Sensor Dan Aktuator 2 PDF

SENSOR DAN AKTUATOR
OLEH :
TEGUH Pudji Purwanto
Jurusan Teknik Mesin FT-UGM
Sensor Terminology
• Sensitivity
• Range
• Precision
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Offset
• Linearity
• Hysteresis
• Response Time
• Dynamic Linearity
Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of the sensor is defined as the slope of the output
characteristic curve (DY/DX in Figure 1) or, more generally, the
minimum input of physical parameter that will create a detectable
output change. In some sensors, the sensitivity is defined as the
input parameter change required to produce a standardized output
change. In others, it is defined as an output voltage change for a
given change in input parameter. For example, a typical blood
pressure transducer may have a sensitivity rating of
10 mV/V/mm Hg; that is, there will be a 10-mV output voltage for
each volt of excitation potential and each mm Hg of applied
pressure.
• Sensitivity Error
The sensitivity error (shown as a dotted curve in Figure 1) is a
departure from the ideal slope of the characteristic curve. For
example, the pressure transducer discussed above may have an
actual sensitivity of 7.8 mV/V/mm Hg instead of 10 mV/V/mm Hg.
Range
• The range of the sensor is the maximum and minimum
values of applied parameter that can be measured. For
example, a given pressure sensor may have a range of -
400 to +400 mm Hg. Alternatively, the positive and
negative ranges often are unequal. For example, a
certain medical blood pressure transducer is specified to
have a minimum (vacuum) limit of -50 mm Hg (Ymin in
Figure 1) and a maximum (pressure) limit of +450 mm
Hg (Ymax in Figure 1). This specification is common,
incidentally, and is one reason doctors and nurses
sometimes destroy blood pressure sensors when
attempting to draw blood through an arterial line without
being mindful of the position of the fluid stopcocks in the
system. A small syringe can exert a tremendous vacuum
on a closed system.
Precision
• The concept of precision refers to the degree of
reproducibility of a measurement. In other words, if
exactly the same value were measured a number of
times, an ideal sensor would output exactly the same
value every time. But real sensors output a range of
values distributed in some manner relative to the actual
correct value. For example, suppose a pressure of
exactly 150 mm Hg is applied to a sensor. Even if the
applied pressure never changes, the output values from
the sensor will vary considerably. Some subtle problems
arise in the matter of precision when the true value and
the sensor's mean value are not within a certain distance
of each other
(e.g., the 1-s range of the normal distribution curve).
Resolution
•
This specification is the smallest
detectable incremental change of input
parameter that can be detected in the
output signal. Resolution can be
expressed either as a proportion of the
reading (or the full-scale reading) or in
absolute terms.
Accuracy
• The accuracy of the sensor is the
maximum difference that will exist
between the actual value (which must be
measured by a primary or good secondary
standard) and the indicated value at the
output of the sensor. Again, the accuracy
can be expressed either as a percentage
of full scale or in absolute terms.
Offset
• The offset error of a transducer is defined as the output
that will exist when it should be zero or, alternatively, the
difference between the actual output value and the
specified output value under some particular set of
conditions. An example of the first situation in terms of
Figure 1 would exist if the characteristic curve had the
same sensitivity slope as the ideal but crossed the Y-
axis (output) at b instead of zero. An example of the
other form of offset is seen in the characteristic curve of
a pH electrode shown in Figure 2. The ideal curve will
exist only at one temperature (usually 25°C), while the
actual curve will be between the minimum temperature
and maximum temperature limits depending on the
temperature of the sample and electrode.
Linearity
• The linearity of the transducer is an expression of the extent to which the actual
measured curve of a sensor departs from the ideal curve. Figure 3 shows a
somewhat exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and
the actual measured or calibration line (Note in most cases, the static curve is used to
determine linearity, and this may deviate somewhat from a dynamic linearity)
Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:
• where
Nonlinearity (%) is the percentage of nonlinearity
Din(max) is the maximum input deviation
INf.s. is the maximum, full-scale input
The static nonlinearity defined by Equation 6-1 is often subject to environmental
factors, including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. It is
important to know under what conditions the specification is valid and departures
from those conditions may not yield linear changes of linearity.
Hysteresis
• A transducer should be capable of following the changes
of the input parameter regardless of which direction the
change is made; hysteresis is the measure of this
property. Figure 4 shows a typical hysteresis curve. Note
that it matters from which direction the change is made.
Approaching a fixed input value (point B in Figure 4)
from a higher value (point P) will result in a different
indication than approaching the same value from a
lesser value (point Q or zero). Note that input value B
can be represented by F(X)1, F(X)2, or F(X)3 depending
on the immediate previous value—clearly an error due to
hysteresis.
Response Time
• Sensors do not change output state immediately when an input
parameter change occurs. Rather, it will change to the new state
over a period of time, called the response time (Tr in Figure 5). The
response time can be defined as the time required for a sensor
output to change from its previous state to a final settled value within
a tolerance band of the correct new value. This concept is
somewhat different from the notion of the time constant (T) of the
system. This term can be defined in a manner similar to that for a
capacitor charging through a resistance and is usually less than the
response time.
The curves in Figure 5 show two types of response time. In Figure
5a the curve represents the response time following an abrupt
positive going step-function change of the input parameter. The form
shown in Figure 5b is a decay time (Td to distinguish from Tr, for
they are not always the same) in response to a negative going step-
function change of the input parameter.
Dynamic Linearity
• The dynamic linearity of the sensor is a measure of its ability to follow rapid
changes in the input parameter. Amplitude distortion characteristics, phase
distortion characteristics, and response time are important in determining
dynamic linearity. Given a system of low hysteresis (always desirable), the
amplitude response is represented by:
• F(X) = aX + bX2 + cX3
+ dX4 + ••• + K (6-2)
•
In Equation 6-2, the term F(X) is the output signal, while the X terms
represent the input parameter and its harmonics, and K is an offset constant
(if any). The harmonics become especially important when the error
harmonics generated by the sensor action fall into the same frequency
bands as the natural harmonics produced by the dynamic action of the input
parameter. All continuous waveforms are represented by a Fourier series of
a fundamental sinewave and its harmonics. In any nonsinusoidal waveform
(including time-varying changes of a physical parameter). Harmonics
present will be that can be affected by the action of the sensor.
Measurement Fundamentals
Basic Analog Circuits
Analog Sampling Basics
Sampling Quality
Windowing: Optimizing FFTs Using Window Functions
Dithering, Layout, and High-Quality Components: Tools to Decrease the Noise Floor
Ground Loops and Returns
High-Voltage Measurements and Isolation
Low Frequency and DC Measurements
Basic Analog Circuits
• Ohm's Law and Basic Analog Circuit
Concepts
• Capacitance Calculations
• Inductance Calculations
• Analog Amplifier Circuits
• Analog RC Filters
Ohm's Law and Basic Analog
Circuit Concepts
The current I through the resistor R is defined as:

I = V/R
V = I * R or R = V/I
The power P dissipated in R is defined as:

P=I*V
P = V2/R or
P = I2 * R
Voltage Divider Calculation:
The formula used to calculate the applied voltage is:
E1 = I * R1 (E1 = Voltage drop across R1)
E2 = I * R2 (E2 = Voltage drop across R2)
I = E / Req
where Req = R1 + R2
E = E1 + E2
E = I * (R1 +R2)
To calculate the voltage across R2:

E2 = R2 * I
E2 = R2 * (E/Req)
E2 = R2 * [E/(R1 + R2)]
E2 = E * [R2 / (R1 + R2)]
Note: Voltage divider is described by the equation above.
Current Divider Calculation:
The above figure depicts two resistors in a parallel configuration.

I = I1 + I2
E = I1 * R1
E = I2 * R2
I = (E/R1) + (E/R2)
I = E [(1/R1) + (1/R2)]
Since E = I * Req
Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2)
= [(R1 * R2)/(R1 + R2)]
Capacitance Calculations
Reading Capacitor Values:

The unit of capacitance is Farad which is represented by the letter F.
The formula to calculate capacitance is:
C = Q/V
Where,
C = Capacitance in farads
Q = Accumulated Charge in Coulombs
V = Voltage difference between the plates
Series configuration:
(1/CT) = (1/C1) + (1/C2) + (1/C3) + ….

Parallel Configuration:
Q1 = C1 * V
Q2 = C2 * V
Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = V * (C1 + C2)
Ceq = C1 + C2
Inductance Calculations
• Series Configuration:
E1 = L1 (dI/dt)
E2 = L2 (dI/dt)
LT = L1 + L2
Where dI/dt is the change of current over time
• Parallel Configuration:
(1/LT) = [1 / (L1)] + [1 / (L2 )]

IMPEDANSI
• IMPEDANSI : HAMBATAN NETO
TERHADAP ARUS DIDALAM SUATU
RANGKAIAN TERMASUK JUGA
KOMPONEN REAKTIF.
• IMPEDANSI Z = R + jX
– R = KOMPONEN RESISTIF
– X = KOMPONEN REAKTIF
– j = 1
• JADI Z MENJADI RESISTIF MURNI
JIKA X = 0
• IMPEDANSI RESISTOR = R
• IMPEDANSI KAPASITOR
1 j
ZC  
jC C
• IMPEDANSI INDUKTOR
Z L  jL
IMPEDANSI SERI DAN PARALEL
• SERI
i n
ZT   Z i
i 1
• PARALEL
i n
1 1

ZT i 1 Z i
Analog Amplifier Circuits
1) Differential Amplifier: An amplifier whose output is proportional to the difference
between the input signals.
2) Gain/Frequency Response: A filter changes the amplitude or phase characteristics of

a signal with respect to frequency. The frequency domain behavior of a filter is
mathematically described in terms of a transfer function or a network function. The
transfer function H(s) is described as a ratio between output and input signals.
H(s) = Vout(s) / Vin(s)
Where, Vout(s) and Vin(s) are the output and input voltage signals and s is the complex
frequency variable.
The magnitude of transfer function is called amplitude response or frequency response
especially in radio applications.
3) Output Buffer
Inverting Amplifier
Calculating the gain of an inverting amplifier:

(Vs – V1)/R1 = (V – Vo)/R2
Since V1 = V = 0 (Virtual ground)
Vs/R1 = -Vo/R2
Gain = Vo/Vs
= -R2/R1
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Calculating the gain of a non-inverting amplifier:

VoR1 = (VsR1 +VsR2)
(Vo – Vs) R1 = VsR2
[(Vo/Vs) – 1] = (R2/R1)
Gain – 1 = (R2/R1)
Gain = 1 + (R2/R1)
Where Gain = Vo/Vs
Analog RC Filters
RC Low Pass Filter RC High Pass Filter

