite pictures is obvious. This superiority is
further enhanced by the rapidity with which satellite pictures can be taken
and transmitted to Earth.
One of the picture-taking systems on the Earth Resources Technology
Satellite, launched in July, 1972, is capable of transmitting a photograph of
the Earth every 95 seconds, covering a square of 185 by 185 km (115 by 115
statute miles), with a resolution of about 30 meters (100 ft). One of the
Skylab cameras will cover squares of 109 km by 109 km (68 by 68 statute
miles) with a resolution of 11.5 meters (35 ft). Skylab, during its three
mission periods, will take almost 40,000 photographs with its several cameras.
In conjunction with aircraft and ground-based observations, these photo-
graphs will allow an analysis and assessment of man's interaction with his
environment unprecedented in previous studies.

5
CHAPTER II

History of the Skylab Program

From the beginning of the Apollo program, possibilities were considered

to use Saturn Apollo components for future missions and applications after
the lunar landings (Table 1).
During the early sixties, the Apollo Extensions Support Study identified
possible new or modified flight projects which could use launch vehicles

TABLE 1.--History o[ Skylab Program.

1960

STUDIES FOR APPLICATION OF APOLLO

1961 COMPONENTS TO OTHER PROJECTS

1962
CONCEPT OF APOLLO TELESCOPE MOUNT (ATM)
1963
BEGINNING OF INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT FOR ATM
1964

1965 APOLLO APPLICATIONS OFFICE ESTABLISHED

1966 "EXPERIMENT MODULE" WITH ATM

1967 "CLUSTER" CONCEPT

1968 "WET" WORKSHOP

APOLLO 11 LANDING ON MOON

1969
"DRY" WORKSHOP

1970 NAME "SKYLAB"

1971 DEVELOPMENT, FABRICATION, AND TESTING OF SKYLAB

1972

1973 SKYLAB LAUNCH

6
and spacecraft components developed for Apollo. One of the possibilities
considered at that time was the use of an Apollo Command and Service
Module (CSM) to carry an assembly of small solar telescopes into orbit,
to deploy and operate them on the Service Module with the assistance of
the astronauts, and to return the exposed films to Earth on board the Com-
mand Module (Fig. 3 ) . This assembly was named Apollo Telescope Mount
(ATM) in 1963. From these early efforts to extend the use of Apollo for
further applications, a permanent organization evolved. O n August 6, 1965,
the Apollo Applications Office was established at NASA Headquarters in
Washington, D.C. The Apollo Applications program was to include long
duration Earth orbital missions during which astronauts would carry out
scientific, technological, and engineering experiments. After completion
of the Apollo program, spacecraft and Saturn launch vehicles originally
developed for the lunar exploration program would be modified to pro-
vide the capability for crews to remain in orbit for extended periods of time.
As these studies progressed, plans for more elaborate observations of
the Sun with a group of solar telescopes mounted on Apollo-related space-
craft also developed further. A first schedule, established in March, 1966,
envisioned three Experimental Modules consisting of Saturn S-IVB spent
stages which would be converted to “Workshops,” and four Apollo Tele-
scope Mounts. The Saturn S-IVB stage serves as second stage of the Saturn
IB launch vehicle and also a third stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle.
According to these plans, a workshop in orbit would be installed in the
empty S-IVB stage. This stage would ascend into space as part of the
Saturn IB launch vehicle, carrying a manned Command and Service
Module. After the S-IVB stage had used up its fuel, the astronauts
in the CSM would dock with the stage and enter the stage’s hydrogen tank
through an airlock passageway. A number of biomedical experiments would
be performed in the Command Module on this mission. No crew quarters
were planned at that time in the S-IVB stage workshop; activities would

FIGURE3.-Early 1960’s concept of a telescope mount on the Command and Service

Module.

7
be limited to familiarization with moving about in a controlled and en-
closed environment under zero gravity. This concept of using the S-IVB
stage was the precursor of the present Skylab.
On July 7, 1966, NASA announced the establishment of new Apollo
Applications Program Offices at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
and the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. A new schedule, released
on December 5, 1966, called for launches of two Saturn IB vehicles about
one day apart; the first unmanned, the second manned. The astronauts
would make the S-IVB stage of the first vehicle habitable by installing
equipment and introducing a life-supporting atmosphere in the stage's
hydrogen tank so they could live and work there without the need for space
suits. The hydrogen tank would be equipped before launching with two
floors, some basic equipment, and an inner wall.
An Airlock Module (AM) would be attached to the S-IVB stage, and a
Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) would provide the attaching point for
the Command Module carrying the astronauts to the stage. The stage, the
Airlock Module, and the Multiple Docking Adapter constituted this first
concept of the Orbital Workshop.
This plan also introduced the "cluster concept" which envisioned ad-
ditional components to be attached to the Workshop. A modified Lunar
Module ascent stage (LM) of the kind that carried astronauts from the
Moon's surface in the Apollo Program and an Apollo Telescope Mount
(ATM) would be launched together on one vehicle. The LM would be the
control center for the ATM in orbit. This first launch would be followed
by a manned launch. Lunar ascent stage and ATM would be attached to
the Workshop at a docking port on the side of the Multiple Docking
Adapter. The Command and Service Module with the astronauts would
dock at the end of the docking port of the MDA.
This Workshop was called the "Wet Workshop" because the S-IVB
stage to be used for the Workshop would be launched "wet," that is, filled
with fuel to be consumed before reaching orbit. The empty hydrogen tank
would be purged of remaining fuel and then filled with a life-supporting
atmosphere.
In March, 1967, it was decided that the Orbital Workshop would have
solar panels to produce electric power. This increase in electric power
production was required as a result of astronauts living in the Wnrksbop,
Before this change was made, the Command and Service Module was
planned to provide the Workshop's power except for the Apollo Telescope
Mount which was to have its own solar-electric power supply.
Limited funds for the Apollo Applications Program led to a reduction
of the number of launches and the extension of launch dates further into
the future.

A major redirection of the Apollo Applications Program effort was

made on July 22, 1969, six days after the first lunar landing. NASA an-
nounced plans to launch the Workshop and an elaborate Apollo Telescope
Mount together on a two-stage Saturn V. The S-IVB (third) stage would
not carry any fuel (hence the term "Dry Workshop") but would be com-
pletely equipped on the ground as a habitable system to be entered by
the astronauts in orbit. This decision was aided by the successful lunar
landing which made Saturn V launch vehicles available for other purposes.

8
 Plans for two Saturn V launches with two Workshops and two ATMs,
and for seven Saturn IB launches, were announced in 1969. The first
Workshop launch was planned for July 1972.
The program was renamed on February 24, 1970, when the Apollo
Applications Program became the Skylab Program. The Skylab cluster
was to consist of the S-IVB Orbital Workshop, Airlock, Multiple Docking
Adapter, and Apollo Telescope Mount. Early in 1971, the planning date
for the launch was set for April 30, 1973.
The Skylab Program Office in the Office of Manned Space Flight in
NASA Headquarters is responsible for overall management of the pro-
gram (Fig. 4).T h e Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) at Huntsville,
Alabama, has responsibility for developing and integrating most of the
major components of the Skylab including the Orbital Workshop, Airlock
Module, Multiple Docking Adapter, Apollo Telescope Mount, Payload
Shroud, and most of the experiments. Further, MSFC has overall systems
engineering and integration responsibility to assure the compatibility and
integration of all system components for each flight. During and after the
Skylab mission operations, MSFC will provide support for launch and flight
operations. MSFC is also responsible for the Saturn IB and Saturn V launch
vehicles.
The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) at Houston, Texas, is
responsible for flight operations, recovery, crew selection and training,
assigned experiments, and development of the modified Command and
Service Modules and the Spacecraft Launch Adapter (SLA). I n addition,

FIGURE4.-Management responsibilities for Skylab Program

9
JSC developed crew systems, medical equipment, food, and other crew-
supporting components, and provided for stowage in the CSM of experi-
mental data and samples to be returned from orbit. JSC also is respon-
sible for overall mission analysis and evaluation, particularly from the
viewpoint of crew performance.
The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida is responsible
for launch facilities for all Skylab flights, checkout procedures, and the
planning and execution of launch operations, two of them within 24 hours.
Most of the design and manufacturing for Skylab was done by a large
number of industrial companies under contract either directly to NASA,
or as subcontractors to one of the major contractors. Fig. 5 shows the major
Skylab contracts managed by NASA Centers. However, an extremely close
cooperation between NASA, scientific investigators, and industry, extending
over all levels of the program structure, existed from the beginning of the
project. In fact, the work teams were so tightly integrated that it often would
have been difficult to differentiate within these teams between contractors,
NASA members, and university-type scientists as the project proceeded
from its early concepts through development, manufacturing, testing, final
assembly, and checkout.

10
CHAPTER III

Profile of the Skylab Mission

Planning and early design work for Skylab started at a time when Project
Mercury had ended and when the Gemini missions were beginning to
accumulate experience in manned space flight. As plans for the project
evolved during the 1960's, a number of other space projects of that period
provided flight experience, technical data, and scientific results that proved
most valuable for Skylab. In particular, the flights of the Apollo Program
helped shape the profile of the Skylab mission. More than any other space
flight project so far, Skylab encompasses a variety of mission elements of
considerable complexity, among them the longest periods of weightlessness
for the astronauts, the manned operation of a sophisticated solar observatory,
a series of engineering tasks, scientific experiments inside Skylab, observa-
tions of the Earth, and biomedical studies by and of the astronauts. More
than 270 different scientific and technical investigations will be supported
by Skylab during its eight-month lifetime. In this chapter, the broad objec-
tives of Skylab, the principal features of the huge spacecraft, and the basic
plan for mission operations will be described.

1. MISSION OBJECTIVES

Skylab has the prime purpose of making spaceflight useful for man's
endeavors on Earth. It will put knowledge, experience, and technical sys-
tems developed during the Apollo Program in service for a wide range of
scientific and technological disciplines. Elements of spaceflight systems which
have proven their capabilities on Apollo flights include propulsion systems,
space power sources, guidance and control systems, communications and
data systems, scientific sensors, life support system, Earth return capability,
and ground support equipment. Skylab, representing the next big step in
spaceflight development, has integrated these proven elements into a space
system whose purpose is the practical utilization of space flight for earthly
needs. These earthly needs cover a broad spectrum of human activities,
including the expansion of our scientific knowledge in physics and astronomy,
the study of our celestial environment, the production of new materials, the
observation and monitoring of the Earth's surface, and research on living
organisms, including man, under weightlessness.

11
 Design and operation of Skylab aims at the following objectives (Table 2) :

TABLE 2.--Major Objectives of Skylab.

Conduct Earth resources observations.

Advance scientific knowledge of the Sun and stars.

Study the processing of materials under weightlessness.

Better understand manned space flight capabilities and basic biomedical

processes.

• Conduct Earth resources observations.

Growth of the population and improvement of its average living standard

require a continuous increase of the efficiency and also the care with which
the resources of the Earth are being utilized. Agrarian productivity, harvest-
ing of timber, exploitation of new oil and mineral fields, urban and rural
growth, control of water resources, and other large scale interactions of man
with his environment will have to be observed, monitored, controlled, and
even actively managed in the future if we hope to maintain a decent living
standard for large portions of mankind. Comprehensive surveying on a global
scale, with very quick access to results, will be possible from orbiting stations.
Skylab will help us develop sensors for the observations and techniques for
data evaluation and distribution which, as tools for worldwide manage-
ment, will be indispensable for the orderly growth of mankind.

• Advance scientific knowledge of the Sun and stars.

Ancient astronomers used the Sun's motion to predict the seasons and
tell the best times for planting and harvesting. Their successors, modem
so!ar astronomers, seek to understand and ex-plain the remarkable phenoinena
within and around the Sun itself. While this is scientific research in its
purest form, there is also a strong awareness that better knowledge of solar
processes may lead the way to new means for generating and controlling
energy for use on Earth.
The Skylab solar investigations address that area of interest and also the
problem of explaining mechanisms by which solar events affect the Earth,
particularly by the streams of high energy particles associated with solar
flares. For example, it is assumed that these flares are responsible for the
auroras and the associated disruption of ionospheric radio transmission.
Since it is known that sunspot activity correlates with variations of tempera-
ture and density in the upper atmosphere, it is conceivable that the injection
of energy in the upper atmosphere by solar particles may trigger worldwide
weather phenomena as well.

12
 Thelaboratory in orbitoffersa uniqueopportunity toobserve phenomena
in the upper atmosphere, on the Sun, on other celestial bodies, and in the
space between them, because Skylab will not be surrounded by the atmos-
pheric filter that severely limits observational capabilities from the surface
of the Earth.

• Study the processing of materials under weightlessness.

Society's demands for more and greater technological capabilities fre-
quently lead to the limits imposed by existing materials. Fabrication of some
of these materials is impeded by the effects of Earth gravity. Examples
include large single crystals as needed in semiconductor technology, alloys
containing components of widely differing densities, and superconducting
materials with three or four dissimilar components. Exploration of the pos-
sibilities for producing such substances in an orbiting laboratory could lead
to future large-scale zero-gravity production facilities.

• Better understand manned space flight capabilities and basic bio-

medical processes.
Certain trends and directions of future space flight activities have become
evident. Man will use orbiting spacecraft because of their location above the
atmosphere, because of their state of weightlessness, and because of their
ability to see large portions of the Earth at one time. It is thinkable that future
spacecraft could also be used for production plants whose output of heat and
of polluting materials must be kept outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is also
possible that future spacecraft will be needed to convert solar energy into
useful electric energy for transmission to Earth. Undoubtedly, there will be
other uses of orbiting satellites of which we have no clear idea yet, perhaps
for therapeutical activities. For all these applications, there is a need to
know the capabilities, limitations, and usefulness of man to live and work in
space, and to act as a scientist, an engineer, a technician, an observer, a re-
pairman, an evaluator, a medical doctor, a routine worker, a cook, a pilot
and navigator, an explorer, a researcher, and simply as a crew member.
Will the human body, which has been accommodated to the gravity field
of the Earth ever since it has existed, readily adapt to life under weightless-
ness? Which instruments should be fully automated, and which should be
man-operated? There is also a need to learn how the data systems can com-
press the enormous amount of data expected from Earth sensors so that
only a selected portion need be transmitted to Earth stations. Man may have
to play an important role in this selection and compression of observational
data.
An orbiting laboratory offers a continuous state of weightlessness which
cannot be obtained on Earth. It is believed that gravity may possibly be of
influence in a number of biological and medical processes, such as the germi-
nation of seeds, the cleavage of cells, the growth of certain tissues, the regu-
lation of metabolic processes, the adaptation of acceleration sensors, the
control of cardiovascular functions, and perhaps the functioning of time
rhythms. Studying these processes under weightlessness will help us under-
stand their basic mechanism and some of the fundamental laws which
govern live organisms.

13
 I n many respects, experience gained with Skylab will have a decisive in-
fluence on the further structure and conduct of space flight.

2. SKYLAB ELEMENTS
Fig. 7 shows Skylab in orbit. Its largest element is the Orbital Workshop
(OWS), a cylindrical container of 15 meters (48 ft) length and 6.5 m (22
f t ) diameter. The basic structure of this OWS is the third stage, or S-IVB
stage, of the Saturn V which served as launch vehicle in the Apollo Program.

FIGURE7.-Skylab in orbit.

This stage has been modified internally to work as a large orbiting space
capsule rather than a propulsive stage. I n designing the OWS as a place
where a three-man crew can live and work for periods up to eight weeks,
emphasis had to be shifted from the spartan austerity of earlier spacecraft
to roomier, more comfortable accommodations.
Crew members will spend most of their time in the OWS, conducting
experiments, making observations, eating, sleeping, and attending to their
personal needs and wants.
Two further important elements are the Airlock Module ( A M ) (Fig. 8)
and the Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA), (Fig. 9 ) . The AM enables crew
members to make brief excursions outside Skylab as required for experiment
support. Separated from the Workshop and the MDA by doors, the AM can
be evacuated for egress or ingress of a space-suited astronaut through a side
hatch. Oxygen and nitrogen storage tanks needed for Skylab’s life support
system are mounted on the external trusswork of the AM. Major components
in the AM include Skylab’s electric power control and distribution station,
environmental control system, communications system, and data handling
and recording systems. The AM may be called the “nerve center” of Skylab.
14
 FIGURE
8.-Airlock Module ( A M ) .

FIGURE9.-Multiple Docking Adapter ( M D A ) .

15
 Forward of the AM is the Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) which pro-
vides docking facilities for the Command and Service Module ( C S M ) .
Under normal operations, the CSM will dock at the forward end of the
MDA (Fig. 10). I n case of an emergency, a side docking port can be used.
Two CSMs could even dock simultaneously, if the need should arise. Be-
sides providing mechanical support for the Apollo Telescope Mount, the
MDA also accommodates several experiment systems, among them the Earth
Resources Experiment Package (EREP) , the materials processing facility,
and the control and display console needed for ATM solar astronomy studies.
The CSM that serves as Skylab’s transportation system and communica-
tions center is an example of how Apollo-proven systems are used on Skylab.
Each of the three CSM’s to be used with Skylab has been modified to meet
specific requirements. A rescue kit has been developed for use if needed
which will enable a CSM to carry as many as five astronauts back to Earth.
The external experiment assembly known as the Apollo Telescope Mount
(ATM, Fig. 11) , contains eight complex astronomical instruments designed
to observe the Sun over a wide spectrum from visible light to X-rays. These
instruments, together with auxiliary equipment, have been integrated into
a common system as shown in Fig. 12. During launch, the ATM module
will be in an axial position, as shown in Fig. 13. As soon as Skylab reaches
orbit, the ATM and its windmill-like solar cell array that converts solar
energy to electric power for Skylab will be deployed, and Skylab will be
oriented so that ATM instruments and solar cell panels face the Sun-
The ATM control moment gyro system provides the primary attitude
control for Skylab. An independent pointing control system of limited angular
freedom will allow precise pointing of the solar astronomy experiments.

r
1

FIGURE10.-The Corpmand and Service Modulr ( C S M ) docked with Skylab. An

astronaut is performing Extravehicular Activity ( E V A ) a t the front end of the
Apollo Telescope Mount ( A T M ) .

16
 FIGURE11.-The Apollo Telescope Mount ( A T M ) .

FIGURE12.-Cross sections throuqh Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), showing

individual telescopes.
17
FIGURE13.-Apollo Telescope Mount ( A T M ) and other Skylab components in
launch confisuration on top of Saturn V.

3. .MISSION PLAN
Skylab, consisting of Orbital Workshop, Airlock Module, Multiple Dock-
ing Adapter, and Apollo Telescope Mount, will be launched as one unit
with a two-stage Saturn V launch vehicle (Fig. 1 4). After arrival in orbit,

FIGURE14.-Skylab, packaged for launch on top of Saturn V.

18
and after the maneuver of rotation and deployment, all systems will be
confirmed as operationally ready, by automated or by remotely controlled
actions. One day after Skylab launch, the first crew of three astronauts will
be launched in the Command and Service Module by a Saturn I B launch
vehicle. After docking with Skylab, the crew will check out and fully activate
all systems; Skylab will then be ready for its first operational period of 28
days (Fig. 15) . At the end of this period, the crew will return to Earth with
the CSM, and Skylab will continue some of its activities over a two-month
period of unmanned operation. Three months after the first crew launch,
the second three-man crew will be launched with the second Saturn IB,
this time for a 56-day period of manned operation. After return of the
second crew to Earth, Skylab will operate in its unmanned mode for a month.
The third three-man crew will then be launched with the third Saturn IB,
again for a 56-day period in orbit. Although Skylab will remain in orbit for
years after the third crew has returned, unmanned operation of Skylab will
continue only for a short time because some of the Skylab systems will reach
the end of their design lifetimes.
Total Skylab mission activities will cover a period of roughly eight
months. The distribution of manned and unmanned phases is shown in
Fig. 16. The initial step in the Skylab mission will be the launch of a
two-stage Saturn V booster, consisting of the S-1C first stage and the
S-I1 second stage, from Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center
in Florida (Fig. 1 7 ) . Its payload will be the unmanned Skylab, which
consists of the Orbital Workshop (OWS) , the Airlock Module ( A M ) , the
Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) , the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) ,
and an Instrument Unit ( I U ) .

FIGURE15.-Launch sequence of Skylab and three manned Command and Service

Modules (CSM).

19
 --_ ORKSHOP
FIRST LAUNCH
MANNED VISIT (ORBIT LAB)

r SECOND MANNED VISIT

28 _ i_=_i._ THIRD MANNED

DAYS VISIT
MANNED
DOUBLE 56
OUR DAYS
LONGEST MANNED
TIME
IN SPACE RE-DOUBLE 56
OUR DAYS
LONGEST MANNED
TIME
IN SPACE COMPLETE EXPERIMENTS
AND MISSIONS

[ 1 [ 2 1 3 [ 4 [ 5 ] 6 [ 7 [ 8 ]
MONTHS

FIGURE 16.--Manned and unmanned phases of the Skylab mission.

Skylab will be inserted into a near-circular orbit at an altitude of 432

km (268 statute miles or 234 nautical miles) with an orbital inclination
of 50 degrees to the Earth's equator (Fig. 18). Fig. 19 shows the Skylab,
with shroud in launch configuration shortly after separation from the
second stage of the Saturn V. After launch, the following events will
occur (Fig. 20):
Jettison of the Payload Shroud,
Deployment of the Apollo Telescope Mount,
Extension of the ATM solar arrays,
Rotation of the vehicle until the ATM solar arrays point at the sun,
Extension of the Orbital Workshop solar arrays,
Pressurization of the habitable areas to 34,000 Nm -2 (one-third of an
atmosphere, or 5 psi).1 The breathing gas consists of 74 percent oxygen
and 26 percent nitrogen (by volume).
About 24 hours after the Skylab launch, the manned CSM will be
launched with the three astronauts who will occupy Skylab for 28 days.
This launch, taking off from Launch Complex 39B, will use a Saturn
IB to boost the Command and Service Module (Fig. 21) with three
astronauts into an interim elliptical orbit with a perigee of 149 km (93
statute miles or 80 nautical miles), and an apogee of 223 km (138 statute
miles or 120 nautical miles). From this interim orbit, the CSM will use
the Service Module prolmlsion system to transfer to the Skylab orbit (432
km or 268 statute miles or'234 nautical miles) in order to rendezvous
with the spacecraft and to dock at the end port of the Multiple Docking
Adapter (Fig. 22). This docking will complete the Skylab cluster.

t l Newton per square meter=l Nm-=; 100,000 Nm-_=.987 atmosphere=14.5

pounds per square inch.

20
.c

FIGURE17.-Saturn V with Skylab on the launch tower.

21
 FIGURE18.-Coverage of a broad region on the earth’s surface by Skylab.

FIGURE19.-Separation of the Skylab (with shroud) from the second stage of the
Saturn V vehicle.

The astronaut crew will enter and activate Skylab for its manned mis-
sions. Only the essential elements of communications, instrumentation, and
thermal control systems of the CSM will remain in operation.
During the 28 days of the first manned mission, the astronaut crew
on Skylab will conduct experiment programs and evaluate the habita-
bility of Skylab (Fig. 2 3 ) . It is planned to obtain data from all but a few
experirnents during this mission. At the end of the 28-day period, the
astronaut crew will prepare the cluster for unmanned operation, transfer
to the CSM, and separate from Skylab. A deceleration maneuver, exe-

22
FIGURE20.-Launch and deployment phases of Skylab during the first mission day.

cuted by firing the Service Module engine, will cause the CSM to lose
velocity and reenter the atmosphere. Shortly before reentry, the Command
Module will separate from the Service Module and a little later will
descend by parachute to the Pacific recovery area (Fig. 24).
The second manned mission will start with another Saturn IB launch
from Complex 39B approximately 60 days after return of the first crew.
Orbit insertion, rendezvous, and docking procedures will follow the pattern
of the previous flight. Activities performed by the crew after transfer to
Skylab will be similar to those in the previous mission; however, more
emphasis will be placed on solar astronomy and Earth resources obser-
vations. The mission duration will be increased to 56 days, with recovery
again in the Pacific.
The third manned mission again will be launched from Launch Complex
39B about 30 days after the second crew has returned. I n this mission, also of
56 days, the Skylab experiment program will be continued, and additional
statistical data will be obtained on the crew’s adaptability and performance.
Recovery of the Command Module with crew and data will occur in the
mid-Pacific area.
Owing to its orbital inclination of 50 degrees, the trajectory of Skylab
sweeps over a large portion of the Earth‘s surface. Crew and instruments on
Skylab will be able to see about 75 percent of the Earth, including all of
Africa, China, and .\ustralia, almost all of South .4merica, most of North
‘Imerica, and much of Europe and northern i\sia. The pattern of ground
tracks, illustrated in Figs. 25 and 26, will repeat itself every five days. .At least
one ground tracking station will be overflown during each orbit. However,
there are periods up to about an hour’s duration on each orbit during which
Skylab ivill not be Lvithin radio or telemetry reach of a n y station. During

23
FIGURE21.-Saturn IB with the manned Command and Service Module (CSM) on
the launch tower.

these periods, voice and data will be recorded on tape for quick replay and
transmission while Skylab is in contact with one of the ground stations.
A more detailed description of the data and communication system will be
given in Chapter IV.2.c.
Unique in the Skylab Program is the ability to rescue astronauts in space,
if the need should arise. This rescue capability exists because the Orbital
Workshop offers long-duration life support in Earth orbit. The Skylab rescue
capability is described in the next section.

4. RESCUE CAPABILITIES
The Skylab Program includes the capability to rescue astronauts under
certain circumstances.

24
FIGURE22.-Phases
of launch rendezvous and desking of the Command and Service
Module (CSM) with the orbiting Skylab during the second day of the Skylab
mission.

FIGURE23.-Major program phases of Skylab during its entire mission.

25
FIGURE24.-Undocking, deorbiting, separation, reentry, and splashdown of the
Command and Service Module (CSM) during the last day of the first manned
mission.

During each of the three Skylab visits, the astronauts will be transported
to and from the orbiting cluster in a modified Apollo Command and Service
Module. After docking the Skylab activation, the CSM will be powered
down, but it will remain available for life support and normal crew return.
I t always will be ready for quick occupation by the astronauts in the event
of a serious failure in the cluster.
The Skylab cluster’s ample supplies and long-duration life support capa-
bility make it possible to rescue the astronauts in the event that the CSM
which brought them up to the cluster becomes unuseable for recovery.
Therefore, the only failures to be considered for rescue requirements are loss
of CSM return capability or loss of accessibility to the CSM. I n either of
thse events, a second CShl would be launched with two men on board and
with room for the three astronauts to be picked up in orbit. The rescue CSM
would then return with five crew members.
How long the Skylab astronauts would have to wait for rescue would
depend on the time during the mission schedule when the emergency devel-
ops. The waiting time could vary from 10 to 48 days.
The three manned launches in the Skylab Program will be about 90 days
apart. After each of the first two manned launches, the next vehicle in
normal preparation for launch would be used for rescue, if needed. After the
third and final manned launch, the Skylab backup vehicle will be kept ready
for possible use as a rescue spacecraft.
If the need for rescue arose on the first day of Skylab’s occupancy or re-
occupancy, present work schedules indicate that it would take 48 days for
the launch crews to ready the rescue launch vehicle and spacecraft. This time
includes 22 days which would be required to refurbish the launch tower at
Pad €3 of Complex 39 following the previous launch. During this period, the
specially-developed Command Module rescue kit would be installed, a task
which would take only about eight hours.
26
 TYPICAL SKYLAB GROUNDTRACK
REVOLUTIONS 57 THRU 63

90 100 120 140 160 E 180W 160 140 120 10(3 80 60 20 WOE 20 40 60 80 90
I J

' _ _Y- I _ I • -- 80

_.._._b7_ I/'O ,\ X_l" _P I/ _ _" I"_

_ 40
N •

68 _ _ _ 60
70 _ • 70

90 100 120 140 160 E 180W 160 140 120 100 80 60 48 20 W8 E 20 40 60 80 90

LONGITUDE (DEG) • GROUND STATIONS I

• VANGUARD SHIP
I
TYPICAL SKYLAB GROUNDTRACK
REVOLUTIONS 64 THRU lO

90 100 120 140 160 E 180W 160 140 120 100 80 60 20 W 0 E 20 40 60 80 90

, !" .\-X'x : /o

60 60

0 1 160 E 180W 160 140 120 100 80 60 48 20 W 0 E 20 40 60 80 _O

LONGITUDE (DEG) .
b

• GROUND STATIONS I

• VANGUARD SHIP
I
FIGURES 25 & 26.--Ground tracks of Skylab during selected days of its mission.

27
 The later during a mission the need for rescue arises, the sooner the rescue
vehicle could be made ready for launch. Launch readiness time will be re-
duced to 98 days at the end of the first manned visit and to 10 days at the
end of the third mission.
To convert the standard CSM to a rescue vehicle, the storage lockers would
be removed and replaced with two crew couches to accommodate a total of
five crewmen. (Fig. 27.)
Prior to rescue, the stranded Skylab crew members would don pressure
suits and enter the Multiple Docking Adapter, seal it off from the remainder
of the cluster, and depressurize it. Then they would install a special spring-
loaded device to separate the disabled CSM from the axial port of the MDA
at sufficient velocity to move it out of the way of the arriving rescue GSM.
However, this is not absolutely necessary. The arriving CSM could also dock
at the radial (side) docking port of the MDA. In this position, which is a
contingency mode, limited but sufficient stay time would be available for full
rescue operations.
Providing rescue modes for all conceivable emergency situations would
require instantaneous rescue response, a capability not feasible with present
space vehicles because of elaborate launch preparations. Faster response
must await a new generation of space transportation systems such as the
Space Shuttle. However, the planned rescue techniques for Skylab will
cover the most likely emergency situations, adding a new dimension of
flexibility and safety to manned space flight.

5. CREW ACTIVITIES

During each of the manned periods, a typical crew day consists of eight
hours per crewman for experiment activities; eight hours for eating, personal

FIOURE 27.--Command Module, modified for rescue operations by removal of storage

lockers, occupied by five astronauts.

28
hygiene, systems housekeeping, mission planning, and off-duty functions ;
and eight hours for sleeping (Fig. 28 and 29). As a rule, the three crewmen
will sleep during the same period of eight hours when all the functions
on board Skylab will be automatic. During eating and off-duty periods,
crewmen may slightly shift their activities in such a way that one member
of the crew is always available for Sun viewing at the ATM console. Planned
schedules for operation of the experiments during the first manned mission
are illustrated in Fig. 30.
Some experiments will be operative continuously, others will operate on
several or all days for limited periods, and still others will have only one
short period of operation during a mission.
Upon rendezvous and docking with Skylab, the astronaut crews will be
primarily concerned with the following activities :
Activating, operating, and monitoring Skylab systems ;
Conducting numerous experiments in the medical, scientific, engineer-
ing, technology, and earth resources categories;

FIGURE28.-Astronaut activities during a typical 24-hour period.

29
 Conducting Extravehicular Activities (EVA) ;
Personal activities.
These activities are discussed in detail in following paragraphs.

Activating, Operating, and Monitoring Skylab Systems

Individual actions of the astronauts during the activation period of Mul-

tiple Docking Adapter, Airlock Module, and Workshop after the CSM
has docked at the axial port of the MDA are listed on the Manned Activa-
tion Schedule, Table 3. A similar schedule exists for deactivation of the
cluster shortly before the end of the 28-day period of occupation. The
activation and deactivation schedules for the other two manned periods
resemble those for the first manned period.
An important function of the astronaut crew is to monitor the following
subsystems and their functions on Skylab: attitude control, electric power,
environment and thermal control, and instrumentation and communications.
These subsystems are discussed in detail in Chapter IV-2.

Operating the Experiments

The main floor of the Orbital Workshop includes an experimental work

area immediately adjacent to the wardroom (Fig. 32). Primary medical
experiments to assess the manner in which the astronauts are adjusting to
spaceflight will be conducted in this area. To support these experiments,

GREENWICH
MEAN TIME

HOURS liD0 )200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300

I I

EXP
COMMANDER PH EAT X S/HK 15 EXP
P EXP PH

ENIOR PILOT PH EAT x_EAT X S/HK 1.5 X PD EXP

EXP EXP _

(FLOATING)

HOURS 2300 2400 0100 0200 0S0O 0400 6500 0600 0700 0000 0900 1000 1100

r
E MISSION 0EE SLEEP
COMMANDER EAT f r OUTY" i PH I !_ I
X PLANNING

E M_;_'<'! :'_)FF e SLEEP

SENIOR PILOT EAT ix _ PH X
PLANNING _UT_ p

PILOT EAT MISSION _0FF _ PH E

X PLANNING _DUTY 0.9 SLEEP
1.0

.LEGEND:

PH PERSONAL HYGIENE

S/HK SYSTEMS HOUSEKEEPING

EXP EXPEfflMENT ACTIVITIES (24 HR TOTAL)

,_ ONLY TWO CREWMEN EAT AT ONE TIME

_'_ _, WILL BE DELETED ON ONE CREWMAN TO INCREASE ATM VIEWING TIME

FIGURE 29. Schedule of activities for the three astronauts during a typical day of
the Skylab mission.

3O
 TABLE 3.--Manned Activation Schedule: First Manned Period

Time--day,
hour, minute Action

01:07:29 ........ Dock CSM to axial port of MDA (reference).

Activate CM/_VIDA docking tunnel (30 min):
Turn on CM tunnel lights.
Verify integrity of CM/MDA docking tunnel pressure seal.
Open CM forward hatch pressure equalization valve.
Verify CM docking tunnel pressure.
Open & stow CM forward hatch.
Verify that docking latches are secure.
Change attitude & pointing control system control gains to
docked configuration.
Remove & stow docking probe drogue.
01:07:59 ........ Crew Functions (eating, sleeping, personal hygiene, etc--ll hr
30 rain).
01:19:29 ........ Activate MDA/AM (2 hr):
Verify MDA/AM pressure/temperature.
Open & secure MDA hatch.
Close MDA hatch pressure equalization valve/pressure cap.
Turn on MDA interior lights.
Cap MDA vent line.
Turn on molecular sieve fans; A primary, B secondary.
Perform MDA initial entry inspection.
Activate MDA window frame heater & thermally condition film.
Turn on STS forward & aft floodlights.
Perform STS/forward AM initial entry inspection.
Turn on MDA/AM and MDA area fans.
Activate STS controls and displays console.
Turn on AM duct fan.
Connect CM/MDA signal/electrical Power system umbilical in
MDA tunnel.
Transfer single-point ground from AM to CSM.
Activate and check out caution and warning system.
Complete CM/SWS signal transfer circuits.
Activate and check out MDA/AM speaker intercoms.
Switch AM coolant system from ground to manual control.
Install MDA environmental control system air interchange duet
in CM.
Turn on CM duct fans.
Switch AM/MDA heater from ground to manual control.
Turn off OWS radiant heaters.
Activate MDA/AM environmental control system.
Activate ATM controls and displays console/earth resources
experiment package cooling system.
Begin initial activation of ATM controls and displays console.
Verify matching of CM/SWS power systems.
Begin final activation of ATM controls and displays console.
Verify that differential pressure across forward AM hatch is
0.0 psid.
Open forward AM hatch.
Turn on AM lock compartment lights.
Engage EVA hatch handle retainer pin.
Verify that differential pressure across aft AM hatch is 0.0 psid.
Open Aft AM hatch.
Turn on Aft AM & OWS initial entry lights.
Position OWS heat exchanger fan switches to OWS position.

31
TABLE
3.---Manned
Activation Schedule: First Manned Period--Continued

Time--day,
hour, minute Action

01:21:29 ........ Activate OWS (1 hr 30 min):

Verify OWS pressure.
Open OWS hatch pressure equalization valve.
Open OWS quick-opening hatch and lock in open position.
Cap OWS pneumatic and solenoid vent valve lines.
Perform OWS initial entry inspection.
Activate and check out speaker intercom station.
Connect flexible duct from AM to OWS.
Install OWS fireman's pole.
Divert air flow from MDA to OWS.
Activate OWS duct fans.
Activate OWS controls and displays console.
Cheek out OWS caution and warning system.
Activate OWS thermal control system.
Release fire extinguisher from launch restraints.
Deactivate humidity control in OWS film vault.
Turn off OWS initial entry lights.
Transfer equipment from CM to OWS.
01:22:59 ........ Begin activation of OWS habitation support system (30 rain).
Inspect wardroom and sleep/waste management compartments.
Activate OWS wardroom window heater .
Activate waste management system.
Activate food management system.
01:23:29 ........ Crew functions (lunch, personal hygiene--I hr 30 rain).
02:00:59 ........ Complete activation of OWS habitation support system (1 hr 5 rain).
Activate water system.
Check out trash disposal airlock.
Verify that contents are in stowage containers.
Activate and check out vacuum cleaner.
Permanently stow docking probe and drogue in MDA.
02:02:04 ........ Begin initial setup and checkout of experiments (2 hr 25 min).
02:04:29 ........ Crew functions (eating, personal hygiene--1 hr).
02:05:29 ........ Complete experiment setup/checkout (3 hr).
02:08:29 ........ Crew functions (personal hygiene thru 8 hr sleep--9 hr).
02:17:29 ........ End manned activation (begin first on-orbit typical crew day).

$2
FIGURE 30.--Schedule showing time allocations for Skylab experiments during first
manned mission.

the astronauts will utilize such major equipment as the Lower Body Negative
Pressure Device; Ergometer and Vectorcardiogram for cardiovascular ex-
periments; Metabolic Analyzer for the pulmonary experiment, which also
uses the Ergometer; the Rotating Chair for the vestibular (neurophysiology)
experiment; and the Experiment Support System which supports several
medical experiments with displays, data handling, controls, and power
supplies. These experiments are further described in Chapter V-3.
Scientific experiments will feature observations of the Sun with the
Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM). This solar observatory has several tele-
scopes for studies of the Sun over a wide range of the spectrum. Astronauts
will, through onboard displays, visually scan the Sun to locate targets of
scientific interest (Fig. 33). They will assist in the alignment and calibration
of the instruments, point them to the appropriate targets, make judgments
of operating modes, and generally conduct a comprehensive program of
solar investigation. The crew is to compensate as much as possible for any
equipment failure to preserve the value of the ATM's scientific returns.
Crew members will retrieve, through extravehicular activity, the photo-
graphic films on which solar data will be recorded.
Skylab's Earth Resources Observations will permit simultaneous remote
sensing from orbital altitudes in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral
regions. Data thus obtained will be correlated with information obtained
simultaneously about some of the same sites from aircraft and by ground

33
FIGURE32.-Work area for medical experiments within Orbiting Workshop (OWS).

FIGURE33.-Control and display console for astronaut operation of the Apollo

Telescope Mount.

34
measurements. The astronauts will acquire preselected primary or alternate
targets, operate equipment associated with the Earth Resources Experiment
Package (EREP) such as sensors and cameras, and supply and retrieve film
from the Earth Terrain Camera. Another major function of the crew will
involve coordination with ground-based activities and Mission Control to
update EREP operations.
The technological experiments will also be conducted in the MDA. I n
most instances, the involvement of man is a critical element in the success-
ful accomplishment of these technological experiments. Data from these
studies are extremely important in the development of future space projects
for the conduct of scientific experimentation.

Extravehicular Activity (EVA)

The Extravehicular Activity performed by the astronauts is concerned
primarily with changing cameras and film magazines on the solar telescopes,
but samples also will be retrieved from the DO24 experiment (Thermal
Control Coatings, Chapter V-4-d and VIII). Each EVA excursion will
last up to three hours from start of egress (leaving Skylab) to completion
of ingress (entering Skylab). One EVA of three hours duration is planned
during the first mission on Day 26 for the Thermal Control Coatings Experi-
ment DO24 and for ATM film change. Three EVA’S for ATM film change
will be achieved during the second mission and two EVA4’sfor ATM film
removal during the third mission (Fig. 34).
Two crewmen will don their space suits for each EVA. One of them will
execute the outside activities, while the other one will stand ready to help,

FIGURE
34.-Astronaut retrieving film during Extravehicular Activity (EVA)

35
 if needed. The third astronaut will stay in the Airlock Module during
EVA where he will perform monitoring and housekeeping activities.

Personal Activities

To provide entertainment and recreation for the astronaut crew mem-

bers during their off-duty hours, the following items are furnished: audio
equipment, playing cards, library, dart game, exercise equipment, binocu-
lars, and balls. This equipment is described in the following paragraphs.
Audio Entertainment Equipment.--A permanently located tape player
provides monaural or stereophonic playback of prerecorded tape cassettes
through speakers or headsets. For individual use, headsets with head-phone
plugs are available along with headset earpieces for connection to the tape
player. Forty-eight cassettes of either stereophonic or monaural prerecorded
material selected by the crews are provided.
Playing Cards Equipment.--Four decks of standard playing cards are
provided along with five card deck retainers and five card retainers to
permit card playing under zero gravity. The retainers hold the cards in
place as a deck (card deck retainer), or individually for player use (card
retainers). Cards are played normally at the food table with the table top
in place. The retainers are held to the table top by magnets.
Library.--Approximately 36 crew-selected paperback books compose
the library.
Dart Throwing Equipment.--Twelve darts and a dart board are stowed
on Skylab. The board has Velcro hooks on the back for placement at any
convenient Velcro location in the OWS. The target side of the dart board
has Velcro pile superimposed on a standard target face. Each dart is a
standard dart with Velcro hooks substituted for the pointed shaft.
Exercise Equipment.--A stationary bicycle exercise machine will be on
board (Fig. 35). In addition, each crew member will be provided with
an isometric exerciser for in-flight exercising. Six hand exercisers, shaped
to fit the hand, are also used to maintain grip strength.
Binoculars.--A pair of center-focus binoculars is also available.
Game Balls.--Three plastic-covered foam balls are furnished for
recreation.
In addition to recreational activities, personal activities include sleep-
ing, eating, and personal hygiene. These topics are discussed in detail in
Chapter IV-2-d on Crew Accommodations.

6. CREW TRAINING 'PROGRAM

Success of a manned mission largely depends upon the astronauts' ability

to perform their assigned functions properly and effectively. In a mission
as complex as Skylab, thorough crew training is essential so that the astro-
nauts can perform their many experiments and their housekeeping duties
within the limited time of their missions, and even can respond to emer-
gencies if and when these should arise.

36
 FIGURE35.-Astronaut training on the wheelless bicycle (Ergometer) within
Workshop.

Primary and backup crews for all Skylab missions have received identical
training. If a need should arise for crew replacement, substitutions can
be made for a total crew or on an individual basis with minimum delay.
Obviously, crew training is an indispensable factor in assuring the success
of a mission.
Over 2,000 hours of formally scheduled training are required to develop
the crews’ operational and scientific abilities. This is equivalent to the
classroom hours needed for a four-year college degree. These hours do
not include the time of training-related activities for which a record cannot
be readily established, such as study, physical exercise, informal briefings,
and aircraft proficiency flying.

, 37
 Manyareasmustbecovered in training:theSaturnIB launchvehicle
system anditsfunctions; operation of thespacecraft,includingtheOrbital
Workshop andall theexperiments; medicaltrainingforthosepossible com-
plications thatcanbediagnosed andtreatedin orbit; photography; mov-
ingoutsidetheSkylab(EVA,Extravehicular Activity)andinsidetheSky-
lab (IVA, IntravehicularActivity) underthe weightlessness of space;
spacecraft fire training;inflight maintenance of Skylabsystems; plane-
tariumtrainingfor starfields,constellations, andspecific celestialobjects
needed for navigation andfor certainexperiments; Skylabrescue opera-
tions;andmodesof leavingthe spacecraft underall preflight,inflight,
andpostflightordinaryandemergency situations
on the launchcomplex,
in flight, andin the water.
Theastronauts receivedtheirtraininginfourways. First,theyparticipated
in numerous spacecraftandexperiment testsconductedto insurefaultless
performance ofallsystems.
Thisparticipation gavethecrews valuableoperat-
ing experience. Second, briefings on all Skylab systems were given to the
astronauts in the form of lectures and demonstrations. Third, crew mem-
bers participated in many of the reviews held during the development, manu-
facturing, and testing of Skylab components. On numerous occasions,
astronauts suggested modifications of equipment and instruments which
led to changes in the design of these components. The astronauts also took
part in activities to develop operating procedures for instruments and sys-
tems. Fourth, the crews underwent systematic operational training, using
training models and facilities, to learn how to perform all operational tasks,
routine and emergency (Fig. 36).
Specially built simulators or trainers were used in many of these activities;
by simulating major systems or components of Skylab, these training facili-
ties enabled the crew members to practice operating procedures on earth
(Fig. 37). A significant part of all crew training was done in these trainers.

The simulators included:

the Command Module Simulator which can simulate all the maneuvers
of the actual Command Module;
the Skylab Simulator which was designed to provide systems and proce-
dures training for Workshop functions;
the Command Module Procedures Simulator which was used primarily
to develop skill in rendezvous and entry procedures;
the Dynamic Crew Procedures Simulator which supplemented the use
of the Command Module Procedures Simulator and enabled the crews
to practice launches and launch aborts.

Mock-ups, representing full-scale models of flight components, were con-

structed to establish or show dimensions and space requirements. These
mock-ups, or trainers, were built from inexpensive materials; they usu-
ally did not contain operating subsystems. Among other purposes, mock-ups
served the general familiarization of astronauts with Skylab components
before the crews began simulator training. Skylab mock-ups included the
Command Module Trainer, Multiple Docking Adapter Trainer, Airlock
Module Trainer, and Orbital Workshop Trainer. (Fig. 38, 39, 40).
 FIGURE36.-Astronauts training in Skylab mockup.

Training for extravehicular activities and some intravehicular activities

was performed to prepare the crew members for such tasks as leaving Sky-
lab in the weightlessness of space in order to exchange film magazines in the
cameras associated with ATM solar studies. Part of this training was carried
out in airplanes of the KC-135 type which can generate a state of true
weightlessness for periods u p to about 30 seconds by flying through parabolic
trajectories. Zero-gravity flights of this kind enabled crew members to prac-
tice such activities as eating and drinking, maneuvering, and tumble and
spin recovery under weightless conditions.
Skylab crew members also trained in a simulated zero-gravity environ-
ment offered by the Neutral Buoyancy Space Simulator at the Marshall
Space Flight Center (Fig. 41). This simulator is a water tank, 12 meters
(40 f t ) deep and 22.5 meters (75 f t ) in diameter, containing wire mesh
mock-ups of Skylab modules (Fig. 42). Full-size replicas of all four major
elements of the Skylab cluster-the Workshop, the ATM, the MDA, and
the Airlock-were submerged in the tank. Inside the tank, the astronauts
wore pressurized space suits so weighted that they remained suspended in a
relatively stable position, neither rising to the surface nor sinking to the bot-
tom (Fig. 43, 44, and 45). Suspended in this “neutral buoyancy” condition,
39
 FIGURE37.-Main floor Skylab Workshop mackup for training purposes.

FIGURE
38.-Astronauts having meal at the food table in the wardroom trainer.

40
 FIGURE39.-Workshop Trainer with biomedical equipment.

the astronauts experienced some of the characteristic features of weightless-

ness, although neutral buoyancy provides, of course, only a limited simula-
tion of true weightlessness in space. In this watery environment, the
astronauts rehearsed many routine and some special tasks of the mission,
particularly activities outside the Workshop.
The Skylab training program began with background training around
November 1970. It provided general information and orientation on space-
craft systems and experiments, participation in spacecraft testing, reviews
of flight plans and procedures, and training in solar physics.
Special training began in January 1972, for individual activities such as
experiment operation, simulation of certain specific elements of the flight
mission, and extravehicular and intravehicular activity training. Integrated
crew training began with simulators and trainers around February, 1972,
giving the astronauts and the flight controllers experience in flight and orbital
operations. Finally, integrated mission team training began in November,
1972, to train each astronaut-controller team, and to give each astronaut
experience in working together with the rest of the team. I n this phase of
training, the mission simulators were linked with the Mission Control Center,
thus simulating the conditions of an actual mission.

7. SKYLAB CREW MEMBERS

Crews for Skylab were selected from the astronaut team, a group of men
who are highly trained in many areas related to space flight (Fig 46). Addi-
tionally, Skylab crew members have received special training in all Skylab
operations.

41
 f.

FIGURE40.-Astronaut training on the body mass weighing device in the Workshop

trainer.

42
FIGURE41.-View of the large water tank at the George C. Marshall Space Flight
Center with a submerged Skylab mockup, used as a neutral buoyancy simulator.

43
FIGURE42.-Full-size wire mesh mockup of Multiple Docking Adapter, used inside
the water tank for neutral buoyancy training exercises.

44
 FIGURE43.-Two astronauts in space suits and a supporting diver during neutral
buoyancy training exercises in water tank.

I 45
FIGURE44.-Astronaut within Multiple Docking Adapter mockup during neutral
buoyancy training exercises in water tank.

46
FIGURE45.-Astronaut exchanging film camera during simulated Extravehicular
Activity (EVA) under neutral buoyancy in water tank.

FIGURE
46.-Prime crewmen for the three manned Skylab missions.

47
 There are three manned missions in the Skylab program. The first, be-
ginning in May 1973, is a 28-day mission. Crew members for this mission
are :

Charles Conrad, Jr., Commander (Fig. 47)

Dr. Joseph P. Kerwin, Science Pilot (Fig. 48)
Paul J. Weitz, Pilot (F_g. 49)

Backup crew:

Russell L. Schweickart, Commander (Fig. 50)

Dr. Story Musgrave, Science Pilot (Fig. 51 )
Bruce McCandless II, Pilot (Fig. 52)

The second manned mission will begin in August 1973. This will be a
56-day mission. Crew members are:

Alan L. Bean, Commander (Fig. 53)

Dr. Owen K. Garriott, Science Pilot (Fig. 54)
Jack R. Lousma, Pilot (Fig. 55)

The backup crew, which also serves as backup crew for the third manned
mission, consists of:

Vance D. Brand, Commander (Fig. 56)

Dr. William E. Lenoir, Science Pilot (Fig. 57)
Dr. Don L. Lind, Pilot (Fig. 58)

Crew members for the third manned mission, also a 56-day mission, are:

Gerald P. Carr, Commander (Fig. 59)

Dr. Edward G. Gibson, Science Pilot (Fig. 60)
William R. Pogue, Pilot (Fig. 61 )

48
FIGURE47.-Charles Conrad, Jr. FIGURE
48.-Joseph P. Kerwin.

FIGURE
49.-Paul J. Weitz. 50.-Russell L. Schweickart.
FIGURE

49
FIGURE
51.-Story Musgrave. FIGURE
52.-Bruce McCandless.

FIGURE
53.-Alan L. Bean. FIGURE
54.-Owen K . Garriott.

50
 ’ .
I
FIGURE
55.-Jack R. Lousma. FIGURE
56.-Vance D. Brand.

FIGURE
57.-William B. Lenoir. 58.-Don
FIGURE L. Lind.

51
FIGURE
59.-Gerald P. Carr. FIGURE
60.-Edward G. Gibson.

FIGURE
61.-William R. Pogue.

52
First Skylab Mission

Charles (Pete) Conrad (Fig. 47) flew on Gemini 5 and 11 and on Apollo
12, the second manned lunar landing mission, for a total of 506 hours of space
flight. He holds the rank of Captain in the U.S. Navy. He received a Bachelor
of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Princeton University
in 1953; a Master of Arts degree from Princeton in 1966; an honorary
Doctor of Laws degree from Lincoln-Wesleyan in 1970; and an honorary
Doctor of Science degree from Kings College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania,
in 1971. He was born on June 2, 1930, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
This first Skylab mission will be the first flight in space for Dr. Joseph P.
Kerwin (Fig. 48), a Commander in the Navy Medical Corps. He received
a Bachelor of Arts degree in Philosophy from the College of the Holy Cross,
Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1953, and a Doctor of Medicine degree from
Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois, in 1957. He
served also as a naval aviator, earning his pilot's wings at Beeville, Texas, in
1962. He was born in Oak Park, Illinois, February 19, 1932.
The third crew member of Skylab's first manned mission, Paul J. Weitz
(Fig. 49), is also a Commander in the U.S. Navy. As a naval aviator, he
received five awards of the Air Medal and the Navy Commendation Medal
for combat flights in the Vietnam area. He received a Bachelor of Science
degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Pennsylvania State University in
1954 and a Master's degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the U.S.
Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, in 1964. He was born
in Erie, Pennsylvania, on July 25, 1932. He has not flown in space before.

Backup Crew, First Manned Mission

Russell L. (Rusty) Schweickart (Fig. 50) served as the lunar module

pilot on Apollo 9, March 3-13, 1969. This was the third manned flight in
the Apollo series, the second to be launched by a Saturn V, and the first
manned flight of the lunar module. Although he served as a pilot in the
U.S. Air Force from 1956 to 1960 and was recalled to active duty for a
year in 1961, he is not now a member of the military forces. Before joining
NASA in 1963, he was a research scientist at the Experimental Astronomy
Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He re-
ceived a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in 1956
and a Master of Science degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics in 1963
from MIT. He was born October 25, 1935, in Neptune, New Jersey.
Dr. Story Musgrave (Fig. 51) has earned five college degrees; a Bachelor
of Science degree in Statistics from Syracuse University in 1958; a Master's
degree in Business Administration in Operations Analysis from the Univer-
sity of California, Los Angles, in 1959; a Bachelor of Arts degree in Chem-
istry from Marietta College in 1960; an M.D. from Columbia University
in 1964; and a Master of Science Degree in Biophysics from the University
of Kentucky in 1966. He has flown over 30 types of aircraft and holds in-
structor, instrument instructor, and airline transport ratings. He, like Russell
Schweickart, is a "civilian" astronaut, not a member of the military forces.
He has not yet flown in space. He was born August 19, 1935, in Boston,
Massachusetts.

53
 Bruce McCandless II (Fig. 52) is a Lieutenant Commander in the U.S.
Navy. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in Naval Sciences from {he U.S.
Naval Academy, received in 1958; a Master of Science degree in Electrical
Engineering from Stanford University, received in 1965. He was designated
a Naval Aviator in March of 1960. He was born June 8, 1937 in Boston,
Massachusetts. He has not flown in space as yet.

Second Skylab .Mission

Alan L. Bean (Fig. 53) is a Captain and a pilot in the Navy. He was the
lunar module pilot of Apollo 12, November 14-24, 1969, a mission that lasted
244 hours and 36 minutes. During this mission, Captain Bean spent 7 hours
and 45 minutes EVA on the lunar surface. He holds a Bachelor of Science
degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Texas, received
in 1955. He was born in Wheeler, Texas, on March 15, 1932.
Dr. Owen K. Garriott (Fig. 54), Science Pilot on the second manned mis-
sion, holds a Doctorate in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University,
received in 1960. He also has a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical
Engineering from the University of Oklahoma, received in 1953, and a
Master of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from Stanford, received
in 1957. He'has not yet flown inspace. Dr. Garriott was born November 22,
1930, in Enid, Oklahoma.
Jack Robert Lousma (Fig. 55) is a pilot holding the rank of Major in the
Marine Corps. He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the Univer-
sity of Michigan in 1959 and the degree of Aeronautical Engineer from the
U.S. Naval Postgraduate School in 1965. He was born February 29, 1936,
in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He has not flown in space before.

Backup Crew, Second and Third Manned Missions

Vance D. Brand (Fig. 56), Commander for the backup crew for these mis-
sions, was a commissioned officer and naval aviator with the Marine Corps
from 1953 to 1957. When he joined NASA, he was an experimental test
pilot and leader of a Lockheed Aircraft Corporation flight test advisory
group. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Business from the University
of Colorado, received in !953 ; a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical
Engineering from the University of Colorado in 1960; and a Master's degree
in Business Administration from the University of California at Los Angeles
in 1964. Mr. Brand was born in Longmont, Colorado, on May 9, 1931.
Should he be called upon to fly on Skylab, he will have his first mission
in space.
Dr. William E. Lenoir (Fig. 57), Science Pilot, is a graduate of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, where he received a Bachelor of Science
degree in 1961, a Master of Science degree in 1962, and a Doctorate in 1965.
He has served as instructor at MIT and in 1965 was named Assistant Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering. He is acting as an investigator in several
satellite experiments and has continued his research in the areas of space
engineering and physics while serving as an astronaut. He has not yet flown
in space. Dr. Lenoir was born on March 14, 1939, in Miami, Florida.

54
 Dr. Don L. Lind (Fig. 58), Pilot, before his selection as an astronaut in
1966, worked as a space physicist at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
He is a former naval aviator, earning his wings in 1955. Dr. Lind received a
Bachelor of Science degree with high honors in Physics from the University
of Utah in 1953 and a Doctor of Philosophy degree in High Energy Nuclear
Physics in 1964 from the University of California at Berkeley. He was born
May 18, 1930, in Midvale, Utah. He has not yet flown in space.

Third ,Manned Mission

Gerald P. C,arr (Fig. 59) is a Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel and a

Marine pilot. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical Engi-
neering from the University of Southern California in 1954, a Bachelor of
Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in 1961 from the U.S. Naval
Postgraduate School, and a Master of Science degree from Princeton in
1962. He was born in Denver, Colorado, on August 22, 1932. This will be his
first flight in space.
The Science Pilot for the third manned mission is Dr. Edward G. Gibson
(Fig. 60), who received his Doctorate in Engineering degree with a minor
in Physics from the California Institute of Technology in June 1964. He
received a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering from the University of
Rochester, New York, in June 1959, and a Master of Science degree in Engi-
neering (jet propulsion option) from the California Institute of Technology
in June 1960. After his selection as an astronaut in 1965, he completed his
Air Force flight training in 1966. Dr. Gibson was born November 8, 1936, in
Buffalo, New York. He has not flown in space before.
William R. Pogue (Fig. 61 ) is a Lieutenant Colonel and pilot in the U.S.
Air Force. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Education from
Oklahoma Baptist University in 1951 and a Master of Science degree in
Mathematics from Oklahoma State University in 1960. He flew 43 combat
missions with the Fifth Air Force in 1953 and 1954 during the Korean con-
flict. From 1955 to 1957, he was a member of the U.S. Air Force Thunder-
birds precision flying team. Colonel Pogue was born January 23, 1930, in
Okemah, Oklahoma. This mission will be his first space flight.

8. LAUNCH PREPARATIONS

Final assembly of the complete Skylab cluster took place in the Kennedy
Space Center early in 1973. Airlock Module and Multiple Docking Adapter,
after being joined together at the McDonnell Douglas Corporation in St.
Louis, were flown to KSC in the new Commercial Guppy airplane designed
specifically to fly large cargoes. The plane, under contract to NASA, is oper-
ated by Aero Spacelines, Inc., Santa Barbara, California. The Super Guppy
(Fig. 62), somewhat smaller than the new Guppy, transported the Com-
mand and Service Module from Downey, California, to KSC on July 18,
1972, and the Apollo Telescope Mount from JSC, where thermo-vacuum
testing was performed, to KSC on September 22, 1972. The Instrument Unit
was shipped by Super Guppy from the George C. Marshall Center to KSC

55
500-721 0 - 73 - 5
FIGURE62.-Air transport plane Super Guppy, transporting large Skylab components
from manufacturing and test sites to Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

on October 26, 1972. The four solar arrays for the ATM arrived at KSC in
two separate trips in mid-December, 1972.
The Orbital Workshop with its solar power arrays, too big for air trans-
port, was loaded on a specially-equipped ocean-going vessel provided by the
US. Navy’s Military Sealift Command, the USNS Point Burrow (Fig. 63)
and shipped from Seal Beach, California, to Port Canaveral, Florida, through

FIGURE63.-USNS Point Barrow transporting large Skylab components from manu-

facturing and test sites to the launch site at Cape Kennedy, Florida.

56
the Panama Canal. The Payload Shroud was part of the same shipment.
The voyage took approximately 14 days.
Assembly and successive testing procedures of the Skylab cluster are
described in Chapter IV-1. The Skylab spacecraft was “stacked” on the
Saturn V launch vehicle in the Vertical Assembly Building at KSC (Fig. 64)
late in January; meanwhile, the CSM was mounted on the Saturn IB launch
vehicle. The components of the Saturn V and Saturn IB launch vehicles had
arrived at KSC by covered barge from the Michoud Plant in New Orleans
on July 26, 1972, and on August 22, 1972. Integrated space vehicle testing of
Skylab, including simulated flight tests of all systems, was performed during
the month of February (Fig. 65). Early in April, the huge Saturn V launch
vehicle with its payload was transported by crawler from the Vertical Assem-
bly Building to the launch pad (Fig. 66). The Saturn IB arrived on its
launch pad in March. The crawler transporter is a very large tracked vehicle
(Fig. 67). It has a flat top surface 40 meters (131 ft) long and 34.8 meters
(114 f t ) wide on which it carries Saturn launch vehicles to the pads. Final
tests of all components, and of the complete systems, extended over a period
of two-and-one-half months in the Vertical Assembly Building. Particular
care had to be taken during the last phase on the pad that the various instru-
ments, particularly the solar telescopes in the ATM canister, did not suffer
horn environmental contamination.
Countdown for launch will begin about one week before lift-off time. The
major steps of the countdown, such as fueling, battery charging, pressuriza-
tion of the Workshop, and final checks, are listed in Table 4. The complete
countdown list as used for the actual Iaunching is a book with about 200
pages and 1500 individual line items (sequential operations).

FIGURE64.-Vertical Assembly Building at Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

57
FIGURE65.-Inside Vertical Assembly Building with the Orbital Workshop being
put atop the Saturn V vehicle.

58
 FIGURE66.-Launch Pad 39A used for th launching of Saturn V vehicles.

FIGURE67.-Crawler vehicle used for transportation of Saturn IB and Saturn V

launch vehicles from the Vertical Assembly Building to the launch pads.

59

I
 TABLE 4.--Major Steps of Countdown for Launch (Times before L_toff)

Action Days Hrs. Min. See.

Arrival on pad--
Saturn IB on pad 39B ...................... 71 0 0 0
Saturn V on pad 39A ...................... 30 0 0 0
Storage bottles for gaseous oxygen and nitrogen
filled ..................................... 18 0 0 0
Countdown demonstration test completed ....... 12 0 0 0
Move mobile service structure from pad 39A to
pad 39B for first manned launch ............. 6 0 0 0
Installation of ordnance (explosive charges)
completed ................................ 3 2 30 0
Installation and activation of stage batteries ..... 2 10 0 0
Validation of communication link for launch
support completed ......................... 20 0 0
Clearing of launch pad ............................... 6 30 0
Launch vehicle propellant loading start ................. 5 30 0
Range safety checks .................................. 4 0 0
Thruster attitude control system (TACS) cover
jettison ........................................... 2 30 0
Built-in hold ........................................ 2 0 0
Launch vehicle power transfer test .............................. 39 0
Spacecraft (Skylab) switched to internal power ................... 8 0
Spacecraft (Skylab) final status checks .......................... 3 7
Automatic thermlnal sequence start (firing com-
mand) .................................................... 3 7
Launch vehicle transfer to internal power ............................... 50
Verify launch sequence ............................................... 30
Retraction of Saturn first stage (SIC) forward
swing arm ........................................................ 16. 2
Final checkout of systems (verify Saturn first
stage [SIC] engine thrust) ........................................... 1.9
Launch commit ...................................................... T-- 0
Liftoff (first motion) .................................................. T+0. 3

60

|
CHAPTER IV

Skylab Design and Operation

Historically, the design of Skylab and the concept of its functions have
evolved through several phases of increasing complexity. From the begin-
ning, however, Skylab was to be a laboratory in orbit where men could live
and work for extended periods. Man was to contribute to the accomplish-
ments of Skylab in four major ways: as a scientific observer, as an experi-
menter, as an operator, and as the object of biomedical studies. The Skylab
Project will offer its crew members the opportunity of intimate involve-
ment in these four areas of activity.
It will form the basis from which many of the future space systems for
science, technology, Earth observations, applications, and exploration will:
evolve.
The following sections describe details of the design and the functions of
the major Skylab system components, and of the subsystems needed for
Skylab operation.

1. SKYLAB COMPONENTS

The Skylab cluster, first U.S. space station, will be the largest manned
spacecraft ever placed in Earth orbit. With the Command and Service
Module docked to it, the Skylab cluster will be approximately 35 meters
(117 ft.) long; it will have a mass of 90,606 kilograms (199,750 lbs.) and
contain a habitable volume of about 354 cubic meters (12,700 cubic ft.)
(Fig. 69). Major Skylab cluster elements include the following:
The Orbital Workshop (OWS) houses the crew quarters, most of the
stored expendables, and a large experiment area. It supports the large solar
arrays, and it contains the cold gas tanks and thrusters for secondary atti-
tude control.
The Airlock Module (AM) has an airlock for extravehicular activities,
the main systems for communication and data transmittal, environmental
and thermal control systems, and the electric power control system.
The Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) provides the docking ports for
the Command and Service Module (CSM) ; it houses the control console
for the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), controls and sensors for Earth
resources viewing, and a number of other experimental facilities.
The Apollo Telescope Mount carries the solar telescopes, the control
moment gyros (CMG) for primary attitude control, and four solar array
wings.

61
 FIGURE69.-Skylab cluster in orbit, showing major components and interior
equipment.

The modified Command and Service Module functions as the manned

logistics vehicle for the missions and also provides certain communication
functions to the Workshop.
Each major Skylab cluster element is described in detail in the following
section. Fig. 70 depicts the individual elements of the cluster.

a. Orbital Workshop (OWS)

From the outside, the Orbital Workshop looks in size and shape like
the S-IVB stage which served as the second propulsion stage of the Saturn
IB launch vehicle and as the third propulsion stage of the Saturn V-Apollo
launch vehicle (Fig. 7 1) . Attached to the outside wall are two large, wing-
like solar arrays. The interior of this stage, which originally consisted
mainly of two tanks for liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, underwent a
thorough conversion; the larger hydrogen tank became a living and work-
ing facility (the Workshop) for three astronauts, and the smaller oxygen
tank became a container for waste products accumulating during the mis-
sion (Fig. 7 2 ) . The Workshop measures 6.7 m (22 f t ) in diameter, and
14.6 m (48 ft) in length. Its habitable volume is 275 m3 (9550 f t 3 ) , its
weight 35,380 kg (78,000 lbs) . The solar arrays extend 9 m (30 ft) on
opposite sides for a total tip-to-tip wing span of about 27 m (90 ft) .

62
 Q @ ® ®

Element Command Multiple Apollo Airlock Instrument Orbital

and Service Docking Telescope Module/Fixed Unit Workshop

Module Adapter Mount Airlock Shroud

Function Crew Ascent Docking Solar

Power Control Launch Peimary Living
& Descent Interface Observation
& Distribution Vehicle & Working Area

E nvpronmental Control
ATM/E REP
Control E xperlment
Controls
Laboratory
& D,splavs Uti_i W Center

Data System Stowage

E ×Iravehicular

A, ct ivit y Porl

Length fit) 34 3 17 3 13.3 17.6 30 48 1

Diameter (ft) 13.0 10.0 100 215 21 6

Working

Volume 366 1 140 613 9,550

(cuft)

FmuRE 70.--Major parts of Skylab cluster.

To protect the Workshop against penetration by meteoroids, a thin metal

shield envelops the Workshop wall at a distance of 0.15 meter (6 inches)
from the outer surface. Meteroid particles hitting this shield will suffer an
energy reduction, and they will be broken up into a shower of numerous
smaller particles, none of which will be able to penetrate the Workshop
wall. During launch, the meteoroid shield will be packed tighty against
the wall; after orbit insertion, the shield is swung out into position by torsion
bars.

63

/
 FIGURE71.-Basic elements of Orbital Workshop (OWS).

Serving as living quarters and as a laboratory for the astronauts, the

Workshop consists of two compartments, separated by a perforated wall
or “floor.” The rearward compartment contains the wardroom for food
preparation and eating, the sleep section, the waste management section
(toilet), and the experiment work area. Biomedical experiments will be
performed in this work area (Fig. 73). The forward compartment is devoted
primarily to experiments requiring relatively large volumes or designed to
utilize one of the two scientific airlocks for external viewing or exposure
(Fig. 74).
Storage facilities, containers for food, water, and clothing, and a number
of subsystems occupy part of the room available in the two compartments.
Circulation of the air will be achieved by fans and by ducts between
the Workshop wall and a partial inner wall which will permit the air to
flow in one direction between the walls and in the other direction through
the room.
A number of handles, grips, and foot restraints, mounted at appropri-
ate places throughout the two compartments, will enable the crew mem-
bers to move through the Workshop and to station themselves at desired
locations while floating weightlessly (Fig. 75) .

64
FIGURE72.-Arrangement and major components of interior installations of Orbital
Workshop, showing the two floors of the living area.

A window in the wardroom will allow the astronauts to look out in a

direction away from the Sun. Depending on Skylab’s location in orbit, they
will be able to look down at the Earth or out into space.
Two scientific airlocks are provided in the Workshop wall of the forward
compartment, one directed toward the Sun, the other facing in the opposite
direction (solar and antisolar airlock) (Fig. 76). Each of the scientific air-
locks will permit deployment of sensors and instruments such as Experi-
ments No. SO19, T027, and SO73 (see Chapter V) . .4n articulated mirror
system and a universal extension mechanism can be used with the scien-
tific airlocks for certain experiments (Figs. 77, 78).
A considerable array of tools, supplies, and support equipment will be
available to the astronauts on Skylab, including repair kits, films, hand-
tools, tapes, clamps, fasteners, scissors, thermometers, photographic lights,
and still and movie cameras.

65

I
FIGURE73.-First (lower) floor of Orbital Workshop, showing crew quarters and
medical experiment work area.

FIGURE74.--Second (upper) floor of Orbital Workshop, showing equipment for

space technology experiments.

66
FIGURE75.-Second (upper) floor of Orbital Workshop, showing scientific airlock,
hand rails, and other installations.

Vacuum Vent
Line Quick Disconnect

Scientific Airlock Release Handle F o r

Pressure M o u n t i n s Latching Mechanism

Airlock Pressure
Gage

Outer D o o r Closed Position

Vent Position
Outer Door Handle

Outer D o o r Open Position

FIGURE76.-Inside door of scientific airlock.

67

I
 Skylab's atmosphere will be a mixture of 25,000 Nm -2 (Newtons per square
meter) (0.25 atm. or 3.7 psi) partial pressure oxygen and 9,000 Nm -2
(0.09 atm. or 1.3 psi) partial pressure nitrogen. Relative humidity will be
controlled to about 26% at 29 ° C (85 ° F) ; room temperature can vary
between 13 ° (3 and 32 ° (3 (55 ° F and 90 ° F) (See Chap. IV-2-b).
The workshop is connected with the rest of the Skylab cluster through
the Instrument Unit, as illustrated in Fig. 79.

b. Instrument Unit (IU)

Control of the Saturn V launch vehicle during launch and powered flight
will be accomplished by guidance and control systems located in the Instru-
ment Unit (Figs. 79, 80). This function will be maintained by the IU
throughout Skylab orbit insertion and deployment. Equipment in the IU
will first guide the launch vehicle from the moment of liftoff through the
separation of Skylab from the second stage of the Saturn V booster. After
separation, the IU will provide commands to various Skylab systems which
in turn will rotate the Skylab by 180 °, turn on refrigeration systems, jettison
the payload shroud, roll the Skylab until the Apollo Telescope Mount points
toward the Sun, deploy the meteoroid shield that envelops the Workshop,
and pressurize all the compartments with oxygen (Skylab will be filled only
with nitrogen during launch). The solar arrays on AIM and on OWS will
be deployed upon command from the IU or by command from the ground.
All these functions will be completed about 7.5 hours after orbit insertion.
The batteries energizing the IU will be depleted soon after this time. From
then on, the Instrument Unit will be passive.

18 ft _

Approx

Trunnion Drive

__ _terShaft Dr Lw_ /._"

Sc;e¢'ft:hec Airl°ck [1 F----

_lt[ ._ (_ Ir_ _/ ok_A..,,,,,.,v fI /

T ............ _ "_-II LJ ]

-- M(_chauical C(mhol Pa_el Dr_w_ Motor ExpelmWl J[

Detd,I A/ullull_ Yoke Assuml)lv

FIGURE 77.--Expanded view of scientific airloek, showing photometer deployment.

l
I
 Mirror System

Rotation Control

M_rror Erection 23.8 in.