Analog Sampling Basics
Table of Contents
• Bandwidth Definition and Calculations
• Sampling Rate
• Nyquist Theorem and Nyquist Frequency
• Aliasing and Anti-Aliasing Filters
• Quantization Error
• Dithering
• Relevant NI products
Bandwidth Definition and
Calculations
• Bandwidth is defined as the measure of a circuit
or transmission channel to pass a signal without
significant attenuation over a range of
frequencies. Bandwidth is measured between
the lower and upper frequency points where the
signal amplitude falls to -3 dB below the pass-
band frequency. The -3 dB points are referred to
as the half-power points.
• Units
Hertz (Hz)
• Example
If you input a 1 V, 100 MHz sine wave into high-speed digitizer with
a bandwidth of 100 MHz, the signal will be attenuated by the
digitizer’s analog input path and the sampled waveform will have
amplitude of approximately 0.7 V. The value of ~0.7 V can be
calculated by using the following equation:
-3 dB = 20 LOG (Vppout / Vppin)
Where
Vppout = Peak to peak Voltage of the output waveform
Vppin = Peak to peak Voltage of the input waveform = 1 V (in the
above example)
-3 = 20 LOG (Vppout / 1)
Vppout = 0.7079 V = 0.7 V approximately
Typical 100 MHz Digitizer Input
Response
Theoretical amplitude error of a
measured signal
• It is recommended that the bandwidth of your digitizer be
3 to 5 times the highest frequency component of interest
in the measured signal to capture the signal with minimal
amplitude error (bandwidth required = (3 to 5)*frequency
of interest). The theoretical amplitude error of a
measured signal can be calculated from the ratio (R) of
the digitizer's bandwidth (B) in relation to the input signal
frequency (fin).
Where
R = B / fin
Using equation 1, the error in amplitude when measuring
a 100 MHz sine wave with a 100 MHz high-speed
digitizer, which yields a ratio R=1, is approximately
29.3%. Referring to figure 1, this would mean that if the
input waveform has peak to peak amplitude of 1 V, then
the output waveform would have peak to peak amplitude
of approximately 0.707 V.
As another example, if you input a 75 MHz sine wave to

a National Instruments NI 5124 High-Speed Digitizer
which has a bandwidth of 150 MHz, it yields a ratio R= 2.
Using equation 1, this means that the theoretical error in
amplitude would be approximately 10.6%
Rise Time
• Another important topic related to the bandwidth is rise
time. The rise time of an input signal is the time for a
signal to transition from 10% to 90% of the maximum
signal amplitude and is inversely related to bandwidth.
• It is recommended that the rise time of the digitizer input path be 1/3
to 1/5 the rise time of the measured signal to capture the signal with
minimal rise time error. The theoretical rise time measured (Trm)
can be calculated from the rise time of the digitizer (Trd) and the
actual rise time of the input signal (Trs).
• For example, if a sinusoid signal with a rise time of 15 ns is passed

through the NI 5122 High-Speed Digitizer which has a rise time of
3.5 ns, using equation 2 the theoretical measured rise time for the
sinusoid signal would be approximately 15.4 ns.
Sampling Rate
• Sampling rate is not Product Bandwidth Sampling
rate
Resolution
directly related to the

Digital Multimeters 300 kHz 1.8 MS/s 10 bits to 23
bandwidth specifications (DMM) bits
of a high-speed digitizer.
Sampling rate is the Dynamic Signal
Acquisition (DSA)
45 kHz Up to
204.8
16 bits, 24
bits
speed at which the KS/s
digitizer’s ADC converts M-series Data Acquisition 700 kHz Up to 1.25 16 bits, 18
MS/s bits
the input signal, after the
signal has passed S-series Data Acquisition 1.3 MHz Up to 10 12 bits, 14
MS/s bits, 16
through the analog input bits
path, to digital values. High-Speed Digitizers 150 MHz 200 MS/s 8 bits to 21
bits
Example :Sampling of a sine
wave using a 3 bit digitizer
Nyquist Theorem and Nyquist
Frequency
• Nyquist Theorem: Sampling rate (f s) > 2 *
highest frequency component (of interest) in the
measured signal The Nyquist theorem states
that a signal must be sampled at a rate greater
than twice the highest frequency component of
interest in the signal to capture the highest
frequency component of interest; otherwise, the
high-frequency content will alias at a frequency
inside the spectrum of interest (pass-band).
• Nyquist Frequency describes the highest
frequency component allowed to avoid Aliasing
for a given sampling frequency.
Effects of various sampling rates while
sampling a signal
Aliasing and Anti-Aliasing Filters
If a signal is sampled at a sampling rate smaller than twice the
Nyquist frequency, false lower frequency component(s) appears in
the sampled data. This phenomenon is called Aliasing.
The following figure shows a 5 MHz sine wave digitized by a 6 MS/s

ADC. The dotted line indicates the aliased signal recorded by the
ADC. The 5 MHz frequency aliases back in the pass-band, falsely
appearing as a 1 MHz sine wave.
SAMPLING RATE DAN ALIASING
• Alias frequency
The alias frequency is the absolute value of the
difference between the frequency of the input
signal and the closest integer multiple of the
sampling rate.
Alias Freq. = ABS (Closest Integer Multiple of
Sampling Freq. – Input Freq.)
where
ABS means the absolute value
• Real-world signals often contain frequency components that lie above the
Nyquist frequency. These frequencies are erroneously aliased and added to
the components of the signal that are sampled accurately, producing
distorted sampled data. In systems where you want to perform accurate
measurements using sampled data, the sampling rate must be set high
enough (about 5 to 10 times the highest frequency component in the signal)
to prevent aliasing, or an optional anti-aliasing filter (a low pass filter that
attenuates any frequencies in the input signal that are greater than the
Nyquist frequency) must be introduced before the ADC to restrict the
bandwidth of the input signal to meet the sampling criteria.
For example, in the NI 4461 Dynamic Signal Acquisition device, the analog
inputs have both analog and digital filters implemented in hardware to
prevent aliasing. Input signals are first passed through a fixed analog filter to
remove any signals with frequency components beyond the range of the
ADCs. Then digital anti-aliasing filters automatically adjust their cutoff
frequency to remove any frequency components above half the programmed
sampling rate.
Example
Assume fs, the sampling frequency, is 100 Hz and that the input signal contains the
following frequencies: 25 Hz, 70 Hz, 160 Hz, and 510 Hz. These frequencies are shown
in the following figure.
Alias F2 = |100 – 70| = 30 Hz

Alias F3 = | (2)100 – 160| = 40 Hz
Alias F4 = | (5)100 – 510| = 10 Hz
Quantization Error
• Quantization is defined as the process of converting an
analog signal to a digital representation. Quantization is
performed by an analog-to-digital converter (A/D
converter or ADC).
If we can convert our analog signals to a stream of digital
data, we can take advantage of the power of the
personal computer and software to do any manipulation
or calculation on the signals. To do this, we must sample
our analog waveform at well-defined discrete (but
limited) times so we can maintain a close relationship
between time in the analog domain and time in the digital
domain. If we do this, we can reconstruct the signal in
the digital domain, do our processing on it, and later,
reconstruct it into the analog domain if we need to.
When converting an analog signal to digital domain,
signal values are taken at discrete time instants
• For example, a 3-bit ADC divides the range into 23 or eight
divisions. A binary or digital code between 000 and 111 represents
each division. The ADC translates each measurement of the analog
signal to one of the digital divisions. Figure 10 shows a 5 kHz sine
wave digital image obtained by a 3-bit ADC. As shown in figure 11,
the digital signal does not represent the original signal adequately
because the converter has too few digital divisions to represent the
varying voltages of the analog signal. However, increasing the
resolution to 16 bits to increase the ADC number of divisions from
eight (23) to 65,536 (216) allows the 16-bit ADC to obtain an
extremely accurate representation of the analog signal. This
inherent uncertainty in digitizing an analog value is referred to as the
Quantization error. The quantization error depends on the number of
bits in the converter, along with its errors, noise, and non-linearities.
Quantization error when using a
3 bit ADC
Dithering
• During Quantization, in the time domain, we could almost completely
preserve the waveform information by sampling fast enough. In the
amplitude domain we can preserve most of the waveform
information by dithering.
Dithering involves the deliberate addition of noise to our input signal.
It helps by smearing out the little differences in amplitude resolution.
The key is to add random noise in a way that makes the signal
bounce back and forth between successive levels. Of course, this in
itself just makes the signal noisier. But, the signal smoothes out by
averaging this noise digitally once the signal is acquired.
Note: Mathematically averaging the digital signals without dithering
does not remove the quantization steps. It simply rounds them out a
little, as shown in figure 13b.
Effects of dithering and
averaging on a sine wave input
Decreasing quantization error on
12-bit devices using dithering
Sampling Quality
Table of Contents
• Resolution
• Measurement Sensitivity
• Accuracy and Example Accuracy Calculations
• Difference between Precision and Accuracy
• Noise and Noise Sources
• Noise Reduction Strategies
Resolution
• Resolution is defined as the smallest amount of input signal change
that an instrument or sensor can detect reliably. Resolution can be
expressed as a %, x parts out of y, or most conveniently, as bits.
Resolution is determined by the instrument noise (either circuit or
quantization noise) and the smallest change that is detectable by the
display system of the instrument. For example, if you have a
noiseless digital multimeter that has 5 ½-displayed digits and is set
to the 20 V input range, the resolution of this digital multimeter is 0.1
mV. This can be determined looking at the change associated with
the least significant digit. Now, if this same digital multimeter had 10
counts of peak-to-peak noise, then the effective resolution is
decreased to 1 mV, because any signal change less then 1 mV is
indistinguishable from the noise.
Measurement Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is defined as a measure of the
smallest signal the instrument can measure at
the lowest range setting of the instrument.
Sensitivity is not related to resolution. For
example, an 8-bit analog meter could have more
sensitivity than a 16-bit Data Acquisition board.
As another example, a digital multimeter with a
lowest measurement range of 10 V may be able
to detect signals with 1 mV resolution but the
smallest detectable voltage it can measure may
be 15 mV. In this case, the digital multimeter has
a resolution of 1 mV but a sensitivity of 15 mV.
Accuracy and Example Accuracy
Calculations
A digital multimeter is often specified as:
(% Reading) + Offset
or
(% Reading) + (% Range)
or
±(ppm of reading + ppm of range)
For example, assume a digital multimeter set to the 10 V range

is operating 90 days after calibration at 23ºC ±5ºC,
and is expecting a 7 V signal. The accuracy specifications for
these conditions state ±(20 ppm of reading + 6 ppm of range).
To determine accuracy of the digital multimeter under these conditions,
use the following formula:
Accuracy = ±(20 ppm of reading + 6 ppm of range)
Accuracy = ±(20 ppm of 7 V + 6 ppm of 10 V)
Accuracy = ±((7 V(20/1,000,000) + (10 V(6/1,000,000))
Accuracy = 200 µV
Therefore, the reading should be within 200 µV of the actual input voltage.
Accuracy can also be defined in terms of the deviation
from an ideal transfer function as follows:
A data acquisition device is often specified as:
AbsoluteAccuracy = Reading · (GainError) + Range × (OffsetError) + NoiseUncertainty

GainError = ResidualAIGainError + GainTempco × (TempChangeFromLastInternalCal)
+ ReferenceTempco × (TempChangeFromLastExternalCal)
OffsetError = ResidualAIOffsetError + OffsetTempco ×

(TempChangeFromLastInternalCal) + INL_Error
For example, on the 10 V range, the absolute accuracy at full scale
of an NI 628X M-series data acquisition device is as follows:
GainError = 40 ppm + 17 ppm × 1 + 1 ppm × 10

GainError = 67 ppm
OffsetError = 8 ppm + 11 ppm × 1 + 10 ppm

OffsetError = 29 ppm
NoiseUncertainty = 18 µV
AbsoluteAccuracy = 10 V × (GainError) + 10 V × (OffsetError) + NoiseUncertainty