-- III

biter face

Tilt Dis01ay

sc;ei_,"Z

FIOURE 78.--Movable mirror outside the airlock, as needed for certain scientific
observations.

c. Airlock Module (AM)

The Airlock Module, as a connecting link between OWS and Multiple

Docking Adapter, serves a threefold purpose: as a major structural element
of the Skylab cluster; as a module containing the port through which an
astronaut can leave the interior of Skylab in order to perform extravehicular
activities (EVA); and as the electrical, environmental, and communica-
tions control center for Skylab. In addition, many of the high pressure con-
tainers for oxygen and nitrogen which provide Skylab's atmosphere are
mounted on the trusses between the inner and outer walls of the AM.
The Airlock Module consists of two concentric cylinders (Fig. 8). Match-
ing the OWS in diameter, the outer cylinder or Fixed Airlock Shroud
carries the Payload Shroud during the launch, and it serves as mounting
base for the structure that supports the Apollo Telescope Mount. The inner
cylinder, or tunnel, represents the airlock (Figs. 81, 82). It forms the
passageway through which crew members can move between the Work-
shop and the Multiple Docking Adapter. Hatches at both ends of the tunnel
can be closed for depressurization (Figs. 83, 84), and a third hatch in the
side wall can be opened for the egress of a crew member (Fig. 85). After
return of the crew member, the egress hatch is closed, the tunnel is pres-
surized, and the forward and rear hatches are reopened.
The Airlock Module also contains the automatic Skylab malfunction
alarm system, and the manual controls for Skylab pressurization and air puri-
fication, and for electric power and communications.
Many of the supplies, and most of the control systems for Skylab are
located in the Airlock Module; this module could well be called the "utility
center" of the Skylab cluster.

69

1
 FIGURE79.-Instrument Unit, showing guidance, control, and power systems
equipment.

d. Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA)

Like other major components of Skylab, the Multiple Docking Adapter
will serve several purposes. It is equipped with docking ports for the manned
Command and Service Modules that will carry astronauts to and from
Skylab. I t houses the control units for ATM, for the Earth Resources Ex-
periment Package (EREP) , and for the M5 12 (zero-gravity materials proc-
essing facility) ; and it is used for storage of films, experiment components,
and electric and television equipment (Fig. 86).
Two docking ports are provided on the MDA. The primary port, located
at the forward end for axial docking of a CSM, will be used under all
normal conditions. The side port will be used in contingency cases only.
EREP equipment, consisting of sensors and cameras for Earth viewing
and of control and display units to be operated by the astronauts, is mounted
in the MDA. These Earth-observing instruments will be looking in the
antisolar direction (Figs. 87, 88).
70
 FIGURE80.-Instrument Unit during assembly.

~ ~~ ~~

FIGURE8 1.-Airlock Module with hatch for extra-vehicular activities.

FIGURE82.-Inside view of Airlock Module with open door leading to Workshop.

Astronaut operation of the Apollo Telescope Mount and the Skylab

attitude control will be performed at the ATM Control and Display Console
in the MDA. This console contains several T V screens. and other visual
indicators which will enable the astronauts to follow ATM activities closely
and to actively participate in target selection, telescope orientation, expen-
mental procedures, and interpretation of instrumental and visual
observations.
The television system for Skylab is housed in the MDA. Several remote
stations are located in the other Skylab modules. A video tape recorder
is included in this system.
Crew members will spend a significant portion of their orbital time in
the Multiple Docking Adapter, at the ATM and EREP consoles and the
M5 12 zero-gravity materials processing and manufacturing facility.
72
 FIGURE83.-Airlock Module, showing major components and installations.

e. Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM)

,
During launch and ascent, the Apollo Telescope Mount unit is positioned
axially with the rest of Skylab and the launch vehicle (Fig. 11) . After in-
sertion into orbit and jettisoning of the shroud (Fig. 89) , the A T M support
structure will rotate the ATM by 90" from its axial position into a radial
position (Fig. 90) . This operation will clear the primary docking hatch, and
it will enable the ATM telescopes and the ATM solar arrays to face the
Sun. The ATM solar panels will be deployed after this 90" rotation.
ATM consists of two major parts, the outer structure or rack and the
inner part or canister with the solar telescopes (Fig. 91). The rack, an
octagonal truss structure of 3.3 m ( 11 f t ) diameter and 3.6 m ( 12 ft) length,
connects ATM with the rest of Skylab. I t carries the four solar-electric
power arrays and electric batteries. The rack also contains electrical and
mechanical (gyro) components of the Skylab primary attitude control
system and the ATM communications system.
Attitude control of Skylab must be achieved with a system which operates
for a long period of time, while producing as little environmental contamina-
tion as possible because of the sensitivity of the solar, stellar, and Earth-
looking telescopes t o condensed vapors and particulate matter in the vicinity
of the spacecraft. For these reasons, control moment gyroscopes (CMG)
were chosen to produce the major portion of required control torques.
The three control moment gyros are mounted on the rack (Fig. 9 2 ) . The
rack and the rest of Skylab, being rigidly connected to each other, will act
as one unit as far as primary attitude control is concerned.
Inside the rack, the cylindrical canister is mounted in such a way that it
can be rotated around its cylindrical axis upon a manual signal. This roll
ring mount (Fig. 93) provides the 5 120" roll capability which is required
for polarization studies of the solar radiations, and also for the exchange
of some of the film cassettes. The astronaut, in order to retrieve the cassettes,

73

I
I
 /N 2 ContrOl t'a_,_,

Ventilation Ducts =rrnanent ,Stowage

Container
EleCtrical 0
power and

02 Connector
MolecUlal

Flight spares Recorder

Stowage Module

Film

Tre' TV Input Station

Extravehicular
ActiVitY Hatch

instrument Panels

Light and

Handrail Assembly

Duct To

Orbital Woq

contrO_

Paper
airier

Electrical Outlets ElectdcalOutlet

Apollo
panel
Telescope
Mount
FLIm
Magazine
Temporary
Lock Compartment
Storage
HatCh

Tunne _,Lights

Lock
Compartment
Hatch

Recharge ProVisiOn
for Nitrogen T_

FIou_e 84._Airlock Module with details of service and control panels.

74

t
FIGURE85.-Wall of Airlock Module, showing EVA hatch for exit and entrance
during extra-vehicular activities.

will roll the canister by manually controlled switches until one of the cassette
doors faces his EVA work station at the ATM rack (Fig. 94).
The telescope-bearing canister is not attached directly to the roll ring.
Another concentric ring (gimbal ring), mounted between roll ring and
canister and connected to the canister and to the roll ring in the fashion of a
universal joint, will permit the canister axis to move relative to the rack axis
around two perpendicular axes in order to achieve fine pointing and attitude
stabilization of the telescopes. These angular motions need not be large
because the Skylab cluster as a whole will always achieve coarse pointing.
Maximum canister axis deflections relative to the rack axis will be t 2 ” .
The bearings allowing these angular motions consist of flexure pivots (Fig.
95) which provide small angular deviations by flexing metal bands rather
than by moving parts. Rotational motion of the canister around the two
“universal joint” axes will be accomplished by electric torquers (Fig. 95)
upon manual or automated signals.

75
 FIGURE86.-Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) with major components and
installations.

A cylindrical shroud covers the experiment canister for protection against

contamination and for thermal control purposes. The canister, 3 m (10 f t )
long and 2.1 m ( 7 ft) in diameter, will maintain a steady temperature of
21" C (70" F ) by means of an active cooling system which employs cooling
pipes and a mixture of methanol and water to exchange heat between the
canister wall and radiation cooling panels.
All eight solar telescopes, the fine Sun sensors, and some auxiliary systems
are mounted on the "spar," a cruciform light-weight mounting panel which
divides the canister lengthwise into four equal compartments (Fig. 96) .
The spar is designed for high rigidity; it serves as an optical bench for the
solar telescopes. However, three of the experiments (S052, S055, and S082B)
are built to apply additional individual fine corrections to their pointing
directions. Each of the four compartments carries t\vo of the solar telescopps
(Fig. 9 7 ) . The front end of the canister is covered by a sunshield with open-
ings for telescopes and Sun sensors (Fig. 98). During ground storage and
launch, these openinqs remain closed by individual doors for protection.
Operation of the solar telescopes and their auxiliary equipment will be
monitored and controlled from the Control and Display Panel inside the
Multiple DockinK Adapter (Fig. 99) . Experiment controls are located in the
center of the panel, thermal control and lighting control readouts and
switches are on the left, pointing control system displays and switchrs arc

76
 FIGURE87.-Inside view of Multiple Docking Adapter with major components.

/ ,
tr m

FIGURE88.-Multiple Docking Adapter, arrangement of experiments and structural

elements.
77

I
I
I

FIGURE
89.--Skylab Shroud during separation in orbit.

FIGURE90.-Deployment of Apollo Telescope Mount ( ATM) by rotation through

90 degrees.

on the upper right, power controls on the lower right and alert indicators
above the center panels. Two T V screens on the panel will show selectively
images from five different viewing instruments ; they will enable the astro-
nauts to select targets, to correct for pointing errors or drifts, to follow
visually the development of active areas on the Sun, and to compare findings
with observers on the ground by voice link.

78
 FIGURE91.-Apollo Telescope Mount showing external rack with conttol moment
gyroscopes and solar panels, and internal canister with telescopes.

FIGURE92.-Control moment gyroscopes, needed to provide fine attitude control

for the Skylab cluster.

79
 --

FIGURE93.-Apollo Telescope Mount ( ATM) during assembly, showing telescopes,

roll ring, and inner gimbal system.

During launch and ascent, the Skylab cluster will be covered by the
Payload Shroud (Fig. 100).

f. Command and Service Module (CSM)

The astronauts will be transported from the ground to Skylab, and back
to the ground, by the Apollo Command and Service Module (Fig. 101 ) .
Basically, the CSMs for Skylab are identical with the CSMs used on the
Apollo flights ; the differences concern the capabilities of power and life
support systems (I:ig. 102). While the CSM on an i\pollo mission had to bc
capablc of sustaining its operation over a period of 14 days, the Skylab
CS'Ms need to support their operations only for thc short periods of ascent
80

I
t
FIGURE94.-Apollo Telescope Mount (rack) with opening, showing canister inside
the rack with a hatch to exchange film cassettes.

and descent. During the time of docking in orbit. CSM systems, which include
data and communications systems, ivill be supported by the Skylab supply
sources.
The Command Module, 4 m (13 ft) in diameter and 3.6 m ( 1 2 ft) high,
contains a crew compartment for three astronauts, a docking tunnel to the
top of the cone-shaped module, and a hatch that can be opened from the
inside after docking with the Multiple Docking Adapter. Tivelve latches
at the outside of the tunnel end ivill attach the Command Module firmly to
the port of the MDA before crcw transfer can begin (Fig. 103).
81
 F PLANE OF SYMMETRY

OUTER

7 CENTER BLADE TWICE WIDTH

HOUSING ,_,. / OF OTHER FOUR BLADES

---
! I
÷__

BLAO S--/! I

E SION
BLADES

SIDE VIEW

___ BLADES IN TENSION (VECTORS}

ii ,9_ OUTER HOUSING

/
INNER HOUSING _ < "":" ):):'):'""'"":" ::""

/
L-- TENSION BLADE SPRING
END VIEW

FIGURE 95.--Flexure pivot bearings of the ATM canister, permitting fine attitude
control.

Inside the Command Module are the guidance and control system, electric
batteries, oxygen containers, control and display panels for the combined
CSM, couches for the three crew members, stowage for the consumables
needed during ascent and descent, and provisions for the stowage of equip-
ment to be transported to or from Skylab. A heat shield, coated with ablative
material, will protect the Command Module against the heat produced during
reentry (Fig. 104). Except for tile last half hour during reentry, the Service
Module will remain firmly attached to the Command Module. It contains

82
 1
f

___- I
; - .* I .

FIGURE 96.-ATM canister, showing gimbal rings and the internal spar which
carries the telescopes.

service systems and supplies that do not require access by crew members
during flight, such as the main propulsion system, a maneuvering system,
fuel cells for electric power, part of the oxygen for breathing, and radiators
for cooling. After separation from the Command Module shortly before
reentry, the Service Module will heat up in the atmosphere and burn com-
pletely; only ashes will reach the ground.

83

I
I
 X-Ray Event and Spectrographic
Analyzer Assembly Telescope (SO54)

+y

Dual X-Ray Component

Telescope Clearance Envelope
(

:ine Sun Sensor

Assembly
White Light
Coronagraph
(
+z Spectrohel iograph
Optical (SO82A)
B

Rate G', pha No. 2

Telescope
H-Alpha No. 1
Telesco

Canister

Spar Ring Assembly

XUV Spectrograph
(SO82B)

UV Scanning Polychromator
Spectroheliometer
(SO55A)

Telescope Installations

FIGURE 97.--Cross section through ATM canister, showing the cruciform spar and

the telescopes.

g. Integration, Testing, and Quality Assurance

All the elements of Skylab components produced at many different plants

and places were subjected to elaborate procedures of component testing and
integration. Tests had to be performed on individual elements, on sub-
assemblies of elements, and finally on the completed assemblies. Some tests
were performed at the manufacturing sites; others were performed at as-
sembly sites. Fig. 105 illustrates how the major elements of Skylab flight
components flowed together in the testing and integration operations.
The Orbital Workship was assembled with experiments, thruster attitude
control system, and habitability support systems at Huntington Beach, Cali-
fornia. It was then shipped to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) for test,
checkout, and assembly together with other Skylab elements in the Vertical
Assembly Building (VAB). Before being transported to the launch pad, it
underwent an integrated systems test with all of the other modules except
the CSM.
The Apollo Telescope Mount experiments were assembled in the ATM
canister at MSFC. After vibration testing, the assembly was tirst shipped to
JSC for a thermal vacuum test, and from there to KSC for systems test and

84

t
I
FIGURE98.-Apollo Telescope Mount front end a t the moment of film retrieval by
astronaut. Telescope orifices are closed.

checkout. I t was then assembled with other Skylab elements, tested as a

major component of the total system, and transported to the launch pad.
The Payload Shroud was manufactured on the west coast, and then
shipped to KSC for assembly, integrated systems test, and launch.
The Airlock Module was built and fitted with experiments in St. Louis,
Missouri.
The Multiple. Docking Adapter shell was built at MSFC, shipped to
Denver, Colorado, where it was outfitted and tested, and then sent to
St. Louis for assembly with the Airlock Module. The AM-MDA assembly
then underwent systems tests, altitude chamber tests, and checkout before it
was shipped to KSC for integration with the CSM and testing.
The AM-MDA was then moved to the VAB, assembled with the other
payload modules, tested as part of an integrated systems test on top of the
launch vehicle, and transported to the launch pad for final checkout and
launch.

85
 FIGURE 99.----Console for monitoring and controlling the telescopes in ATM.

From the beginning of Skylab, the desire for a high probability of success
has made it necessary that careful attention be given to all aspects of reliabil-
ity and quality assurance. Experience gained in many previous space projects
formed the basis for a comprehensive reliability program established specifi-
cally for Skylab. Quality and reliability requirements were carefully docu-
mented in numerous plans which controlled all phases of the Skylab from
design through production, test, launching, and operation in space. These
reliability requirements were imposed uniformly upon all contractors and
suppliers who participated in Project Skylab.

86

!
FIGURE100.-Payload shroud, needed to protect the front part of Skylab during
ascent.

The specific quality and reliability program requirements generated for

the Skylab project required that only such parts could be used for Skylab
which either had been flight proven or had undergone elaborate and rigorous
testing. Likewise, only such vendors were accepted who either had records
of successful performance on previous flights or had been found acceptable
after very careful screening. An attempt was made to use for Skylab as many
components of previous successful flight projects as possible; if new com-
ponents had to be developed, they were subjected to extensive testing. The
principle of high reliability was made a basic feature of design from the very
beginning of Skylab program work. A thorough failure-mode analysis had

87
i00-;21 0 - 73 - i
 FIGURE
101.-Command and Service Module ( C S M ) launch configuration.

to be made of every functional part of the complex Skylab system. If it was

found that failure of a single component or system could jeopardize the mis-
sion, the design had to be changed, or redundancy had to be incorporated;
if neither was feasible, a specific effort was made in the manufacturing and
testing of that component or system to assure the highest reasonable degree of
reliability. As part of the test program, a n elaborate failure reporting system
was established. If a failure occurred, its cause was traced back to its origin,
and the likelihood of a recurrence of a similar failure was eliminated by
proper actions.
Experience has shown that a major step toward high quality can be accom-
plished by proper “procurement control.” Drawings and specification lists
must reflect the quality requirements to the extent that the vendor knows
exactly what he is expected to deliver, and acceptance tcstinq must bc suffi-
ciently rigorous to eliminate all weak parts and components.

2. SKYLAB OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS

Astronauts and experiments on Skylab are supported by a number of auxil-
iary or “housekeeping” systems for a l l those functions which are necessary
to make Skylab a self-contained, well-functioning, and eficient laboratory.
These operational systems include attitude control, environmental control,
communications, data management, crew accommodations, and electric
power generation.
Details of these systems are described in the following sections.

’ Redundancy: See Glossary for explanation.

88

I
I
FIGURE102.--Semice Module showing major components and equipment. ( M M H is
monomethyl hydrazine, N,O, is nitrogen tetroxide, UDMH is unsymmetrical di-
methylhydrazine, H e is helium).

a. Attitude and Pointing Control System

Skylab experiments will view three basic targets; the Sun, the Earth, and
celestial space. Instruments for these experiments are located at places which
will provide proper viewing directions bvith a minimum of maneuvering
(Fig. 106). Active and continuous control of Skylab attitude will assure that
instruments are pointed in their desired directions during the periods of their
operation.
The solar power arrays on the Workshop and the Apollo Telescope Mount
i t d l require orientation toward, or at least nearly toward. the Sun for as
much time as possible.
Pointing accuracy requirements of the ATM solar telescopes around the
three axes of Skylab, illustrated in Fig. 107, are listed below.

89
 FIGURE103.-Command Module with major components and installations.

r--- R--=- --

FIGURE
104.-Command Module with parachutes shortly before splashdown.

90
 FIGURE1O5.-Flow of Skylab components from manufacturing to testing, integration,
and launch.

TABLE
Ei.-Pointing Accuracy of A T M Solar Telescope Canister
System axis Pointing accuracy Stability
X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 2 . 5 arc sec.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 2 . 5 arc sec/l5 min.
Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 - 5 arc sec.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 2 . 5 arc sec/l5 min.
Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 10 arc min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f7.5 arc mini15 min.

These pointing accuracies for the telescopes can be accomplished because

of the gimbal mounting of the ATM experiment canister within the ATM
rack. Pointing accuracies to which the entire Skylab cluster can be held in
various observational modes are listed below.

TABLE
6.-Pointing Accuracy of Entire Skylab Cluster
OBSERVATION M O D E
System axis -- - __
Solar Earth or sky During docking
maneuvers
X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f6 arc min, . . . . . . . . f2 degree, . . . . . . . . . & 6 degree.
Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f6 arc min. . . . . . . . . f2 degree. . . . . . . . . . f 12 degree.
Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 10 arc min.. . . . . . . f2 degree.. . . . . . . . . f 6 degree.

91

t
I
 8

Port Angular Locations

Port
Window Name Location
No.

1. S190 Experiment Window On +z Axis

2. Airlock Module Window 37.5 deg Off _z Toward Y

3. Airlock Module Window 37.5 deg Off y Toward z

4. Airiock Moduie Window 37.5 deg Utt z I oward +y

5. Airlock Module Window 37.5 de 9 Off +y Toward +z

6. Solar Scientific Airlock 0.14 deg Off -z Toward +y

7. Antisolar Scientific Airlock 4.3 deg Off +z Toward y

8. Wardroom Window 25.9 deg Off +z Toward +y

9 EVA Hatch Window 45 deg Off -z Toward +y

FIGURE 106.--Viewing ports on Skylab.

Controlling the attitude of Skylab will be tile task of the Attitude and
Pointing Control System. This function will include rotating the Skylab
cluster to the desired orientation, holding this orientation as long as neces-
sary, and providing the high precision pointing control for the Apollo Tele-
scope Mount. In order to execute these actions, the Attitude and Pointing

92

I
 Z ×

FmURE 107.--Principal axes of Skylab cluster.

Control System uses sensors to read out the existing attitude with respect to
reference directions and a mechanism to change the attitude in a con-
trolled fashion.
Skylab will use rate gyroscopes as basic sensing elements for its attitude
control system. Rate gyroscopes measure the rate of angular rotation of
Skylab around each of the three principal axes. By intergrating these angular
rates over a given time, the angular changes during this period will be ob-
tained. Reference directions from which angular changes can be counted
will be provided by Sun and star seekers (Figs. 110, 111). The Sun seeker
which monitors the solar reference direction will aim at the center of the
solar disc. The star seeker will aim at one of three stars, preferably at Canopus
in the southern constellation Argus.

93

|
 c”

. INCH

FIGURE110.-Sun seeker (acquisition sensor) for angular guidance.

Changes in Skylab attitude can be accomplished by either one of two

operational control systems, the Control Moment Gyro System (CMG) or
the Nitrogen Thruster Attitude Control System (TACS) . The CMG control
system, consisting of three large gyroscopes with mutually perpendicular
axes represents the prime method of Skylab control (Fig. 1 1 2 ) . The TACS
system can also control Skylab in a manner characteristic of conventional
cold gas thruster control systems (Fig. 1 1 3 ) . In these systems, jets of gas are
released through rocket-type nozzles, thus producing small amounts of
thrust.
Each of the three CMGs in the Skylab control system weighs 181 kg (400
lbs.) ; it consists of a rotor of 0.55 m (22 in.) diameter, spinning at 9,000
RPM, and an inner and an outer gimbal ring. T h e outer gimbal ring per-
mits Skylab to rotate around the gimbal axis of each CMG. However, an
electric torque motor attached to Skylab and acting upon the outer gimbal
ring can produce a torque between Skylab and that CMG, resulting in a tilt-
ing motion (precession) of the CMG rotor axis around the inner gimbal ring
axis by virtue of the characteristic property of a spinning gyroscope to
respond to torques around one axis with a tilting motion (precession) around
the other axis. The reactive force of the torque motor then causes Skylab
to change its angular position while the rotor axis moves (precesses).Opera-
tion of the torque motor is controlled by commands received from the Sky-
lab digital control computer. During an attitude control procedure, the
torque motors of all three CMGs will normally receive control commands,

94

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 FIGURE1 1 1.-Star seeker for angular guidance.

and each CMG rotor axis will slowly tilt. Should the control torque persist
long enough, the tilting motions would continue until the rotor axis of each
gyro eventually would be parallel with the axis of the control torque. From
that moment on, none of the CMGs could continue to react to the control
torque of the torque motor by further precession. If all three CMG rotor
axes should be parallel with their torque axes, the CMG system would bt,
“saturated” and would no longer be capable of controlling the attitude of
Skylab. I n order to avoid this saturation, a desaturation procedure is pro-
vided which utilizes the gravity field of the Earth as generator of a counter-
acting torque.

95
 Zv

OUTER GIMBAL
TORQUER

_3(3)

Z CMG
OUTERGIMBAL
MOUNTING PLANE
TORQUER

_1(2)
_i(3)

_3 (2)

YV

_1(I)

Y CMG MOUNTING PLANE

MOUNTING PLANE

OUTER

GIMBAL
TORQUER _ (I)

FIGURE 112.--Control scheme of three control moment gyroscopes.

On an orbiting spacecraft, gravitational forces are exactly balanced by

centrifugal forces at every point on a line representing the orbital trajectory
of the center of gravity of the spacecraft. Points below this line experience
an excess of gravitational forces; points above this line, an excess of cen-
trifugal forces. The amount of each of these forces at a given point on the
spacecraft is a function of the distance between the point and the center-of-
gravity line. In general, the integrated effect of these two forces represents
a force couple, or a torque, called gravity gradient torque. Its magnitude
depends, among other factors, on the shape and the attitude of the space-
craft. On Skylab, this gravity gradient torque is used as desaturating torque
for the CMGs. For this purpose, a computer routine is incorporated in the
Attitude and Pointing Control System which continuously calculates the
amount of desaturation required. On the night side of each orbit when the

95

t
 THRUSTERATIITUDECONTROL SYSTEM (TACS)
ST7
GASEOUS NITROGEN Y 4.5 CUBIC FEET 3100 + 100 PSIA (TYPICAL)

..... (_-(_- I-_ TAC$ ;, LL DISCO'NN EC T

_ _ (TYPICAL12 PLACES) _ _

THRUSTER MODULE 1 POSITION 1 THRUSTER MODULE 2 POSITION 3

TYPICAL (SIX PLACES)

FIOURE 113.--Reaction nozzles for angular control, using compressed nitrogen. Paral-
lel and series valves for each nozzle increase reliability through redundancy.

Sun is not visible, proper signals are generated for the CMGs which turn
the Skylab cluster into an attitude that produces an appropriate gravity
gradient torque. The Attitude and Pointing Control System, in an effort
to maintain this attitude, generates control torques against the gravity gradi-
ent torque in such a manner that the precession axes of the CMGs tilt until
their previously accumulated precession angles are completely used up. This
desaturation maneuver normally will suffice to restore the capability of the
CMGs to fully control Skylab. Should the amounts of accumulated preces-
sion angles exceed the amounts that can be neutralized by the gravity gradi-
ent torque, the TACS will be energized to neutralize the difference.
It is anticipated, though, that desaturation of the CMGs by TACS opera-
tion will occur very rarely. This will help keep the external environment
of Skylab reasonably free from gases and other contaminants.
During the first 7.5 hours after orbit insertion, Skylab will carry out sev-
eral directional maneuvers (Fig. 20). Gyro platform and digital computers
in the Instrument Unit (see Chapter IV-l-b) will generate the necessary
control signals, and the thruster attitude control system will execute the
maneuvers. After this initial period, the Instrument Unit will transfer the
control authority to the ATM digital computer which will use the Control
Moment Gyros as the prime system for attitude control and the thruster
system only when needed for CMG desaturation. This combined system will
suffice for the accuracy requirements of Skylab as listed in Table 6. Higher
accuracies as required by the solar telescope canister in ATM (Table 5),
will be provided by the Experiment Pointing Control Loop which consists
of the canister flexure pivots and associated torque motors. Signals for the

97

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attitude control of the ATM canister are derived from fine Sun sensors and
rate gyros on the canister and processed in the Experiment Pointing Elec-
tronic Assembly. By overriding these signals, the astronauts can move the
ATM canister to a specific target on the Sun with a hand controller from
the ATM Control Console in the MDA (Fig. 99). At any selected position,
the Experiment Pointing Control Loop system will keep the pointing ac-
curacy and stability within the necessary limits.

b. Environmental Control System

Environmental control within Skylab will be achieved by an open-cycle

life support system in which the consumables are not reclaimed for reuse.
Before each crew arrives, Skylab will be pressurized to 34,000 Nm -2 (one-
third of an atmosphere or 5 psi) of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
(approximately 74 percent oxygen and 26 percent nitrogen). This mixture
will assure that the astronauts will breathe the same amount of oxygen as
they would on Earth. The Airlock Module, serving as a nerve center for the
total Skylab cluster, among other functions will also control the internal
atmosphere and temperature. The atmospheric gases will be stored in gase-
ous form in bottles mounted on the Airlock Module (Fig. 8). Flow regulator
valves will ensure that correct pressure and gas mixture are maintained.
Relative humidity will be controlled to about 26 percent at 30 ° C (86 ° F).
The carbon dioxide concentration will be held below a maximum pressure
level of 700 Nm -_ (7 millibars). Temperature in the habitation areas will be
controlled between 13 ° and 32 ° C (55 ° and 90 ° F).
Life support and atmospheric consumables will include 2,700 kg (6,000
Ibs) of water, 670 kg (1,470 lbs) of food, 2,240 kg (4,930 lbs) of oxygen, and
600 kg (1,320 lbs) of nitrogen. Environmental operating limits are shown in
Table 7.
Skylab systems have been designed to ensure that at any given time the
overall sound pressure level will not exceed 72.5 db above the normal human
hearing threshold 1 when the individual sound pressure levels from all sources
are added together.
Atmospheric purification and humidity control will be achieved by passing
the cabin gases through carbon dioxide removal equipment and through
water removal condensers. Odors will be removed by passing the gases
through charcoal filters (activated coconut shell charcoal).
The Skylab CO 2 removal equipment consists of two units, each containing
two beds of zeolite for absorption of carbon dioxide (Fig. 115). The beds
will operate on a reversible cycle. After absorbing CO2 for 15 minutes, a bed
will undergo a process that extracts most of the CO 2 and expels it over-
board; during this purging time, the other bed will be switched to the absorb-
ing mode.
The thermal effects of solar irradiation on the daylight side and lack of
any heat source on the dark side have been almost eliminated as influences
on the temperature inside Skylab through insulation and thermal coatings
around the Workshop, the Airlock Module, and the Multiple Docking
Adapter.

1A sound level of 72.5 db is approximately equal to that of a "noisy office."

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 TABLE 7.--Environmental Conditions in Crew Quarters

Temperature Relative Pressure x

PERIOD humidity Gas
oC oF _o Nm -2 psi Atm.

Prelaunch non- --18 0 30 to 45.. 1.2 x l0 s 16.8 1.2 Air.

operational, to to to to to
71 160 1.8 x 10 _ 26.5 1.8

Prelaunch 5 40 0 to 40... 10 s 14.7 1 20 to 0_o 02.

operational, to to to to to 80 to 100_ N 2.
27 80 1.8 x 105 26.5 1.8

Launch and ascent. 5 40 ...do ..... 1.6 x 105 23.5 1.6 100_o N2.
to to to to to
43 110 1.8 xl0_ 26.5 1.8

Orbit operational.. 13 55 25 to 85.. 0.33 x 105 4.8 0.33 74_o 02 .

to to to to to 26_ N 2.
32 90 0.35 x 105 5.2 0.35

Orbit storage ...... 5 40 25 to 100. 0.03 x l0 s 0.45 0.03 74_o 02.

to to to to to 26_o N2.
30 85 0.4 x 10 s 6 0.4

I Nm-2=Newtons per square meter.

psi = pounds per square inch.
Atm =atmosphere.

To control temperatures and humidity during manned and unmanned

periods, an active thermal control system for OWS, AM, and MDA has been
provided. Located in the Airlock Module, this system will cool and purify
the atmosphere. A combination of air duct heaters and wall heaters, located
in other areas of the Skylab, will provide heating as required. The heaters
will prevent condensation from forming and damaging instruments and
equipment, and they will maintain a comfortable environment for the crews.
Some heat-producing components that require cooling are mounted on cold
plates which will be temperature-controlled by a liquid coolant system in
the AM. Excess heat from the AM cooling system will be radiated to space
through radiators on the MDA and on the forward AM.
Thermal control of the Apollo Telescope Mount will be provided by a
system of passive control measures, radiant heaters, and a liquid coolant
system with cold plates and space radiators. A Sun shield will protect much
of the ATM equipment from direct sunlight (Fig. 98).

c. Data and Communications Systems

A space system as active and complex as Skylab produces a huge amount

of data which must be sent to Earth for evaluation and use. Basically, there
are two types of data; first, physical data including film, tapes, emulsion
plates, surface samples, biomedical specimens, log books, and notes; and

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J
 GAS lNLEl
/
OVERBOARD
DUMP
- CHARCOALCANISTER

FIGURE
115.-Carbon dioxide removal system, using reusable zeolite beds.

second, data in the form of signals such as audio, telemetry, and video sig-
nals. Physical data will be brought back from Skylab on the Command
Module. Transmittable data will be sent from Skylab to Earth, and also frlwn
the Earth to Skylab, through a system of transmitters and receivers on Skylab
and in the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Network ( S T D N ) .
Fig. 116 shows the locations and the approximate ranges of 13 STDN
stations, 11 of them fixed, one ship-borne, and one air-borne. The Skyiab
communications system, whose characteristics are listed in Table 8, provides
the links between Skylab and the STDN. I n addition to real-time telemetry,
which will be available during about one-fourth of the time with an average
contact time of 6.5 minutes per station, delayed time data and voice will be
recorded on board for playback while Skylab is over a ground station. The
playback system has the capability to dump two hours of stored data in 5.45
minutes. Periodic television transmission for the five ,4TM cameras and for
the portable T V cameras will be achieved through the frequency-modulated
S-band link on the Command and Service Module. ‘4 video tape recorder
system \vi11 be available in the Multiple Docking .idapter. The portable color
cameras, either hand-held or bracket-mounted (Fig. 118), have 525 scan
lines at 30 frames per second. They can operate within a wide range of
illumination.
Some of the scientific data, such as solar ultraviolet spectral measurements
of Experiment S055, will be recorded on tape and transmitted to ground
when Skylab is in line of sight for one of the receiving stations. Measure-
ments taken by the numerous control instruments on Skylab, including
housekeeping information on temperature, pressure, and humidity, and bio-
medical data from sensors worn by the astronauts, will be processed by

100
 90 100 120 140 160 E 180W 160 140 120 100 80 60 20 W 0 E 20 40 60 80 90

80
' 234 _mi ALTITUDE

% RADAR ELEVATION AT

,. t ;_, L/ 60

40

( - C"i')l J

6O

70 _ _ _'

90100 120 140 160 E180W 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 WOE 20 40 60 80 90

GROUND STATIONS

LONGITUDE (DEG) • VANGUARD SHIP I

FIOURE 116.--Network of ground stations around the Earth for communications to

and from Skylab.

onboard instrumentation systems and either transmitted directly to Earth

or recorded on tape for transmission when ground contact exists.
Commands can be sent to Skylab from Mission Control Center in
Houston to perform onboard functions, and to supply data to the onboard
computers and the crew. An onboard teleprinter is available to produce
paper copies of information for the crew, along with daily schedules of
Skylab activities. Voice communication between Skylab and Mission Control
at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston will be handled through
the Command and Service Module docked at Skylab while astronauts
are in orbit. Internal communications between astronauts anywhere in the
Skylab cluster or on extravehicular activities will be possible through a
number of communications panels and loudspeakers.
Principal Investigators (PIs) will have the opportunity of communicating
with crew members through the Mission Control Flight Director.
Flow and distribution of Skylab data are illustrated in Fig. 119. All the
signals received at STDN stations will first be passed on to the Goddard
Space Flight Center, and from there to the Mission Control Center in
Houston. The Principal Investigators will receive their data through Mission
Control either in the form of tapes of processed and printed data, and of
photographs as obtained from transmitted signals, or as films, samples, speci-
mens, notes, and log books brought back in the Command Modules. After
the Principal Investigators have analyzed the data and had an opportunity
to publish the results, NASA will make the experiment data available to
other qualified investigators upon request.

I01

I
4
 TABLE
8.-Skylab External Communications

Frequency M& Mode 1 Modulation Use

230.4... ............ T FM/PCM Launch telemetry.

230.4.. ............. T FM/PCM Telemetry, voice, data.
235.0 ............... T FMlPCM Telemetry, voice, data.
246.3 ...............T FM/PCM Telemetry, voice, data.
450.0 ............... R FM Ground Command teleprinter.
296.8 ............... T AM CSM ranging.
259.7 ............... R Tones CSM ranging.
231.9 ............... T FM/PCM ATM telemetry.
237.0 ............... T FM/PCM ATM telemetry.
450.0 ............... R FM ATM ground command.
243.0 ............... T ICW Recovery beacon.
259.7... ............ T AM Ranging to Skylab.
259.7 ............... R AM Ranging to Skylab.
296.8 ............... T AM Voice, range, data.
296.8 ...............R AM Voice, range, data.
2106.4 ..............T PM/PCM Telemetry.
2287.5 .............. T PM/PCM Telemetry.
2272.5 .............. T FM TV, telemetry.

1 T=Transmitter, R=Receiver.

FIGURE118.-Handheld TV camera for use on Skylab.