Absolute Accuracy = 980 µV
It is important to note that the accuracy of an instrument depends not only on

the instrument, but also on the type of signal being measured. If the signal being
measured is noisy, the accuracy of the measurement gets adversely affected.
Difference between Precision
and Accuracy
Precision is defined as a measure of the stability of the
instrument and its capability of resulting in the same
measurement over and over again for the same input
signal. It is given by:
Precision = 1 - │ Xn - Av(Xn)│/ │ Av(Xn) │
where Xn = the value of the nth measurement
and Av(Xn) = the average value of the set of n
measurement.
For instance, if you are monitoring a constant voltage of 1
V, and you notice that your measured value changes by
20 µV between measurements then your measurement
precision is
Precision = (1 – 20 µV/ 1 V) × 100 = 99.998 %
Noise and Noise Sources
• Noise is any unwanted signal that interferes with the
desired signal. Noise interferes with the measurement by
inducing uncertainty that tends to be time-variant. It can
be random or periodic.
Noise may either be transient in nature, have fixed
frequencies such as harmonic or mixer products, or be
broadband random noise. Noise is sometimes
considered separately from accuracy specifications,
because averaging and other techniques can be used to
reduce it in the measurement. However, other times it is
included in the accuracy specifications. Footnotes in the
specifications will tell you if it is included or not.
Sources of Noise
There are various sources of noise in instrumentation. Noise that is
a result of the source (or Device Under Test) itself are called
Intrinsic. These noise sources can be due to thermal sources, like
the noise of a resistor, or can be 1/F in nature, which is caused by
semiconductor devices. Also, noise can come from the outside
world, such as from power lines, lights in the room, motors, and
radio frequency sources (radio transmitters, cell phones, radio
stations, etc).
Thermal Noise
An ideal electronic circuit produces no noise of its own, so the output
signal from the ideal circuit contains only the noise that was in the
original signal. But real electronic circuits and components do
produce a certain level of inherent noise of their own. Even the
simple fixed-value resistor is noisy.
Figure 3 Resistor noise, (a) Ideal, noise-free resistor.
(b) Practical resistor has internal thermal noise source
Figure 3a shows the equivalent circuit for an ideal, noise-free
resistor. The inherent noise is represented in Figure 3b by a noise
voltage source, Vn, in series with the ideal, noise-free resistance, Ri.
At any temperature above absolute zero (0°K or about -273°C),
electrons in any material are in constant random motion. Because of
the inherent randomness of that motion, however, there is no
detectable current in any one direction. In other words, electron drift
in any single direction is cancelled over short time periods by equal
drift in the opposite direction. Electron motions are therefore
statistically de-correlated. There is, however, a continuous series of
random current pulses generated in the material, and those pulses
are seen by the outside world as a noise signal. This signal is called
by several names: Johnson noise, thermal agitation noise, or
thermal noise.
The expression for Johnson noise is:
(Vn) 2 = 4KTRB V2/Hz
where
Vn is the noise voltage (V)

K is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 X 1023 J/°K)
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin (°K)
R is the resistance in ohms (Ω)
B is the bandwidth in hertz (Hz)
With the constants collected, and the expression normalized to 1 kΩ,

the above equation reduces to:
Flicker or 1/F noise
Semiconductor devices tend to have noise that is not flat with frequency.
It rises at the low end.
This is called 1/F noise, Pink Noise, Excess Noise or Flicker Noise.
1/F noise also occurs in many physical systems other than electrical.
Examples are proteins, reaction times of cognitive processes,
and even earthquake activity.
Noise Reduction Strategies
1. Keep the source resistance and the amplifier input resistance as low
as possible. Using high value resistances will increase thermal noise
proportionally.
2. Total thermal noise is also a function of the bandwidth of the circuit.
Therefore, reducing the bandwidth of the circuit to a minimum will
also minimize noise. But this job must be done mindfully because
signals have a Fourier spectrum that must be preserved for accurate
measurement. The solution is to match the bandwidth to the
frequency response required for the input signal.
3. Prevent external noise from affecting the performance of the system
by appropriate use of grounding, shielding, cabling, careful physical
placement of wires and filtering.
4. Use a low-noise amplifier in the input stage of the system.
5. For some semiconductor circuits, use the lowest DC power supply
potential that will do the job.
Ground Loops and Returns
Table of Contents
• Grounding and Measurements
• Signal Sources
• Measurement Systems
• Signal Source - Measurement System
Configurations
• Conclusion
Grounding and Measurements
Typical data acquisition block diagram

• Proper ground configuration is essential for a good data acquisition
system. Most measurement systems such as data acquisition
devices allow for many different types of ground configurations
depending on the type of signal being acquired or measured. This
flexibility is the source of confusion when deciding which
configuration to use in each specific situation. Figure 1 below
depicts the typical data acquisition system discussed in this tutorial.
The blocks converting the physical phenomena into voltage signals
constitute our signal source. Our Measurement system is constituted
of the signal conditioning and the data acquisition blocks. In some
cases, the signal conditioning block is also considered as a signal
source to the data acquisition. This usually happens when the signal
conditioning and the data acquisition devices are from different
manufacturers.
Signal Sources
• Grounded or Ground-Referenced Signal Sources
A grounded signal source is one in which the voltage signals are
referenced to a system ground, such as earth or building ground.
Note that the negative terminal of the signal source shown above is
referenced to ground. The most common examples of grounded
signal sources are devices, such as power supplies, oscilloscopes,
and signal generators that plug into the building ground through a
wall outlet, as shown in figure 3.
The grounds of two independently grounded signal sources
generally will not be at the same potential. The difference in ground
potential between two instruments connected to the same building
ground system is typically 10mV to 200mV, or even more. The
difference can be higher if power distribution circuits are not properly
connected.
• Ungrounded or Floating Signal Sources
A floating or ungrounded signal source is one in
which the voltage signal is not referenced to a
system ground, such as earth or building
ground. Note on Figure 2 above that neither the
positive nor the negative terminal is referenced
to ground for the ungrounded source. Common
examples of floating signal sources are digital
multimeters, batteries, thermocouples,
transformers, and isolation amplifiers.
Measurement Systems
• Differential Measurement
System
In a differential measurement
system neither input to the
instrumentation amplifier is
referenced to a system ground.
In Figure 4, each channel of
the measurement system has
a negative and a positive lead,
none of which is connected to
the measurement system
ground (AIGND). Measuring a
signal on channel 0 in
differential mode would require
connecting one lead of the
signal source to CH0+ and the
other lead to CH0-.
• Measurements done in differential mode require more channels
since each measurement requires two analog input channels.
However, differential mode can deliver more accurate
measurements, because it allows the amplifier to reject common-
mode voltage and other common-mode noise present in the signal.
Common-mode voltage is any voltage present at the instrumentation
amplifier inputs with respect to the amplifier ground. The formula for
calculating the amount of common-mode voltage with respect to the
DAQ device ground is as follows:
Vcm = (V+ + V-) / 2
•
V+ and V- are the voltages at "common" to both the positive and
negative terminals of the amplifier referenced to the amplifier
ground. Figure 5 displays how you measure the common mode
voltage by shorting V+ and V- ; therefore making the differential
voltage zero. Any voltage measured at Vout is equal to the common
mode voltage at the input of the amplifier.
Common Mode Voltage
• An ideal differential measurement system reads only the
potential difference between the positive and negative
terminals of the amplifier and thus it completely rejects
common-mode voltages. However, practical devices are
limited in their ability to reject common-mode voltage.
You can calculate the amount of common-mode voltage
your system can reject with the following formula:
Vcm(max) = {MVW - [(Vdiff(max)) x (Amplification)]}/2
• MVW is the Maximum Working Voltage listed in the
device specifications
• Vdiff(max) is the maximum expected difference between
the amplifier terminals
• Amplification is device gain setting
Single-Ended Measurement System
• Single ended is the “default” configuration for most data acquisition devices,
modular instruments, and stand-alone devices. Figure 6a show an example
of Single Ended configuration. In contrast to the Differential mode, channels
in Single Ended modes require only a single analog input channel. The
second lead is common and used by all channels. This configuration has the
advantage that the channel count is doubled. This results from the fact that
all the channels that were used in Differential mode as the negative channel
inputs are now available. However, single-ended systems are very
susceptible to ground loops, for more information about removing ground
loops from your system please read the Measurement Configuration section
below.
There are essentially two main types of Single-Ended measurement
systems:
• Ground Referenced Single Ended (GRSE) or simply called Referenced
Single Ended (RSE) refers to single-ended systems in which the common
channel is connected to ground. Figure 6a below depicts a Reference Single
Ended system in which all the channels are referenced to AIGND which
represents the system ground.
Ground Referenced Single-Ended (GRSE) or Referenced Single Ended (RSE)
 In a Non-Referenced
Single-Ended (NRSE)
system, all the channels
are still referenced to a
common point. However,
the common channel in
this case is not grounded.
Figure 6b below shows
an example of a Non-
Referenced Single Ended
system where all the
channels are referenced
to AISENSE which is not
connected to system
ground.
Signal Source - Measurement
System Configurations
Measurement System with a Ground Loop

• Measuring Grounded Signal Sources
A grounded signal source is best measured with a differential or non-referenced
measurement system. Figure 7 shows the pitfall of using a ground-referenced
measurement system to measure a grounded signal source. In this case, the
measured voltage, Vm, is the sum of the signal voltage, Vs, and the potential
difference, ΔVg, that exists between the signal source ground and the measurement
system ground. This potential difference is generally not a DC level; thus, the result
is a noisy measurement system often revealing power-line frequency (60 Hz)
components in the readings. As mentioned earlier, there can exist up to 200 mV
difference between two ground connections. This difference causes a current called
ground loop current to flow in the interconnection which can greatly affect
measurements causing offset errors, especially when measuring low level signals
from sensors.
• A ground-referenced system is an acceptable solution if the signal voltage levels are
high and the interconnection wiring between the source and the measurement device
has a low impedance. In this case, the signal voltage measurement is degraded by
ground loops, but the degradation may be tolerable. The polarity of a grounded
signal source must be carefully observed before connecting it to a ground-referenced
measurement system because the signal source can be shorted to ground, thus
possibly damaging the signal source.
• Measuring Floating (Non-referenced) Sources
Floating signal sources can be measured with both differential and single-ended
measurement systems. In the case of the differential measurement system, however,
care should be taken to ensure that the common-mode voltage level of the signal
with respect to the measurement system ground remains in the common-mode input
range of the measurement device. A variety of phenomena – for example, the
instrumentation amplifier input bias currents – can move the voltage level of the
floating source out of the valid range of the input stage of a data acquisition device.
To anchor this voltage level to some reference, resistors are used. These resistors,
called bias resistors, provide a DC path from the instrumentation amplifier inputs to
the instrumentation amplifier ground. These resistors should be of a large enough
value to allow the source to float with respect to the measurement reference (AIGND
in the previously described measurement system) and not load the signal source, but
small enough to keep the voltage in the range of the input stage of the device.
Typically, values between 10 kΩ and 100 kΩ work well with low-impedance sources
such as thermocouples and signal conditioning module outputs. These bias resistors
are connected between each lead and the measurement system ground. Failure to
use these resistors may result in erratic or saturated (positive full-scale or negative
full-scale) readings.
• If the input signal is DC-coupled, only one resistor connected from the (-)
negative input to the measurement system ground is required to satisfy the
bias current path requirement, but this leads to an unbalanced system if the
source impedance of the signal source is relatively high. Balanced systems
are desirable from a noise immunity point of view. Consequently, two
resistors of equal value – one for signal high (+) input and the other for
signal low (-) input to ground – should be used if the source impedance of
the signal source is high. A single bias resistor is sufficient for low-
impedance DC-coupled sources such as thermocouples. Balanced circuits
are discussed further later in this application note. If the input signal is AC-
coupled, two bias resistors are required to satisfy the bias current path
requirement of the instrumentation amplifier.
If the single-ended input mode is to be used, a GRSE input system (Figure
8a) can be used for a floating signal source. No ground loop is created in
this case. The NRSE input system (Figure 12b) can also be used and is
preferable from a noise pickup point of view. Floating sources do require
bias resistor(s) between the AISENSE input and the measurement system
ground (AIGND) in the NRSE input configuration.
Floating Signal Source and Single-Ended Configurations
Taking Thermocouple
Temperature Measurements
• Table of Contents
• What Is Temperature?
• What Is a Thermocouple?
• Thermocouple Measurement and Signal
Conditioning
• DAQ Systems for Thermocouple
Measurements
• Relevant NI Products
What Is Temperature?
• Qualitatively, the temperature of an object
determines the sensation of warmth or
coldness felt by touching it. More
specifically, temperature is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of the particles
in a sample of matter, expressed in units
of degrees on a standard scale.
Reference Temperatures
We must rely upon
temperatures established by
physical phenomena which
are easily observed and
consistent in nature. The
International Practical
Temperature Scale (IPTS) is
based on such phenomena.
Revised in 1968, it
establishes eleven reference
temperatures.
Sources of temperature
measurement error
What Is a Thermocouple?
• One of the most frequently used temperature sensors is the thermocouple.
Thermocouples are very rugged, inexpensive devices that operate over a wide
temperature range. A thermocouple is created whenever two dissimilar metals touch
and the contact point produces a small open-circuit voltage as a function of
temperature. This thermoelectric voltage is known as the Seebeck voltage, named
after Thomas Seebeck, who discovered it in 1821. The voltage is nonlinear with
respect to temperature. However, for small changes in temperature, the voltage is
approximately linear, or
where is the change in voltage, α is the Seebeck coefficient, and ΔT is the

change in temperature.
Measuring Thermocouple
Voltage
The Reference Junction
RdF Surface Temperature Sensors Celcius.htm
Hardware Compensation
Cold Junction Compnesator
(CJC)
Thermocouple Types
Thermocouple Conductors – Positive Conductors – Negative
Type
B Platinum-30% rhodium Platinum-6% rhodium
E Nickel-chromium alloy Copper-nickel alloy
J Iron Copper-nickel alloy
K Nickel-chromium alloy Nickel-aluminum alloy
N Nickel-chromium-silicon alloy Nickel-silicon-magnesium alloy
R Platinum-13% rhodium Platinum
S Platinum-10% rhodium Platinum
T Copper Copper-nickel alloy