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 The supply of photographic films for the complete Skyl_b mission includes
about 280 cassettes, most of them with 400 ft-reels of 16 mm film; 64
magazines with 16 mm, 35 mm, or 70 mm film; and a number of packs
and rolls with films of special sizes and varying lengths.
Weights of films, tapes, specimens, and other physical data expected to be
brought back from Skylab in the three Command Modules are listed in
Table 9.

d. Crew Accommodations

As a manned space vehicle, Skylab provides a habitable environment

with living quarters, crew provisions, and facilities for food preparation
and waste disposal to support a three-man crew for three missions (one for
28 days, and two for 56 days each). The center of activity is the Workshop
shown in Fig 72. The main "floor" of the Workshop contains the wardroom
or food management subsystem, individual sleeping compartments, an ex-
periment work area, and the waste management subsystem (toilet) with
hygiene facilities (Fig. 121 ).
The Food Management Subsystem consists of equipment and supplies
required for the storage, preparation, and consumption of the daily meals
by the astronaut crew. The astronauts, provided with a 140-day supply
of food and beverages, will use the wardroom as kitchen and dining room.
Food is stored in food boxes, galley trays, food freezers, and a food chiller.
A galley, the food table, food trays, and eating utensils are provided for
the preparation and consumption of the meals.
For the first manned space flights during the early 1960's, meals were
prepared and packaged specifically for the zero-gravity environment with
the result that they barely resembled normal Earth food. Real progress in
astronaut eating was achieved on Christmas Day, 1968, when Frank Borman,
James Lovell, and William Anders, circling the Moon on board Apollo 8,
opened a surprise food package. It contained natural pieces of turkey with
brown gravy, bright red cranberry applesauce, and a normal spoon. That
meal proved that it was possible to serve tasty, familiar food, and to eat it
with normal utensils, under zero gravity. Loose food and liquids could be
controlled easily; even the gravy stayed where it belonged. A further step
toward more normal food has been taken for Skylab. The Skylab crew will
have a wide variety of frozen and dehydrated food to prepare menus rang-
ing from cold cereals to potato salad, shrimp cocktail, and filet mignon.
Foods that will adhere to a fork or knife, such as steak, mashed potatoes,
or pie, will be eaten with normal utensils; liquids, including coffee, tea,
instant breakfast, grape and orange drink, cocoa, and lemonade, will be
served in squeezable plastic containers and sipped through tubes.
The galley in the wardroom will provide the daily supply of food; galley-
located equipment will be used for preparation and disposal of food. Meal
preparation and consumption equipment is shown in Fig. 122; trash dis-
posal in Fig. 123.
The food table will permit three crewmen to simultaneously heat their
food and to eat their meals in an efficient and comfortable manner, using

103
500 721 0 - 73 - 8

!
G
 I SKYLAB

L---- .... CM-RETURNED OA_A

--I T- ....
I I
TELEMETRY t I
TRACKING
COMMUNICATIONS ANALYSIS I
I

AND DATANETWORK
PACECRAFT TRACKING

t
SPACEPLIGHTCENTER
GODDARD

MISSION CONTROL
SPACE
CENTER
MARSHALL
FLIGHT CENTER _[

DATA
REDUCTION
DATA

INVESTIGATORS
OTHER I PUBLICATION

FIGURE 119.--Flow and distribution of data returned from Skylab.

TABLE 9.--Weights of Data and Material to Be Returned On

Board Command Modules

Mission

Type of material I 11 HI

kg lbs kg lbs kg lbs

Biomedical Specimens .................... 36 79 48 106 46 101

Solar Astronomy Films ................... 84 185 161_ 370 84 185
Science Films and Samples ................ 34 75 16 35 5. 5 12
Earth Resources Films and Tapes .......... 35 77 35 77 40 88
Technology Films and Samples ............ 30 66 2 4 ........
Operations Films ........................ 24 53 28 62 13 27

normal utensils and food trays. The table also supports components of
the water system, including the water chiller and the wardroom water
heater. The water chiller provides cold water for cold reconstitution of
dehydrated foods and beverages and also for drinking purposes. The ward-
room water heater prov'_de,_ hot water for hot reconstitution of dehydrated

104
 FIGURE12 1.-Main floor of Skylab, showing hatch for waste disposal (formerly oxy-
gen tank) in foreground, and waste management subsystem (toilet) in rear center.

FIGURE. 122.-Galley equipment, including food table and food storage lockers.

105

I
foods and beverages. Each eating station has a foot and thigh restraint to
hold the crewman in a comfortable position while eating.
One portable food tray per crewman is used to heat frozen food in large
food cans, and to serve the complete meal (Fig. 124). Magnets, dispersed
about the surface of the food tray, retain the reusable utensils while they
are not in use. One utensil set consisting of knife, spoon, and fork is allocated
to each crewman. Disinfectant-moistened pads, obtained from a galley-
located tissue dispenser, will be used to cleanse the utensils after each use.
The wardroom food preparation and serving table also provides support
in other activities, such as writing and playing games, when body restraint
and restraint for objects are needed. A window in the wardroom, designed
to accommodate several experiments which require exterior viewing, also
affords a look to the ouside for the crew (Fig. 125) .
The Waste Management Area (toilet) is shown in Fig. 126. Waste
management facilities presented a unique challenge to spacecraft designers.
I n addition to collection of liquid and solid human wastes, there is a
medical requirement to dry all solid human waste products and to return
the residue to Earth for examination. Liquid human waste (urine) will be
sampled and frozen for return to Earth. Total quantities of each astronaut’s
liquid and solid wastes will be precisely measured.

L ’

,
FIGURE123.-Hatch for disposal of waste in former oxygen tank.

106

I
 In the case of solid waste, a bag with a special filter is installed in the
suction line of the toilet, allowing gases to pass through, and retaining
only feces. Upon collection, the weight will be determined on a special
spring-pendulum scale, and .the bag will be placed in an electrically heated
compartment where the contents are dried. The bag containing solid
residue wilt then be stored for return to Earth.
Liquid waste will be processed with a centrifugal device installed in the
suction line which imparts to the liquid sufficient force to actuate a precise
liquid quantity meter. A constant volume (approximately 120 milliliters)
of the liquid will then be separated and stabilized by freezing until it is
returned to Earth.
Cabin air will be drawn into the toilet and over the waste products to
generate a flow of the waste in the desired direction. The air will then be
filtered for odor control and for antiseptic purposes prior to being dis-
charged back into the cabin.
The washing facility is also illustrated in Figure 127. The crewman will
wet a washcloth by placing it over the water discharge, apply soap to the
cloth, and bathe and rinse as he would at home. The wet cloth will be dis-
carded after use. A body shower will be taken by each crewman about
once a week, the limit being set by the water storage capacity on Skylab (six
pints per shower). Water will be discharged through a showerhead at
the end of a flexible hose. Showers will be taken inside a cylindrical com-
partment (Fig. 127). The floating water droplets will be driven into a
water collection system by air flow. Towels and tissues will be supplied
as well as antiseptic cleaning agents.
Electric or safety razors may be used for shaving. A mirror is provided
above the lavatory (Fig. 126).
Each crewman is assigned a small space for sleeping, as shown in Fig-
ure 128. Because of the absence of gravity, sleeping comfort can be achieved
in any position relative to the spacecraft; body support is not necessary.
Sleeping, therefore, can be accommodated quite comfortably in a bag
which holds the body at a given place in Skylab and also encloses it in a
manner which is psychologically and physically pleasing.
Finally, the main floor includes an experiment work area in addition to
the wardroom and the waste management and sleeping areas described
above. This work area is shown in Figures 129 and 130. Medical experi-
ments will be conducted in this area (Chapter V-3).

e. Electric Power System

Solar energy is the prime source of electric power on Skylab. Two sys-
tems of solar-electric cell arrays, one on the Workshop and one on the
Apollo Telescope Mount, will be deployed after the Skylab cluster has
reached orbit. The OWS system consists of two wing-like structures which
are folded and packed against the Workshop wall during ascent. The ATM
system, folded in a similar way during ascent, deploys in the shape of a
four-bladed windmill (Fig. 131).

107
FIGURE124.-Food tray and eating utensils for Skylab crew. By contrast, Apollo astro-
nauts had only the food packets shown in the foreground.

FIGURE125.-Food table with leg restraints, and window to the outside.

108
 Each system provides about 110 m2 ( 1180 ft2) of active silicon cell area.
Under ideal conditions of solar irradiation, each array will produce almost
12 kw of electric power. During the dark portion of each orbit, solar
energy is not received, and storage batteries must provide power. Battery
chargers, voltage regulators, power conditioning units, and distribution

cc

-I

FIGURE126.-Waste management (toilet) and sample storage.

109

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components will consume a certain portion of power. Under the influence
of all these factors, the OWS array will produce an average usable power
of about 3.8 kw, and the ATM array an average usable power of about
3.7 kw.
The Airlock Module will serve as the power center for the Workshop,
the MDA, and the AM. Power from the OWS array is routed to the AM
where batteries and power conditioning components are located. The
ATM power conditioning equipment is mounted on the ATM rack; it
will be controlled from the ATM Control and Display Console located in

I
FIGURE127.-Shower compartment within Workshop.

110

I
\
 the MDA. Although the two power systems are self-contained, they are
interconnected in a parallel mode to allow maximum utilization of the
available capacity. I n addition to the permanently wired power-consuming
systems, there are 28-volt utility outlets in the OWS, the AM, and the
MDA for lights, tools, equipment, and even a vacuum cleaner.
Power for the Command and Service Module will be provided by
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells during ascent. After docking, the CSM power
line will be connected to the Workshop network. O n the return flight to
Earth, the CSM will draw its electric power from batteries.

I ' I
 FIGURE129.-Work area with litter chair for rotation of an astronaut (mockup).

FIGURE130.-Work area with medical experiments, including Lower Body Negative

Pressure system and wheelless bicycle (Ergometer).

112
 FIGURE131.-Unfolding of solar arrays of Apollo Tclescope Mount (ATM) in orbit.

113

f
CHAPTER V

Research Programs on Skylab

Skylab, combining the unique features of an orbiting spacecraft with

the convenience of a roomy, well-equipped laboratory, offers an unprece-
dented opportunity for research in a number of scientific and technical areas.
Almost 300 separate investigations, taking advantage of this opportunity, will
advance knowledge in four major areas: science, Earth observations, zero-
gravity technology, and the reaction of man to the environment of space.
In the space science area, major emphasis rests on solar observations, most
of them with the instruments mounted on the Apollo Telescope Mount. The
ATM will observe the Sun with eight instrments: the white light corono-
graph, two X-ray telescopes, three ultraviolet spectrographs, and two helio-
graphs imaging the Sun in the red light of the H-alpha line. (The H-alpha
line is the red line in the Balmer series of the hydrogen spectrum, 656.28
nanometers or 6562.8 Angstrom units).1 An ultraviolet and X-ray spec-
trograph will observe the Sun through a scientific airlock in the wall of the
Orbital Workshop.
Several instruments will record the ultraviolet and X-ray emissions of
stellar objects within our Milky Way galaxy.
Cosmic ray particles will be recorded, and the minute impact craters of
micrometeoroids on polished metal plates will be studied after the exposed
plates have been brought back to Earth.
Medical doctors and biophysicists will utilize the state of weightlessness on
board Skylab for scientific investigations. The effects of complete absence of
gravitational forces upon metabolism, growth, and division of cells, upon
tissues and organs, upon development cycles, and upon the wake-and-sleep
rhythms of animals, will be studied in several experiments.
Observations of the Earth's surface from orbit, one of the major objectives
of Sky!ab, will be canA'ed out by the EREP assembly (Earth Resources
Experiment Package). It contains six different instruments which will view
targets on Earth in visible light, in infrared, and with microwaves. These
observations will cover large areas of the Earth in a very short time under
identical lighting conditions; they will provide information on such large-
scale variables as cloud cover, snow and water conditions, ocean state, crop
conditions, vegetation growth, development of urban and rural areas, water
pollution, land use, and other factors which are of vital importance in the
interaction of man with his environment.
The effects of gravity, ever-present on Earth, are not observable in the
environment of an orbiting spacecraft. Processes such as convection, mixing
of dissimilar components, diffusion in fluids, heat conduction, flow patterns,

( 1 nanometer= 1 nm= 10-Dmeter_ I0 Angstrom units)

114

!
liquid surface forming, crystal growing, casting of composites, welding, and
flame propagation, which are influenced by gravitational forces on Earth,
will be different in space. Some of the familiar methods of manufacturing
and assembly will require new techniques under space conditions; on the
other hand, some processes which cannot he achieved on Earth, such as the
aUoying of metals with greatly different densities or the formation of certain
glasses, may become easy under weightlessness. A series of experiments to
study such processes will be carried out on Skylab.
For the firt time in the space program, Skylab will offer an opportunity to
systematically study the problems of life and work of man under prolonged
exposure to space conditions. Numerous experiments were prepared to ob-
serve physical and mental functions of the astronauts, environmental con-
ditions inside and outside the spacecraft, habitability features of the Work-
shop, the utility of tools, interfaces between astronauts and instrumentation,
and the functioning of auxiliary systems. Many of these experiments are
_iomedical in character; their results will help us understand how man will
adapt to the unique environment of a laboratory in space and how future
space stations and deep space probes should be equipped to assure a com-
fortable and productive existence for astronauts. At the same time, experi-
ments in this program will teach us how to build and equip spacecraft of
the future in such a way that they offer optimum technical conditions for
scientific research, for Earth observations, for zero-gravity technology, and
as a habitat for the astronauts.
Experiments on Skylab will be described in four groups according to their
objectives: science, Earth observations, life sciences, and space technology.
Sections on the Skylab student project and on the postflight evaluation of
Skylab data will follow.
The numbers listed with each experiment are the official designations for
the Experiment Program; see also Chapter VIII, Listing of Skylab
Experiments.

1. SPACE SCIENCE PROJECTS

As an observing station in orbit, Skylab has attracted the interest of

astronomers, physicists and biologists from the time it was first conceived. In
fact, a number of crucial observations in these three areas of scientific endea-
vor are planned, with the expectation that results will greatly advance our
knowledge and will lay the groundwork for further research. The most
prominent package of scientific instruments on Skylab, the Apollo Telescope
Mount, will permit a study of the Sun. Some observations are planned of
stellar objects, and some studies will be made of phenomena near the Earth
which are difficult or impossible to observe from the ground. Biological
studies on the effects of weightlessness will be described under Life Science
Projects, Chapter V-3.

a. Solar Studies

Skylab's total man-attended time of 140 days, spread out over a period of
eight months, will provide a unique opportunity to observe the Sun and its
many surface phenomena in wavelength regions which are not accessible

115
from Earth. Fig. 132 shows a portion of the Sun as viewed from Earth in
the red light of hydrogen. Skylab instruments will be able to view such
active areas also in ultraviolet and X-ray light. I n orbit, seeing conditions
are always flawless; the image quality depends only on the resolving power
of the optical system, the pointing stability of the instrument, and the capa-
bility of the sensor.
Eight different telescopes on ATM will observe details of the Sun in various
wavelength regions, as indicated in Fig. 133 which shows the spectral cover-
age of the instruments and also the transmissivity of the Earth's atmosphere
as a function of wavelength. ATM will attack a wide variety of problems in
solar physics (Fig. 134) through coordinated observations with such instru-
ments as a white light coronagraph which will photograph the corona out
to about six solar radii, a spectrograph for the 97 to 394 nm range, a
spectrometer-spectroheliometer for the 30 to 140 nm range, a spectro-
heliograph for the 15 to 62.5 nm range, two X-ray telescopes covering the 0.2
to 6 nm range, and two H-alpha cameras (656.3 nm) which will provide
images of the Sun's disc in the red light emitted by excited hydrogen atoms
(Fig. 135). All of these instruments are rigidly mounted on the spar inside
the ATM canister (see Chapter IV-1-e) . The canister can be fine-pointed
within pitch and yaw movements of 2" relative to the rest of the Skylab.
These movements will permit the exact orientation of the telescopes to any
point on the Sun; the solar disc subtends an angle of 0.5" when seen from
points on or near the Earth.

FIGURE132.-Photograph of a portion of the sun, taken in the red light of the hydro-
gen alpha spectral line (625.3 nanometer or 6253 A ) . Courtesy of California Insti-
tute of Technology Observatory a t Big Bear L?ke, California.

116
 %

X RAY UNTRAVIOLET VISIBLE INFRARED MICROWAVE

0
1
10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 _0 7 10 8

I ANGSTROM

0.1 I
1 110 10I 2 [ 3
10 1/0 4 10I 5 10I 6 10I 7
NANOMETER

WAVELENGTH
COVERAGE BY

ATM EXPERIMENTS

WAVELENGTH

FIGURE 133.--Transmissivity of the atmosphere for various regions of the wavelength

spectrum.

A single control and display console in the Multiple Docking Adapter

adjacent to the ATM will permit manual operation and visual monitoring
of all the experiments on ATM through selector switches, pointing controls,
TV monitors, and a variety of indicators of experiment status, film usage,
solar conditions, and other parameters (Fig. 99).
The role of the scientist astronaut on board Skylab will be to recognize
and to point at targets of opportunity which promise a particularly high
yield of scientific information; to survey, diagnose, report on, and possibly
modify instrument performance ; and to retrieve photographic film by extra-
vehicular activties (EVA) for transport back to Earth.
Observing programs that will be carried out during the Skylab operation
do not emphasize individual experiments, but broad problems in solar physics
which will be attacked simultaneously by all investigators. Among these
observing programs are the following (Fig. 136) :

Chromospheric network and supergranulation.

Active regions; their morphology and development.
Solar flares.
Prominences and filaments.
Center-to-limb studies of the quiet Sun.
Observations of slowly varying phenomena over periods of days and
weeks.

117
 ..
,-
- ..
._ ,_n

:: t t t
XUV SPECTROHELIOGRAMS

FIGURE
134.-Areas of solar research from Skylab.

Solar studies on Skylab will be complemented by a coordinated program

of numerous ground-based observations, sounding rocket launches, and ob-
servations from other spacecraft.
During the Skylab mission, several sounding rockets will be used to launch
subscale models of the ATM experiments SO82 and SO55 (ultraviolet spectro-
graphs) for calibration purposes. The sounding rocket instruments will
acquire data of a quiet solar region nearly simultaneously with the corre-
sponding Skylab instruments. Since the rocket-launched payloads can be
calibrated immediately before and after flight, the data obtained with these
instruments will serve as reference for the near-simultaneous data acquired
by the Skylab instruments. Resulting calibration factors will then be used
in post-mission analysis of all Skylab data. Two calibration flights are sched-
uled for each of the two experiments during the Skylab flight; one during the
first, and one during the second manned mission. If the first rocket flight
should fail, a calibration flight will be scheduled during the third manned
mission.
I t is expected that the Skylab program of solar studies will bring a decisive
increase in our knowledge of the Sun by extending our observing capability
toward shorter wavelengths, toward higher resolution, and toward greater
sensitivity. The fact that the same phenomena on the Sun will be observed

118
FIGURE135.-View of a small area on the solar disc, taken in different wavelength
regions. The granular structure on the top pictures is seen in white light; the bottom
pictures in monochromatic (red) hydrogen light show areas of strong emission
(light) and absorption (dark) of hydrogen clouds. Courtesy of Sacramento Peak
Observatory, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Sunspot, New Mexico.

simultaneously by several different instruments on Skylab and from the

Earth will greatly enhance the gain of scientific knowledge and under-
standing.
Observations of the Sun from Earth reveal three distinct outer layers on
the Sun (Fig. 137). These are the very bright and almost opaque photo-
sphere (about 5700" K temperature) with granules and sunspots; the more
tenuous chromosphere (as low as 4000" K ) with supergranules, plage areas,
occasional violent outbursts in the form of solar flares, and other transient
features such as vertical plasma jets called spicules; and the very tenuous
corona which extends from the chromosphere (about 14,000 km-9,000
miles-above the photosphere) to a distance exceeding that of the Earth's
orbit. Prominences, consisting of huge plasma clouds, represent extensions of
the chromosphere far out into the corona. The inner corona has a tempera-
ture up to several million degrees K. The chromosphere is the region where
the continuous spectrum radiated by the photosphere becomes the absorption
spectrum with the black Fraunhofer lines.
Problem areas in solar physics which Skylab will attack and hopefully
help clarify include such processes as the transport of enerLgyfrom the photo-
sphere through the chromosphere and into the super-hot corona; the origin,

119
FIGURE136.-Active areas on the Sun with violent outbursts of super-hot plasma, on
July 26, 1972, photographed in the red light of the hydrogen-alpha line.

FIGURE137.-Left: Major zones inside and outside thc Sun; Right: absorption and
transmission of various solar radiations in the Earth’s atmosphere.

120
 -SOLAR SCfENTtFIC AIRLOCK

~~

DISASSEMBLY FOR FILM L O A D I N G

FIGURE138.-Experiment S020, Solar photography with a spectrograph for soft X-ray

and short ultraviolet radiation.

development, and energy-producing mechanism of solar flares; and the proc-

esses which produce the solar wind. Better knowledge of these solar processes
will improve our understanding of the Sun’s influence on our Earth environ-
ment, particularly on weather and climate. I t will also expand our knowledge
of plasma physics, a relatively young branch of science which will probably
play a major role in future science and technology.
One of the solar instruments on Skylab (S020) is located in the Orbital
Workshop; all the others are mounted on the central spar of the ATM
canister. These experiments are described in the following sections.

S020, Ultraviolet and X-ray Solar Photography (Fig. 138)l

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Richard Tousey
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
Objective:
Record on photographic film a spectrum of the X-ray and ultravioIet
radiation from the Sun in the one to 20 nanometer (10 to 200 Angstrom)
region, with modest angular resolution. Radiations in this spectral range
are emitted by highly ionized atoms in the solar chromosphere and corona.
They are indicative of high-temperature atomic and plasma processes
which are extremely difficult to duplicate on Earth.

Although this experiment is less significant than the ATM experiments, i t is listed
first because of the numbering system applied to the experiments.
121
Instrument:
Sunlight will enter a narrow slit and impinge upon a grating under a very
small angle of incidence. Under conditions of grazing incidence, gratings
reflect sufficient energy even in the one to 10 nm wavelength region (soft
X-ray region) to make film recordings feasible when long-time exposures
can be made. Thin metallic films in front of the slit will block out un-
desired ultraviolet and visible light.
The instrument is mounted in the solar airlock of the Orbital Workshop,
facing the Sun. A finder telescope will enable the crew member to place
the solar image on the slit of the spectrograph. Exposures will last up to
one hour.

S052, White Light Coronagraph (Figs. 133, 140)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. R. MacQueen
High Altitude Observatory
Boulder, Colorado
0 bjective :
Obtain high resolution, high sensitivity photographs of the solar corona
from 1.5 to 6 solar radii (300,000 km or 186,000 statute miles to almost
three million km or 1.86 million statute miles above the solar surface).
Study brightness, form, size, composition, polarization, and movements of
the corona. Correlate the observations with solar surface events and with
solar wind effects.
Instrument:
Coronagraphs are designed to block out the image of the Sun’s disc and
to take pictures of the faint corona which extends from the Sun far into
space. Light scattering by optical elements and by structural surfaces must
be carefully avoided. This instrument containts four coaxial occulting discs
and photodetectors for alignment corrections. Pictures will be recorded on
35 mm film; they are taken either in unpolarized light or in one of three
possible orientations of plane polarized light. Also, the instrument can
operate in the “video mode” which will permit display for the astronauts
or T V transmission to the ground.

*// L<

FIGURE139.-Experiment S052, White Light Coronagraph observing the corona

around the Sun.

122
 HEATER PANELS

TV CAMERA

POINTING REFERENCE
SYSTEM PHOTODETECTORS

FILM

EXTERNAL OCCULTING
DISK ASSEMBLY

MOTOR DRIVE BOX

MAIN ELECTRONICS BOX

FIGURE140.--Experiment S052, diagram showing constructional details.

Operation in four photographic modes is possible. In each mode, the

shutter of the camera makes three exposures of 0.5, 1.5, and 4.5 seconds
duration. In the first mode, this triple exposure is made at each of the
four different positions of the polarization filter wheel. In the second mode,
this same sequence of 12 exposures is repeated continuously for 16 minutes.
In the third mode, the triple exposures repeat in fast sequence for 16
minutes, with the filter wheel in the "clear" position. The fourth mode
will be the same as mode three, except that a shutter opening will occur
every 32 seconds only; this mode will continue until manually stopped.

S054, X-ray Spectrographic Telescope (Figs. 141, 142)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Riccardo Giacconi
Acting:
Dr. Giuseppe Vaiana
American Science and Engineering Corporation
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Objective:
Obtain X-ray images of the Sun over a wavelength range from 0.2 to 6
nm (2 to 60 Angstrom). Record X-ray emissions of flares with a spatial
resolution of two arc sec. Use selective filters and a transmission grating
to obtain spectral information. Follow the evolution of active areas and
correlate X-ray emissions with solar events observed in ultraviolet and
visible light.
Solar X-rays are emitted from flares and also from other regions of
activity, such as plage areas, prominences, and the corona. Two basic

123
I FIGURE14 1 .-Experiment S054, Spectrographic telescope for X-rays.

CAMERA & FILTERWHEEL

FLARE DETECTOR

GRATING DRIVE

EMPERATURE
ONTROL UNIT

PHOTOMULTIPLIER

FIGURE
142.-Experiment S054, diagram showing constructional details.

processes of the Sun seem to be responsible for most of the X-ray emission,
the heating of plasmas, and the sudden acceleration or deceleration of
electrons.

124
Instrument:
X-ray sources can be imaged with mirror optics utilizing very flat angles
of incidence below about 0.5 degrees (Fig. 143). This experiment uses
two cylindrical, coaxial mirrors of this kind with diameters of 31 and 23
cm (12.3 in and 9.2 i n ) , with a total collecting area (two concentric
rings) of 42 cm2 (6.7 inz), and with a focal length of 213 cm (85 i n ) .
The transmission grating is mounted behind the rear end of the cylindrical
mirrors; it will produce spectra on both sides of the zero-order image of
a source (Fig. 144). A filter wheel mechanism will permit the insertion
of selective filters into the path of the X-rays, thus providing broad-band
spectral filtering of the flux. X-ray images will be recorded on 70 mm film.
A 7.6 cm ( 3 in) diameter, coaxial X-ray mirror will produce an X-ray
image of the Sun on a scintillator crystal where it will be sensed by the

FIGURE143.-Cylindrical Mirror for X-ray imaging telescope.

125
 5 I
i
FIRST ORDER SPECTRUM
ORDER
UNDISPERSED IMAGE 4
(ZERO ORDER) THIRD 1

FIRST ORDEI

TRANSMISSION
GRATING

IMAGE
PLANE 1
<
uJ

ZERO
0 O ORDER o_
,.J S
SOFT X-RAY z
TELESCOPE 1

2._-- l
2 FIRST

-9---- 8A
4

: :::
/ :'.: THIRD

/:/
ORDER
/ PARALLEL RAYS FROM
DISTANT X-RAY SOURCE

FIGURE 144.--X-ray telescope with grating, showing generation of spectra of individual

X-ray sources.

photocathode of an image dissector tube. The output of this tube will be

used for a visual display on the ATM console.
A photomultiplier tube, oriented toward the Sun, will measure the total
solar X-ray flux; when a preset level is exceeded, an alarm for the astro-
nauts will be given. The signal from this tube will also serve as a reference
for the exposure setting of the film camera on the main telescope.

S055, Ultraviolet Scanning Polychromator/Spectroheliometer (Figs. 145,

146)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Leo Goldberg, Director
Kitt Peak National Observatory
Acting:
Dr. Edward Reeves
Harvard College Observatory
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Objective :
Obtain photometric data of six spectral lines (O IV, Mg X, C III, O VI,
H I, C II) 1 and the Lyman continuum _ in the wavelength region from

t Three times ionized oxygen, nine times ionized magnesium, doubly ionized
carbon, five times ionized oxygen, ionized hydrogen, and singly ionized carbon.
= Light below 912 A emitted by hydrogen atoms.

126
 FIGURE145.-Experiment S055, Spectrometer for ultraviolet radiations.

30 to 140 nm (300 to 1400 Angstrom) from 5 arc sec by 5 arc surface

elements of the Sun. Also, obtain a spectral scan of the 30 to 140 nm
region by tilting the grating.
Raster scanning of 5 arc min by 5 arc min areas will be achieved by
rocking the primary mirror around two axes.
Radiations in this part of the spectrum are emitted by hot chromo-
sphere and corona regions. The study of relative spectral line intensities
will provide information about plasma composition, temperatures, and
energy transfer processes in quiet and active solar phenomena.
Instruments:
An off-axis paraboloidal primary mirror will form a solar image on a 56
micron by 56 micron entrance slit of the spectrometer, corresponding to
a 5 arc sec by 5 arc sec area on the Sun. Diffraction by a concave grating,
ruled in gold with 1800 grooves per mm, will produce a spectrum on the
Rowland circle where seven photomultiplier detectors (Channeltrons)
in fixed positions will simultaneously record the intensities of the six
lines and the Lyman continuum. Bi-axial motion of the primary mirror
will generate the desired raster scanning pattern (polychromator mode) .
I n the grating scan mode, the primary mirror will remain fixed while
the grating is tilted to scan the entire operating spectrum past one or
more of the photomultiplier detectors. The signals from the detectors will
be transmitted to the ground by telemetry.
The Rowland circle determines the locations of slit, grating, and detector in a
concave grating spectrograph.
127
 HEATER

CONTROLLERS PANEL

ACCESS COVER (TYPICAL) I pR MARY MIRROR

HEATER PANEL i

MONITOR MIR_

HOUSING COVER, (REMOVEO PRIOR TO

N2 PURGE

i pOINT

AFT ALIGNMENT SUPPORT

REJECTION MIRROR [

ENTRANCE SHROU_
HOU$_NG

POWER SUPPLY MOOULE_

^LIGNMENT SUPPORT

PO_N!

REJECTION MIRROR

// HEATER PANEL

120"

FmuaE 146.--Experiment S055, diagram showing constructional detail.

S056, X-ray Telescope (Figs. 147, 148)

Principal Investigator:
James Milligan
NASA-George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Project Scientist:
Dr. James Underwood
Aerospace Corporation
E1 Segundo, California
Objective:
Photograph the solar disc in X-ray light (0.6 to 3.3 nm or 6 to 33
Angstrom) with high resolution in space and time, and modest spectral
resolution. Attempt to obtain pictures during quiet and active periods.
Monitor the total solar X-ray flux with proportional counters in the 0.2
to 0.8 nm (2 to 8 ,_ngstrom) and the 0.8 to 2.0 nm (8 to 20 ,_ngstrom)
regions. Correlate the X-ray pictures with measurements of ultraviolet,
visible, and microwave radiations from the Sun.

128
 FIGURE147.-Experiment S056, X-ray telescope.

FIGURE
148.-Experiment S056, diagram showing constructional detail.

Observation of X-ray fluxes from the Sun will provide information

on high-temperature regions and on interactions between hot plasmas
and magnetic fields. Details of mass and energy transfer mechanisms
and of the development of flares and prominences can be studied from
X-ray measurements.

129
Instrument:
A cylindrical X-ray mirror with paraboloid-hyperboloid surface and graz-
ing incidence, built of quartz, will form an image of the Sun on photo-
graphic film. Broad spectral discrimination will be achieved with five
filters of beryllium, titanium, and aluminum, mounted on a filter wheel.
Filters will be selected by astronaut decision.
Two proportional counters with mechanical collimators to improve
the signal-to-noise ratio will continuously record the total X-ray intensity
from the Sun in two wavelength regions. Their pulses will be pulse-height-
analyzed and recorded on tape.

S082A, Extreme Ultraviolet (XUV) Spectroheliograph (Figs. 149, 150)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Richard Tousey
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
Objective:
Record monochromatic images of the entire Sun in the emission lines
of a spectral range from 15 to 62.5 nanometers (150 to 625 Angstrom).
Obtain information about composition, temperature, energy conversion
and transfer, and plasma processes within the chromosphere and lower
corona. Correlate these data with results from simultaneous observations
in the other wavelength regions. Among the most intense lines in this
extreme ultraviolet region are those of helium, oxygen, neon, magne-
sium, and iron.

FIGURE149.-Experiment S082A, Spectroheliograph for extreme ultraviolet

radiations.

130
 .ERS

TCS ELECTRONICS

,THERMALCONTROLPANELS

LONG WAVELENGTH

,SHORT WAVELENGTH
CONCAVE
REJECTOR MIRROR
GRATING
FLASHER

FILM STRIP

CAMERA

INPUT LIGHT PATH

EXTERNAL REJECTION MIRROR APERTURE DOOR

FIGURE 150.--Experiment S082A, diagram showing constructional detail.

Instrument:

Imaging of the Sun and generation of the spectrum will be achieved by

a single concave mirror of 2 m (80 in) focal length, ruled in gold with
3600 lines per mm. Monochromatic, overlapping solar images of 18.6 mm
(0.75 in) diameter will be formed on a film strip. Two spectral ranges
of 15 to 35.5 nm and 32.1 to 62.5 nm (150 to 335 A and 321 to 625 A)
will be photographed separately, with two angular positions of the grating.
The unused part of the solar spectrum will be reflected out into space
in order to avoid unnecessary heating of the instrument. A thin aluminum
filter in front of the film will keep stray light out. Four film cameras,
each loaded with 200 film strips, will be used; a crew member will
exchange cameras by extravehicular activity (EVA).

S082B, Ultraviolet Spectrograph (Figs. 151, 152)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Richard Tousey
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
Objective:
Obtain UV spectra (97 to 394 nm or 970 to 3940 Angstrom) of small
portions of the solar surface with high spatial and spectral resolution.
Photograph spectra at various locations on and off the disc and across
the limb, from 12 arc sec below to 20 arc sec above the limb. Try to
obtain spectra of flares and other active areas on the Sun.

131
 FIGURE15 1 .-Experiment S082B, Spectrograph for ultraviolet radiations.

THERMAL CONTROL PANELS

POlNTlNG REFERENCE SYSTEM

XUV MONITOR TELESCOPE MI

BAND APERTURE

CAMERA WNTROL UNIT & CABLE

FIGURE
152.-Experiment S082B, diagram showing constructional detail.

Information on the change of the solar energy transportation mode

from convection to plasma-dynamic shock waves will be derived from
these observations. Also, details of structure, density, and temperature
of the chromosphere and the lower corona will be studied.
Attached to this instrument will be the Extreme UV Monitor, pro-
viding a video image of the full solar disc in a broad spectral band (17
to 55 nm or 170 to 550A), for coarse pointing and reference purposes.
An off-axis paraboloidal mirror will generate a solar image in the
plane of the entrance slit of the spectrograph; the image on the reflecting
slit jaws' will be viewed by a white-light TV system for pointing,
selection, and verification by the astronauts.

Se pg. 133, Footnote.

132
Instrument:
For reasons of stray light elimination, a predisperser grating assembly
with two gratings will generate a light beam containing only the desired
wavelength regions. The main grating, a concave mirror ruled at 600
grooves per mm, will produce a spectrum on photographic film with a
resolution of 0.004 nm (0.04 Angstrom) in the 97 to 197 nm (970 to
1970 A) range and a resolution of 0.008 nm (0.08 Angstrom) in the 194
to 394 nm ( 1940 to 3940 A) range. The entrance slit will admit light from
a 2 arc see by 60 arc sec area on the Sun.
Several operational modes can be selected by the crew members, such
as the boresight mode which will permit an astronaut to point at a specific
area on the solar disc, the limb scanning mode which will produce a se-
quence of exposures across the limb by stepwise angular motion of the
primary mirror, and the flare mode in which the instrument will take a
preprogrammed series of exposures of flares or other active areas when
commanded by a crew member. Pointing of the instrument to a desired
area will be accomplished by moving the experiment canister with the
hand controller on the ATM Control Console. Using the solar limb as a
reference, the movable crosshair in one of the hydrogen-alpha telescopes
will be adjusted so that its position coincides with the limb at the same
time that the limb falls on the spectrometer slit, as viewed on the slit jaw
image 1 with the white light TV system. After adjustment, the crosshair
in the hydrogen-alpha telescope will always mark that point on the image
of the solar disc which falls in the middle of the spectrograph slit.

Hydrogen-Alpha Telescopes (Figs. 153, 154)

Responsible for Development:

NASA-George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Objective:
Two telescopes imaging the Sun in the red light of the hydrogen-alpha
line (Balmer series) will provide a visual aid to the astronauts and a
photographic record of solar conditions during ATM observing periods.
Each of the te!escopes has a mechanically movable crosshair; that of
Telescope I will be aligned with the boresight of Experiment S055, that
of Telescope II with the boresight of Experiment S082B. Alignment will
be accomplished by crew members, using the solar limb in two right-angled
directions as reference system.
Hydrogen-alpha images of the solar disc will help crew members locate
areas of solar activity and to recognize early stages of flare developments.
Aiming the telescope and their crosshairs at such targets will automatically
point those instruments which are aligned with the crosshairs to the same
targets.

1 The jaws of the slit of a spectrometer, being located in the focal plane of the
imaging mirror of the spectrograph, carry an image of the light source, in this case
the Sun. By making the surface of the slit jaws reflective, the solar image will be re-
flected and can be viewed by a TV camera. The spectrograph slit appears in
this image as a thin black line. Inspection of the image will help identify the
precise location ' on the solar disc where the spectrum was taken.
133
I
FIGURE153.-Telescopic Camera for photographs in the red light of the hydrogen-
alpha line.