Sealed and Isolated from Sheath: Good relatively trouble-free arrangement. The
principal reason for not using this arrangement for all applications is its sluggish response
time - the typical time constant is 75 seconds
Sealed and Grounded to Sheath: Can cause ground loops and other noise injection, but
provides a reasonable time constant (40 seconds) and a sealed enclosure.
Exposed Bead: Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks
mechanical and chemical protection, and electrical isolation from material being
measured. The porous insulating mineral oxides must be sealed
Exposed Fast Response: Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with
fine gauge of junction wire the time constant can be 10-100 ms. In addition to problems of
the exposed bead type, the protruding and light construction makes the thermocouple
more prone to physical damage.
Thermopile
• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) operate on the
inherent propensity of metal to exhibit a change in
electrical resistance as a result of a change in
temperature. We are all aware that metals are
conductive materials. It is actually the inverse of a
metal's conductivity, or its resistivity, that brought about
the development of RTDs. Each metal has a specific and
unique resistivity that can be determined experimentally.
This resistance, “R”, is directly proportional to a metal
wire's length, “L”, and inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, “A”:
• (1)
•
• where: = the constant of proportionality, or the
resistivity of the material.
• RTDs are
manufactured from
Rt = Resistance at temperatre t
metals whose R0 = Resistance at temperature to
resistance increases And setting to to 0oC,
with temperature.
Within a limited
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
temperature range,
this resistivity
increases linearly
with temperature:
• Platinum RTDs are made of either IEC/DIN grade platinum or
reference grade platinum. The difference lies in the purity of the
platinum. The IEC/DIN standard is pure platinum that is intentionally
contaminated with other platinum group metals. The reference grade
platinum is made from 99.999+% pure platinum. Both probes will
read 100Ω at 0°C, but at 100°C the DIN grade platinum RTD will
read 138.5Ω and the reference grade will read 139.24Ω in RdF's
maxiumum performance strain-free assemblies. International
committees have been established to develop standard curves for
RTDs. Only platinum RTDs have an international standard.
Standards for any other metal are local. The committees have
adopted a mean temperature coefficient between the 0°C and
100°C resistance values as the (“alpha”) for industrial platinum
RTDs conforming to the relationships below.
• IEC/DIN grade platinum: α = 0.00385 Ω/Ω/°C
• Reference grade platinum: α = 0.003926 Ω/Ω/°C (max.)
• The relationship between resistance and temperature can be
approximated by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation:
RTD Materials
The coiled element sensor, made The thin film sensing element is
by inserting the helical sensing made by depositing a thin layer of
wires into a packed powder-filled platinum in a resistance pattern on
insulating mandrel, provides a a ceramic substrate. A glassy layer
strain-free sensing element. is applied for seal and protection.
RTD Construction
RTD Measurement
Configurations:
Cable Lead : Source of Error
Three Wire Configuration
Four Wire Configuration
Specifications
When discussing RTDs, several
specifications must be considered:
Wiring configuration (2, 3 or 4-wire)
Self-heating
Accuracy
Stability
Repeatability
Response time
Wiring Configuration
Two-wire RTDs are typically used only
with very short lead wires, or with a
1000Ω element.
Resistances L1 and L3 in leads up to

tens of feet long usually match well
enough for 100 ohm three-wire RTDs.
The worst case is resistance offset
equal to 10% of single-lead resistance
The optimum form of connection for RTDs is a four-

wire circuit . It removes the error caused by
mismatched resistance of the lead wires. A
constant current is passed through L1 and L4; L2
and L3 measure the voltage drop across the RTD.
With a constant current, the voltage is strictly a
function of the resistance and a true measurement
is achieved
Two-wire configuration
The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is

only used when high accuracy is not required, as the resistance of the
connecting wires is added to that of the sensor, leading to errors of
measurement. This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. This
applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.
Three-wire configuration
In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire

configuration can be used. Using this method the two leads to the sensor are
on adjoining arms. There is a lead resistance in each arm of the bridge so that
the resistance is cancelled out, so long as the two lead resistances are
accurately the same. This configuration allows up to 600 meters of cable
Four-wire configuration
The four-wire resistance thermometer configuration increases the accuracy and

reliability of the resistance being measured: the resistance error due to lead wire
resistance is zero. In the diagram above a standard two-terminal RTD is used
with another pair of wires to form an additional loop that cancels out the lead
resistance
four-wire Kelvin connection
It provides full cancellation of spurious effects; cable resistance of up to 15 Ω

can be handled.
• Self-Heating , I2R
The amount of self-heating also depends
heavily on the medium in which the RTD is
immersed. An RTD can self-heat up to
100x higher in still air than in moving water
Accuracy/Interchangeability,
Stability & Repeatability
• These terms are often confused, but it is important to understand the
difference.
• Accuracy/Interchangeability IEC standard 751 sets two tolerance
classes for the interchangeability of platinum RTDs:
Class A and Class B:
Class A: Dt °C = ± ( 0.15 + 0.002 • | t | )
Class B: Dt °C = ± ( 0.30 + 0.005 • | t | )
where:| t | = absolute value of temperature in °C
Class A applies to temperatures from –200°C to 650°C, and only for RTDs
with three or four-wire configurations. Class B covers the entire range from
–200°C to 850°C.
A major advantage of platinum RTDs is that calibration at as few as two
temperatures offers accuracy, preserved by high stability, much tighter than
even Class A interchangeability. No other temperature sensor offers
specifications for stability (see following) that will preserve laboratory
accuracy embedded in calibrations over long time periods and wide
temperature ranges and every configuration. Primary Standard Resistance
Temperature Sensors (SPRTS) are platinum for good reason.
• Stability This is the sensor's ability to maintain a consistent output
when a constant input is applied. Physical or thermal shocks can
cause small, one-time shifts. The material that the platinum is
adhered to, when wound on a mandrel or deposited on a substrate,
can expand and contract differentially to cause strain incorporated in
normal performance but not cause shifts. Stability limits
conservatively specified by RdF are typically 0.05°C/yr in wide
temperature ranges or 0.05/5yrs in medium ranges.
• Repeatability
Repeatability is the sensor’s ability to give the same output or
reading under repeated identical conditions. In platinum RTDs, cycle
to cycle differences normally can’t be measured and are considered
lumped into stability specifications.
Absolute accuracy is not necessary in most applications. The focus
should be on the stability and repeatability of the sensor. If an RTD
in a 100.00°C bath consistently reads 100.06°C, the electronics can
easily compensate for this error. The stability of platinum RTDs is
exceptional, with most experiencing drift ratesf <0.05°C over a five-
year period.
Response Time
• Time constant :
If cylindrical probe
diameter, d, is
 d 1, 5
changed for the same

fluid mass flow across
the probe:
If fluid mass flow, m, 1 0,5

is changed for the  ( )
same probe diameter: m
THERMISTOR
Thermistor
• Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors
Thermistors are mixtures of metal oxide semiconductor
materials formulated to exhibit specified characteristics.
The relationship between the resistance of the thermistor
and its temperature is a combination of its intrinsic and
extrinsic characteristics.
• Intrinsic conduction can be expressed as:
where:
T = temperature in kelvin
To= reference temperature in kelvin
β = a constant of the material that represents the change in
lnRt as a function of temperature
for extrinsic conduction
• There are two types of thermistors – negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistors, whose resistance decreases with
increasing temperature, and positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistors, whose resistance increases with increasing
temperature. NTC thermistors are much more commonly used than
PTC thermistors, especially for temperature measurement
applications.
• A main advantage of thermistors for temperature measurement is
their extremely high sensitivity. For example, a 2252 W thermistor
has a sensitivity of -100 W/°C at room temperature. Higher
resistance thermistors can exhibit temperature coefficients of -10
kW/°C or more. In comparison, a 100 W platinum RTD has a
sensitivityof only 0.4 W/°C. The physically small size of the
thermistor bead also yields a very fast response to temperature
changes.
• Another advantage of the thermistor is its relatively high resistance.
Thermistors are available with base resistances (at 25° C) ranging
from hundreds to millions of ohms. This high resistance diminishes
the effect of inherent resistances in the lead wires, which can cause
significant errors with low resistance devices such as RTDs. For
example, while RTD measurements typically require 3-wire or 4-wire
connections to reduce errors caused by lead wire resistances, 2-
wire connections to thermistors are usually adequate.
Resistance-Temperature Curve of a Thermistor
Thermistor Measurement Circuits
Surface Temperature Probes
Gas or Air Temperature Probes
Liquid Temperature Probes
Semiconductor Temperature
Sensor
• the Analog Devices TMP36 (-40 to 150C).
Its very similar to the LM35/TMP35
(celsius output) and LM34/TMP34
(farenheit output).
Pyrometer
Pyrometry is a technique for measuring temperature without physical

contact
An apparatus for measuring high temperatures that uses the
radiation emitted by a hot body as a basis for measurement.
• Radiation pyrometers ( measurement of radiant energy)

• Optical Pyrometers (comparison of the intensities )
PEC – UET Lahore Dr. Shahid Naveed 4. April 2014 / Dr. –Ing Naveed Ramzan 154
Radiation Pyrometer
Radiation pyrometers
Radiation Pyrometer
Optical pyrometers (600 to 3000 °C)
 basic principle of using the human eye to match the brightness

of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp
filament inside the instrument
 Compare incident radiation to internal filament radiation
Expansion Thermometers
• Bimetallic Thermometer
(Expansion of solids)
Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip
-Different metals have difference coefficient.
-Configured as spiral or helix for compactness
- Can be used with a pointer to make an inexpensive

compact rugged thermometer.
Bimetallic thermometer
Thermal expansion methods: Bimetallic sensors
• Filled Thermal Systems

(Filled System Thermometer, Filled Bulb Thermometer)
Similar operation as the liquid in glass
 Bulb
 Capillary tube
 Pressure element
 Scale
Spiral Type
Bourdon Tube
• Filled Thermal System Classes

 Class l A,B – Liquid filled
 Class ll A,B,C,D –Vapour filled
 Class lll A,B – Gas filled
 Class V A,B – Mercury Filled
• Filled Thermal System Classes

Temperature Range Response

 Class l: -125 F to + 600 F Slowest
 Class ll: -40 to 32 or 32 to 600 F Fastest
 Class lll: -450 F to +1400 F Fast
 Class V: -40 F to +1200 F Fast
Various Temperature Sensor
Thermocouple RTD Thermistor IC

Measuring Strain with Strain Gauges
• What Is Strain?
• The Strain Gauge
• Strain Gauge Measurement
• Signal Conditioning for Strain Gauges
• DAQ Systems for Strain Gauge
Measurements
• Relevant NI Products
• THE STRAIN GAGE IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT
TOOLS of the electrical measurement technique applied to the
measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name indicates,
they are used for the measurement of strain. As a technical term
"strain" consists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished by
a positive or negative sign. Thus, strain gages can be used to pick
up expansion as well as contraction. The strain of a body is always
caused by an external influence or an internal effect. Strain might be
caused by forces, pressures, moments, heat, structural changes of
the material and the like. If certain conditions are fulfilled, the
amount or the value of the influencing quantity can be derived from
the measured strain value. In experimental stress analysis this
feature is widely used. Experimental stress analysis uses the strain
values measured on the surface of a specimen or structural part to
state the stress in the material and also to predict its safety and
endurance. Special transducers can be designed for the
measurement of forces or other derived quantities, e.g., moments,
pressures, accelerations, and displacements, vibrations and others.
The transducer generally contains a pressure sensitive diaphragm
with strain gages bonded to it.
What Is Strain?
• Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative
(compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is
sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm.
In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very
small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain
(μe), which is e x 10-6.
• When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, a
phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes
the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the
transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The
magnitude of this transverse contraction is a
material property indicated by its Poisson's
Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio ν of a material is
defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the
transverse direction (perpendicular to the force)
to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the
force), or ν = εt/εL . Poisson's Ratio for steel, for
example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.
L = Longitudinal, t = transversal
Some elements of a bar
under uniaxial tension
undergo elongation and
contraction. These
elements lie in principal
directions.
Other elements undergo
distortion as well.
Principal Direction and
Principal Strain
Principal Direction
And Principal Strain
Piezoresistive Foil Gages
The gage response to

The resistance change is longitudinal strain,
related to the strain by a transverse strain, and
gage factor, temperature change is
given by
The resistance is
given by Equation
A small change in
resistance is given by the
first-order terms of a
Taylor’s series expansion,
or
•
Then :
Since
Then :
Gage Factor : G
In general, metals have gage factors between 2 and 4.

Now, since the stress times the area is equal to the force, and the fractional
change in resistance is equal to the gage factor times the fractional change in
length (the strain), and stress is Young's modulus times the strain, we have
G
G
We would prefer to have a large change in resistance to simplify the

design of the rest of a sensing instrument, so we generally try to choose
small diameters, small young's modulus, and large gage factors when
possible. The elastic limits of most materials are below 1%, so we are
generally talking about resistance changes which are in the 1% - 0.001%
range.
The Strain Gauge
• The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil
arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or
foil subject to strain in the parallel direction .The cross sectional area of the grid is
minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded
to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test specimen.
Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance. Strain
gauges are available commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000
Ω, with 120, 350, and 1000 Ω being the most common values.
• A fundamental parameter of the strain
gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of
fractional change in electrical resistance to
the fractional change in length (strain):
Strain Gauge Measurement
In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger
than a few millistrain(e x 10-3). Therefore, to measure the strain
requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance.
For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of 500
me. A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will exhibit a change in
electrical resistance of only 2 (500 x 10-6) = 0.1%. For a 120 W
gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 W.
To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges are
almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage
excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below,
consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that
is applied across the bridge.
BUKTIKAN
• The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:
•
From this equation, it is apparent that when R1/R2 = R4/R3, the
voltage output VO will be zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is
said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of the
bridge will result in a nonzero output voltage.
Therefore, if we replace R4 with an active strain gauge, any
changes in the strain gauge resistance will unbalance the bridge
and produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal resistance of
the strain gauge is designated as RG, then the strain-induced
change in resistance, DR, can be expressed as DR = RG·GF·e.
Assuming that R1 = R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above
can be rewritten to express VO/VEX as a function of strain. Note the
presence of the 1/(1+GF·e/2) term that indicates the nonlinearity of
the quarter-bridge output with respect to strain.
Quarter Bridge Configuration
Temperature Compensation
• Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to temperature
by processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion
of the specimen material for which the gauge is intended. While
compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally
remove it.
• By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be
further minimized. For example, Figure below illustrates a strain gauge
configuration where one gauge is active (RG + DR), and a second gauge is
placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect
on the second gauge, called the dummy gauge. However, any changes in
temperature will affect both gauges in the same way. Because the
temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their
resistance does not change, the voltage VO does not change, and the
effects of the temperature change are minimized.
Half Bridge Circuit
The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both
gauges active in a half-bridge configuration. For example, Figure 6
illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in
tension (RG + DR) and the other mounted in compression (RG -
DR). This half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also
illustrated in Figure below, yields an output voltage that is linear and
approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit.
Half Bridge Configuration

Full Bridge Configuration
εa = 224.8 μ
εb = -118.3 μ
εc = 132.9 μ
εx = 224.8 μ
εy = [2(-118.3 μ) + 2(132.9 μ) - 224.8 μ]/3
= -65.2 μ
γxy = [-2(-118.3 μ) + 2(132.9 μ)]/1.7321
= 290.0 μ
P = 45.0 lb
s = 6.0 in
εa = 80×10-6 m/m
εb = 60×10-6 m/m
εc = 20×10-6 m/m
εx = εa εy = εc γxy = 2εb - (εa + εc)
εx = 80×10-6 m/m
εy = 20×10-6 m/m
γxy = 20×10-6 rad
Mohr's Circle for Principal
Strains
Calibration With Cantilever Beam
• Specification of Strain Indicator used in this
experiment
Make : Measurements Group - Instruments division
Model : P 3500
Gage factor range: 0.5 to 9.99
Type of strain gages: 120 W and 350 W strain gages
Operation: Battery Operated
Readings: Displays strain as micro strain
The instrument supports the strain gages to be
connected as Quarter, Half and Full bridge circuits.
The display can be set normal display (absolute value)
or with a magnification factor of 10.
Lead Wire Contribution
• The strain gauge's resistance (Rgauge) is not the only resistance
being measured: the wire resistances Rwire1 and Rwire2, being in
series with Rgauge, also contribute to the resistance of the lower
half of the rheostat arm of the bridge, and consequently contribute to
the voltmeter's indication. This, of course, will be falsely interpreted
by the meter as physical strain on the gauge.
Lead Wire Compensation
Because the third wire carries practically no current (due to the voltmeter's extremely
high internal resistance), its resistance will not drop any substantial amount of
voltage. Notice how the resistance of the top wire (Rwire1) has been "bypassed" now
that the voltmeter connects directly to the top terminal of the strain gauge, leaving
only the lower wire's resistance (Rwire2) to contribute any stray resistance in series
with the gauge. Not a perfect solution, of course, but twice as good as the last circuit!
• The equations given above for quarter, half, and full-bridge
strain gauge configurations assume that the lead wire
resistance is negligible. While ignoring the lead resistances
may be beneficial to understanding the basics of strain gauge
measurements, doing so in practice can be a major source of
error. For example, consider the 2-wire connection of a strain
gauge shown in Figure 8a. Suppose each lead wire connected
to the strain gauge is 15 m long with lead resistance RL equal
to 1 W. Therefore, the lead resistance adds 2 W of resistance
to that arm of the bridge. Besides adding an offset error, the
lead resistance also desensitizes the output of the bridge.
• You can compensate for this error by measuring the lead
resistance RL and accounting for it in the strain calculations.
However, a more difficult problem arises from changes in the
lead resistance due to temperature fluctuations. Given typical
temperature coefficients for copper wire, a slight change in
temperature can generate a measurement error of several me.
Using a 3-wire connection can eliminate the effects of
variable lead wire resistance because the lead
resistances affect adjacent legs of the bridge. As seen in
Figure 8b, changes in lead wire resistance, R2, do not
change the ratio of the bridge legs R3 and RG.
Therefore, any changes in resistance due to temperature
cancel each other.
Signal Conditioning for Strain Gauges
To ensure accurate strain measurements, it is
important to consider the following:
• Bridge completion
• Excitation
• Remote sensing
• Amplification
• Filtering
• Offset
• Shunt calibration
• Bridge Completion :Unless you are using a full-bridge
strain gauge sensor with four active gauges, you will
need to complete the bridge with reference resistors.
Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners typically
provide half-bridge completion networks consisting of
high-precision reference resistors. Figure 9 shows the
wiring of a half-bridge strain gauge circuit to a
conditioner with completion resistors R1 and R2
• Excitation – Strain gauge signal conditioners typically
provide a constant voltage source to power the bridge.
While there is no standard voltage level that is recognized
industry wide, excitation voltage levels of around 3 and 10 V
are common. While a higher excitation voltage generates a
proportionately higher output voltage, the higher voltage can
also cause larger errors because of self-heating.
• Remote Sensing – If the strain gauge circuit is located a
distance away from the signal conditioner and excitation
source, a possible source of error is voltage drop caused by
resistance in the wires connecting the excitation voltage to
the bridge. Therefore, some signal conditioners include a
feature called remote sensing to compensate for this error.
Remote sense wires are connected to the point where the
excitation voltage wires connect to the bridge circuit. The
extra sense wires serve to regulate the excitation supply
through negative feedback amplifiers to compensate for
lead losses and deliver the needed voltage at the bridge.
• Amplification – The output of strain gauges and
bridges is relatively small. In practice, most
strain gauge bridges and strain-based
transducers will output less than 10 mV/V (10
mV of output per volt of excitation voltage). With
10 V excitation, the output signal will be 100 mV.
Therefore, strain gauge signal conditioners
usually include amplifiers to boost the signal
level to increase measurement resolution and
improve signal-to-noise ratios.
• Filtering – Strain gauges are often located in
electrically noisy environments. It is therefore
essential to be able to eliminate noise that can
couple to strain gauges. Lowpass filters, when
used in conjunction with strain gauges, can
remove high-frequency noise prevalent in most
environmental settings.
• Offset Nulling – When a bridge is installed, it is very unlikely that the bridge
will output exactly zero volts when no strain is applied. Slight variations in
resistance among the bridge arms and lead resistance will generate some
nonzero initial offset voltage. Offset nulling can be performed by either
hardware or software:
1. Software Compensation – With this method, you take an initial
measurement before strain input is applied, and use this offset to
compensate subsequent measurements. This method is simple, fast, and
requires no manual adjustments. The disadvantage of the software
compensation method is that the offset of the bridge is not removed. If the
offset is large enough, it limits the amplifier gain you can apply to the output
voltage, thus limiting the dynamic range of the measurement.
2. Offset-Nulling Circuit – The second balancing method uses an adjustable
resistance, a potentiometer, to physically adjust the output of the bridge to
zero. By varying the resistance of potentiometer, you can control the level of
the bridge output and set the initial output to zero volts.
• Shunt Calibration – The normal procedure to verify the
output of a strain gauge measurement system relative to
some predetermined mechanical input or strain is called
shunt calibration. Shunt calibration involves simulating
the input of strain by changing the resistance of an arm
in the bridge by some known amount. This is
accomplished by shunting, or connecting, a large resistor
of known value across one arm of the bridge, creating a
known DR. The output of the bridge can then be
measured and compared to the expected voltage value.
The results are used to correct span errors in the entire
measurement path, or to simply verify general operation
to gain confidence in the setup
Table 1. SCXI-1520 Features for Strain Gauges
Number of channels 8
Multiplexer scan rate Up to 333 kS/s1
Amplifier gain 1 to 1000
Excitation voltage 0.0 to 10.0 V in 0.635 V
source increments
Excitation current drive 29 mA throughout
excitation voltage range
Half-bridge completion Yes
Offset nulling Yes