RELA" LENS

LOW LIGHT LEVEL T"

WENT MECHAINISM

HEAT R L X C T I O N
WINDOWINDCELL

FIGURE
154.-Telescopic Camera for hydrogen-alpha photography, constructional
detail.

Instruments:
Hydrogen-alpha Telescope I will provide simultaneous photographic and
TV pictures; its resolution is one arc sec at a field of view of 4.5 arc min-
utes. Telescope I1 \vi11 operate only in the TV mode, with a resolution of

134
 about 3 arc sec. Each telescope has a zoom capability, varying the field
of view between 4.5 and 15.8 arc min for telescope I and Ibetween 7.0 and
35 arc min for telescope 11. Selection of the desired spectral line (656.28
nm or 6562.8 Angstrom) is accomplished with a Fabry-PCrot filter which
contains a solid glass flat with coated surfaces as interference gap. Band-
pass is 0.07 nm (0.7 A) for both telescopes. Polarizing elements in the
optical path will permit polarization studies with both telescopes.

b. Studies in Stellar Astronomy

Although the total program in stellar astronomy on Skylab is modest,
experiments in this program will pursue very interesting objectives. Two
experiments will study ultraviolet low-dispersion spectra of star fields,
nebulae, interstellar dust, and galaxies. Each photographic picture will
contain the spectral images of numerous objects, permitting statistical
evaluation of star populations. A third experiment, recording celestial
X-rays with a large field-of-view instrument, will provide information on
number and location of X-ray sources in various parts of the sky.
These experiments will provide important new data, leading toward
astronomical observations with larger and more sophisticated telescopes
on future space missions.

SO19, UV Stellar Astronomy (Fig. 155)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Karl G. Henize
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
(formerly of Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois)

' X P E R V ' U T I N S T A L L E D IN S C l E W T l F i C A I R L O C K
FOR O P E R A T I O N
E X P E R I M E N T SO19

FIGURE155.-Experiment SO19, Camera with prism for ultraviolet star photography.

135
>no 7 2 1 o -7 10
Objective:
Obtain ultraviolet spectra from stars, using a reflecting telescope and an
objective prism in front of a 35 mm camera. The image of each star will
be drawn out into a small spectrum. Evalute large numbers of spectra
for spectral classes, temperatures, and compositions of stars. Obtain
spectra of nebulae, interstellar dust, and stellar gas shells.
Instrument:
Mounted in the anti-solar airlock of the Orbital Workshop, the telescope
will look at different portions of the sky by means of a movable flat mirror.
Photographs will be taken only while Skylab is on the dark side of its
orbit. The field of view of the system is so large that a number of star
spectra are photographed with each exposure. Films will be developed
and evaluated on the ground.
The telescope has a 15 cm (6 in) mirror, and a field of view of 4 °
by 5 ° . Several different prisms can be inserted in front of the telescope,
depending on the desired spectral resolution and sensitivity. The instru-
ment is sensitive in the spectral region from 300 to 140 nm (3000 to
1400 A). Details can be resolved to about 20 arc seconds.

S150, Galactic X-ray Mapping (Fig. 156)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. William L. Kraushaar
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
Objective:
Survey selected portions of the sky for X-ray sources in the range from
0.2 keV (6 nm or 60 A) to 10 keV (0.12 nm or 1.2 A), and determine the
location of sources with an accuracy of 20 arc minutes.
This experiment will provide knowledge of the existence and variability
of celestial X-ray sources, and of mechanisms of the generation and ab-
sorption of X-rays in space.
Instrument:
The instrument package consists of nine gas-filled proportional counters,
surrounded by 13 additional proportional counters operating as an active
anti-coincidence shield. Mechanical collimators above the counters, ad-
mitting X-rays only within narrow angles, will determine the directions
from which X-rays arrive. As the cluster changes its attitude, the instru-
ment receives radiations from different areas of the celestial sphere. Star
sensors will provide directional information, which is recorded on tape
together with the X-ray data, and transmitted to Earth for analysis.

136
 STAR SENSORS

DEPLOYMENT PROPORTIONAL
ACTUATOR COUNTERS
(LOCATED BELOW
COLLIMATORS)

COLLIMATOR
(TYPICAL)

FIGURE 156.--Experiment S150, Detector for the recording of X-ray sources within
our galaxy.

S183, Ultraviolet Panorama Telescope (Fig. 157)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Georges Court,s
Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiale
Marseilles, France
Objective:
Obtain UV photographs with spectral information of selected stars, star
fields, stellar clouds, and galaxies. This experiment will furnish a large
amount of data not avialable from Earth. Star fields in two UV bands
(150 to 210 nm and 270 to 330 nm or 1500 to 2100 Angstrom and 2700 to
3300 Angstrom) will show the distribution of stars and of other celestial
objects with strong ultraviolet emission. Color indices of these objects will
be calculated from the photographs, and interstellar reddening will be
determined from the color indices for about 1000 stars. Color indices will
also be determined for star clusters, unresolved areas of the Milky Way,
and selected galactic nuclei; statistical interpretation of large stellar popu-
lations will thus be possible.
The UV Panorama Telescope will be mounted in the antisolar scientific
airlock for operation, similar to Experiment S019. Scanning of the sky will
be achieved with the articulated mirror used for S019.

137
FIGURE157.-Experiment S183, Telcscopic camera for ultraviolet star photography.

138
Instrument:
Spectral photometry of star fields requires the combination of a wide angle
imaging system with a spectrum-producing element. The UV Panorama
Telescope uses reflecting mirrors and a plane grating. In order to make the
system insensitive against angular drifting of the pointing direction, a
mosaic of small lenses is placed in the focal plane of the telescope. A pho-
tographic plate in the focal plane of these small lenses will record minute
images of the entrance pupil of the telescope. Only those of the small
lenses which receive a star image in the focal plane of the telescope will
produce bright pupil images on the plate.
As shown in Fig. 158, the grating will disperse the beam of light in such
a way that the spherical mirror receives a spectrum. Two rectangular
openings in a diaphragm in front of this mirror will admit only the two
desired wavelength regions, with the result that each star produces two
images, one for each wavelength region.

c. Space Physics Studies

Several physical phenomena in near-Earth space will be studied by Skylab
experiments which will profit from the relatively long stay-time in orbit, the
large weight-carrying capability of the spacecraft, and the presence of
astronauts.
Cosmic ray particles, for which the atmosphere represents an almost im-
penetrable barrier, are numerous in empty space. Layers of photographic
emulsion on Skylab, exposed to cosmic radiation, will trap such particles.
Their tracks in the emulsion can be made visible by photographic develop-
ment.
Faint luminosities in interplanetary space, caused by the scattering of sun-
light from finely dispersed dust grains, have been observed from Earth. How-
ever, light from the Sun and other celestial objects, and also light from Earth-
bound sources, is scattered by the atmosphere to form a background of sky

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FZGURE158.--Experiment S183, diagram with constructional detail.

139
brightness even at night which makes the observation of faint luminosities
almost impossible. Observations from Skylab will avoid these difficulties.
Most of the meteoroids entering the Earth's atmosphere burn up before
they reach the surface. However, in free space even small meteoroidal par-
ticles present a potential hazard to spacecraft because they can inflict damage
to surfaces and container walls. Skylab will carry an experiment that will
record impacts of micrometeoroids. It is expected that exposure times offered
by Skylab will be long enough to permit statistical evaluations of abundance
and mass of at least small micrometeoroids in the submicrogram category.

SOO9, Nuclear Emulsion Package (Fig. 159)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Maurice M. Shapiro
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
Objective:
Record the tracks of cosmic ray particles as the particles penetrate a
stack of photographic emulsion layers consisting of gelatin and silver
bromide. Study the relative abundance of particles as a function of
their masses.
Cosmic ray particles are fast moving nuclei of chemical elements, prob-
ably originating in thermonuclear mactions of certain stars. Of particular
interest will be the tracks of heavy nuclei. Such particles do not normally
penetrate the Earth's atmosphere because they quickly lose their energy
in ionization and in strong interactions with other nuclei.

1DRIVE AWD COWTROL

EMULSION

[DETECTOR PACKAGE
r-MDASKlN rL\

- .L...,.

Y;(\\"\-EXPERIMENT STRUCTURALSUPPORTS

FIGURE 159.-Experiment SOO9, Emulsion layers for the detection of cosmic ray
particles.
140
Instrument:
Two stacks of emulsion layers are arranged like the two sides of an
open book. After arrival in orbit, one of the astronauts will open the
“book” and deploy it inside the Multiple Docking Adapter, pointing to-
ward outer space. While Skylab is moving through areas of high back-
ground radiation, the “book” will be closed. The emulsion layers will be
exposed for about 240 hours during the first manned period and returned
to Earth with the first crew.
Upon photographic development, the tracks of particles in the emulsion
turn black because nuclear particles activate silver bromide crystals in
their paths, similar to the way light activates an ordinary photographic
emulsion. The thickness of a nuclear track corresponds to the ionization
rate of the particle, which in turn is a function of its charge-to-mass
ratio and of its energy.

S063, Ultraviolet Airglow Horizon Photography (Fig. 160)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Donald M. Packer
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D.C.
0 bjective :
Photograph the Earth’s ozone ‘layers and the horizon airglow in visible
and ultraviolet light. Take pictures in reflected sunlight and at night.
These observations will provide information on oxygen, nitrogen, and
ozone layers in the Earth’s atmosphere, and on their variations during
night-and-day cycles.

M WINOOVX~#EMBLY

SYWCHRONOUS CABLE

FIGURE160.-Experiment S063, Camera to photograph the air glow in the Earth’s

atmosphere.
141
Instrument:
Pictures will be taken with 35 mm camera from three positions within
the Orbital Workshop, the solar scientific airlock, the anti-solar scientific
airlock, and the wardroom window. Ultraviolet pictures and visible
light pictures will be taken simultaneously and, after return to Earth,
correlated for detailed evaluation.

S073, Gegenschein and Zodiacal Light (Fig. 161)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Jerry L.Weinberg
Dudley Observatory
Albany, New York
Objective:
Measure the brightness and the polarization of the night glow of the
sky over a large portion of the celestial sphere in visible light. Determine
the extent and the natum of the spacecraft’s corona during daylight.
The night glow of the sky is caused by sunlight reflected from inter-
planetary dust which accumulates preferably in the plane of the ecliptic
(Zodiacal Light). Opposite the Sun, this band of light widens into an
elliptical spot about 10 degrees in diameter (Gegenschein). Ground ob-
servations of the night glow are severely hindered by the airglow layer
in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 90 km (56 statute miles or 48
PHOTOMETER
ASSEMBLY 7

EXTENSION \
ASSEMBLY -
FIGURE161.-Experiment S073, Camrra to photograph faint luminosities in the sky.

142
 nautical miles) . Any halo around the spacecraft will curtail astronomical
observations while Skylab is exposed to sunlight.
Instruments:
These observations will be made with the photometer built for the
Contamination Measuring System TO27 (Fig. 209). The photographic
camera of TO27 will provide star pictures for sky region identification.
Observations will be made through both the solar and the anti-solar
scientific airlocks.

S149, Micrometeoroid Particle Collection (Fig. 162)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Curtis L. Hemenway
Dudley Observatory
Albany, New York
0 bjective:
Collect micrometeoroid particles on exposed surfaces and determine their
abundance, mass distribution, composition, morphology, and erosive
effects.
Instruments:
Four polished metal, glass, and plastic collector plates, each measuring
0.15 by 0.15 meters (6 inches by 6 inches) and mounted on a box-like
support unit, will be exposed after deployment through one of the scientific
airlocks on the universal extension mechanism of Experiment T027. Ob-
servations will be made on all three missions. After exposure times of a
few days up to two months, the plates will be retracted and sealed in
containers for protection. Analysis of the collected particles and of their
effects will be performed on Earth after return of the plates in the Com-
mand Module.

FIGURE162.-Experiment S149, Exposure of plates to collect micrometeoroidal

particles.

143
$228, Trans-Uranic Cosmic Rays

Principal Investigator:
Dr. P. Buford Price
University of California
Berkeley, California
Objective:
Record the tracks of heavy cosmic rays from iron (atomic number Z----26)
to trans-uranic nuclei (atomic numbers Z_92) in layers of plastic material
(Lexan). Determine the relative abundance of nuclei with atomic num-
bers above 26. Determine the energy spectrum of cosmic ray particles
with atomic numbers from Z= 26 to Z-numbers as high as possible. Par-
ticle energies from about 150 MeV 1 to more than 1500 MeV per nucleon
are expected.
Cosmic ray particles with atomic numbers representing the heavy ele-
ments are extremely rare. However, measurement of their abundance and
energy spectra will provide very valuable information about the synthesis
of heavy elements in stars. Also, results of these measurements will be use-
ful in the design of detectors for ultra-heavy cosmic rays proposed for future
space projects.
Tracks of very heavy cosmic ray particles have been found in meteor-
ites. Observations with high-altitude rockets have also provided some data
on cosmic ray :particles with high atomic numbers. The atmosphere pre-
vents such particles from reaching the Earth's surface.
Instrument:
The heavy cosmic ray particle detectors are completely passive. They
consist of stacks of identical layers of Lexan plastic sheets, mounted inside
the thin walls of the Orbital Workshop. After returning to Earth, the
Lexan sheets will be chemical etched. Etch pits develop at the top and
bottom surfaces of each sheet where cosmic ray particles have entered and
left the plastic layer. The length of a pit is proportional to the square of
the ionization rate of the particle. By observing the track of a particle
through many layers of a stack, atomic number and energy of the particle
can be derived. The two stacks of Lexan sheets have a mass of 30 kg (66
lbs).

$230, Magnetospheric Particle Composition

Principal Investigators:
Dr. Don L. Lind, Astronaut
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Dr. Johannes Geiss
University of Bern, Switzerland

1 MeV:million electron-volt, a measure of the energy of nuclear particles. (1

McV:I.602 x 10-1"_
Joule).

144
Objective:
Collections of helium, neon, and argon by exposing metal foils to the
particle fluxes encountered by Skylab while traveling through the magneto-
sphere. In this sphere, which extends from about 160 km (100 statute
miles or 90 nautical miles) to several Earth radii, the Earth's magnetic
field strongly influences the trajectories of charged particles. The sources
of charged particles to be collected by Skylab sensors include the Van
Allen Belt radiation, possibly the solar wind, and the interstellar gas.
Charged particles, particularly ions of atmospheric gases, may even reach
orbital altitudes from the upper layers of the atmosphere.
Exposed foils will be returned to Earth after the second and the third
Skylab missions. Implanted particles will be released by heating and
analyzed with mass spectrometers. Particle energies can be estimated by
employing layered foils, and by determining the depth of particle penetra-
tion by separate analysis of the different layers.
It is known that isotope ratios of noble gases in the Earth's atmosphere
are very different from the ratios in the solar wind and probably in inter-
stellar gas clouds. By determining isotope ratios in the collecting foils, par-
ticle fluxes of terrestrial, solar, and interstellar origin can be distinguished.
Instruments:
Charged particles of the solar wind have been successfully captured by
metal foils in several Apollo experiments on the surface of the Moon and
in rocket probe experiments. The experiment on Skylab will consist of
sheets of collecting foils mounted on flexible plastic substrates. Collectors
of aluminum, aluminum oxide, and platinum will be used. They will
be mounted in the form of two "double cuffs" on a truss of the ATM
supporting frame before launch. Each of the six collectors has a size
of 0.35 by 0.48 m (14 by 19 inches).
After return to Earth, parts of each foil strip will be heated and finally
melted in ultra-high vacuum systems, and the evolving gases will be
analyzed in mass spectrometers.
Except for EVA retrieval, this experiment is entirely passive.

2. EARTH RESOURCES EXPERIMENT PROGRAM

Skylab offers an opportunity to expand remote sensing investigations of

the Earth from orbit by utilizing relatively large aperture, flexible, high
performance sensors, and crew members to operate the sensors. The Earth
Resources Experiment.Package (EREP) represents an experimental facility
dedicated to that purpose.
Photography from spacecraft in Earth orbit in the visible and near-infrared
wavelengths has proven valuable for mapping geographic and weather fea-
tures over large areas of the Earth. Systematic application of remote sensing
techniques using additional wavelengths may extend the usefulness of this
capability to mapping of Earth resources and land uses. Resources subject
to this type of study include crop and forestry cover, health of vegetation,
types of soil, water storage in snow pack, surface or near-surface mineral
deposits, sea surface temperature, the location of likely feeding areas for
fish, etc. (Fig. 163).

145
 FIGURE163.-Earth observation studies from Skylab.

In July 1972, the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-I)

was launched into an approximately circular 1,000 km (600 mi.) polar orbit.
ERTS-1 is providing, routinely, images of the US. and selected foreign
areas in several bands encompassing the visible and infrared portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The Skylab Earth Resources Experiment Package is the next step in this
important effort. EREP will use visible light and infrared photography. I n
addition, it will include imaging devices, electronic infrared spectography,
and microwave radiometry surveys. EREP film and onboard storage tech-
niques will permit large quantities of remotely sensed data to be gathered,
and it will establish the feasibility and usefulness of Earth-survey techniques.
The planned investigations will assess sensor types, designs, and capabilities
needed to identify specific Earth resources and features. Requirements
of future systems for specific applications can then be more firmly estab-
lished. Methods for processing and interpreting data and the effects of
atmospheric scattering and attenuation will also be defined.
Proposals to use EREP data have been submitted by university, govern-
ment, and industry groups both within the US. and from abroad.
From the more than 300 proposals which were submitted, 146 investiga-
tions were selected to comprise the EREP data-user program. These inves-
tigations have been subdivided into 170 individual tasks representing studies
in 32 applications areas.
The EREP facility includes six sensors together with their associated
support equipment. The support equipment includes the electronics to

146
handle data irom each sensor, a control and display panel, and primary and
spare tape recorders.
EREP photography will greatly improve resolution of Earth resources
phenomena by virtue of simultaneous exposures using six matched cameras,
and by precise photometry that can provide more accurate knowledge of
light intensity levels of various bandwidths in each survey photograph.
The infrared spectroscopic survey will operate in wavelengths not record-
able on photographic film and will provide data from which recognizable
spectral signatures of the observed phenomena can be plotted. By simul-
taneously operating in frequencies transmitted by the atmosphere and in
those attenuated by atmospheric moisture, atmospheric moisture density
profiles can be generated.
The microwave radiometry equipment, because of its low sensitivity to
atmospheric moisture, will provide an all-weather source of information on
surface moisture and temperature and on vegetation distribution. Micro-
wave radiometry over the oceans will provide information on wind and
sea conditions.
Two crewmen are required to operate the sensors. The control and
display panel contains individual switches which activate and select the
operating modes for five of the EREP sensors. Also included are master
power switches and the controls for the tape recorder. The assigned crew-
man will be responsible for operating each of the sensors from the control
and display panel during its functional period. Other functions of the
crew involve positioning the S190A boresighted camera array over the
photographic viewing window, changing film/filter combinations, and
changing lens dessicants and f-stops as required. Supply and return of
film cassettes for the S190A array and the 16 mm camera, used with the
S191 Infrared Spectrometer, will also be required. A crewman will operate
slewing control of the tracking telescope to bring targets into the field of
view of the S191 Spectrometer. The S190B Earth Terrain Camera will
be deployed by the third crewman to view through the scientific airlock
opposite the Sun in the Workshop. Film supply and retrieval to and from
this instrument will also be accomplished by this crewman.
Another major function of the crew will involve coordination with
ground-based activities and Mission Control to update EREP operations.
Real-time decisions will be required because of local weather and cloud
cover conditions. This important astronaut function will optimize the utili-
zation of the _REP and, therefore, maximize Skylab's contribution of useful
data to the Principal Investigators. An artist's conception of the ground
coverage of the EREP is shown on Fig. 164.
The six sensors comprising the EREP package can be categorized under
the headings of photography, infrared observations, and microwave studies.
A description of each sensor follows.

147
 3 11.1 K M
NADiR

FIGURE164.-Earth Resources Experiment (EREP) instrument coverage of surface'

areas from Skylab.

a. Photography

S190A Multispectral Photographic Cameras (Figs. 165, 166)

Project Scientist:
K. Demel
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Obtain precision multispectral photography by selecting various 70 mm
film/filter combinations for a wide range of Earth science studies. Detail
not apparent in ordinary photography can be studied. Ground resolu-
tion will be 30 meters (100 ft) ; ground area coverage will be 161 km
(100 statute miles) on a side. Observable features include water pollu-
tion, geological features, development of metropolitan and urban areas,
and others. Six high-precision cameras with matched distortion and

148
FIGURE165.-Experirnent S190A, Multispectral camera for earth observations.

focal lengths are mounted together and bore-sighted. Wavelength-film

combinations are :

Wavelength Film
Nanometer Micrometer
500 to 600. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 to 0.6 Pan X black and white.
600 to 700. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 to 0.7 Pan X black and white.
700 to 800. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 to 0.8 Infrared black and white.
800 to 900. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8 to 0.9 Infrared black and white.
500 to 800.. . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 to 0.8 Infrared color.
400 to 700. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 to 0.7 High resolution color.

149
 ., H3 *

L
*\l %

L WIN 3 \lH
S I X H I G H PRECISION
CAMERAS

FIGURE.166.-Experiment S190A, Multispectral camera arrangement in Skylab.

SlWB Earth Terrain Camera (Fig. 167)

Project Scientist :
K. Demel
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Obtain high-resolution data of small areas within the fields of view of
the Earth Resources Experiment Package sensors to aid in interpretation
of data gathered by these sensors (Fig. 168). The camera will offer the
first opportunity to obtain high-resolution Earth photography from a
manned spacecraft. Ground resolution is expected to be 11 meters (35 ft.) ;
ground area coverage will be 109 km (68 statute miles) on a side. The
anticipated resolution will be a marked improvement over prior photog-
raphy obtained on manned flights to date or the photography of the
S190A camera.
Crew Involvement.
One crewman will be required to unstow the camera, install it in the
Scientific Airlock, operate the controls, and restow the camera. Film has
to be loaded in the camera magazine and unloaded after exposure for
return to Earth in the Command Module.

150
 t-
I
FILM
MAGAZl N E

CAMERA
CONTROLS

[CURE 167.-Experiment S190B, Camera with small field of view for high resolution

I pictures of the Earth’s surface.

 $194

$19, TARGET
mile) DIAMETER _ _-_ /

\ GROUND TRACK

$)/SQUAR _

45 ° FORWARD OF NADIR- $190A

$191 SLEWING LIMITS:
20 ° TO SIDES
10 ° TO BACK

Flou_z 168.--Experiment $191, Ground coverage o[ EREP cameras.

152
b. Infrared Observations

S191 Infrared Spectrometer (Fig. 169)

Project Scientist :
Dr. T. L. Barnett
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, ‘Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Provide data for evaluation of Earth resources sensors for specific regions
of the visible and infrared spectra, and for quantitative evaluation of the
effects of atmospheric attenuation. These data will enable scientists in
various disciplines to evaluate the utility of remote spectrometer sensing
from space. Using a filter wheel spectrometer, measurements will be made
in the 0.4 to 2.4 and 6.2 to 15.5 micrometer regions (400 to 2400 and
6200 to 15,500 nm) . The spectrometer has pointing and tracking capabili-

FIGURE169.-Experiment S191, Infrared spectrometer.

153
 ties 45" forward, 10" aft, and 20" to either side, and a field of view of
0.46 km (one-quarter statute mile) in diameter. The astronaut will use
a viewfinder and tracking telescope with zoom capability to find interesting
ground sites at nadir that usually will be in his field of view for less than
a minute.

S192 Multispectral Scanner (Fig. 170)

Project Scientist :
Dr. C. K. Korb
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Provide, and record on tape, sensor signals re presenting line-scan images
of selected test sites. Sensors will respond to 13 bands of reflected and
emitted radiations in the visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared
regions of the spectrum (0.4 to 12.5 micrometers). Investigators can then
evaluate the usefulness of spacecraft multispectral data for crop identifica-
tion, vegetation mapping, soil moisture measurements, identification of
contaminated areas in large bodies of water, and surface temperature
mapping. A dichroic beam splitter is used to separate the incoming radia-
tion into visible to near-IR and thermal I R components. A triple prism
spectrometer will disperse the incident radiation in the visible to near-IR
region. The instrument has a field of view of approximately 11 degrees
and will survey ground swaths 74 km (46 statute miles) wide with a
resolution of approximately 79 meters (260 feet).

INFLIGHT OPTICAL
ALIGNMENT ADJUSTMENTS
PRE-AMPLIFIER DEWAR

i / '

FLlGH

CALIBRATION CONTROLS

OUTBOARD VIEW
u
GROUNO T k A C K

FIGURE170.-Experiment S192, Multispectral scanning camera.

154
c. Microwave Studies

,5193 Microwave Radiometer/Scatterometer and Altimeter (Fig. 171)

Project Scientist :
D. E. Evans
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Provide simultaneous measurements of reflected radar signals (differential
backscattering cross-section) and emitted micrGwave radiation (brightness

FIGURE.17 1.-Experiment S193, Microwave radiometer, scatterometer,

and altimeter.

155
 temperature) of land and ocean areas, obtain altimetry data relating
sensor response to actual oceanic state. Data will provide information
relative to seasonal changes in snow cover and the border between frozen
and unfrozen ground, gross vegetation regions and their seasonal changes,
flooding, feasibility of measuring soil types and texture, heat output of
metropolitan areas, regions of lake and sea ice, and ocean surface charac-
teristics. The transmitter for the radar signals and the receiver for reflected
radar signals and emitted microwave radiation will operate at a frequency
of 13.9 GHz. Brightness temperature and backscattering will be measured
as functions of incidence angle. The instrument will operate in several
modes; the maximum forward pointing is 48", and the maximum side
pointing is 48" to either side. The ground area coverage at nadir is
11.1 km (6.9 statute miles) in diameter. The pulse radar altimeter, which
shares the antenna assembly with the microwave experiment, will record
normal return radar pulses. Their evaluation will provide information
about ocean state effects on pulse characteristics. The altimeter has a
nadir alignment capability which will give the altimeter a more accurate
alignment with the vertical than the vehicle could provide.

S194 L-Band Radiometer (Fig. 172)

Project Scientist:
D. E. Evans
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Measure and map brightness temperatures of terrestrial surfaces to a high
degree of accuracy with a passive radiometer operating at a frequency of

ANTEllA
STRUCTURE
BURIED IN
FOAM
-

111 KM.
G-UAGE

FIGURE172.-Experiment S 194, L-Band radiometer to measure surface

temperatures.

156
 1.43 GHz. Measurements of the brightness temperature of the Earth's
surface will supplement the S193 experiment. Effects of cloud cover on
radiometric measurements can be determined by comparing measure-
ments at both S193 and S194 frequencies (13.9 GHz and 1.43 GHz). The
instrument will survey ground swaths 111 km (69 statute miles) wide.

3. LIFE SCIENCES PROJECTS

From the beginning of manned space flight, there has been concern about
the ability of man to survive a flight through space and to perform satisfac-
torily in the space environment. Specific concern has centered around the
exposure of the human body to launch accelerations, its adaptation to weight-
lessness, its ability to withstand reentry loads, and its readaptation to full
gravity following the return to Earth.
The first decade of manned space flight was devoted to the preparation of
man for the Apollo Program and to his qualification for lunar landing mis-
sions. During the Gemini III mission, limited medical experiments were con-
ducted to study man's physiological reactions during a two-week mission.
The other Gemini and Apollo flights were used for studies of physiological
effects on man through pre- and postflight medical experiments.
Before long-duration programs of explorations and operations in space
can be undertaken, man's viability and usefulness under space conditions
must be further assured. This can only be accomplished through careful
quantitative studies of man's physiological, psychological, and social adjust-
ments as they occur during flight. Limiting influences exercised by the space
environment on the capabilities of crew members must be studied, and
proper levels of performance for any given time during a flight must be
established. These studies will result in time profiles of the adaptation of men
to space conditions, and they will show whether long-term adjustments
eventually lead to new stable levels, or whether the need for continual adjust-
ments threatens to exceed man's reserve capacity for meeting stress. Even if
the crew members do successfully adapt to space conditions, the return to
Earth involves an additional adaptive change about which more must be
learned.
The Skylab Program offers the first opportunity to study these questions in
depth. The 28- and 56-day missions are long enough for a study of acute
effects which could threaten man's safety, and also for the observation of
slower biological processes. The biomedical experiments on Skylab have been
designed to study the suspected changes and to investigate the basic mecha-
nisms involved in these changes. The experimental investigations are much
more comprehensive than previous investigations which served only medical
safety monitoring purposes. Medical safety monitoring will be performed
operationally on Skylab by known and fully tried bioinstrumentation, medi-
cal techniques and procedures.
The Skylab medical program represents an intensive study of normal,
healthy men and their reactions to the stresses of space flight. Seldom has
such a comprehensive examination been performed in ground-based studies
and never under the unusual stresses of prolonged space flight. As an addi-
tional benefit, preparing and conducting these multi-man extended missions

157
will lead to advances in Earth-based medicine in such areas as non-invasive
biosensors (medical probes which do not have to be inserted into the body)
and biotelemetry where significant contributions to medical diagnosis and
treatment are expected.
A basic set of biomedical data has been collected as a safety monitoring
procedure on all manned flights of the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo pro-
grams. Heart and respiration rates, and at times body temperature and blood
pressure were recorded. These data were supplemented by a variety of
pre- and postflight measurements of such factors as exercise capability, car-
diovascular stress response, hematological-biochemical changes, immunolo'gy
studies, and microbiolo,@calevaluations. In the Gemini program, medical
experiments of limited scope were conducted in flight to investigate the time
course of the changes which had been noticed before and after previous
missions.
The following physiological effects of space flight on man have been
observed :
A consistent loss of body weight; a small and inconsistent loss of bone cal-
cium and muscle mass; and generally after return to Earth, a reduction in
the ability of blood vessels to actively distribute blood to those parts of the
body that need it (orthostatic intolerance) .
These effects completely reversed themselves within a few days after return
to Earth. So far, they have shown no consistent relation to flight duration
( u p to 14 days). However, some concern remains that continued exposure to
flight conditions on extended missions could significantly reduce man's effec-
tiveness in space and increase the difficulty of re-adapting to the gravity
conditions on Earth or on another celestial body.
Each manned mission in the U.S. space program was built upon the cumu-
lative experience of preceding flights. Skylab will expose more men, in a
larger spacecraft, with more varied activities, and for longer times to the
weightlessness of orbital flight than any previous space project. It will allow
more thorough evaluation of biomedical observations under extended periods
of zero gravity, and it will use more rigorous evaluation techniques, than has
previously been possible (Fig. 173) .

FIGURE
173.-Medical studies carried out on Skylab and on the ground.

158
 The Skylab biomedical program will cover four areas:
• The project will achieve extended stay times of nine men in space, three
at a time, with the associated operational medical monitoring and the obser-
vations of crew performance in a wide variety of scientific and operational
tasks.
• The medical experiments are designed to investigate in depth those
physiological effects and their time courses which were observed in previous
flights.
• The biology experiments are designed to study fundamental biological
processes which may be affected by the weightless environment.
• The biotechnology experiments are directed toward advancing the ef-
fectiveness of man-machine systems in space operations and improving the
technology of space-borne bioinstrumentation.
The knowledge and experience gained from all four parts of the program
will help establish criteria for incremental increases in the duration of
future manned missions after the 28- and 56-day Skylab flights.
Two animal experiments on Skylab (S071, S072) will help determine
whether the force of gravity may have an influence on the regulators of
some of the fur, damental rhythms in living organisms. A small colony of
mice and a sampling of pupae of the vinegar gnat will be flown on Skylab
and observed for changes in specific life cycles under the zero-gravity con-
dition of space.

M071, Mineral Balance

Principal Investigator:
G. Donald Whedon, M.D.
National Institutes of Health,
Washington, D.C.
Co-Investigator:
Leo Lutwak, M.D.
Cornell University
Ithaca, N.Y.
Principal Coordinating Scientist:
Dr. Paul C. Rambaut,
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas.
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Collect data for a predictive understanding of the effects of space flight
on the muscle and skeletal system by measuring the day-to-day gains or
losses of pertinent biochemical constituents.
The following data are to be collected: daily body weight; accurate
food intake (quantity and composition) ; accurate fluid intake; volume
of a 24-hour urine output; samples of pooled 24-hour urine output; and
preflight, inflight and postflight blood samples taken for analysis. Also,
all feces and all vomitus (if any) will be collected, weighed, processed,
and stored for return and postflight analysis.

159
 Urine will be analyzed for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, nitrogen, urea, hydroxyproline, and creatinine. Feces
will- be analyzed for calcium, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium,
and nitrogen. Blood will be analyzed for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
alkaline phosphotase, sodium, potassium, total protein, glucose and hy-
droxproline, creatinine, chloride, and electrophoretic pattern.
Instrumentation:
All instruments used in this experiment are parts of other systems. They
will be described in the appropriate sections. These instruments include
the following:
Urine Measurement and Collection System ( a part of the Habita-
bility Support System).
Fecal Collection System ( a part of the Habitability Support System) .
Specimen Mass Measurement Device ( a part of M074).
Body Mass Measurement Device ( a part of M172).
Food system.
Inflight blood collection equipment.

M073, Bioassay of Body Fluids (Fig. 174)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Carolyn S. Leach
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Development Center :
JSC ; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Assess the effect of space flight on endocrine-metabolic functions including
fluid and electrolyte control mechanisms. Collect the following data:
daily body weight; accurate food intake (quantity and composition) ;

FIGURE174.-Experiments to monitor mass changes of astronauts.

150
 accurate fluid intake; volume of a 24-hour urine output; samples of
pooled 24-hour urine output (collected and processed inflight for return
and postflight analysis) ; and preflight, inflight, and postflight blood
samples taken for analysis.
Urine will be analyzed for sodium, potassium, aldosterone, epinephrine,
norepinephrine, antidiuretic hormones (ADH) , urine osmolality, hydro-
cortisone, total body water, and total and fractional ketosteroids. Blood
will be analyzed for renin, sodium, potassium, chloride, plasma osmolality,
extracellular fluid volume (ECF) , parathyroid hormone, thyrocalcitonin,
thyroxine, adrenocorticotropic hormone ( A C T H ) , hydrocortisone, and
total body water.
Instrumentation:
All instruments used in this experiment are parts of other systems; they
include the following :
Urine Measurement and Collection System (a part of the Habitability
Support System).
Specimen Mass Measurement (a part of M074).
Body Mass Measurement ( a part of M172).

M074, Specimen Mass Measurement (Fig. 175)

Principal Investigator :
William E. Thornton, M.D.
Astronaut
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas

FIGURE175.-Experiment M074, Weighing Device to determine masses of specimens.

161
Co-Investigator:
JohnW. Ord, Colonel,MedicalCorps
USAFHospital,ClarkAF Base,PhilippineIslands
DevelopmentCenter:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Demonstrate the capability of accurately determining masses from 50 to
1000 grams in a zero-gravity environment. Determine the masses of feces,
vomitus, and food residue generated in flight.
Data to be collected include the following: preflight calibration of the
Specimen Mass Measurement Device (SMMD), measurement of known
masses three times during each Skylab mission, and Skylab environmental
temperature. The SMMD will also be used to determine the masses of
feces, vomitus, and food residue.
Instrumentation:
The SMMD utilizes the inertial property of mass instead of the gravi-
tational force to determine mass. Basically, the SMMD consists of a
spring-mounted tray. The oscillatory period of the spring is a function
of the amount of mass on the tray. The spring's period is measured
electro-optically, and this measurement is electronically converted to a
direct mass read-out.

M078, Bone Mineral Measurement

Principal Investigator:
John M. Vogel, M.D.
U.S. Public Health Service Hospital
San Francisco, California
Co-Investigator:
Dr. John R. Cameron
University of Wisconsin Medical Center
Madison, Wisconsin
Development Center:
jsc
Objective:
Assess the effects of the spaceflight environment on the occurrence and
degree of bone mineral changes in the left heel and forearm (radius) by
measuring bone masses before and after Skylab flights. These measure-
ments will indicate the degree of calcium deposition (calcification) in
the bones. Normal chemical activity in bones is stimulated by the pulling
force of attached muscles and by gravitational forces acting upon the
body. Both forces are altered during weightless flight.
Instrumentation:
Measurements of bone masses will be taken only on the ground, before
and after flight. A scanning probe, using the soft gamma radiation of the
radioactive isotope iodine-125, a gamma ray detector, and a multichannel
analyzer will take radiograms of the bones; by comparing postflight with

162
 preflight pictures, the changes can be determined. Calibration will be
achieved by comparing the bone absorption, mostly due to calcium, with
the absorption in test layers of known thickness and composition. Measure-
ments will be taken of all crew members and of control group members.

M092, LowerBody Negative Pressure (Figs. 176, 177, 178, 179)

Principal Investigator:
Robert L. Johnson, M.D.
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Go-Investigator :
John W. Ord, Colonel, Medical Corps
USAF Hospital, Clark AF Base, Philippine Islands
Development Center :
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Determine the degree and the time course of cardiovascular adaptation
under zero-gravity conditions. Provide data on cardiovascular changes

FIGURE176.-Experiment M092, Instrument to apply negative pressure to the lower

part of the human body (instrument in open position).

163
 FIGURE177.-Control Panel to support medical experiments.

for correlation with preflight and postflight measurements. Collect inflight

data for predicting the impairment of physical capacity and the degree of
orthostatic intolerance to be expected upon return to Earth (orthostatic
intolerance is the inability of the organism to distribute the blood properly,
and under the proper pressures among the different organs and places
in the b o d y when the body assumes an erect position in a gravitational
field). Data to be collected are blood pressure, heart rate, body tempera-
ture, vectorcardiogram, lower body negative pressure, leg volume changes,
and body mass.

164
'FIGURE 178.-Experiment M092, Lower Body Negative Pressure instrument
training on the ground.

FIGURE179.-Experiment M092, Lower Body Negative Pressure instrument in

operation on Skylab.

165 -
 The Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBN) experiment imposes a
slight reduction of external pressure to the lower half of the body. This
"negative" pressure (negative with respect to the environment of the
upper half of the body) will have a blood pooling effect in the lower part
of the body, similar to the effects of the normal hydrostatic pressure of
the blood column in a person standing upright in the Earth's gravity field.
The experiment will test how the cardiovascular system reacts to a con-
trolled amount of blood pooling during weightless flight.
Instrurnentation:
The LBNP experiment utilizes three basic units: (1) a cylindrical tank
with a waist seal which encloses the lower half of the astronaut under test.
The pressure in the tank can be lowered by as much as 15 to 20 percent
below the ambient cabin pressure, thus exposing the lower body to a con-
trolled series of negative pressures. (2) a leg volume measuring system
(Leg Volume Plethysmograph) which senses the expansion of the legs
by measuring the circumference of each leg at the level of the calf muscle.
The amount of expansion is a measure of the amount of blood pooling
in the legs. (3) the Blood Pressure Assembly, consisting of a pressure
cuff attached to the upper arm, a microphone to pick up the sounds of
blood flow, and the necessary electronic systems. A programming unit
cycles the pressure cuff automatically. Recording and calibrating is ac-
complished through the Experiment Support System.
The experiment uses the Vectorcardiogram equipment from M093 and
the Body Temperature Measuring System from M171. It will be per-
formed on each astronaut every three days. The entire experiment takes
about 60 minutes to perform; an attending astronaut is needed to assist
the subject.

M093, Vectorcardiogram (Figs. 180, 181)

Principal Investigator:
Newton W. Allebach, M.D.
USN Aerospace Medical Institute
Pensacola, Florida
Co-Investigator:
Raphael F. Smith, M.D.
School of Medicine
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Ob)ective:
Measure the activity of the heart by recording electric signals (vector-
cardiographic potentials) of each astronaut during preflight, inflight, and
postflight periods to obtain information on changes in heart functions
induced by the flight conditions. Vectorcardiograms will be taken at regu-

166
- -a- *-

FIGURE180.-Experiment M093, Ergometer (wheelless bicycle) to record vector-

cardiograms during controlled physical exercise.

lar intervals throughout the mission while the crewmen are a t rest, and
before, during, and after specific exercise periods with a bicycle ergometer
(part of Experiment M17 1) . This instrument will enable an astronaut to
exercise a t selected levels of energy consumption.
Instrumentation:
The Vectorcardiogram system consists of a harness with eight electrodes,
a signal-shaping network (Frank Lead Network), calibration and timing
circuits, and three Electrocardiogram ( ECG) signal conditioner chan-
nels. The system provides three ECG signals and a heart rate signal to
the spacecraft system and to the Experiment Support System
(ESS) . The ESS will provide power, additional signal conditioning, and
recording facilities.
FIGURE181.-Experiment M093, Recording of vectorcardiograms during physical
exercise in orbit.

M111, Cytogenic Studies of the Blood

Principal Investigator :
Lilliam H. Lockhart, M.D.
University of Texas
Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas
Co-Investigator :
P. Carolyn Gooch
Brown & Root-Northrop
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC
Objective:
Determine the frequency of chromosome changes in the peripheral blood
leukocytes of the Skylab crew members before and after flight. Correlate
the results with the radiation doses received by the astronauts (“in vivo”
radiation dosimetry). Acquire data that will add to the findings of other
Skylab cytologic and metabolic experiments to determine the genetic
consequences of long duration space travel on man.

168
 Chromosomes, located
in thenucleiofcells,providethebasis
forcontrol
of mostof thebiochemical functionsandactivities
withinanorganism.
Theirinternalstructures
aresusceptibletochange undertheinfluence
of
radiation,chemical
reagents,andsomeotherenvironmental factors,
possi-
blyincludingweightlessness.
Instrumentation:
Periodic blood samples will be taken before and after the flight, beginning
one month before and ending three weeks after recovery. The leukocytes
will be placed in a short-term tissue culture. During the first cycle of cell
division in the isolated cultures, standard chromosome preparations of the
leukocytes will be made.
The leukocytes from the cell culture will be removed during metaphase
and "fixed." A visual analysis will be performed which involves counting
the chromosomes, the number of breaks, and possibly the types of breaks,
and then comparing the identifiable chromosome forms with groups of
chromosomes comprising the normal human complement.
This experiment will provide chromosome aberration frequencies as
they are found postflight in nine men. The relation between radiation
dose experienced by each man and the number of chromosome breaks
will be studied on the basis of these data.

Ml12, Man's Immunity, In-Vitro Aspects

Principal Investigator:
Stephen E. Ritzman, M.D.
University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas
Co-Investigator:
William C. Levin, M.D.
University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Determine any changes in man's cell chemistry that may result from pro-
longed exposure to weightlessness. Study the changes in humoral and
cellular immunity as reflected by the concentration of plasma and
blood cell proteins, blastoid transformations, and synthesis of ribonucleic
(RNA) and desoxyribonucleic (DNA) acids by the lymphocytes.
An organism's ability to combat infections or to repair injured tissues
may be influenced by the lack of gravity as a consequence of a change in
cell chemistry caused by zero gravity.
Instrumentation:
Data reflecting normal cell metabolism will be obtained 21, seven, and
one day before launch from the crewmen, and from a control group com-
posed of three men physically similar to the crewmen. This group will
also serve as the ground control group during the flight. Inflight blood
samples will be taken four times from each crewman during the first

169
 mission and eight times from each crewman during the second and third
missions. Seven days and 21 days after recovery, samples again will be
taken from each crewman.
Blood will be analyzed for kinetics of lymphocyte RNA and DNA,
RNA and DNA distribution in lymphocytes, observation of blastoid for-
mation, lymphocyte morphology and antigen response, lymphocyte
functional response to antigen quantitation of plasma constituents,
presence of immunoglobulins, albumin and globulin concentration, and
total plasma protein. The Inflight Blood Collection System will provide
the capability to draw venous blood and to centrifuge the samples for
preservation. The blood samples will be frozen and returned to Earth
for postflight analysis. The data from preflight, inflight, and postflight
samples will be compared to detect any significant changes caused by the
conditions of orbital flight.

Ml13, Blood Volume and Red Cell Life Span (Fig. 182)

Principal Investigator:
Phillip C. Johnson, M.D.
Baylor University
College of Medicine
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Determine the effects of weightlessness on the blood plasma volume and
the red blood cell population. Particular attention is to be paid to
changes in total mass of red cells, red cell destruction, red cell life span,
and red cell production rate.
Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the
body. Decreases in the total mass of red cells will necessitate increased
heart and breathing rates.
Instrumentation:
This experiment has four parts; in each, a different radioisotope tracer
will be injected into crewmen's veins and into veins of a control group
with similar physical characteristics on the ground.
The site of red blood cell (RBC) production in the mature adult is
the marrow of membranous bones (e.g. sternum and vertebrae). The
rate of production is dependent on metabolic demands and on the cur-
rent red cell population. The rate of RBC production will be measured
quantitatively by injection of a known quantity of a radioactive ion
tracer into crew members.
Since the rate of RBC production acts with RBC loss to increase or
decrease the total RBC mass present at a given time, any changes in
the rates of RBC production and destruction will be necessarily reflected
in the red cell mass. Such changes in red cell mass will be measured and
analyzed in the flight crew members by injection of red cells tagged with
radioactive chromium (in the form of sodium chromate).

170
 SEPTUM

BLOOD CHAMBER

_LE NEEDLE

RETAINER CAP

PLASMA CARTRIDGE

FmURS 182.--Experiment Ml13, Automatic syringe to take blood samples of astro-

nauts during orbital flight.

To determine selective age-dependent RBC destruction and mean red

cell life span, glycine tagged with radioactive carbon will be injected into
a superficial arm vein of each crew member and control subject.
Finally, plasma volume changes will be measured by adding a known
amount of radioiodinated human serum albumin to each crew member's
blood.
The Inflight Blood Collection System will provide the capability to
draw venous blood and to centrifuge the samples for preservation; the
blood samples will be frozen and returned to Earth for postflight analysis.
Blood samples of each crewman will be taken preflight (21, 20, 14,
seven and one days before launch) ; inflight (four times during the first
and eight times during the second and third manned mission); and
postflight (recovery day, one, three, seven, 14 and 21 days after recovery).

171
Ml14, Red Blood Cell Metabolism

Principal Investigator:
Charles E. Mengel, M.D.
University of Missouri
School of Medicine
Columbia, Missouri
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Study the effects of gravity on the membrane and the metabolism of the
human red blood cell. Determine whether any metabolic changes or mem-
brane modifications occur as a result of exposure to the space flight envi-
ronment. This experiment will complement Experiment Ml13.
Instrumentation:
Blood samples of each crewman will be taken preflight (21, seven, and
one days before launch), inflight (four times during the first and eight
times during the second and third manned missions), and postflight
(recovery day, one, and 14 days after recovery).
Blood will be analyzed for methemoglobin, glyceraldehyde-6-phosphate,
dehydrogenase, phosphoglyceric acid kinase, reduced gluthathione,
adenosine triphosphate, gluthathione reductase, lipid peroxide levels,
acetylcholinestecase, phosphofructokinase, 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, and
hexokinase.
The Inflight Blood Collection System will provide the capability to
draw venous blood and to centrifuge the samples for preservation. The
blood samples will be frozen and returned to Earth for postflight analysis.

M 115, Special Hematological Effects (Fig. 183)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Stephen L. Kimsey
Craig L. Fischer, M.D.
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Examine critical physiological blood parameters relative to a stable state
of equilibrium between certain blood components and evaluate the
effects of weightlessness upon these parameters. Provide other data on
blood and blood circulation which will assist in the interpretation of
hematology and immunity experiments (Mlll series) and of nutrition
and musculoskeletal function experiments (M071 series). The red blood
cell represents a model system for the evaluation of physiological changes
that might occur in man during prolonged exposure to weightlessness.
Blood studies made on Gemini and Apollo astronauts have shown that
changes in red cell mass, blood constituents, and the fluid and electrolyte
balance can be expected as a result of the space environment.

172
 BANDAGE

© 2 SWABS

NEEDLE FIXATIVE
VIAL

FIOURE 183.--Experiment M115, Blood Collection Kit to sample blood of astronauts

during orbital flight.

Instrumentation:

Blood samples of each crewman will be taken preflight (21, 14, seven,
and one days before launch), inflight (four times on the first and eight
times on the second and third manned missions), and postflight (recov-
ery day, one, three, seven, 14, and 21 days after recovery).
Blood will be analyzed for sodium, potassium, single cell hemoglobin,
red blood cell hemoglobin, RNA, protein distribution, hemoglobin char-
acterization, electrophoretic mobility, red blood cell age profile, red blood
cell electrolyte distribution, membrane and cellular ultrastructure, acid
and osmotic fragility, critical volume, volume distribution, red blood cell
count, white blood cell count, differential white cell count, micro-
hematocrit, platelet count, hemoglobin, and reticulocyte count.
The Inflight Blood Collection System will provide the capability to
draw venous blood and to centrifuge the samples for preservation. The
blood samples will be frozen and returned to Earth for p0stflight analysis.

173
M131, Human Vestibular Function (Fig. 184)
Principal Investigator :
Ashton Graybiel, M.D.
USN Aerospace Medical Institute
Pensacola, Florida
Co-Investigator :
Dr. Earl F. Miller
USN Aerospace Medical Institute
Pensacola, Florida
Development Center :
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Examine the effects of weightlessness on the vestibular system, i.e. the
system of semicircular canals of the ear which provides the perception of
balance and orientation. Determine any changes in man's sensitivity
to motion and rotation and any variations in his ability of coordination
under prolonged weightlessness.
Test the astronauts' susceptibility to motion sickness in the Skylab
environment, acquire data fundamental to an understanding of the
functions of human gravity receptors under prolonged absence of grav-
ity, and test for changes in the sensitivity of the semicircular canals. The
following data are to be collected: threshold perception of rotation,
motion sickness symptoms caused by out-of-plane head motions while
being rotated, and ability of a crewman to determine his orientation
with respect to spacecraft reference points without visual cues. Data will
be collected before, during, and after flight.

c- CONTROL CONSOLE

FIGURE184.-Experiment M131, Study of human vestibular functions on a litter

chair, and by marking directions on a magnetic sphere.

174
Instrumentation:
The inflight equipment includes:
Rotating Litter Chair--This chair is a framed seating device which is
convertible for operation in either a rotating or a tilt litter mode.
Drive Motor for Chair Rotation--This motor has the capability of
rotating the seated subject within the limits of 1 to 30 rpm at an accuracy
of ± 1 percent.
Control Console--The console contains mode selector, speed selector,
tachometer, indicators, timers, other devices for control, and a response
matrix for coding a subject's response to the rotational tests.
Otolith Test Goggle--This device is used to measure the visual space
orientation in two dimensions. It provides the visual target for the
oculogyral illusion test.
Custom Bite Boards--The bite' boards are used to hold the otolith test
goggle precisely and comfortably in position over the observer's eyes.
Reference Sphere and Magnetic Pointer with Readout Device--These
devices are used for measuring spatial localization using nonvisual clues.
A magnetic pointer is held against the sphere and moved by the subject.
This will determine the subject's ability to judge his orientation. The
pointer position is measured by the three-dimensional readout device.

M133, Sleep Monitoring (Fig. 185)

Principal Investigator:
James D. Frost, Jr., M.D.
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Determine the quantity and quality of an astronaut's sleep during long
periods of weightlessness through an analysis of electroencephalographic
(EEG) and electro-oculographic (EOG) activities. This information will
complement other investigations concerning reactions of the central nerv-
ous system under space flight conditions. The following data are to be
collected: preflight EEG and EOG data of a crewman for three consecu-
tive nights of sleep, periodical inflight EEG and EOG data throughout a
crewman's sleep period, and postflight sleep EEGs and EOGs on approxi-
mately the first, the third, and the fifth day after recovery.
Instrumentation:
One of the astronauts, selected for this experiment, will wear a fitted cap
during his sleep periods with electrodes for electroencephalographic mea-
surements of brain waves (EEG signals), with accelerometers to record
motions of the head, and with electrodes near one eye (electro-oculograph)
to sense rapid movements of the eyeball during sleep. Signals from these
senors, recorded on magnetic tape and analyzed after return to Earth, will
permit conclusions regarding the depth and length of the sleep stages.
Signals will also be telemetered to the ground station in near real time.
Inflight recordings will be compared with preflight and postflight observa-
tions made on the same crew member with the same sensors.

175
FIGURE185.-Experiment M133, Monitoring of sleep and sleep reactions of astronaut.
176
M151, Time and Motion Study (Fig. 186)
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Joseph F. Kubis
Fordham University
Bronx, New York
Co-Investigator :
Dr. Edward J. M c L a u g h h
NASA Headquarters, OMSF
Washington, D.C.
Development Center :
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Observe astronauts in motion. Compare their mobility and dexterity in
various activities under weightlessness with their mobility and dexterity
in similar activities under Earth conditions. Evaluate their zero-gravity be-
havior for designs and work programs of future spacecraft.
The following tasks have been selected for this observation:
Study the locomotion of crewmen as they move in the zero-gravity en-
vironment with and without loads.
Study the fine and gross motor activities of crewmen in performing op-
erations with and without the use of restraints.
Study crewmen performing tasks which require visual, tactile, or audi-
tory feedback, or combinations of feedbacks.
Study intravehicular (IVA) and extravehicular (EVA) activities.
Study repeated activities performed early, midway, and late in the
missions which will show adaptation to the zero-gravity environment.

FIGURE186.-Experiment M151, Time and motion study of astronaut in various

activities.

177
Instrumentation:
Recording of this experiment will be achieved with the 16 mm movie
camera, and with a portable high intensity photographic lamp, both of
which will be used also for other purposes. I n addition, verbal information
by the astronauts about their experiences in zero-gravity operations will be
tape-recorded for later evaluation.
Similar recordings have ' k e n made on the ground during crew training.

M171, Metabolic Activity (Fig. 187)

Principal Investigator:
Edward L. Michel
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Co-Investigator :
Dr. John A. Rummel
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSIFC
0 bjective:
Determine man's metabolic effectiveness and its possible change while he
is doing work in a zero-gravity environment. Obtain information on his
physiological capabilities and limitations. Provide data useful in the design
of future spacecraft and work programs.

FIGURE187.-Experiment MI 71, Study of metabolic activities of astronaut while

exercising on Ergometer.

178
 Physiological responses to physical activity will be deduced by analyzing
inhaled and exhaled air, pulse rate, blood pressure, and other selected
variables of a crew member performing controlled amounts of physical
work with a bicycle ergometer.
Evaluate the bicycle ergometer as an exerciser on long-duration
missions.
Collect data on ergometer work rate, ergometer RPM, oxygen uptake,
carbon dioxide output, minute volume, 1 vital capacity, respiratory
quotient, heart rate, blood pressure, vectorcardiogram, body weight, body
temperature, and Skylab environmental parameters.
Instrumentation:
Main component of this experiment is an ergometer (wheelless exercising
bicycle) whose pedal wheel friction is controlled by a cardiotachometer
in such a way that a preselected heart rate of the crew member remains
constant. It can also be controlled for a constant, preselected workload.
Equipment further includes a respiratory gas analyzer, a blood pressure
measuring system, a body temperature measuring system, and a vector-
cardiogram system (see Experiment M093). A metabolic analyzer, con-
taining a spirometer and a mass spectrometer, will measure oxygen uptake,
carbon dioxide output, and minute volume.
Each crew member will perform this experiment five times during the
28-day mission, and eight times during the 56-day missions.

M172, Body Mass Measurement (Fig. 188)

Principal Investigator:
William E. Thornton, M.D.
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Development Center:
JSC; Integration Center: MSFC
Objective:
Determine the body mass of each crew member; observe changes in body
masses during flight. Demonstrate the proper functioning and assess the
utility of the Body Mass Measuring System in daily use.
Knowledge of exact body mass variations throughout the flight will
greatly help in the correlation of other medical data obtained during
flight.
Instrumentation:
Mass measurements under zero-gravity conditions can be achieved by
application of Newton's second law (force equals mass times accelera-
tion). The force is provided by a spring; the mass is attached to a platform
suspended as a pendulum by four parallel flexing strips. An optical
pickup and an electric timer measure the period of the spring-loaded
pendulum. In order to achieve a measurement, the astronaut sits in a

1Breathing volume per minute.

179
 FIGURE188.-Experiment M172, Determination of body mass.

compact posture on the platform, cocks the spring, and releases the
platform which will oscillate with a sinusoidal motion. Time signals
are converted to provide a readout directly in kilograms. (See Experiment
M074). The Body Mass Measurement Device has been calibrated before
launch with known masses up to 100 kg (220 lbs) .

S015, Effects of Zero Gravity on Single Human Cells (Fig. 189)

Principal Investigator :
Philip 0. Montgomery, M.D.
University of Texas
Southwestern Medical School
Dallas, Texas
Co-Investigator :
Dr. J. Paul
University of Texas

180
 FIGURE189.-Experiment S015, Study of zero gravity effects on human cells.

Southwestern Medical School

[Dallas, Texas
Development Center :
JSC; Integration Center: JSC
0bjective:
Observe the functioning of living human cells in a tissue culture while
they are weightless. Determine the effects of gravity on individual cells
by making complete surveys of cellular structures and biochemical
functions.
Similar observations have been made on human cells under the Earth's
gravity and under high acceleration forces. Cells will be observed during
flight with time-lipse microscope photography. Two separate cell cultures
will be examined for four-day and ten-day periods. After several biochemi-
cal experiments have been performed, the cells will be preserved and
returned to Earth for further biochemical testing. Their DNA, RNA,
and lipide content and their enzyme activity will be determined.
Control groups of human cells will be subjected to similar tests under
Earth gravity and in high-acceleration fields.

DNA=Dioxyribonucleic acid
RNA=Ribonucleic acid
Lipide
These substances are basic components of live cells (see glossary)

181
Instrumentation:
Instruments used for this experiment include a microscope-camera as-
sembly and a growth curve module subsystem, both enclosed in a single
hermetically sealed package. Two phase-contrast microscopes with mag-
nifications of 20 and 40, each focused on its own specimen chamber, will
provide images to the two 16 mm time-lapse cameras. The cameras
will be cycled automatically by a built-in timing mechanism; each will
run at 5 frames per minute for 40 minutes twice per day for the entire
28-day mission.
The specimen chambers will provide temperature-controlled environ-
ments for the cell cultures. Each chamber will have its own independent
media exchange assembly to provide fresh nutrients to the cultures twice
each day.
The Growth Curve Module consists of two operationally independent
assemblies, each capable of maintaining living cells in nine chambers.
At preprogrammed times, a fixative will be injected into eight chambers,
one at a time. The cells will be returned for postflight analysis.

S071, Circadian Rhythm, Pocket Mice (Figs. 190, 191)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Robert G. Lindberg
Northrop Corporation Laboratories
Hawthorne, California
Development Center:
Ames Research Center; Integration Center: JSC
Objective:
Determine whether the daily physiological rhythms of a mammal (pocket
mouse, Fig. 140) are changed by a zero-gravity environment. Circadian
rhythms (24-hour physiological wake-and-sleep cycles) of animals and
man are suspected to be influenced to some extent by gravitational forces.
Should an influence be discovered, this would be an indication that
biorhythms at least of animals are timed and controlled by factors which
include gravity.
Changed or affected rhythms alter the basic control of metabolism.
It is important that normal _,,o,ogma,
_: _ " 1 rhythms in man be maintained lulL"
his well-being and effectiveness during space flight. If normal physiological
rhythms are found to continue in the test animals, the conclusion can be
drawn that space flight does not impose biorhythm restriction and that
man can work in space without a degradation of his performance due to
biorhythm disturbance.
Instrumentations:
The experiment includes six pocket mice placed in a completely dark
cage at 15 ° C (60 ° F) temperature, relative humidity of 60 ° percent,
and an atmospheric pressure equal to sea level pressure.
Three weeks before the mission, the mice will be placed in the cage.
Body temperature and activity level will be automatically monitored to
establish the natural period, phase, and stability of the rhythms under

182
 .
7

ICE H O l J ' , l \ O I

FIGURE 190.-Experiment S071, Observation of pocket mice under zero gravity.

Experiment S072, Observation of vinegar gnats (dropsophila) under zero gravity.

FIGURE191.-Pocket mouse as used in Experiment S071.

183
5 0 0 - 7 2 1 0 - 7 3 - 13
 Earth gravity conditions. The cage will be installed in the Service Module
shortly before launch. The same measurements will be made during the
flight. Data will be automatically recorded and telemetered to Earth for
interpretation.

S072, Circadian Rhythm, Vinegar Gnats

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Colin S. Pittendrigh
Stanford University
Stanford, California
Development Center:
Ames Research Center; Integration Center: JSC
Objective:
Determine whether the daily emerging cycle of the vinegar gnat
(drosophila) from the pupa to the fly is the same under weightlessness and
on Earth.
Extensive experiments have shown that even though gnats in the pupa
stage develop at different rates depending on temperature, the adult gnats
will not emerge from their pupae until some kind of internal signal is
given. This triggering signal is somehow timed to occur at an exactly
fixed time delay after a flash of light. The signal occurs at the same con-
stant time interval after the flash, independent of the temperature.
The experiment will measure the emergence times of four groups at 20 °
C (68 ° F) to find out whether space flight conditions change the mecha-
nism which keeps the rhythm constant despite changes in temperatures.
Each group of pupae is divided into two subgroups. Flashes of light will
initiate the emergence of the two subgroups at two different times. If the
delayed subgroup shows the same rhythm of emergence response as the
earlier group, it is probable that no external factor contributes to the
rhythm and that the rhythms are internally synchronized with the light
flashes.
This experiment is conducted in conjunction with the pocket mice ex-
periment (S071). If rhythms of both experiments are disrupted or altered
during space flight, it can be assumed that space flight disrupts or alters
the common basic rhythm mechanisms, and that man's biological rhythm
mechanism is probably also affected by zero gravity.
Instrumentation:

This experiment is designed for automatic operation. After the initial

white light flash has occurred for initiation of the emergence cycle, a dim
red light will be turned on every 10 minutes, and 180 pupae photocells
will be scanned electronically. After a gnat has emerged, its pupa shell
will be transparent, and the pupa photocell will respond to the red light.
Emergence data will be stored and later telemetered to Earth.

Experiment Support System

This facility (Fig. 192), located in the Orbital Workshop, will provide
normal power, special regulated power, controls and displays, data manage-

184
 ment, recording facilities, programmed time signals, pressurized gas, and
calibration commands for the biomedical experiments M092, M093, M131,
and M171. Specific subsystems will support blood pressure measurements,
leg volume measurements, and vectorcardiogram measurements.
The Experiment Support System was developed and integrated by
MSFC.

FIGURE192.-Experiment Support System.

4. SPACE TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS

Skylab provides a unique opportunity to develop a better understanding
of the effects of the space environment on materials and operational devices.
Skylab can also be used as a platform to measure the environment within and
outside of a spacecraft, and man’s influence upon this environment. A num-
ber of Skylab experiments will provide data about engineering and techno-
logical operations in the space environment; these data will be important in
1 the development of future Earth orbital space stations and spacecraft. Thus,
through the Skylab program, it will be possible to learn more about how
man performs in space, what tools he needs to accomplish his tasks, what his
influence is on the space environment, and how materials can be processed
in space.
The space technology experiments on Skylab can be divided into the fol-
lowing categories; they will be grouped in this order in the descriptions that
follow.

185
Material Science and Manufacturing in Space
M479 Zero-gravity Flammability
M512 Materials Processing in Space
M551 Metals Melting
M552 'Sphere Forming
M553 Exothermic Brazing
M555 Gallium Arsenide Crystal Growth
M518 Multipurpose Electric Furnace System
M556 Vapor Growth of II-VI Compounds
M557 Immisciple Alloy Compositions
M558 Radioactive Tracer Diffusion
M559 Microsegregation in Germanium
M560 Growth of Spherical Crystals
M561 Whisker-Reinforced Composites
M562 Indium-Antimonide Crystals
M563 Mixed III-V Crystal Growth
M564 Halide Eutectics
M565 Silver Grids Melted in Space
M566 Copper-Aluminum Eutectic

Zero-Gravity Systems Studies

M487 Habitability/Crew Quarters

M509 Astronaut Maneuvering Equipment
M516 Crew Activities and Maintenance Study
T002 Manual Navigation Sightings
T013 Crew/Vehicle Disturbance
T020 Foot-Controlled Maneuvering Unit

Spacecraft Environment

D008 Radiation in Spacecraft

D024 Thermal Control Coatings
M415 Thermal Control Coatings
T003 Inflight Aerosol Analysis
T025 Coronagraph Contamination Measurements
T027 ATM Contamination Measurements

a. Astronaut Tools and Equipment

In addition to specific experiments, there is a considerable array of tools,

miscellaneous supplies, and support equipment for the crewmen in the Sky-
lab (Fig. 193), including tool kits, repair kits, restraints, supplies, a film
vault, photographic equipment, and TV cameras. Two tool kits are installed
and retained in standard stowage lockers. The tools provided include stand-
ard ranges and sizes of sockets, open end/box wrenches, screwdrivers, and

186
screwdriver bits. Also included are a vise, a speeder handle, a spin-type
handle, a ratchet handle, a pin straightener, and other common handtools.
A repair kit is also installed in a standard stowage locker. This kit contains
the necessary types and sizes of blister patches to repair structural leaks.
Additional items provided include flat patches, Teflon tape, sealant putty,
Velcro fasteners, restraints, scissors, and tape for repairing air duct damage.
Another support kit includes tension and compression scales, a steel meas-
uring tape, a sound level meter, a frequency analyzer, two surface tempera-
ture digital thermometers, three ambient thermometers, and an air velocity
measuring instrument.
'Cameras using both film and television are provided. To support the film
cameras, there is a film vault to provide protection from radiation (Fig. 194) .
Photographic lights, power and signal cables, versatile mobile restraints, and
convenience outlets are provided. The film cameras available for use inside
the Skylab include a 16 mm Data A4cquisitionCamera (frame rates 2, 4, 6,
12 and 24 frames per second with shutter speeds from 1/60 to 1/1,000 of a
second), 35 mm, and 70 mm still cameras. Speed, resolution, and coverage
depend upon film and lens selected.

b. Materials Science and Manufacturing in Space

The zero-gravity condition existing in Skylab makes it possible to perform
operations in materials processing that would be impossible or extremely
difficult on Earth. Melting and mixing without the contaminating effects of
containers, the suppression of convection and buoyance in liquids and molten

,* 2 7L
C K Y I A B TOOLS

DRAVPH
I A

.c-

FIGURE193.-Tool Kit and typical tools for astronauts.

187
 COMPARTMENT J

VELCRO NO. 1__. i _ _*_FILM VAULT

_ _.1 DRAWERS
J-_ CENTER
RESTRAINT --_1 C__
_ _J'_')_--- HINGE
COMPARTMENT I"_'_

VAULT
COMPARTMENT )_ LEFTSIDE)
NO. 3 ---_ _ .._ _FILM VAULT

FIGURE 194.----Film
Vault for storageof photographic films.

material, control of voids, and the ability to use electrostatic and magnetic
forces otherwise masked by gravitation open the way to new knowledge of
material properties and processes and ultimately to the production of valu-
able new materials for use on Earth. These potential products range from
composite structural materials with specialized physical properties to large
and highly perfect crystals with valuable electrical and optical properties.
In addition, it will be possible to evaluate the feasibility of using electron
beam and thermo-welding under zero-gravity conditions.
Practical experience with principles and problems of development and
integration which has been gained in developing the Skylab materials proc-
essing facility has already proved very valuable in the concept planning of
an improved and enlarged facility for incorporation into the Space Shuttle
Program. Final facility design for Shuttle missions will be based upon the
evaluation of the Skyiab program results, and after detailed user require-
ments have been specified.

M479, Zero-Gravity Flammability

Principal Investigator:
J. H. Kimzey
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas

Objective and Instrumentation:

Obtain photographic data of various combustible materials ignited under

controlled conditions in a zero-gravity environment to determine the
extent of flame propagation and flashover to adjacent materials, rates
 of surface and bulk flame propagation under zero-convection, self-
extinguishment characteristics, and extinguishment characteristics by
vacuum or water spray. The combustion chamber and controls for this
experiment are provided by Experiment M512 (Fig. 195). T h e com-
bustion chamber is stainless steel with a low emissivity interior (Fig. 196).
A large opening on one end permits installation of igniter-fuel assem-
blies. Chamber connections are provided for venting either to the vacuum
of space to exhaust smoke and products of combustion, or venting to
the vehicle interior to equalize pressure and to permit opening. Interior
work lights are provided as well as means to remove solid ash particles
by a vacuum cleaner equipped with a filter trap. Provisions are also
made to spray water to evaluate extinguishment by that means. The
igniter-fuel assemblies are housed in a separate container which serves
both as a protection to the assemblies and as a place to dispose of used
assemblies after testing. Data will be recorded on motion picture film
to be returned to Earth for analysis. The astronaut will provide voice com-
ments while performing the experiment.

EXOTHERMIC HEATING PACKAGE

I
 7
L SA'1:PL E IiOLDER
FIGURE196.-Experiment M479,Flammability under zeru gravity.

190
M512, Materials Processing Facility (Fig. 197)
Principal Investigator :
P. G . Parks
'NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Objective and Instrumentation:
Perform fundamental research on the effects of zero-gravity on molten
metal processing. All the tasks belonging to this experiment involve the
melting of materials by the application of heat. On Earth, the density
differences caused by temperature differences result, under the influence
of gravity, in convection. For many purposes, this is a hindrance on Earth;
however, in zero gravity there will be no convection due to temperature
differences.

:LTSAMPLES

CONTROL PANEL
 Another effect of gravity that will be avoided in space processing is
the separation of different density materials in the preparation of com-
posites. Certain materials of superior characteristics could be produced
if a uniform or other preferred mixture of substances of different den-
sities could be attained. O n Earth, fibers or particles embedded in a
melt will either float or settle if their density differs from that of the
matrix, but in space this will not occur.
The place where materials processing and a number of other experi-
ments on manufacturing in space will be carried out is the M512 facility.
This facility, mounted in the MDA, consists of a vacuum work chamber
with associated mechanical and electrical controls, an electron beam
subsystem (Fig. 198), and a control and display panel. The vacuum
chamber is a 40-cm (16-in) sphere with a hinged hatch for access. It
is connected to the space environment by a 10-cm ( k i n ) diameter line
containing two gate valves. The electron beam subsystem is mounted to
the chamber so that the beam traverses the sphere along a diameter
parallel to the plane of the hatch closure. The chamber wall contains a
cylindrical well accommodating the small electric furnaces used for the
M555 experiment. A receptacle above the well provides power and instru-
mentation lead connections to the control panel. Auxiliary provisions
include ports for a floodlight and the 16 mm data acquisition camera,
a bleed line, a repressurization line, and a port for a vacuum cleaner
to remove debris from the chamber. A subsystem is also provided for
spraying water into the chamber during some runs of the M479
experiment.
The electron beam operates nominally at 20 kilovolts and 80 milliam-
peres. Focusing and deflection coils can be operated from the control
panel to adjust the size and position of the beam impingement spot on
the experiment samples.
The control panel contains controls and displays for all experiments
to be performed in the facility, including a pressure gauge for the vacuum
chamber, voltage and current meters for the electron beam, and a ther-
mocouple temperature indicator.

FIGURE198.--Experiment M5 12, Electron beam gun.

192
 Functions of the crew will include installing specialized apparatus
and samples for each experiment in the chamber, operation of the experi-
ments from the control panel, observation of some experiments through
a viewport in the chamber hatch, data recording, and disassembly of each
experiment after it is performed.
The control panel of the M512 facility permits switch settings and dial
readings (Fig. 197). All data taken from the control panel must be
recorded in writing or on voice recorder tape by the crew.
Data from the experiments will comprise the samples, those parts
of the apparatus that are to be returned, motion picture records of the
two electron beam experiments and M479, and comments by the operat-
ing crewmen. The returned samples will be studied in comparison with
control samples produced on Earth.
Four tasks are contained in this experiment:
M551, Metals Melting--Examine the molten metal flow character-
istics of various metal alloys. Metal samples will be melted by electron
beam and photographed. Specimens will be analyzed after return.
Principal Investigator: R. M. Poorman, Marshall Space Flight Center,
Huntsville, Alabama.
M552, Exothermic Brazing--Develop a stainless steel tube joining
technique for assembly and repair in space; evaluate the flow and
capillary action of molten braze material, using exothermic material
as heat source; and demonstrate the feasibility of exothermic reaction
brazing in space. Principal Investigator: J. Williams, Marshall Space
Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
M553, Sphere Forming (Fig. 198)--Produce spherical shapes of
about 6 mm (.236 in) diameter from molten specimens of metals under
the forces of surface tension by taking advantage of the virtual absence
of gravity. Spheres will be evaluated on Earth. Principal Investigator:
E. A. Hasemeyer, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
M555, GaAs Crystal Growth-Grow single crystals of gallium arsen-
ide of exceptionally high chemical purity and crystalline perfection.
GaAs will dissolve in liquid gallium metal at the hot end (750 ° C
or 1382 ° F) of a quartz tube; crystals will form on seed crystals at the
cold end (550 ° C or 1029 ° F) of the tube. The tube will be opened
for crystal analysis after return to Earth. Principal Investigator: Dr. M.
Rubenstein, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania.