Shunt calibration Yes
Remote excitation Yes
sensing
1 Multiplexer scan rate depends on DAQ device

Pressure Sensors
Table of Contents
• What is Pressure?
• The Pressure Sensor
• Pressure Measurement
• Signal Conditioning for Pressure Sensors
• DAQ Systems for Pressure Measurements
• References
What is Pressure?
F
p
A
The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (N/m2), but other common units of pressure
include pounds per square inch (PSI), atmospheres (atm), bars,
inches of mercury (in Hg), and millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
Head pressure
• Head pressure(or pressure head) measures the static pressure of a liquid in a tank or
a pipe. Head pressure, P, is a function solely on the height, h, of the liquid and weight
density, w, of the liquid being measured as shown in Figure 1 below.
•
•
The pressure on a scuba diver swimming in the ocean would be the diver's depth
multiplied by weight of the ocean (64 pounds per cubic foot). A scuba diver diving 33
feet into the ocean would have 2112 pounds of water on every square foot of his
body. The translates to 14.7 PSI. Interestingly enough, the atmospheric pressure of
the air at sea level is also 14.7 PSI or 1 atm. Thus, 33 feet of water create as much
pressure as 5 miles of air! The total pressure on a scuba diver 33 feet deep ocean
would be the combined pressure caused by the weight of the air and the water and
would be 29.4 PSI or 2 atm.
• 1 psi= 51.714 mmHg
= 2.0359 in.Hg
= 27.680 in.H2O
= 6.8946 kPa
1 bar= 14.504 psi
1 atm. = 14.696 psi
Example: Convert 200 mmHg to psi:
200 mmHg • 1 psi/51.714 mmHg = 3.867
psi
Differential
Absolut Pressure Sensor Gauge (relative)
Pressure Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Gauge Selection Guide
Gauges_SelectionGuide.pdf
Gauges_SelectionGuide.pdf
The typical pressure sensor has
three functional blocks.
Pressure Sensor
SENSING ELEMENT
Mechanical and Electromechanical
Pressure Sensor
SENSOR EFFECTS
A pressure sensor may be modeled as:
VOUT = kO + k1P
where:
kO = offset
k1= pressure sensitivity in V/pressure unit
A sensor will typically exhibit temperature

coefficients of offset (also called null shift) and
sensitivity
Temperature has an effect on
the offset of a pressure sensor.
The sensitivity of a pressure sensor

is also affected by temperature.
LINEARITY
The least squares method can be used

to measure a pressure sensor's linearity.
REPEATABILITY
Repeatability refers to the ability of a pressure sensor to provide

the same output with successive applications of the same pressure.
HYSTERISIS
Hysteresis is a sensor's ability to give the same output at

a given temperature before and after a temperature cycle.
Pressure Sensor Technologies
• Potentiometric Pressure Sensors
Potentiometric pressure sensors use a Bourdon tube, capsule, or bellows

to drive a wiper arm on a resistive element.
Such sensors tend to be inexpensive, but subject
to repeatability and hysteresis errors.
Inductive Pressure Sensors
An LVDT pressure sensor, one configuration of inductive devices,

drives a moving core that varies the inductive coupling between
the transformer primary and secondary
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Common Specifications Common specifications for
commercially available translational LVDT's are listed
below:
• Input:Power input is a 3 to 15 V (rms) sine wave with a
frequency between 60 to 20,000 Hz (the two most
common signals are 3 V, 2.5 kHz and 6.3 V, 60 Hz).
• Stroke:Full-range stroke ranges from ±125 µm to
±75 mm (±0.005 to ±3 in).
• Sensitivity:Sensitivity usually ranges from 0.6 to 30 mV
per 25 µm (0.001 in) under normal excitation of 3 to 6 V.
Generally, the higher the frequency the higher the
sensitivity.
• Nonlinearity:Inherent nonlinearity of standard units is on
the order of 0.5% of full scale.
Reluctive Transducer
• In a reluctive transducer, displacements occur in the magnetic
coupling between a pair of coils. A reluctive transducer is passive
and requires external AC excitation of a pair of coils. It operates on
the principle that the magnetic coupling between the two coils is
affected by the displacement of a pressure-driven conductor located
in the magnetic field between the two coils. The conductor is either
connected to a force-summing device or is itself a force-summing
device.
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
• Applied pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the
capacitance to change. This change may or may not be linear and is
typically on the order of several picofarads out of a total capacitance
of 50-100 pF. The change in capacitance may be used to control the
frequency of an oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal
through a network.
• The capacitance of two parallel plates is given by:
C = µA/d
where:
µ= dielectric constant of the material
between the plates
A = area of the plates
d= spacing between the plates
The basic capacitive pressure sensor
consists of two plates with
a vacuum between them.
A differential capacitive sensing cell that is

equipped with isolating diaphragms and
silicone oil transfer fluid suitable for
measuring pressure in corrosive media.
(Courtesy of Rosemount, Inc.)
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage

when deformed (change in shape is
greatly exaggerated)
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
Piezoelectric sensors convert stress into an electric potential

and vice versa. Sensors based on this technology are used
to measure varying pressures.
The electrometer and charge amplifier are the most common circuits
used to measure charge from
piezoelectric transducers.
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
Consider a strip of metallic material with electrical resistance given
by:
RO = ρ L/WT
where:
ρ = resistivity
L, W, T = length, width, thickness
A stress applied to the strip causes it to become
slightly longer, narrower, and thinner, resulting in
a resistance of:
R = ρ(L + Δ L) / (W - Δ W)(T - Δ T), or
R ~ RO(1 + 3Δ )
VOUT/VCC = ΔR / R
where:
VCC = supply voltage
R = base resistance of the piezoresistor
Δ R = change with applied pressure and is typically ~2.5% of the full R
The back of a wafer is
etched out to form the
Piezoresistive pressure sensors diaphragm of a
can be configured to provide piezoresistive pressure
absolute, differential, or gauge sensor.
pressure readings, depending on
the reference. The diaphragm is
shown here as it deflects under
applied differential pressures.
VACUUM PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Bourdon
When a closed-end, curved, oval cross-
section, copper alloy tube is connected to the
vacuum, atmospheric pressure bends it to a
greater or lesser degree, depending on the
internal pressure. The mechanical force
moves an indicator needle through a geared
linkage. Bourdon gauges are used primarily in
high-pressure measurement (most commonly
attached to regulators on gas cylinders), but
variations are built to indicate pressures from
0" Hg to 30" Hg and are used for freeze
drying, “house” vacuum systems, vacuum
impregnation, etc., where the major concern is
whether vacuum exists rather than its
accurate measurement.
• Piezo
Piezo-resistive pressure sensors are typically comprised of a silicon
wafer that is machined on a surface that makes the crystal into a
suitable deflecting diaphragm when subjected to a normal stress
(pressure). The thickness of the silicon crystal at its minimum
section is the primary factor that determines the pressure range of
the gauge from 1,500 to 0.1 Torr. As the diaphragm deflects under
pressure, the resistances of the piezo-resistive elements change in
value, causing the Wheatstone bridge network to move out of
balance. Applying a voltage to this bridge produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the applied pressure. If the elements
are of equal resistance, there will be a zero output voltage with no
pressure differential across the diaphragm
• Capacitance Manometers
The deflection of a thin metal diaphragm separating a known pressure from
an unknown pressure is a measure of the pressure difference between the
two volumes. In the capacitance manometer, as the name suggests, the
deflection is measured using the electrical capacitance between the
diaphragm and some fixed electrodes. Capacitance manometers are the
most accurate devices for measuring the differential or absolute pressure of
all gases (including vapors that do not condense at the gauge’s operating
temperature).Gauge heads are specified by their maximum measured
pressure (25,000 Torr down to 1 x 10-1 Torr), with each head having a
dynamic range of approximately 104 below that. Accuracies of 0.25% gauge
reading are common, with 0.08% available from high-accuracy products.
• All types of pressure gauges are affected by ambient temperature changes,
but other error sources are so much larger that emperature is ignored. The
capacitance manometer, by contrast, is so accurate that gauge-head
temperature variation is a critical source of error.We strongly suggest that
capacitance manometers be purchased only from reputable manufacturers
who understand sources of error and demonstrate effective ways of
counteracting them.
• Diaphragm Manometers
Like the capacitance manometer, these gauges use the deflection of
a thin metal (or silicon) diaphragm separating a known pressure
from an unknown pressure. However, in this type of gauge, the
deflection is sensed by a strain gauge attached to the diaphragm.
While this limits the minimum measurable pressure to 1 Torr, it does
provide a stable, repeatable, device reading pressures up to 1,200
Torr.
• Gas Property Gauges
The thermal conductivity or viscosity value for each specific gas is
different and varies non-linearly with pressure. Gas property gauges,
presented with the typical vacuum chamber gases, are inaccurate.
This, and numerous other inherent error sources, suggest the gauge
readings are acceptable for noting repeating pressure events but of
little use in measuring absolute pressures.
• Thermocouple (T/C)
The pressure range between 10 Torr and 10-3 Torr is
indicated by measuring the voltage of a thermocouple
spot-welded to a heated filament exposed to system gas.
The filament, fed from a constant current supply,
reaches a temperature determined by the amount of
energy extracted by the gas. At higher pressures, more
molecules hit the filament and extract more energy than
at low temperatures. The filament temperatures induce
thermocouple voltage changes. These gauges are used
extensively in foreline monitoring and to provide the
signal to automatically switch the main chamber from
backing and high-vacuum pumps at the crossover
pressure.
• Pirani
In a Pirani gauge, two filaments, often platinum, are used as two
arms of a Wheatstone bridge. The reference filament is immersed in
a fixed-gas pressure, while the measurement filament is exposed to
the system gas. Both filaments are heated by the current through
the bridge but, unlike most T/Cs, the Pirani gauge does not use
constant voltage or power, but constant filament temperature. Gas
molecules hitting the immersed element conduct energy away that is
detected and replaced by the feedback circuit to the power supply.
This variation of mechanism gives the Pirani gauge perhaps 100
times longer total pressure range (although the same dynamic range
for each sensor head) and a faster response. The Pirani gauge is
used in the same applications as the T/C gauge. Although the
dynamic range for any single gauge matches the T/C, Pirani's cover
a pressure range from about 10 Torr to 1 x 10-5 Torr.
• Convection
This gauge’s mechanism differs from that used
in the T/C and Pirani gauges only by using a
structure that enables the natural convection in
(viscous flow) gases to aid in removing heat
from the hot filament. Convection gauges
measure pressures over the range from about
10 Torr to atmosphere
Calibration
Dead-Weight Tester. A dead-weight tester

uses calibrated weights that exert force on
a piston which then acts on a fluid to
produce a test pressure. For high
pressures (>500 psi), oil is typically used
(see Figure 26); for lower pressures,
pneumatic air bearing testers are available
and are much more convenient as well as
less messy to use.
U-Tube Manometer
p  gH
Given the following error terms:
Linearity = 1% F.S.
Null calibration = 1% F.S.
Sensitivity calibration = 1% F.S. Temperature errors are sometimes
given as coefficients per ºC referenced to 25ºC. Simply multiply the
coefficient by the temperature range of the application to obtain the
total error.
Temperature error = 0.5% F.S.
Repeatability and hysteresis = 0.1% F.S.
Worst case error is equal to the sum of all the maximum errors:
Worst case error = 1 + 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.1 = 3.6%
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level devices operate under different
principles. They can be classified into
three main categories that measure
• the position (height) of the surface.
• the pressure head.
• the weight of the material through load
cells.
LEVEL TRANSDUCER
RF capacitance, conductance, hydrostatic tank gauging, radar, and ultrasonics
are the leading sensor technologies in liquid level tank measurement
and control operations. Making the wisest selection for your own application
requires a basic understanding of how these devices work.
Measurements Using the Effects of Density
• Displacer
Displacers measure the
buoyancy of a solid body that
is partially submerged in the
liquid. The change in weight is
measured.
Gaya Apung
• The result for level Ld, related to the lower
edge of the displacer is:
Float
Pressure Gage
The hydrostatic head, or differential pressure, method can add
measurements (at left) for hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG).
Balance Method
Where F0 is the weight of the empty tank and A the cross-sectional