M518, Multipurpose Electric Furnace System (Fig. 199)

Project Engineer:
Arthur Boese
NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama

Objective and Instrumentation:

Provide a means for experimentation in solidification, crystal growth, com-

posite structures, alloy structural characteristics, and other thermal proc-
 FIGURE199.-Multipurpose Electric Furnace and control panel.

esses involving changes in materials under conditions of weightlessness.

The system consists of three main units, the Multipurpose Furnace, the
Control Package, and 33 cartridges (11 experiment sets). The Furnace
has three specimen cavities so that three material samples (cartridges)
can be processed in a single run. The furnace is designed to provide
three different temperature zones along the length of each sample cavity,
as follows:
(1) A constant temperature hot zone at the end of the sample cavity
where temperatures up to 1000" C (1832" F ) can be reached,
( 2 ) A gradient zone next to the hot zone where temperature gradients
ranging from 20" C (36" F) per centimeter to 200" C (360" F) per
centimeter can be established in the samples, and
( 3 ) A cool zone in which heat conducted along the samples will be
radiated to a conducting path that carries the heat out of the system.
The control package, providing active control of the furnace tempera-
ture, can be set to any specified temperature within the furnace's capability
(0" to 1000°C or 32°F to 1832°F) by the astronaut operating the system.
Two timing circuits in the controller will enable the astronaut to program
the soak time spent at the set temperature and the cooling rate of the
furnace following the end of the soak period. The cartridge encapsulates
the sample material, and the actual temperature distribution applied to
the sample will be controlled by the thermal design of the cartridge. Once
the specimens are installed in the furnace and the system is activated,
the Multipurpose Electric Furnace System will operate automatically
except for complete system shutdown.
The eleven experiments planned for the M518 system and their ob-
jectives are :
M556-Vapor Growth of 11-VI Compounds '-Determine the degree

* Compounds formed of elements of the I1 and the VI group of the Periodic System
of Elements. Such compounds are mostly semiconductors.

194
 of improvement that can be obtained in the perfection and chemical
homogeneity of crystals grown by vapor transport under weightless con-
ditions. Principal Investigator: Dr. H. Wiedemeier, Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, New York.
M557--Immiscible Alloy Compositions--Determine the effects of near
zero-gravity on the processing of material compositions which segregate
in the melt on Earth because of density differences. Principal Investigator:
J. Reger, Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, Redondo Beach, California.
M558---Radioactive Tracer Diffusion--Measure self-diffusion and im-
purity diffusion effects in liquid metal under zero gravity, and characterize
the disturbing effects, if any, as a consequence of spacecraft acceleration.
Principal Investigator: Dr. T. Ukanwa, NASA-Marshall Space Flight
Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
M559--Microsegregation in Germanium--Determine the degree of
microsegregation of doping impurities in germanium caused by convection-
less directional solidification under conditions of weightlesseness. Principal
Investigator: Dr. F. Padovani, Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas.
M560--Growth of Spherical Crystals--Grow doped germanium crystals
of high chemical homogeneity and structural perfection, and compare
their physical properties with theoretical values for ideal crystals. Prin-
cipal Investigator: Dr. H. Walter, University of Alabama in Huntsville,
Huntsville, Alabama.
M561--Whisker-Reinforced Composites--Produce void-free samples of
silver and aluminum reinforced with oriented silicon carbide whiskers.
Principal Investigator: Dr. T. Kawada, National Research Institute for
Metals, Tokyo, Japan.
M562--Indium Antimonide Crystals--Produce doped semiconductor
crystals of high chemical homogeneity and structural perfection, and
evaluate the influence of weightlessness in attaining these properties. Prin-
cipal Investigator: Dr. H. Gatos, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
M563--Mixed III-V Crystal Growth 1--Determine how weightlessness
affects directionality of binary semiconductor alloys.
If single crystals are obtained, determine how their semiconducting prop-
erties depend on alloy composition. Principal Investigator: Dr. W. Wilcox,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
M564--Halide Eutectics--Produce samples of the fiberlike sodium
chloride-sodium fluoride eutectic, and measure its physical properties. In
particular, optical parameters of the space-produced material will be of
interest. Principal Investigator: Dr. A. Yue, University of California at
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
M565--Silver Grids Melted in Space--Determine how pore sizes and
pore shapes change in grids of fine silver wires when they are melted and
resolidified in space. Principal Investigator: Dr. A. Deruythere, Catholic
University of Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium.

1 Compounds formed of elements of the III and V group of the Periodic System
of Elements.

195
 M566--Copper-Aluminum Eutectic--Determine the effects of weight-
lessness on the formation of lamellar structures in eutectic alloys when
directionally solidified. Principal Investigator: E. Hasemeyer, NASA-
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama.

c. Zero-Gravity Systems Studies

The zero-gravity systems studies experiments were selected to gain en-

gineering data on man's capabilities in the weightless environment and to
evaluate instruments and systems designed to increase the crew's ability to
move and work in such an environment. These investigations support the
broad Skylab program objectives of developing and advancing man's ca-
pability to live and perform useful work in space. Evaluations will be made
of the crew's ability to perform zero-gravity tasks requiring both gross and
delicate manipulations. A series of measurements will be taken to determine
the effects of mission duration and prolonged weightlessness on the crew's
ability to repeat these same tasks in a skillful and timely manner. Accurate
measurements will be made of vehicle disturbances caused by crew activities.
These results are essential for the definition of allowable crew motions during
the conduct of experiments requiring low levels of acceleration (10 -4 to
10 -5 g) or pointing with extreme accuracy and for the design of attitude
control systems for future space missions. Other experiments will evaluate
operating concepts for astronaut maneuvering devices. The data obtained
will be applied to future programs for extra-vehicular activities such as as-
sembling large space structures, inspection and maintenance, repair, refur-
bishment, rescue, and data retrieval. Several astronaut maneuvering units
and labor saving aids will be evaluated during the mission.

M487, Habitability/Crew Quarters

Principal Investigator:
C. C. Johnson
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective and Instrumentation:
Evaluate the features of Skylab's living quarters, crew provisions, and
support facilities as they affect the crew's comfort, safety, and operating
efficiency. Equipment, procedures, and habitat design concepts derived
from experience on Earth and from previous short-duration orbital flights,
may require modification. This evaluation is a multidisciplinary set of
systematic observations, and it serves as a test and validation of design con-
cepts and technical features. The following aspects of system design and
operation will be studied: physical environment (temperature, humidity,
light, noise); architecture (volume and layout of working and living'
areas) ; mobility aids and personal restraints (translation, worksite support,
sleep stations) ; food and water (storage, preparation, quality) ; personal
garments (comfort, durability, design); personal hygiene (cleansing,
groonfing, collection and disposal of body waste) ; housekeeping (habitat

196
 cleansing, waste control and disposal) ; off-duty activities (exercise facili-
ties, individual and group recreation, privacy features) ; and
communications.
Instruments used in this study include a portable surface temperature
digital thermometer, sound level meter, frequency analyzer, air velocity
meter, measuring tape, and ambient thermometers. Motion picture cam-
eras, lights, and tape recorders will be available from other experiments.
Data will be recorded in the form of motion picture films and voice tape
comments. The data will be evaluated on Earth after they are returned.

M509, Astronaut Maneuvering Equipment (Fig. 200)

Principal Investigator:
Major C. E. Whitsett, Jr., USAF
Air Force Space and Missile Systems Organzation
Los Angeles, California
Objectiues and Instrumentation:
Conduct an in-orbit verification of the utility of various maneuvering
techniques to assist astronauts in performing tasks which are representa-
tive of future extravehicular activity (EVA) requirements.
The concept of powered astronaut maneuvering is fundamental to the
development of an effective EVA capability which, in turn, is considered

FIGURE200.-Experiment M509, Space maneuvering system for use during extra-

vehicular activities.

197
to be a routine supporting element in future manned space flight. EVA
is expected to play a major role in such areas as space rescue, inspection
and repair of parent and satellite spacecraft, personnel and cargo trans-
port, and space structure erection. The addition of maneuvering aids to
such EVA tasks is expected to reduce crew fatigue and stress, cut time
requirements, offset pressure suit mobility limitations, and facilitate atti-
tude orientation and stabilization.
The astronaut maneuvering equipment of Experiment M509 consists of
two jet-powered aids for maneuvering in a zero-gravity space environment.
The first is a back-mounted, hand-controlled Automatically Stabilized
Maneuvering Unit (ASMU) ; the second a Hand-Held Maneuvering
Unit ("MU). A backpack, serving both units, contains a rechargeable
or replaceable high pressure nitrogen propellant tank. I t will be worn for
the ASMU and for the H H M U (Fig. 201). The electrical systems within
the backpack are powered by a rechargeable or replaceable battery. The
astronaut dons the backpack over either a pressurized space suit or flight
coveralls, using a quick release harness similar to that used for parachutes.
The Automatically Stabilized Maneuvering Unit is maneuvered in six
degrees of freedom (X, Y, and Z axis translation, and pitch, yaw, and roll)
by means of 14 fixed thrusters located in various positions on the back-
pack. Control of the thrusters is achieved by two hand-controllers mounted
on arms e*ending from the backpack. The controllers are identical to

FIGURE201 .-Simulated use of hand-controlled maneuvering unit.

198
 those used in the Apollo spacecraft. The Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit
is a simple, small, lightweight, completely manual device similar to the
one used in Gemini. It consists of a hand grip and controls for a pair
of tractor (pull) thrusters and an opposing single pusher thruster; the
assembly is connected to the ASMU propellant tank by a short hose. To
orient and propel himself in any attitude or direction, the operator points
the HHMU, aligns it so that the thrust vector passes approximately
through his center of gravity, and triggers the tractor or pusher thrusters as
indicated by his visual cues. Maneuvering with the ASMU and the
HHMU on Skylab will be performed within the Orbital Workshop.
The ASMU is instrumented to record numerous engineering and bio-
medical data during the pressu_-suited runs. These data will be sensed,
collected, and telemetered from the free-flying ASMU to a receiver within
the Orbital Workshop. Together with recorded voice commentary, the
data will be telemetered from the OWS to ground stations. Additional
experiment data will be provided by inflight television, postflight still
and motion picture data, and logbook entries. It is expected that M509 will
provide a wide range of valuable information on maneuvering unit han-
dling qualities, operating techniques, consumable requirements, capabili-
ties, and limitations.

M516, Crew Activities and Maintenance Study

Principal Investigator:
R. L. Bond
NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas
Objective:
To investigate crew performance in zero gravity, long-duration missions,
primarily through observations of normal Skylab tasks. This experiment
is oriented toward the design of future space equipment and work pro-
visions rather than basic human performance. The experiment calls for
systematic documentation of man's performance during prolonged weight-
less space flight, acquisition and evaluation of inflight maintenance data,
and evaluation of data relative to design criteria for future manned mis-
sions. There is no requirement for any special equipment solely for this
experiment. Data will be acquired for normal Skylab inflight activities.
They will be recorded by film, voice tapes, logbook entries, TV transmis-
sions, and telemetry.

T002, Manual Navigation Sightings (Fig. 202)

Principal Investigator:
Robert J. Randle
NASA-Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California
Objective and Instrumentation:
Investigate the effects of the space flight environment (including long-
mission time) on the navigator's ability to take space navigation measure-

199
500-7210 - 73 - 14
 TIME MARK
CONTROL
EY
COARSE
SCANNING Pf.’
MOVAL
Ln JC H SCALE
CONTROL

FINE .IEF

‘SCANNING
:E

d
CONTROI

ILLUMINATION
CONTROL - -Irh

FIGURE ZOZ.-Experiment T002, Manual navigation sighting instrument used to

measure angles between two stars.

ments through a spacecraft window using hand-held instruments. Pre-

vious data obtained with the use of simulators, aircraft, and the Gemini
spacecraft have already demonstrated that man, in a space environment,
can make accurate navigation measurements using simple hand-held in-
struments. The intent of this experiment is to determine whether long-
mission duration appreciably affects the capability of man to obtain
accurate measurements. Further, the experiment will return data which
will be generally indicative of the effect of long-duration space flight on
man’s capability to perform other precision tasks. The instrumentation
for this experiment consists of a sextant and a stadimeter, both hand-held.
The sextant, similar to an aviator’s sextant, will be used to measure the
angles between two stars and between single stars and the edge of the
Moon. The stadimeter, also an optical device, determines spacecraft alti-
tude directly by measuring the apparent difference in elevation angle
between a portion of the Earth’s horizon and its subtended chord. Data
return will be in the form of logbook entries of the sextant and stadimeter
readings. This will be supplemented by crew comments on the voice tape
recorder.

T013, Crew/Vehicle Disturbance

Principal Investigator :
Bruce A. Conway
NASA-Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia
Objective and Instrumentation:
Determine the effect of the crew’s activities within the spacecraft on the
Skylab vehicle’s pointing stability. Many Earth-pointing and astronomy
experiments in future manned space programs will require pointing ac-

200
 curacies of fractions of a second of arc. One of the most significant
hindrances to achieving this accuracy will probably be the movement of
the astronauts operating the spacecraft. Adequate design of the pointing
control system for these future vehicles demands accurate knowledge of
these effects. In this experiment, the forces exerted on the spacecraft by
specific astronaut body and limb movements will be precisely measured.
A limb motion sensor, attached to a suit, will measure the relative mo-
tions of the body, upper arm, lower arm, and upper and lower leg. The
astronaut performing the experiment will be attached to a device that
measures the force exerted on the Skylab structure by his activities. The
limb movements and forces will be recorded on tape, and the activity will
be photographed on motion picture film.

T020, Foot-Controlled Maneuvering Unit (Fig. 203)

Principal Investigator:
Donald E. Hewes
NASA-Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia
Objective and Instrumentation:
Evaluate an astronaut maneuvering device that does not require use of
the astronaut's hands. The Foot-Controlled Maneuvering Unit (FCMU)
is a research apparatus for examining the maneuvering dynamics of a cold
gas jet-powered personal propulsion system in a zero-gravity space en-
vironment. The FCMU is propelled by high pressure nitrogen supplied
from the M509 back-mounted tank. The operator, wearing either a pres-
surized space suit or flight coveralls, will control pitch, yaw, roll, and
translation along his head-foot axis through a combination of toe and
foot commands. Both the FCMU propellant tank and battery are re-
chargeable or replaceable units; they are shared with the astronaut
maneuvering equipment of Experiment M509. Most of the data collection
will be accomplished by two motion picture cameras, one mounted in the
workshop dome and a battery-powered, forward-looking camera mounted
within the FCMU frame. Additional data will be supplied by recorded
voice commentary and logbook entries. It is expected that the information
derived from this experiment will add valuable engineering inputs into
future maneuvering unit design.

d. Spacecraft Environment

The Spacecraft Environment experiments on Skylab are concerned with

measuring the radiation in the spacecraft, contamination around the space-
craft, and the effects of the spacecraft environment on thermal control
coatings
The major source of radiation encountered by a spacecraft in Earth orbit
is the South Atlantic Anomaly, a region where the Van Allen radiation belts
are unusually close to Earth because of the unsymmetrical shape of the
Earth's magnetic field. In addition, however, major solar flares can generate
high energy protons and alpha particles. Also, there is continuous back-
ground radiation from cosmic ray sources. Measurements of the radiation

201
FIGURESOS.-Experiment T020, Foot-controlled maneuvering unit for extravehicular
activities.

environment are needed to better predict the radiation dose received by

man in Earth orbit.
Thermal control coatings with selected absorption and emission proper-
ties are applied to spacecraft surfaces to aid in maintaining the desired tem-
peratures inside the spacecraft. Unfortunately, the environments to which
these coatings are exposed before and during flight often alter their prop-
erties in a sense of making them less effective. Two Skylab experiments are
designed to measure the effects of the space environment upon thermal
control coatings.
Clouds of particles surrounding a spacecraft are termed contamination ;
this contamination may lead to deposits on optical surfaces, and it also may
degrade visibility around the spacecraft. Particles originate from thruster
firings, water and urine dumps, and outgassing of spacecraft surfaces. TWO
Skylab experiments will measure the Contamination environment around
Skylab.
202
D008, Radiation in Spacecraft (Fig. 204)

Principal Investigator:
Capt. Andrew D. Grimm, USAF
Kirtland AFB, New Mexico

Objective and Instrumentation:

Make radiation dose measurements in Earth orbit. These measurements
are of value in assessing the quality of dosimetry instrumentation for us_ in
space, in evaluating analytical procedures for predicting radiation doses
in Earth orbit, and in studying the biological reaction of man to radiation.
Instrumentation for this experiment consists of one portable tissue-equiva-
lent dosimeter, one Linear Energy Transfer system comprised of two
solid-state particle detectors which measure equivalent ranges in tissue
of incident particles, and five passive dosimeters. The passive dosimeters
and the Linear Energy Transfer system are placed in specific locations
and remain there throughout the Skylab mission. The tissue-equivalent
dosimeter will be moved to various locations in the spacecraft during
measurement periods. Data from the tissue-equivalent dosimeter and the
Linear Energy Transfer system will be telemetered to Earth; in addition,
the logbook of events during measurement periods and the passive dosim-
eters will be returned to Earth for analysis.

2O3
 ACT1 VE
OOSl METE R

DOSIMETER

FIGURE204.-Experiment D008, Instrumentation to measure radiations inside Skylab.

204
D024, Thermal Control Coatings (Fig. 205)
Principal Investigator :
Dr. William Lehn
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Dayton, Ohio
Objective and Instrumentation:
Expose samples of thermal control coating materials to the space environ-
ment in order to compare results with ground-based simulations, and to
determine mechanisms of degradation due to the space environment and
space radiation. This experiment measures degradation that occurs only
while the Skylab is in or near Earth orbit; Experiment M415 measures

FIGURE205.-Experiment D024, Degradation of thermal control coatings in a near-

Earth space environment.

205
 launch and pre-launch effects. The instrumentation consists of two panels,
each containing 36 thermal control coating samples (Discs of 2.5 cm or 1
inch diameter). The panels will be protected by covers and will be ex-
posed only to the space environment. One panel will be retrieved and
placed in a hermetically sealed container and then returned to Earth for
analysis of the first manned mission; the other will be returned to Earth
on the second manned mission.

M415, Thermal Control Coatings (Fig. 206)

Principal Investigator:
Eugene C. MacKannan
NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Objective and Instrumentation:
Determine the degradation effects of prelaunch, launch, and space en-
vironments on the thermal absorption and emission characteristics of
various coatings commonly used for passive thermal control. The prin-
cipal elements of this experiment consist of two panels, each containing
12 thermal sensors arranged in four sets of three, mounted on the exterior
of the Saturn I R launch vehicle. Three different thermal control coating
samples are mounted on the sensors in each set. One set of sample coat-
ings will be exposed to all environments. A second set will be exposed
immediately prior to Launch Escape System Tower jettison and to all
environmental conditions thereafter. The third set Mill be exposed to
retrorocket firing and space environments, while the fourth set will be
exposed to space environment only. Average thermal-radiative properties
can be calculated from telemetered temperature measurements. These
calculated values will then indicate how the various environments altered
4 LAUNCH VECTOR

‘ttl HONEYCOMB LPECIMEN

SENSOR
12 EACH

FIGURE206.-Experiment M415, Degradation of thermal control coatings, befare,

during, and after launch.
 coating characteristics. Unlike Experiment D024, detailed spectral reflec-
tion measurements cannot be made in this experiment since the coatings
will not be retrieved.

T003, Inflight Aerosol Analysis (Fig. 207)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. William Z. Leavitt
Department of Transportation
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Objectives and Instrumentation:
Measure the size, concentration, and composition of the minute particles
present in the atmosphere inside Skylab. The information obtained will
be used not only as a measure of the atmospheric quality in Skylab but
as a data source in analysis of other Skylab phenomena. Sources of astro-
naut discomfort, either respiratory or skin, may be related to aerosol
buildup ; system performance anomalies may be resolved using these
aerosol experiment data; also, the data can be used in the design of future
spacecraft and equipment. The experiment is self-contained in a box
approximately 15 cm X 25 cm X 33 cm (6 in. X 10 in. X 13 in.)
with an air inlet, an air outlet, a filter selector knob, a channel indicator,
and a particle-count readout register (Fig. 207). The channel indicator
reads “l”, “2”, or “3”, and the register gives the corresponding concen-
tration of particles in the 1.0 to 3.0 micrometer, 3.0 to 9.0 micrometer,
and 9.0 to 100 micrometer ranges. The different settings of the filter
are for the different locations where measurements are made. The filter
is used to bring particles back for later identification and position correla-
tion. Particle size and count are determined by passing a known volume of

FIGURE207.-Experiment TO03 to determine the presence and number of dust and

other particles (aerosols) in the cabin atmosphere.

207
 air through the measuring chamber and measuring the amount of light
each particle scatters to a photodetector, and also the number of light
pulses which corresponds to the number of particles. Measurements at
a main location will be taken three times a day. Every ten days, measure-
ments are made at several other predetermined stations. Ten more
measurements can be made anywhere at any time at the crew’s discretion.
The filters used in each measurement will be returned to Earth for
analysis.

T025, Coronagraph Contamination Measurements (Fig. 208)

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Mayo Greenberg
Dudley Observatory
Albany, New York
Objectives and Instrumentation:
Observe visually and photographically and interpret the particulate
atmosphere surrounding the Skylab in orbit; study the change (size,
quantity, distribution) in these particles caused by thruster firing and
water dumps; and photograph the solar corona to find out if the contami-
nation degrades the ability to see. A disc assembly, mounted on a boom, is
extended through the Solar Scientific Airlock. A camera is mounted on
the TO25 canister so it remains inside the OWS. The disc assembly
occults the solar disc from the camera lens so the corona may be photo-

OCCULTING 01sc7

\LEXTENSIO BOOM
ASSEMBLY

FIGURE208.-Experiment T025, Measurement of contamination near Skylab with a

coronagraph.

208
 graphed. Of essential interest is the amount of background “fog” pro-
duced by stray light falling on the film during exposure. Film will be
returned to Earth for analysis.

T027, ATM Contamination Measurements (Fig. 209)

Principal Investigator :
Dr. Joseph A. Muscari
Martin-Marietta Corporation
Denver, Colorado
Objective and Instrumentation:
Determine the change in optical properties of various surfaces caused by
contaminants near the spacecraft by postflight analysis, measure the
amount of contaminants deposited on a test surface during flight, and
observe the sky brightness caused by solar illumination of contaminants.
A sample array system containing 200 samples of 16 different materials
(windows, mirrors, gratings, other optical surfaces) and two quartz crystal
microbalances will be exposed to the space environment for various dura-
tions during a period of five days. The quartz crystal microbalances
will measure contaminant masses deposited on their surfaces in near real
time. A photoelectric polarimeter photometer, used jointly for Experi-
ments SO73 and T027, will measure the brightness of contaminants
illuminated by the Sun at elongations longer than 15” from the Sun. A
16 mm camera will be used to record the photometric and polarimetric
data on film. At the end of the mission, the individual samples on the
sample array will be covered, and the sample array will be placed in a
vacuum container for return to Earth for postflight analysis.

FIGURE209.-Experiment T027, Measurement of contamination near Skylab with

surface samples.

209
5. SKYLAB STUDENT PROJECT

Through the Skylab Student Project, high school students of the United
States were given the opportunity to participate in the Skylab scientific
program. All students in the ninth through the twelfth grades in all United
States public, private, parochial, and overseas schools were eligible. The
Project's purpose is to stimulate interest in science and technology by di-
rectly involving secondary school students in a space research program.
In October 1971, the National Science Teachers Association, under the
auspices of NASA, distributed announcements of the science opportunity and
of the method of participating in the Skylab Program. As a result, over 3,400
proposals for experiments were received. The National Science Teachers
Association then selected 25 proposals as the national winners, announcing
their names in April, 1972. The 25 national finalists from 16 states took part
in a week of preliminai T design review at the George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center where they, their parents, and their teacher/sponsors were
joined by Skylab scientists, engineers, technicians, and project oflCicials.
After a detailed review by NASA, 19 out of the 25 experiments selected
as national winners were approved for Skylab. The NASA review deter-
mined that, because of Skylab performance requirements and schedule
restrictions, the other six experiments could not be accolnmodated. This
experiment evaluation and flight selection process involved NASA Skylab
personnel from the Marshall Space Flight Center, the Johnson Space Center,
and the Kennedy Space Center. The 19 students whose experiments were
selected for research participated closely in the development of necessary
experiment instrumentation and in the detailed planning of their investiga-
tions including data retrieval and processing, flight planning, and crew train-
ing. After the mission, the students will evaluate their data and report on
their experiments. These student experiments, which are handled by Skylab
project management in a manner very similar to the handling of main Sky-
lab experiments, reflect remarkable technical abilities. The names of the
student experimenters, description of their experiments, and the experiment
numbers follow:

JOE B. ZMOLEK, Oshkosh, Wisconsin

Lourdes High School, Mr. William L. Behring, Teacher/Sponsor
"Absorption of Radiant Heat in the Earth's Atmosphere," ED11.
This experiment is to derive information on the loss of heat energy in
the Earth's atmosphere. It will utilize data from the Earth Resources Experi-
ment Package, Experiment S191, and related ground-truth measurements
to be made simuhaneously at the Earth's surface.

TROY A. CRITES, Kent, Washington

Kent Junior High, Mr. Richard C. Putnam, Teacher/Sponsor
"Space Observation and Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions," ED12.
The purpose of this study is to analyze infrared surveys taken in the areas
of known volcanoes by sensors of the Skylab Earth Resources Experiment

210
 Package (Experiments S190A, S190B, S191, S192). The data will be
compared with ground-based data to determine whether remote sensing
can detect increased thermal radiation which may precede an imminent
volcanic eruption.

ALISON HOPFIELD, Princeton, New Jersey

Princeton Day School, Mr. Norman Sperling, Director, Duncan Plane-
tarium, Sponsor
"Photography of Libration Clouds," ED21.
The Skylab solar telescope cameras of the coronagraph experiment S052
will provide pictures of two regions in the Moon's orbit. At two points in
the orbit of the Moon, ahead of and following the Moon in its path, a
condition of gravitational equilibrium exists which causes the accumula-
tion of space particles. When each of these regions comes within sight of
the Skylab solar telescopes, pictures will be taken, and the brightness and
polarization of the reflected light will be measured by Experiments T027
and S073.

DANIEL C. BOCHSLER, Silverton, Oregon

Silverton Union High School, Mr. John P. Dailey, Teacher/Sponsor
"Possible Confirmation of Objects within Mercury's Orbit," ED22.
This observation will attempt to identify a planetary body which may
orbit the Sun at a distance approximately 0.1 of the distance from the
Sun to the Earth (Mercury's orbital radius is about one-third of the radius
of Earth's orbit). The experiment is to be performed by examining about
30,000 Skylab solar telescope photographs taken by the coronagraph of
ATM Experiment S052.

JOHN C. HAMILTON, Aiea, Hawaii

Aiea High School, Mr. James A. Fuchigami, Teacher/Sponsor
"Spectrography of Selected Quasars," ED23.
Selected photographs obtained by the ultraviolet stellar astronomy
equipment ($019) will be analyzed. Photographs of target areas in which
quasars have been identified will be studied to obtain spectral data in the
ultraviolet region to add to existing data in the radio and visible ranges.

JOE W. REIHS, Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Tara High School, Mrs. Helen W. Boyd, Teacher/Sponsor
"X-Ray Content in Association with Stellar Spectral Classes," ED24.
The primary aim is to make observations of celestial regions in X-ray
wavelengths in an attempt to relate X-ray emissions to stars and to their
spectral characteristics. In addition, observations of the Sun in X-ray and
other spectral regions will be studied to re-examine the Sun and its relation
to stars in other stellar classes. Pictures from ATM Experiments S054 and
S056 will be evaluated.

211
 JEANNE L. LEVENTHAL, Berkeley, California
Berkeley High School, Mr. Harry E. Choulett, Teacher/Sponsor
"X-Ray Emission from the Planet Jupiter," ED25.
The purpose of this study is to detect X-rays emitted from Jupiter. The
X-ray emission, if detected by Skylab, will be correlated with solar activity
and Jupiter's radio emission to derive more information on the radiation-
emitting mechanisms of this planet. Pictures taken by the ATM Experi-
ment S054 will be used.

NEAL W. SHANNON, Atlanta, Georgia

Fernbank Science Center, Dr. Paul H. Knappenberger, Teacher/
Sponsor
"A Search for Pulsars in Ultraviolet Wavelengths," ED26.

Ultraviolet observations of selected celestial regions will be used in an

attempt to relate ultraviolet emissions with known radio-emitting pulsars,
and with the pulsar in the Crab Nebula which is known to emit pulses in
X-ray, visible light, and radio frequencies. Pictures taken by instrument
S019 in the Stellar Astronomy Program will be evaluated.

ROBERT L. STAEHLE, Rochester, New York

Harley School, Mr. Alan H. Soanes, Teacher/Sponsor
"Behavior of Bacteria and Bacterial Spores in the Skylab Space Envi-
ronment," ED31.
In this experiment, colonies of various species of bacteria will be studied
in the Skylab zero-gravity environment to determine if this environment
induces variations in survival rate, growth, and mutations of bacteria and
spores different from those observed in identical colonies on Earth.

TODD A. MEISTER, Jackson Heights, New York

Bronx High School of Science, Mr. Vincent G. Galasso, Teacher/Sponsor
"An In-Vitro Study of Selected Isolated Immune Phenomena," ED32.
This experiment seeks to determine if the actions of antibodies are influ-
enced by absence of gravity. An antibody is a substance which acts to
destroy specific foreign substances (antigens) such as toxins, bacteria, and
dust. Microscope slides used in the experiments are "fixed" by adding acetic
acid to stop antibody activity resulting from the introduction of antigens.
These slides are then photographed by the astronaut; the photographs are
returned to Earth for analysis by the students.

KATHY L. JACKSON, Houston, Texas

Clear Creek High School, Mrs. Mary K. Kimzey, Teacher/Sponsor
"A Quantitative Measure of Motor Sensory Performance During Pro-
longed Flight in Zero Gravity," ED41 (Fig. 210).

This experiment uses a standard eye-hand coordination test apparatus

to measure changes in motor sensory skill of crew members. An astronaut

212
has to make electric contacts with a hand-held stylus through a pattern
of holes in a punch-board-like plate. Total time need for this procedure
is a measure of coordination efficiency. Results will be recorded on tape.

FIGURE210.-Experiment ED41, Study of motor sensory performance with punch

board and stylus.

JUDITH S. MILES, Lexington, Massachusetts

Lexington High School, Mr. J. Michael Conley, Teacher/Sponsor
“Web Formation in Zero Gravity,” ED52 (Fig. 21 1).
Photographic observations will be made of the web building process and
the detailed structure of the web of the common cross spider (araneus
diadematus) in an Earth environment and in the weightless Skylab envi-
ronment. Analysis of experiment results will be similar to that of like experi-
ments, without the Skylab environment, performed by the Research
Division, North Carolina Department of Mental Health.

213
FIGURE21 1.-Experiment ED52, Study of web-building by spiders under zero gravity.

JOEL G. WORDEKEMPER, West Point, Nebraska

Central Catholic High School, Mrs. Louis M. Schaaf, Teacher/Sponsor
“Plant Growth in Zero Gravity,” ED61.
DONALD W. SCHLACK, Downey, California
Downey High School, Miss Jean C. Beaton, Teacher/Sponsor
“Photographic Orientation of an Embryo Plant in Zero Gravity,” ED62.
These two experiments have been combined into a single joint experi-
ment whose objectives are:
1. To determine the differences between rice seedlings grown in zero-
gravity, and rice seedlings grown on Earth under similar conditions, with
respect to root and stem growth, and orientation.
2. To determine whether light can be used as a substitute for gravity
in causing the roots and stems of rice seedlings to grow in a desired direc-
tion under zero-gravity, and if so, to determine the minimum light level
required.
Photographic records of the experiment will be returned to Earth.

214
 CHERYL A. PELITZ, Littleton, ‘Colorado
Arapahoe High School, Mr. Gordon B. Scheels, Teacher/Sponsor
“Cytoplasmic Streaming in Zero-Gravity,” ED63 (Fig. 212).
Microscopic observation will be performed by an astronaut on leaf cells
of elodea plants in zero gravity to determine if there is a difference between
the motion of intracellular cytoplasm under weightlessness and intercellular
cytoplasmic motion in similar leaf cells on Earth. Cytoplasm is the protoplasm
of a cell exclusive of the nucleus.

Eloda is a bright green, fast growing plant found in fresh water ponds.

r--rrrr,
P
3

FIGURE.:! 12.-Experiment ED63, Observation of cytoplasmic streaming in zeru gravity.

215
jOO-iZ1 0 - 73 - li
 ROGER G. JOHNSTON, St. Paul, Minnesota
Alexander Ramsey High School, Mr. Theodore E. Molitor, Teacher/
Sponsor
“Capillary Action Studies in a State of Free Fall,’’ ED72 (Fig. 213).
The purpose of this experiment is to determine if the zero-gravity environ-
ment induces changes in the characteristics of capillary and wicking action
from the familar Earth-gravity characteristics. The motion of liquids through
capillary tubes will be recorded photographically.

FIGURE213.-Experiment ED72, Study of capillary action under zero gravity.

216
 VINCENT W. CONVERSE, Rockford, Illinois
,Harlem High School, Miss Mary J. Trumbauer, Teacher/Sponsor
“Zero-Gravity Mmass Measurement,” ED74 (Fig. 214).
This experiment complements the existing Skylab specimen mass and
body mass measurement devices. The equipment consists of a simple leaf
spring anchored at one end and with the mass to be measured a t the other
end. T h e experiment operates on the same principle as the biomedical Skylab
mass measurement devices.

FIGURE214.-Experiment ED74, Mass measurement under zero gravity with a leaf

spring system.

217
 TERRY C. QUIST, San Antonio, Texas
Thomas Jefferson High School, Mr. Michael Stewart, Teacher/Sponsor
"Earth Orbital Neutron Analysis," ED76
Detectors inside Skylab will record neutrons from three potential sources;
Earth albedo neutrons, high energy neutrons from the Sun, and neutrons from
secondary processes on Skylab. The detectors mounted on the inboard faces
of the Skylab water tanks will record neutrons which have been moderated
during their passage through the water in the tanks, and then produce fission
particles which generate ionization tracks in a plastic material. Detectors
mounted elsewhere in the Skylab will furnish control data. Chemical treat-
ment of the plastic after return to Earth will reveal readily identifiable tracks.

W. BRIAN DUNLAP, Youngstown, Ohio

Austintown Fitch High School, Mr. Paul J. Pallante, Teacher/Sponsor
"Wave Motion through a Liquid in Zero-Gravity," ED78.
This experiment will observe the motion of a gas bubble surrounded by a
fluid when excited by a known driving force. Provisions will be made for vary-
ing the size of the bubble.

6. POSTFLIGHT DATA EVALUATION

Responsibility for the reduction and evaluation of Skylab experiment data

lies primarily with the Principal Investigators. Telemetry data will be made
available to investigators through the Mission Control Center at JSC as
quickly as possible after receipt of the data. Films, tapes, samples, logbooks,
and other data records to be brought back in the returning Command
Modules will be taken to the Mission Control Center by the recovery team
and then distributed to Principal Investigators. Additional data, such as
spacecraft positional location, details of Skylab performance, trajectory in-
formation, Skylab attitude as a function of time and location, environmental
data, records of radiation and contamination sensors, and other data of
specific interest to investigators will be furnished by the Lydon B. Johnson
Space Center in Houston or the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in
Huntsville.
Most of the experiments will be performed on all three manned missions.
A preliminary "quick look" evaluation of experimental results after the
first and the second mission will be of great importance in these experiments,
because results of one mission may determine whether an experiment should
be modified for the following missions.
For some groups of experiments, one of the NASA Centers bears a broad
overall responsibility; for example, the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
is responsible for the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), while
a number of Principal Investigators are individually responsible for the
experiments within this package. Data evaluation plans for EREP include
the following activities:

1. By ]SC (within two weeks after CM Recovery) :

Films will be developed.
Films and tapes will be duplicated.