area, which is assumed to be constant throughout the tank height. In
order to measure the weight force correctly, it is necessary to isolate
the complete tank mechanically. For precise measurements, the
buoyancy in air must be taken into consideration:
Propagation time of Wave
Radar (microwave) level measurement can
use either of two types of antenna
construction at the top of vessel.
Level Measurements by
Detecting Physical Properties
• Electrical Properties
The sensor must be in direct or indirect contact with the
product to detect its electrical properties. For continuous
measurement, only part of the intrusive sensor must be
in contact with the product to detect the difference in
dielectric permittivity or conductivity.
• Capacitive
In most applications, a rod electrode is arranged
vertically in the tank. The electrode can be (1)
noninsulated if the liquid is nonconductive, or (2)
insulated. The metallic vessel acts as a reference
electrode.
RF Capacitance
1
Impedance Z  R
j 2fC
• RF CAPACITANCE
• RF (RADIO FREQUENCY) TECHNOLOGY USES THE
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A CAPACITOR,
IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS, FOR
LEVEL MEASUREMENT. COMMONLY REFERRED TO
AS RF CAPACITANCE OR SIMPLY RF, THE METHOD
IS SUITED FOR DETECTING THE LEVEL OF LIQUIDS,
SLURRIES, GRANULARS, OR INTERFACES
CONTAINED IN A VESSEL. DESIGNS ARE
AVAILABLE FOR MEASURING PROCESS LEVEL AT A
SPECIFIC POINT, AT MULTIPLE POINTS, OR
CONTINUOUSLY OVER THE ENTIRE VESSEL
HEIGHT. RADIO FREQUENCIES FOR ALL TYPES
RANGE FROM 30 KHZ TO 1 MHZ.
In the RF capacitance method of liquid level measurement,
the electrode sensor connects directly to an RF transmitter
outside the tank.
CONDUCTANCE
In the conductive type of level measurement, two dual-tip

probes detect the maximum and minimum levels in a tank.
Principle of operation for a capacitance-type level device. (a) An
insulated electrode protrudes into the liquid. The capacitance between
the inner conductor and the tank walls is measured. (b) As a capacitance
level switch, the electrode can be mounted at the appropriate position
directly into the tank wall.
the capacitance C of an insulated electrode changes with level L according to:
If the liquid itself is highly

conductive, the equation
simplifies to:
If the electrode is not

insulated, the following
equation is valid:
Not every level measurement technique is suitable
for a given application.
The initial cost for five continuous and point level-
measurement technologies varies
Force Measurement
Hooke’s Law
Poisson ratio
A small change in
specific volume
( ΔVol/Vol)
The bulk modulus (K

= reciprocal of
compressibility) is
defined as follows:
For an elastic solid

loaded in uniaxial
compression (S):
Basic Methods of Force
Measurement
1. Balancing the unknown force against a standard
mass through a system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a known mass.
3. Equalizing it to a magnetic force generated by
the interaction of a current-carrying coil and a
magnet.
4. Distributing the force on a specific area to
generate pressure, and then measuring the
pressure.
5. Converting the applied force into the
deformation of an elastic element.
Force Sensors
Strain Gage Load Cell
Beam-Type Load Cell
Ring-Type Load Cell
Piezoelectric Methods
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are

proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force :
Where d is the charge sensitivity (a constant for a given

crystal) of the crystal in C/N. The force F causes a thickness
variation Δt meters of the crystal:
Where ais area of crystal, t is thickness of

crystal, and Y is Young’s modulus.
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to a voltage E0 = Q/C, where C is

capacitance in farads between the electrodes and C = εa/t where e is
the absolute permittivity.
Modes of operation for a simple plate as a
piezoelectric device
Curvature of “twister” and “bender” piezoelectric

transducers when voltage applied
Torque Measurement
Schematic arrangement of devices used for the
measurement of torque and power.
Flow Measurement
(Pengukuran aliran)
FLUIDA NEWTONIAN
BILANGAN REYNOLD
• BILANGAN REYNOLD : BILANGAN TANPA DIMENSI YANG
DIPAKAI UNTUK MENGKARAKTERISTIKAN REJIM ALIRAN,
APAKAH LAMINAR, TRANSISI ATAU TURBULEN
REYNOLDS NUMBER
Dvr
Re = m C
D = DIAMETER (FT)
v = VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
r = DENSITY (LB/FT3)
m = VISCOSITY (cp)
C = CONSTANT (6.72X10-4 LB/FT SEC cp)
0 2000 4000
LAMINAR TRANSITION TURBULENT

Characterization of Fluid Flow
Laminar
Transitional
Turbulent ***
Re < 2000
2000 < Re <

4000
Re > 4000
LAMINAR FLOW
• Laminar Flow - Is Characterized By Concentric Layers Of
Fluid Moving In Parallel Down The Length Of A Pipe. The
Highest Velocity (Vmax) Is Found In The Center Of The
Pipe. The Lowest Velocity (V=0) Is Found Along The Pipe
Wall.
SIDE VIEW END VIEW
VMAX
PARABOLIC FLOW PROFILE CONCENTRIC FLUID LAYERS

TURBULENT FLOW
• Turbulent Flow - Is Characterized By A Fluid Motion That
Has Local Velocities And Pressures That Fluctuate
Randomly. This Causes The Velocity Of The Fluid In The
Pipe To Be More Uniform Across A Cross Section.
SIDE VIEW
VMAX ~ VAVG
FLOW REGIMES
PROFIL KECEPATAN
DIDALAM PIPA
ALIRAN DALAM PIPA DAPAT
DIKARAKTERISTIKAN DENGAN PARAMETER
• BENTUK PROFIL KECEPATAN :

VELOCITY RATIO = Uo/U
PROFILE FACTOR = U/Uo
• SUDUT SWIRL :
• LEVEL TURBULENSI :
TURBULENSI DIUKUR DENGAN
BEBERAPA PARAMETER :
• SUDUT SWIRL
BEBAS SWIRL ( < 2o)
SWIRL SEDANG (15o SAMPAI 20o)
SWIRL TINGGI (20o SAMPAI 30o)
• BENTUK PROFIL KECEPATAN
SIMETRI TERHADAP GARIS SUMBU
TIDAK SIMETRI TERHADAP GARIS SUMBU
RASIO KECEPATAN
• LEVEL TURBULENSI
AKSIAL
RADIAL
TANGENSIAL
UKURAN DEBIT ALIRAN
• Untuk mematuhi prinsip konservasi massa,
pengukuran akhir dilakukan atas dasar massa,
namun, karena sejarah praktek-praktek business ,
biasanya dilaporkan di volumetrik (atau energi)
unit pada kondisi dasar
• Dalam sistem SI, satuan utama dari massa adalah
kilogram, yang standar utama adalah balok logam
platinum-iridium (disimpan di Paris) disebut
prototipe kilogram internasional. Dalam kebiasaan
AS (USC) , unit utama massa adalah pound-
massa, yang langsung dapat ditelusuri ke
prototipe kilogram internasional.
Dalam sistem USC, dasar (atau standar)
volume gas alam adalah kaki kubik. Ini berasal
dari unit USC panjang, kaki. Kaki kubik standar,
bila diterapkan pada gas alam, berarti jumlah
gas pada kondisi dasar suhu dan tekanan
yang menempati volume 1 kaki kubik. Unit
volume dikenal sebagai seribu kaki kubik
standar (MSCF) dan juta kaki kubik (MM SCF)
yang umum digunakan di industri gas alam
Amerika Utara untuk tujuan fiskal.
Dalam Sistem Internasional (SI) , dasar
(atau standar) volume untuk gas alam
adalah meter kubik. Ini berasal dari unit SI
panjang. Meter didefinisikan oleh jumlah
tertentu panjang gelombang tertentu jenis
radiasi atom. Standar meter kubik (Nm3),
bila diterapkan pada gas alam, berarti
jumlah gas pada kondisi dasar suhu dan
tekanan yang menempati volume 1 meter
kubik.
Kondisi Standar
Dalam sistem USC, dasar (atau standar)
kondisi biasanya dinyatakan sebesar :
• Tekanan 14.73 psia (101,560 kPa)
• Suhu 60.O oF (15.56 oC)
Dalam satuan Internasional (SI) kondisi
standar biasanya dinyatakan sebesar:
• Tekanan 101,325 kPa (14,696 psia)
• Suhu 15.OO oC (59.OoF)
• Untuk perhitungan densiti dan kandungan
energi dari analisis komposisi, persentase
mole dari air dianggap nol.
• Untuk perdagangan, volume dasar dan
kandungan energi selalu berdasarkan
kondisi kering, karena biasanya spesifikasi
untuk kandungan air sangat rendah, yaitu
sekitar 7 lbm per MMSCF
Satuan Energi
• BTU (British Thermal Unit) : Jumlah kalor yang
diperlukan untuk menaikan suhu 1 lbm air sebesar
1 oF pada kondisi lingkungan bersuhu 60 oF dan
tekanan 14,73 psia.
• Joule = Nm
• Kalori : Jumlah kalor yang diperlukan untuk
menaikan suhu 1 grm air sebesar 1 oC pada
kondisi lingkungan bersuhu 15 oC dan tekanan
101,325 kPa.
• Kiliwatt Jam (kWh)
• Konversi  1 kalori = 4,1868 Joule = 0,0039683
BTU
HEATING VALUE
• Lower Heating Value (LHV) atau disebut juga Net
Heating Value (NHV) : Jumlah energi yang dilepaskan
pada waktu pembakaran gas alam sebesar 1 kaki
kubik standar, satuannya BTU. Panas pengembunan
air tidak dimasukan, karena air dianggap dalam
bentuk uap.
• Higher Heating Value (HHV) atau disebut juga Gross
Heating Value (GHV) : Jumlah energi yang dilepaskan
pada waktu pembakaran gas alam sebesar 1 kaki
kubik standar, satuannya BTU. Panas pengembunan
air sebagai produk pembakaran dimasukan.
• HHV dihitung per satuan volume pada kondisi standar,
tekanan 14,73 psai dan suhu 60 oF.
BERNOULLI’S LAW
• Hukum Bernoulli Menjelaskan Perilaku
Dari Fluida Ideal Dalam berbagai Kondisi
Dalam Sistem Tertutup. Ini Menyatakan
Bahwa Energy Keseluruhan Dari fluida
tersebut Saat Memasuki Sistem adalah
sama dengan Energy Keseluruhan Saat
keluar sistem.
• PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
PE = Potential Energy
KE = Kinetic Energy
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• Untuk fluida ideal, Hukum Bernoulli
diungkapkan dalam rumus berikut:
Energy Per Unit Volume Before = Energy Per Unit Volume After
1 1
P1 +
2
rV12 + rgh1 = P2 + 2
rV22 + rgh2
Kinetic Potential
V1, P1 Pressure
Energy
Energy
Per Unit
Energy
Per unit
Volume Volume
V2, P2
V2 > V1
P2 < P1
Increased Fluid Speed
Decrease Fluid Pressure
INSTALASI : DIPASANG PADA
DAERAH YANG SUDAH FULLY
DEVELOPED
DITAMBAH FLOW
CONDITIONER
Installation – Straight Run
 Straight run requirements
 Minimum 10 pipe diameters upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream required to get
proper flow profile
 Less straight run affects meter accuracy

Installation – Meter Location
Install before valve to avoid air
Vertical orientation– insure full

pipe Top View
Liquid horizontal orientation– Top View
insure full pipe
Gas & steam horizontal orientation

– insure no condensate
Beberapa atau semua pertimbangan berikut harus
diperhitungkan ketika memilih flowmeter:
1. Jenis Fluida apa?

Liquid, gas, or vapor
Clean or dirty
Corrosive or noncorrosive
2. Kondisi alirannya bagaimana ?
Measuring flowrate or total flow or both
Normal flowrate
Minimum and maximum flowrate
Minimum and maximum temperature
Minimum and maximum pressure
3. What are the installation conditions?
Pipe size
• Reynolds Number
• Is there room for adequate length of piping?
• Are flow conditioners needed?
• Is pipe vibration a problem?
• Is flow steady or pulsating?
4. What are the performance requirements?
Accuracy
• Is accuracy required under all conditions?
5. What are the cost factors?
Initial cost of primary and secondary
instruments
• Cost of accessories
• Installation cost
• Reliability vs. maintenance cost
• Energy cost for pumping
• Availability of parts and repair service
• Compatibility with existing equipment
Sensors: How do we measure fluid flow?
The most frequently used flow sensor is the orifice meter. What is the basic
principle for this device?
FC
liquid
cooling How can we use

this behavior to
measure flow?
Velocity
increases;
Bernoulli says
Principles of the orifice meter
Porifice Measure pressure drop
pressure
Porifice=P1 – P3
Distance 
Sensors: Principles of the orifice meter
Nice visual display of concept.

In practice, pressure difference
is measured by a reliable and
electronic sensor = Porifice
v = velocity
Relate the
pressure drop F = volumetric flow rate
to the flow f = frictional losses
rate
= density
A = cross sectional area
Bernoulli’s eqn.
General meter eqn.
Installed orifice meter 0 = aver. density
(requires density C0 = constant for

specific meter
measurement)
Installed orifice meter F  K P1  P3 Most common flow

calculation, does not
require density
(assuming constant density) measurement
Sensors: Principles of the orifice meter
When an orifice meter is used, the

calculations in yellow are performed.
Typically, they are not shown on a
“Measured value” to flow controller process drawing.
Multiply signal by
meter constant K K FC
Take square root

of measurement 
Measure
pressure
difference
P
liquid
cooling
Sensors: Are there limitations to orifices?
v = velocity
Relate the
pressure drop F = volumetric flow rate
to the flow f = frictional losses
rate
= density
A = cross sectional area
General meter eqn.
Cmeter We assume that the meter coefficient

is constant. The flow accuracy is
acceptable only for higher values of
flow, typically 25-100% of the
maximum for an orifice
Reynolds number
Sensors: Is there a downside to orifices?
What is a key
disadvantage of the
orifice meter?
Ploss = P1 – P2
Pressure loss!
When cost of pressure
increase (P1) by pumping or
pressure
Porifice=P1 – P3 Non-
compression is high, we want
recoverabl to avoid the “non-
e pressure recoverable” pressure loss.
drop
Distance 
Sensors: Factors in selecting an orifice meter
Accuracy • Typically, 2-4% inaccuracy

• Strongly affected by density changes from base case
Repeatability • Much better than accuracy
Reproducibility • Much better than accuracy
Span • Accuracy limited to 25-100% of span
• Span achieved by selecting diameter of orifice and Porifice
Reliability • Very reliable, no moving parts
Linearity • Must take square root to achieve linear relationship
between measured signal and flow rate
Maintenance • Very low
Process • Turbulent, Single liquid phase, no slurries (plugging)
Environment • Straight run of pipe needed (D= pipe diameter),
10-20D upstream, 5-8D downstream
Dynamics • Nearly instantaneous
Safety • Very safe
Cost • Low equipment (capital) cost, large number of suppliers
• High operating cost (non-recoverable pressure loss)
Rotameters
Three types of forces must be accounted
for when analyzing rotameter
performance:
Buoyancy
• Flow
• Gravity
Gravity
• Buoyancy
For our analysis neglect drag effect
Flow
ROTOR TUNGGAL DAN
GANDA
Type of Flowmeters
Turbine
Working Principle
Reluctance
The coil is a permanent magnet and the turbine blades are made of a material attracted to
magnets. As each blade passes the coil, a voltage is generated in the coil. Each pulse
represents a discrete volume of liquid. The number of pulses per unit volume is called the
meter's K-factor.
Inductance
A permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor, or the blades of the rotor are made of
permanently magnetized material. As each blade passes the coil, it generates a voltage pulse. In
some designs, only one blade is magnetic and the pulse represents a complete revolution of the
rotor.
Capacitive
Capacitive sensors produce a sine wave by generating an RF signal that is amplitude-modulated
by the movement of the rotor blades.
Hall-Effect
Hall-effect transistors also can be used. These transistors change their state when they are in the
presence of a very low strength (on the order of 25 gauss) magnetic field.
Type of Flowmeters
Turbine
Installation
Type of Flowmeters
Turbine
Type of Flowmeters
Bernoulli’s Equation
For Pitot Tube:
P + ½ρѵ2 + ρgh = Constant

If no change in the elevation, ρgh = 0 = z
And point 2 is stagnation point, i.e. ѵ2 = 0
P = Static Pressure
ρ = Density of Fluid
v = Velocity of Fluid
g = Gravitational Acceleration (9.81m/s2)
h = Height
Pemakaian Pitot Tube untuk mengukur
distribusi kecepatan pada ducting
Rectangular Duct
Pitot Tube
For Rectangular Duct: 1.4m x 0.8m

Pitot Tube
Round Duct
For Round Duct: D = 1 m

Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar)
Mass Flowmeter
Direct Measurement
• Coriolis
• Thermal Dispersion
coriolis
THERMAL DISPERSION
Thermal Dispersion
Principle of Operation
• Thermal dispersion technologies are based on the operational principle that
states the rate of heat transfer by a flow stream is proportional to its mass
flow. The flow measurement is accomplished by precisely measuring the
cooling effect as the mass (molecular) flow passes the heated sensor. The
sensor consists of two elements:
• The reference, which measures the temperature of the gas.
• A second element, which is heated at a variable power to maintain the
desired temperature difference between the two sensors.
Two Principle of Operation
Principles of flow through a closed
conduit
In typical processes, we manipulate the flow to achieve desired
operating conditions
For liquids we typically install a pump

to provide the work required for flow.
Constant
speed
centrifugal
pump
liquid
What is the principle for a centrifugal pump?

What in adjusted to affect the flow in this system?
Flow principles: Let’s look at a typical centrifugal pump
Flow = F2 (m3/min)
Outlet
Pressure = P2 (kPa)
Inlet
(suction)
Flow = F1 (m3/min)
Pressure = P1 (kPa)
Motor
Pump
(work)
What
goes
here? F1 F2
Flow = F2 (m3/min)
Outlet
= Pressure = P2 (kPa)
> P1 P2
<
Inlet
(suction)
Flow = F1 (m3/min)
Pressure = P1 (kPa)
Motor
Pump
(work)
What
goes
here? F1 = F2
Flow = F2 (m3/min)
Outlet
= Pressure = P2 (kPa)
> P1 < P2
<
Inlet
(suction)
Flow = F1 (m3/min)
Pressure = P1 (kPa)
Motor
Pump
(work)
conduit
Constant
speed P0 = constant
centrifugal
pump
liquid
Head at pump outlet
We turn on the pump motor and let

the system reach steady state.
How do we calculate the flow rate
that would occur?
Hint: Use the plot at the left.
Flow rate
conduit
Constant
speed P0 = constant
centrifugal
pump
liquid
Pump head curve

Head at pump outlet
Steady-state flow
rate at given
conditions
“system” curve,
pressure drop vs
flow rate
Flow rate
What if we want a different the flow in the system?

conduit
Constant
speed
centrifugal
pump
liquid
Head at outlet of pump
To achieve the desired flow,

We adjust the we vary the system
valve opening resistance by changing the
to achieve pressure drop across a valve
the desired .
flow rate!
Flow rate
Friction Factor for Smooth, Transition,
and Rough Turbulent flow
P D
f 
L 2 U 2
Smooth pipe, Re>3000

1
f

 4.0 * log Re* 
f  0.4
f  0.079Re0.25
 1 D
 4.0 * log  2.28
Rough pipe, [ (D/)/(Re√ƒ) <0.01]
 f 
Transition function for

both smooth and rough 1 D  D/ 
 4.0 * log  2.28  4.0 * log4.67 1
pipe
f    Re f 

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SENSOR DAN AKTUATOR

The current I through the resistor R is defined as:

The power P dissipated in R is defined as:

To calculate the voltage across R2:

The above figure depicts two resistors in a parallel configuration.

Reading Capacitor Values:

(1/CT) = (1/C1) + (1/C2) + (1/C3) + ….

(1/LT) = [1 / (L1)] + [1 / (L2 )]

2) Gain/Frequency Response: A filter changes the amplitude or phase characteristics of

H(s) = Vout(s) / Vin(s)

Calculating the gain of an inverting amplifier:

Calculating the gain of a non-inverting amplifier:

RC Low Pass Filter RC High Pass Filter

As another example, if you input a 75 MHz sine wave to

• For example, if a sinusoid signal with a rise time of 15 ns is passed

directly related to the

The following figure shows a 5 MHz sine wave digitized by a 6 MS/s

Alias F2 = |100 – 70| = 30 Hz

For example, assume a digital multimeter set to the 10 V range

Accuracy = ±(20 ppm of 7 V + 6 ppm of 10 V)

Accuracy = ±((7 V(20/1,000,000) + (10 V(6/1,000,000))

AbsoluteAccuracy = Reading · (GainError) + Range × (OffsetError) + NoiseUncertainty

OffsetError = ResidualAIOffsetError + OffsetTempco ×

GainError = 40 ppm + 17 ppm × 1 + 1 ppm × 10

OffsetError = 8 ppm + 11 ppm × 1 + 10 ppm

AbsoluteAccuracy = 10 V × (GainError) + 10 V × (OffsetError) + NoiseUncertainty

It is important to note that the accuracy of an instrument depends not only on

Vn is the noise voltage (V)

With the constants collected, and the expression normalized to 1 kΩ,

Typical data acquisition block diagram

Measurement System with a Ground Loop

where is the change in voltage, α is the Seebeck coefficient, and ΔT is the

B Platinum-30% rhodium Platinum-6% rhodium

E Nickel-chromium alloy Copper-nickel alloy

J Iron Copper-nickel alloy

K Nickel-chromium alloy Nickel-aluminum alloy

N Nickel-chromium-silicon alloy Nickel-silicon-magnesium alloy

R Platinum-13% rhodium Platinum

S Platinum-10% rhodium Platinum

T Copper Copper-nickel alloy

Resistances L1 and L3 in leads up to

The optimum form of connection for RTDs is a four-

The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire

The four-wire resistance thermometer configuration increases the accuracy and

It provides full cancellation of spurious effects; cable resistance of up to 15 Ω

changed for the same

If fluid mass flow, m, 1 0,5

Pyrometry is a technique for measuring temperature without physical

• Radiation pyrometers ( measurement of radiant energy)

Optical pyrometers (600 to 3000 °C)

 basic principle of using the human eye to match the brightness

 Compare incident radiation to internal filament radiation

Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip

-Different metals have difference coefficient.

-Configured as spiral or helix for compactness

- Can be used with a pointer to make an inexpensive

• Filled Thermal Systems

• Filled Thermal System Classes