2]B
 Strip charts, tabulations, and pictures will be made from tapes.
Logs and voice recordings will be transcribed.
Supporting data on Skylab performance will be documented.
Films and other records will be furnished to Principal Investigators.
Teams will make "quick look" evaluation.
Preliminary results will be furnished to Science Analysis Teams, Mission
Planning, and NASA Public Affairs Offices.

2. By the Principal Investigators:

a. Within four weeks after CM recovery:
Detailed screening of data.
Careful correlation of data with sensor performance and Skylab
operational data.
Data analysis and evaluation.
Feedback made to NASA Mission Planning.
Preliminary Science Reports written.
b. During the first year after CM recovery:
Thorough analysis of data.
Data packages prepared for user agencies.
Final Science Reports prepared.
Suggestions made for future projects.
c. After about one year:

Original data will be made available to any qualified investigator.

Data evaluation plans for the various groups of Skylab experiments differ in
some details; for example, ATM films will be developed by the Principal
Investigators. However, the plan for EREP data described here reflects the
characteristic features of all of the Skylab data evaluation plans.

219
CHAPTER
VI

Ground-Based
Supporting Projects

Each of the experimental programs on Skylab represents an extension of

studies that have been under way on Earth for some time. It is natural, there-
fore, that experimenters have expressed the desire to compare and correlate
the results of Skylab experiments very carefully with data gained from
ground-based observations. In fact, several ground-based study programs
have been planned and prepared specifically to provide data in support of
Skylab experiments. Ground-based supporting projects which will supply
back-up services to Skylab will include the Ground-Based Astronomy Pro-
gram, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's support to
NASA, earth resources ground-truth activities, and ground-based medical
studies.
These ground-based supporting projects will supplement Skylab studies in
several ways. First, by comparing ground observations and Skylab observa-
tions of the same object, an experimenter can determine the kind and the
degree of superiority which space observations may have over ground obser-
vations. Second, by observing a given object, such as a group of sunspots,
over an extended period of time before and after the Skylab mission, insight
into evolutionary processes will be gained which may greatly enhance the
value of Skylab observations. Third, by observing at close range certain
features on the surface of the Earth, such as tectonic formations, ocean cur-
rents, or plant growth patterns, a "calibration table" for the interpretation of
Skylab pictures of the same features can be established. This calibration can
then be used for the interpretation of other Skylab pictures for which no
ground pictures exist. Fourth, in the case of biological and medical experi-
ments, the ground-based observations will enable the investigator to isolate
the effects of weightlessness upon living organisms by comparing Skylab data
with the results of observations taken under similar conditions on the ground.
Details of some of the ground-based supporting projects will be described
in the following sections.

1. GROUND-BASED ASTRONOMY PROGRAM

The Skylab Ground-Based Astronomy Program is designed to obtain

solar data from observatories around the world at the same time the ATM
instruments are observing the Sun from orbit. Data gathered on the ground
will support and add to the space-gathered data and thus help gain maxi-
mum benefit from the ATM.

220
 Early in 1971, NASA began to solicit proposals from solar astronomers
for ground-based observations that would support and extend solar observa-
tions on Skylab. Many organizations submitted proposals; nine of them
were selected for implementation.
The participating astronomical observatories and their proposed projects
are as follows:
a. The University of Hawaii's Institute of Astronomy at Haleakala (Fig.
215) is constructing a photometer for observations of active regions in the
corona. This instrument will measure simultaneously the intensities of several
visible coronal lines in a study to determine the rates of energy loss and gain
from the active regions and the effects of flare events on the corona.
b. The Lockheed Missiles and Space Company a t Palo Alto, California,
will operate at Kitt Peak's McMath solar observatory (Fig. 216) a spec-
troheliograph capable of mapping physical parameters of the solar atmos-
phere. I n conjunction with the Kitt Peak solar telescope and vacuum
spectograph, a wide-exit aperture and a specially constructed movie camera
with rapid film advance will be used to obtain spectral maps of active
regions of the solar disc with high spatial resolution (to one-half arc sec-
ond). A high speed microdensitometer-computer system will be set up to
allow rapid analysis of the spectral data to obtain solar plasma velocity
and magnetic field maps of regions of interest.
c. The National Bureau of Standards is upgrading calibration capabilities
in support of ATM-related measurements in the following areas:
(1) A hydrogen arc source of known radiant flux for the calibration
of spectrometric detector systems over the region from 50 to 370 nm (500
to 3700 A) is being developed.
(2) A study is being conducted to determine the effects on photo-
cathodes caused by removal or addition of mono-layers of contaminants
in vacuum; wavelength region of interest is 50 to 150 nm (500 to 1500 A ) .
(3) A capability is being established for radiometric calibration down
to 20 nm (200 A) by utilizing the National Bureau of Standards' synchro-
tron facility. Windowless diodes are being developed as transfer standards in
this spectral range.

FIGURE21+.--Solar Observatory on Mount Haleakala, Hawaii.

221
FIGURE216.-Solar Observatory on Kitt Peak, Arizona. Courtesy of Kitt Peak National
Observatory.

d. California Institute of Technology is installing a 65 cm (25.6 in)

photoheliograph at its observatory at Big Bear Lake in California (Fig.
217) where observing conditions are exceptionally good. The new unit will
be used for extremely high resolution studies of active regions in conjunction
with ATM. Filtergrams will be made in lines extending from the 393.3 nm
(3933 A) Calcium K-line to the 1083 nm. (10,830 A) Helium line.
e. Lockheed Solar Observatory at Rye Canyon, California (Fig. 218) is
preparing both of its spar telescope systems for observations during the
ATM mission. O n one spar, studies in the D, line of Helium I will be
directed at solar flares and transient events during periods of high disc
activity and to prominence observations during periods of low disc activity.
O n the other spar, a telescope with a filter will make high resolution photo-
graphic studies in the calcium I1 line at 854.2 nm (8542 A ) . This line
is believed to originate at a higher level in the solar atmosphere than the
H-Alpha line; it should be very valuable in relating ATM X-ray and
extreme UV data to filtergrams and spectroheliograms taken at wave lengths
originating at lower levels in the chromosphere.
f. The University of California at San Diego is building a photometer
system for infrared observations of solar flares at the Mt. Lemmon Observz-
tory near Tucson, Arizona (Fig. 219). Observations with the 1.52 m (60-in)
Cassegrainian telescope will extend from the 700 micrometer (700,000 nm)
region down to possibly one micrometer. These infrared continuum observa-
tions will be compared with observations made on ATM.

222
 FIGURE2 17.-Solar Observatory at Big Bear Lake, California.

I FIGURE2 18.-Lockheed Solar Observatory at Rye Canyon, California.

223
 g. The Lockheed Missile and Space Company at Palo Alto, California,
will perform a theoretical study of Helium emissions in the visible and
ultraviolet from solar active regions. Calculations of the statistical equilibrium
populations for a 19 level Helium I and a 10 level Helium I1 ion are being
performed. Results of these studies should allow the interpretation of line
observations by A T M in terms of electron density and temperature profiles
for the active regions on the Sun.
h. The Uttar Pradesh State Observatory in Naini Tal, India, is perfonn-
ing a study of dissociation and excitation equilibria of various molecules in
the photosphere, in Sun spots, and in faculae. Detection equipment has been
loaned to India for an observational program with its existing horizontal
solar telescope and associated spectrograph. The program aims at an im-
provement of existing models of the solar atmosphere.
i. The Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University in Balti-
more, Maryland (Fig. 220), will perform an observational program during
the ATM mission of solar radio bursts in the 500 to 1000 MHz range. With
the .01 second time resolution of the spectrograph and the 18.3 m (60-ft.)
diameter antenna, it should be possible to determine whether a finite fre-
quency drift rate is present in the radio bursts. This in turn will have
implications on existing models of emission mechanism and electron densities
in the source region. Results of these studies will be correlated with ATM
data.

2. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

SUPPORT TO ATM
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the
Federal Government has been coordinating a solar data collection network
among observatories in the U.S. and in foreign countries. These observatories
will furnish data to NOAA for use in its continuing study of solar activities.

FIQURE219.-Mt. Lemrnon Observatory, Tucson, Arizona.

224
FIGURE220.-Radh Telescope of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.

By agreement with NASA, the Space Environment Laboratory of NOAA

established the Space Environment Support Program. This program is
designed to support the unique requirements of the ATM Skylab mission
for solar data. It will expand and improve the Space Environment Labora-
tory’s current data gathering and distribution facilities in order to provide
continuous solar activity forecasts to the ATM Principal Investigators at
the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center during the Skylab missions.
NOAA will use information from numerous observatories to provide this
support to NASA before, during, and after Skylab flights. On the basis of
solar data from the ground-based network of observatories, NOAA will
forecast flares and other solar activities, inform NASA of important solar
events in progress, and, after the Skylab mission, prepare a book of all data
collected during the mission for use in data analysis.
During the mission, NOAA representatives will be stationed at the
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center to provide NASA with real-time space
environment data, analyses, and forecasts. These representatives will coordi-
nate the operation of the solar data network. Working closely with the
Principal Investigators and providing them with current information on
the present state of the Sun, they will interpret data for the Principal In-
vestigators and make suggestions on possible observing programs based on
solar activity. After the mission, NOAA will continue collection of data
from the network for a month.

225
3. EARTHRESOURCES
GROUND
TRUTHACTIVITIES
"Ground truth" data will be obtained by direct observations on the ground
of those areas, objects, and phenomena which will also be observed by Sky-
lab instruments from orbit. Nearly simultaneous observations will be made of
weather, lighting conditions, and other environmental factors which may
influence the data gathered from Skylab. By comparing ground truth ob-
servations with orbital observations of a test site, calibration factors will
be established which will allow the proper interpretation of orbital data from
many sites.
The concept to be followed in obtaining ground truth data to correlate
with Skylab observational data from the Earth Resources Experiment
Package is to employ each individual Principal Investigator's own ground
truth capability. Principal Investigators will furnish their ground truth data
to the Skylab Ground Truth Office at JSC where they will be included
in the archives together with the space-acquired data.
The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center will establish a communications
system so that Principal Investigators will be notified of the times Skylab
will overfly their areas. Thus, they can acquire ground truth measurements
synchronized with EREP overflight data.
Ground truth data to be acquired in support of EREP observations will
include photographs, temperature measurements, terrain data, weather ob-
servations, and descriptive material identifying plant growth, soil conditions,
snow depth, status of crops, geological features, and other specific details.

4. AIRCRAFT UNDERFLIGHT SUPPORT

NASA-operated and private aircraft will be used to obtain data over the
sites to be observed by Skylab. These aircraft will carry a variety of cameras
and imaging devices which generally approximate the capabilities available
on board Skylab. Like the ground truth data, data acquired by high altitude
aircraft underflights will be used to analyze and understand the space-
acquired data.

226
CHAPTER
VII

Summary and Outlook

Skylab marks a transition in the American space flight program. It repre-

sents a step from small to large satellites, from short manned flights to long-
time manned orbiters, from the astronauts' role as observers in space to the
role of workers in space, from single-purpose spacecraft to multipurpose space
stations, from a time of space exploration to a time of space utilization. It
stands at the beginning of an era in which near-Earth space with its weight-
lessness and its superior viewing conditions is offering a work place for man
that would never be available under the restricted conditions on the ground.
It will provide the basis for technological developments and for scientific
research which may become decisive in man's struggle with the growing
problems of his evolving civilization.
The operational life of Skylab will extend over a period of eight months.
Analysis and evaluation of the numerous measurements taken on Skylab
will cover a far longer period. Results of Skylab experiments, besides enrich-
ing our knowledge in technology and science, will undoubtedly influence
many other space projects to be developed by the United States and abroad
during forthcoming years. A new generation of manned orbiting flights,
again expanding our capabilities in space and the utility of space flight for
man on Earth, will begin with the Space Shuttle Program around the end
of the 1970's. The Shuttle Program, too, will profit decisively from Skylab,
our first station in space.

227
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CHAPTER X

Bibliography

1. Skylab Experiment Overview, Bellcom, Inc., Washington, D.C., January 1, 1971

2. Skylab In-Flight Experiments, Summary Descriptions, Skylab Program Office,
NASA-George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, June, 1971
3. Skylab--A Manned Scientific Space Laboratory, a paper presented at the XXIInd
International Astronautical Congress, Brussels, Belgium, by Leland F. Belew,
NASA-George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, Septem-
ber 23, 1971
4. Skylab---Program Description, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Washington, D.C., October, 1971 (available from U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C., Price 60 cents, Stock Number 3300-0411)
5. Skylab--Experiment Integration Summary, NASA-George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, 1972.
6. Skylab Experiments, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of
Manned Space Flight, Washington, D.C., August, 1972.

In addition to these documents, a large number of reports, notes, memoranda,

and press kits were used which provided up-to-date information on Skylab.

236
CHAPTER .Xl

Glossary

ABLAT:oN--The removal of surface material from a body by vaporization, melting,

chipping, or other erosive process; specifically, the intentional removal of surface
matter from a reentry body during high-speed movement through a planetary
atmosphere to protect the remaining body from the heat generated by friction.
ABSORPTIV:TY--A property of a material, characterizing its capability to absorb
rather than transmit or reflect incident radiant energy.
ALBE_---Relative brightness of a surface or region, measured as the ratio of the
amount of reflected radiation to the amount of incident radiation.
ALDOSTERONE--The principal electrolyte-regulating steroid secreted by the adrenal
complex (steroid is a group name for compounds that resemble cholesterol chem-
ically). Some of the substances in this group include sex hormones and bile acids.
ALPHA PARTmLE--The positively charged nucleus of a helium atom. Each alpha
particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. Alpha particles are emitted
by some of the radioactive substances; they are also found in cosmic radiation.
ALTIMETER--An instrument that determines height above a reference level, com-
monly by measuring the change of atmospheric pressure, or by measuring vertical
distance directly with a radar-type system.
ANO:OTENS:N--A vessel-constricting substance present in the blood, and formed by
the action of renin (enzyme involved in changing proteins into other products) on a
globulin (a class of proteins characterized by being insoluble in water, but soluble
in saline solutions).
ANOSTROM UNIT--Unit of length employed to measure wave lengths of light. One
Angstrom unit is one ten-thousandth of a micrometer or one ten-billionth of a
meter. Ten Angstrom units make one nanometer.
ANTmODY--A substance produced by the body in response to the introduction of
a foreign substance (antigen).
ANTm:URET:C HORMONE (vasopressin)---A hormone that suppresses the secretion of
urine. Vasopressin "also stimulates the contraction of the muscular tissue of the
capillaries and arterioles.
ANTIOEN--A substance which, when introduced into the body, stimulates the produc-
tion of antibodies. Bacteria, their toxins, red blood corpuscles, tissue extracts,
pollens, dust, and many other substances may act as antigens.
APOOEE--That point on the trajectory of an Earth-orbiting body which is most dis-
tant from the Earth. Also used in connection with orbits of celestial bodies around
other celestial bodies.
BALMER SERms----The visible line spectrum emitted by hydrogen. The wavelengths of
the lines form a series, the formula of which was established by Balmer (1885).
BANDPAS8 FILTER--A wave filter that has a single transmission band extending from
a lower cutoff frequency greater than zero to a finite upper cutoff frequency.
BmAsSAv--Estimation of the active power of a sample of a drug, or of other agents
or influences, by noting their effects on animals or man.
BLOOD PLASMA--The liquid component of the blood in which the corpuscles are
suspended. Plasma may be obtained from whole blood by removing the corpuscles
by centrifuging or by sedimentation. It contains all the chemical constituents of
whole blood except hemoglobin.
BOREStGHTINC,----A process of parallel alignment of the lines of sight of two instru-
ments by an optical procedure.

237
CARD1OTACHOMETER--An instrument for counting or recording the heart beats over
long periods of time.
CARDIOVASCULAR--Heart and vessel system.
CHROMOSPHERE--Layer of the solar atmosphere, about 14,000 km (8000 naut. mi.)
thick, which surrounds the Sun's visible surface (photosphere). It is best observable
during an eclipse or other occultation of the solar disc.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHM--A rhythm with a period of about 24 hours, applied especially
to the rhythmic repetition of certain phenomena in living organisms at about the
same time each day.
CONTROL MOMENT GvRoscopw--A large and heavy gyroscope suspended by a two-
axis gimbal system. The outer gimbal axis is connected with the spacecraft through
a torque motor, the inner axis is free to precess. By energizing the torque motor,
the spacecraft attitude can be controlled.
CONVECTION--Mass motions with a fluid (liquid or gas) resulting in transport and
mixing of the components of that fluid. Thermal convection results from tempera-
ture differences within the fluid.
CORONA--The tenuous envelope of the Sun, beginning about 14,000k m (8000 naut.
mi.) above the solar surface and extending many millions of kilometers into space.
The corona is visible only when the solar disc is occulted.
CRAWLER--A large tracked vehicle also called Transporter. It is similar to machines
used in strip mining operations. The vehicle moves on four double tracks and trans-
ports the Saturn V with the Skylab and mobile launcher, and also ttle Saturn 1B,
from the Vertical Assembly Building to the launch pad at the Kennedy Space
Center.
CYTOOENETICs--The branch of genetics devoted to the study of the cellular constitu-
ents which are concerned with heredity (chromosomes and genes). Also, the scien-
tific study of the relationship between chromosomal aberrations and pathological
conditions.
DECmEL--The decibel is a ratio of two numbers, equal to the tenth root of ten or
about 1.259. It is mostly used as the ratio of two power levels. If a radio receiver,
playing at a certain "volume" level, is turned up until the acoustic power output
has increased by 25.9%, its new level is one decibel above the original level.
DEOREES K--Degrees Kelvin. A degree of temperature on the Kelvin scale, also called
"absolute scale." The Kelvin zero point is approximately --273.1 ° Centigrade.
A degree Kelvin is equal in magnitude to a degree on the Centigrade scale.
DEHYDROOENASE--An enzyme which mobilizes the hydrogen of a substrate (the base
on which an organism lives) so that it can pass to a hydrogen acceptor.
DEs SICANT--A drying agent.
DxenROlc--The property of a substance to appear in one color by reflected light and
in another by transmitted light.
DIVFUSION--In an atmosphere, as in any gaseous system, the exchange of fluid parcels
between regions, in apparently random motions of a scale too small to be treated
by the equations of motion.
DNA--Deoxyribonucleic acid, a complex organic acid of high molecular weight con-
sisting of chains of alternate units of phosphate and a pentose sugar (a sugar having
five oxygen atoms) which has a purine and pyrimidine base attached to it. In DNA
the sugar is 2-deoxyribose. DNA is believed to carry all the hereditary traits of a
species coded in the sequence of atomic groups along its length. See RNA.
DOSIMETER--An instrument for measuring the accumulated flux of particle or photon
radiations, such as protons in the Van Allen Belts, or X-rays in solar radiation.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM--A written or printed record of the heart's action, made by an
electrocardiograph, an instrument for recording the changes of electrical potential
occurring during the heartbeat.
ELECTROLYTE--A solution which conducts electricity. Passage of current is accom-
panied by liberation or consumption of matter at the electrodes. Also, a substance,
as an acid, base, or salt, that becomes such a conductor when dissolved in a suitable
solvent, or fused. The current is carried by charged particles (ions).
ELECTROPHORESls--The movement of molecules or other very small particles through
a fluid under the action of an external electric field. Positively charged particles

238
 (metallic oxides, basic dyestuffs) migrate to the cathode, and negatively charged
particles (metals, sulfur, metallic sulfides, acid dyestuffs) migrate to the anode.
EMISSlVITY--A property of a material, characterizing its capability to emit electro-
magnetic radiation as a consequence of its inherent thermal energy.
ENDOCRINE GLA.n_---A ductless gland whose secretions pass directly into the lymph
or blood stream. These glands produce hormones which control action and devel-
opment of other parts of the body either by activation or by inhibition.
ENZYmE--An organic compound, frequently a protein, capable of accelerating or
producing by catalytic action some change in an organic substance for which it
is often specific. An activating enzyme activates a given amino acid by attaching
it to the corresponding transfer ribonucleic acid.
EPHEMERIS--Periodical publication which lists the predicted positions of celestial
bodies at regular intervals, and the times of astronomical occurrences. It also
contains other data of interest to astronomers.
EPINEPHRINE COXCENTRATIONS--Concentrations of adrenaline (compound occuring
naturally as the adrenal hormone). In certain concentrations the compound
causes an increase in blood pressure and in the sugar content of the blood.
ERGO'METER--A device for measuring energy expended or work done.
EUTECTIC--In certain ranges of metal alloys there is one mixture which melts at
a lower temperature than any other alloy in the series. Such an alloy is termed the
eutectic.
EXOTHERMIC--A process which releases, rather than absorbs, heat energy.
FABRY-PI_ROT INTERFEROMETER--An instrument utilizing the wave nature of light
to cause constructive or destructive interference of light by passing a light beam
between two parallel, partially reflecting surfaces.
FIBRIN--A whitish, insoluble protein which forms the essential portion of the blood
clot.
FIBRINOLYSIs--The splitting up of fibrin by enzyme action.
FIBRINOLYTIc--Pertaining to, characterized by, or causing fibrinolysis.
FILAMENT--In solar physics, filament designates a quiet prominence or plasma cloud
high'above the chromosphere, visible as a dark narrow patch against the bright
solar disc.
FLARE A violent eruption on the Sun's surface (chromosphere), accompanied by
emissions of protons and other particles and of electromagnetic radiation.
FRAUNHOFER Li._Es_Dark lines in the spectrum of solar radiation, produced by the
absorption of light by gases in the outer portions of the Sun.
GEGENSeHEIN--A faint light observed from the dark side of the Earth in a direction
opposite to the Sun. It results from sunlight reflectd by dust particles which orbit
the Sun at planetary distances.
GEOCORONA_That region around the Earth which extends from a height of about
600 km (330 naut. mi.) to about 3000 km (1700 naut. mi.). It consists mainly of
helium in the lower regions, and of hydrogen in the upper regions.
GI._IBAL--A ring or frame with two mutually perpendicular and intersecting axes
of rotation, providing free angular movement in two directions, on which a rocket
engine, or a gyroscope, or another instrument may be mounted.
GLucosE--Chemical name for a natural sugar found in fruits and in the blood.
GLUTATHIONE--Co-enzylne of glyoxalase which acts as a respiratory carrier of oxygen.
GLVCERALDEHYDE--A compound formed by the oxidation of glycerol, a mixture of
glycerin and acetanilid powder.
GRANOLATION--A net-like pattern of irregular cells on the solar surface, visible in
white light. The cells are caused by plasma convection within the photosphere.
Cell diameters are 800 km (450 naut. mi.) to 3000 km (1700 naut. mi.); each
individual cell has a lifetime of several minutes.
GREENWICH MEAN TIME--Mean solar time at the Greenwich meridan, used by most
navigators, and adopted as the prime basis of standard time throughout the world.
GROUND TRUTH_Definition of Earth surface conditions through direct measurements
or visual inspections for calibration or evaluation of remote sensing observations
made from satellites or aircraft.

239
HEMATOCRIT--An instrument for determining tile relative amounts of plasma and
corpuscles in blood, generally some form of centrifugal apparatus.
H_._ATOLOGY--A branch of medicine concerning the study of the blood, the blo_cl-
forming tissues, and the diseases of the blood.
HEMOLYSIs--The dissolution of red blood corpuscles with liberation of their hemo-
globin, an iron-containing protein respiratory pigment occurring in the red blood
cells.
H_.XOKINASE---An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a high-energy phosphate
group of a donor to D-glucose, producing D-glucose-6-phosphate.
HuMoRAL--Pertaining to fluid or seimfluid substances in the body.
IMMUNOLOOY--The medical, bacteriological, and chemical study of the phenomena
and causes of immunity.
IONOSPHERE--Region of ionized gases surrounding the Earth and extending from
about 60 km (33 naut. mi) to distances up to several hundred kilometers. The
ionization in this region is due to bombardment by ultraviolet radiation and X-rays
from the Sun, and by cosmic rays. The existence of this region makes possible long-
range radio communications through reflection of terrestrial radio transmission.
ISOTOPE--Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons in their nuclei,
and hence represent the same element, but they differ in the number of neutrons
and therefore in mass number.
KINAsE--An organic substance (enzyme) which activates other substances to develop
into chemical ferments or enzymes.
LEUKOCYTE--White blood corpuscle.
LIME--The outer edge or a portion of the edge of a celestial body such as the Moon,
Venus, or the Sun, as seen from a distance.
LVIDE (Lipid)--A fatty acid insoluble in water.
LYMAN CONTINUUM--The ultraviolet region of the spectrum of the hydrogen atom
immediately adjacent to the Lyman line spectrum with wavelengths shorter than
912 A.
LYMPHOCYTE--Lymph cell or white blood corpuscle without cytoplasmic granules.
MAONETOSPHERE--The region around the Earth above about 160 km (90 naut. mi.)
and below the magnetopause (about 15 earth radii in the solar direction, and at
least 40 earth radii in the antisolar direction). Inside the magnetosphere, the
Earth's magnetic field is dominant; outside, the interplanetary magnetic field
dominates.
MAss SPECTROMETER----An instrument which determines the masses of atoms and
molecules.
METABOLIC CHANOEs--The sum of all physical and chemical changes which take
place within an organism; all energy and material transformations which occur
within living cells.
METABOUsM--The interchange of materials between living organisms and the environ-
ment, or within a living organism, by which energy for maintaining life is secured.
M_TAPrlAS_.---The stage during cell division in which the chromosomes are arranged
in an equatorial plate.
METEoR--The light resulting from the transition of a solid particle (meteoroid)
from space through the Earth's atmosphere, commonly called a "shooting star" or
"falling star."
METEORIT_--A solid particle from space which enters the Earth's atmosphere and
reaches the surface. Meteorites are classified as iron meteorites (siderites) and
stone meteorites (aerolites) according to their compositions.
METEOROIO----A solid object moving through interplanetary space of a size consid-
erably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom or molecule.
When the object glows while traveling through the Earth's atmosphere, it is called
a meteor; when it reaches the surface of the Earth, it is called a meteorite.
METH_MOOLOBIN---A soluble brownish-red, crystalline compound from which the
oxygen cannot be removed in a vacuum. It is formed by the spontaneous decompasi-
tion of blood, and also by the action on blood of various oxidizing reagents, as oxone,
etc.
MICRoN--A unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter or one-thousandth of a
millimeter, usually called micrometer.

24O
MoavHoLooY--Branch
of biology dealing with the form and structure of animals
and plants. It includes anatomy, histology and organography, and also the non-
physiological aspects of cytology and embryology.
MULTISPECTaAL--Utilizing radiation from several discrete bands of the spectrum
simultaneously.
NADIR The direction vertically downward (opposite to zenith).
NANoMETER--One-billionth of a meter (10 -_ meter).
NOaEPINEPHaINE----A hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stimu-
lation in the viscera, and stored in granules that stain strongly with chromium
salts. Granules are released predominantly in response to hypotension (diminished
tension or lower blood pressure).
OCCULTATION----The disappearance of a celestial body behind another body of equal
or larger apparent size, such as the occultation of the Sun by the Moon as viewed
by an Earth observer during a solar eclipse. Also, the covering of the image of a
celestial body by a disc whose size is equal to or larger than the size of the image.
OCULOOYRAL ILLUSION_An illusion developed by the movement of the eye about an
axis from the front to the rear of the head.
ORTHOSTATIC---The upright, or erect, position of the human body.
OSMOLALITY The property of a liquid to exercise an osmotic pressure because it
contains an electrolyte in solution.
OUTGASSINO----The emanation of gas from a material. This process is usually enhanced
in vacuum.
PERIOEE--That point on the trajectory of an orbiting body which is nearest the Earth
when the Earth is the center of attraction. Also, used in connection with orbits of
celestial bodies around other celestial bodies.
PHOTOM_TEa An instrument for measuring the intensity of light by comparing it
with a standard.
PHOTOMULTIPLmR TUBE_An electron tube that produces electrical signals in re-
sponse to light. In the tube, the electric signal is amplified to produce a measura-
ble output signal even from very small quantities of light.
PHOTOSPHERE--Intensely luminous surface layer of the Sun in which the sunspots
and several other solar phenomena occur.
PLAoEs---Bright regions in the chromosphere of the Sun, usually near sunspots, indi-
cating areas of enhanced magnetic field strength (10 to 100 Gauss*) and in-
creased solar activity. Plages are best observed in monochromatic light of hydrogen
or calcium.
PL^S_A--A gas composed of ions, electrons, neutral atoms, and molecules. The inter-
actions between particles of a plasma are mainly electromagnetic. Although many
of the individual particles are electrically positive or negative, the plasma as a
whole is neutral.
PLASMA RENIN--Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood in which the corpuscles
are suspended. Renin is an enzyme involved in changing proteins into other
products.
PLETHVSMOORAPH--An instrument for determining and registering variations in the
size of an organ part or limb, and in the amount of blood present or passing
through it.
POLARIMET_.R----An instrument for determining the degree of polarization of electro-
magnetic radiation, specifically the polarization of light.
POLARIZATXoN_The state of electromagnetic radiation when the transverse oscilla-
tions take place in some regular manner, e.g., all in one plane.
PRECESSION--The angular motion (tilting) of the axis of a spinning or rotating body
caused by a torque whose axis is not parallel with the axis of rotation.
PRINCIPAL INVESTmAToR--The researcher responsible for defining an investigation
or experiment as part of a NASA science or technology project, and for ensuring
that the investigation of the experiment meets with its specific objectives.
PaOMINENcE--A plasma protuberance above the surface of the Sun, originating
in the chromosphere and extending sometimes to a height of several hundred
thousand kilometers.

*For comparison, the Earth's magnetic field near the surface is 0.6 Gauss.

241
PRoToN--Positively-charged nuclear particle which forms a significant part of all
atomic nuclei. The nucleus of a normal hydrogen atom is a proton. It is 1,837
times heavier than the electron.
RADIOMETER---An instrument for detecting and measuring radiant energy.
RASTER--A geometric pattern followed by the sending element of a detector system,
or by the electron beam of a television transmitter or receiver.
RATE GYRO--A gyroscope with one free gimbal axis (precession axis). Motion
around this axis is constrained by a spring. The second gimbal axis is tied to the
spacecraft. An angular motion of the spacecraft around this axis produces an
angular excursion of the precession axis against the spring force; the angle of
excursion is proportional to the rate of angular rotation in radians per second.
REDUCTASE--An enzyme that has a reducing action on chemical compounds.
REDUNDANCY--Originally "exceeding what is necessary or normal;" technically a
back-up system which takes over when the prime system fails.
RESOLVING POWER (LIGHT)--The ability of an optical system to separate adjacent
points and lines in the image and to show fine detail of the target.
RNA--Ribonucleic acid, a nucleoprotein found in the cell's cytoplasm. It probably
controls protein synthesis under the regulatory influence of DNA. See DNA.
S-BAND----A range of frequencies used in radar and communications that extends
from 1,550 to 5,900 megahertz (wavelength region from 0.06 m to 0.2 m).
SClNTILLATION--A flash of light produced in a phosphor by an ionizing particle
or photon.
SINGLE CRYSTAL--A crystal having a homogeneous, undisturbed lattice structure
throughout.
SLEw--To change the direction of an antenna or telescope in order to follow a
moving target, or to change from one target to another.
SOLAR wxNn----Streams of particles (mostly ions of hydrogen and helium, and elec-
trons) emanating from the Sun and flowing approximately radially outward at
velocities from 300 to 800 km per sec.
SPECTROSCOPE--An optical instrument which spreads a beam of electromagnetic
radiation into a spectrum of different wavelengths for visual inspection.
SPECTROGRAPH--Modification of a spectroscope in which the spectrum is photo-
graphed or recorded electronically.
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH--A modification of the spectrograph which permits taking
pictures of the complete solar disk in monochromatic light.
SPIROMETER--An instrument to measure the breathing volume.
SuNsPOTs--Dark, irregular areas on the solar surface with strong magnetic fields
(1000 to 2000 Gauss) surrounded by gray zones (penumbra). Sunspots occur
mostly in pairs, with opposite magnetic polarity; they persist for periods of days,
weeks, or months. Their temperatures are about 2000 ° K lower than the tempera-
ture of the surrounding photosphere (5780 ° K). The frequency of sunspots fol-
lows an eleven-year cycle.
SUPERORANULATION--A net-like pattern of irregular cells, 15,000 km (800 naut.
mi.) to 40,000 kill (?.2,000 naut. mi.) in diameter, superimposed upon the
photospheric granulation network, and caused by plasma convection within the
chromosphere. Cell lifetime is about 20 hours. Supergranulation is best observed
in the monochromatic light of a calcium spectral line.
SYNoPTIc--Observing different objects, or different aspects of one object, at the
same time.
SYmNGE--An instrument for injecting or extracting liquids into or from any vessel
or cavity, such as a vein in the human body.
TERRESTRIAL--Of or pertaining to the Earth.
TOXIN--A soluble poison produced and liberated by certain bacteria, insects, snakes,
and plants. Toxins are usually protein substances which may be destroyed by heat.
VECTORCARDIOGRAPH--An instrument for taking a graphic record of the magnitude
and direction of the electrical potentials of the heart.

242
VELGRO----A fastener for quick attachment (and subsequent detachment) of an ob-
ject to another object, or to a surface. It has two parts, a pad consisting of velvety,
loopy pile made of Teflon, and a pad consisting of little hooks resembling a
cockleburr, made of polyester. Attachment by pressing the two pads together, de-
tachment by pulling them apart.
VESTIBULAR--Pertaining to the organs o_ the inner ear that provide a sense of
equilibrium for animals and man.
ViDEo--Pertaining to the picture signals in a television system, or to the information-
carrying signals which are eventually presented on the cathode ray tubes of a radar
system.
ZEOLITE--A group of hydrous silicates of aluminum, containing sodium and calcium,
and giving off water upon heating; technically, a substance capable of absorbing
large quantities of carbon dioxide.
ZODIACAL LIGHT--A faint light emanating from a region in the night sky roughly
defined by the zodiac. This light results from sunlight scattered by fine dust particles
that orbit the Sun at planetary distances; it is enhanced in the vicinity of the Sun.

243
CHAPTER XI!

Acronyms

AM--Airlock Module; also Amplitude Modulation.

APCS---Attitude and Pointing Control System.
ASMU--Automatically Stabilized Maneuvering Unit.
ATM--Apollo Telescope Mount.
ATMDC--Apollo Telescope Mount Digital Computer.
BMMD--Body Mass Measurement Device.
CM--Command Module.
CMC--Command Module Computer.
CMG--Control Moment Gyro.
COAS--Crewman Optical Alignment Sight.
CS--Crew Station.
CSM--Command and Service Module.
DA--Deployment Assembly.
DAC--Data Acquisition Camera.
rib---Decibel.
DCS---Digital Command System.
DNA--Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
DSKY--Display Keyboard.
DT--Delayed Time.
ECS--Environmental Control System.
EEG---Electroencephalogram.
EPS--Electrical Power System.
EREP--Earth Resources Experiment Package.
ESS---Experiment Support System.
EVA--Extravehicular Activity.
FAS--Fixed Airlock Shroud.
FM--Frequency Modulation.
GMT--Greenwich Mean Time.
GSFC--Goddard Space Flight Center.
HCO--Harvard College Observatory.
HHMU--Hand Held Maneuvering Unit.
HSS--Habitability Support System.
IU Instrument UrLit.
IVA--Intravehicular Activity.
JSC--Johnson Space Center.
KSC--Kennedy Space Center,
LO--Liftoff.
LSU--Life Support Umbilical,
LV--Launch Vehicle.
MCC--Misslon Control Center.
MDA--Multiple Docking Adapter.
MSFC--Marshall Space Flight Center.
NASA--National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
NRL--Naval Research Laboratory.
OMSF--Oi_ice of Manned Space Flight.
OWS--Orbital Workshop.
PCM--Pulse Code Modulation.

244
PI--Principal Investigator.
PS--Payload Shroud.
RNA--Ribonucleic Acid.
RPM--Revolutions Per Minute, also Roll Positioning Mechanism.
SAL--Scientific Airlock.
SAS--Solar Array System.
S/C--Spacecraft.
SL---Skylab.
SM--Servicc Module.
STDN--Spacccraft Tracking and Data Network.
TACS--Thruster AttitudeControl System.
TCS---Thcrmal Control System.
TM----Tclemctry.
TV--Telcvison.
UV--Ultraviolct.
VHF--Very High Frequency.

245
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1973--<)"500-721