Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Chem 170

Stoichiometric Calculations

Module Six
Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields, and Percent Yields

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Introduction to Module Six

The introduction to Module 4 includes the following balanced recipe for a cheeseburger

1 hamburger patty + 1 slice of cheese + 1 English muffin +

3 pickles + 2 slices of onion + 1 squirt of mustard → 1 yummy cheeseburger

In Module 5 we learned how to use stoichiometry to ask and answer questions such as
“How many cheeseburgers can you make if you have 15 pickles?” and “How many
onions will you need?”. † There is, however, a hidden assumption in these two questions;
specifically, we are assuming that you refrigerator has enough hamburger patties, cheese,
English muffins, onion, and mustard to go along with the 15 pickles. Stated another way,
we are assuming that we will run out of pickles before we run out of the other
ingredients. In the language of stoichiometry, the pickles are the “limiting reagent”
whose quantity determines the maximum, or “theoretical yield” of five cheeseburgers that
can be made. The remaining ingredients are considered “excess reagents.” If you drop a
cheeseburger on the floor, where it is gobbled up by your dog, then you actual yield of
cheeseburgers is less than the theoretical yield, giving a “percent yield” of 80% (four
cheeseburgers successfully made out of an expected five).

Of course, the concepts of limiting reagents, theoretical yields, and percent yields also
apply to chemical reactions. In this module you will learn how to determine which of
several reactants is the limiting reagent, and how to determine a reaction’s theoretical and
percent yields.

Objectives for Module Six

In completing this module you will master the following objectives:

• to identify which of several reactants is the limiting reagent

• to determine the remaining amounts of excess reagents

• to determine the theoretical yield of a chemical reaction

• to determine a reaction’s percent yield

†
The answers are 5 cheeseburgers and 10 onions.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Determining the Limiting Reagent and Excess Reagent

One of the methods used to synthesize urea, (NH2)2CO, is to react ammonia, NH3, with
carbon dioxide, CO2. The balanced reaction for this process is shown here

2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O

Suppose we carry out this reaction by combining 7.481 g NH3 and 7.992 g CO2 and wish
to know the theoretical yield of urea? Because we are provided with the mass of each
reactant, we first must determine which reactant is the limiting reagent. Although there
are several approaches we can use to determine the limiting reagent, each uses only the
basic stoichiometric calculations from Module 5. Three approaches are illustrated below
for the synthesis of urea. Study these examples and use the approach that works best for
you.

First Approach. One method for identifying the limiting reagent is to calculate the
minimum moles or grams of one reactant (let’s call it reactant A) needed to completely
consume a second reactant (which we will call reactant B). If the available amount of
reactant A exceeds what is needed, then it is the excess reagent; if not, then reactant B is
the limiting reagent.

Example 1. Determine the limiting reagent and excess reagent for the synthesis of urea

2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O

given 7.481 g NH3 and 7.992 g CO2.

Solution. Starting with NH3, we calculate the minimum grams of CO2 needed to
completely consume the 7.481 g of NH3

1 mol NH 3 1 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2

7.481 g NH 3 × × × = 9.666 g CO2
17.03 g NH 3 2 mol NH3 1 mol CO 2

Because the 7.992 g CO2 available to us is less than the 9.666 g needed, CO2 is the
limiting reagent and NH3 is the excess reagent.

Second Approach. Another method for identifying the limiting reagent is to first
calculate the moles of each reactant and then calculate the resulting mole ratio

moles reactant A
calculated mole ratio =
moles reactant B

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

This calculated mole ratio is then compared to the theoretical mole ratio derived from the
balanced chemical reaction’s stoichiometry

stoichiometric coefficient for reactant A

theoretical mole ratio =
stoichiometric coefficient for reactant B

If the calculated mole ratio exceeds the theoretical mole ratio, then reactant A is present
in excess and reactant B is the limiting reagent. On the other hand, if the calculated mole
ratio is less than the theoretical mole ratio, then reactant A is the limiting reagent and
reactant B is the excess reagent.

Example 2. Determine the limiting reagent and excess reagent for the synthesis of urea

2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O

given 7.481 g NH3 and 7.992 g CO2.

Solution. The moles of NH3 and CO2 are

1 mol NH 3
7.481 g NH 3 × = 0.4393 mol NH3
17.03 g NH 3

1 mol CO2
7.992 g CO2 × = 0.1816 mol CO 2
44.01 g CO2

The calculated and theoretical mole ratios are

0.4393 mol NH3

calculated mole ratio = = 2.419
0.1816 mol CO 2

2 mol NH3
theoretical mole ratio = =2
1 mol CO2

Because the calculated mole ratio exceeds the theoretical mole ratio, we have more NH3
than needed to completely consume the available CO2. The limiting reagent, therefore, is
CO2 and NH3 is the excess reagent.

Third Approach. Finally, a third method for identifying the limiting reagent is to
calculate the moles or grams of product that can be obtained if each reactant is
completely consumed; that is, we assume that each reactant is the limiting reagent and
calculate the amount of product obtained. The actual limiting reagent is the reactant
producing the least amount of product.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Example 3. Determine the limiting reagent and excess reagent for the synthesis of urea

2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O

given 7.481 g NH3 and 7.992 g CO2.

Solution. If NH3 is the limiting reagent, then we expect to obtain

1 mol NH 3 1 mol (NH 2 )2 CO

7.481 g NH 3 × × = 0.2196 mol (NH2 )2 CO
17.03 g NH 3 2 mol NH3

On the other hand, if CO2 is the limiting reagent we obtain

1 mol CO2 1 mol (NH2 )2 CO

7.992 g CO2 × × = 0.1816 mol (NH2 )2 CO
44.01 g CO2 1 mol CO 2

Because 7.992 g CO2 generates less urea than 7.481 g NH3, CO2 is the limiting reagent
and NH3 is the excess reagent.

Determining the Limiting Reagent for More Complex Reactions

Determining whether NH3 or CO2 is the limiting reagent for the synthesis of urea is
relatively straightforward because there are only two reactants. Many reactions involve
more than two reactants. For example, aluminum chloride, AlCl3, is made by reacting
aluminum oxide, Al2O3, carbon, C, and chlorine, Cl2, as shown here

Al2O3 + 3C + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3CO

Suppose we have 10.3 g Al2O3, 15.9 g Cl2, and 4.08 g C; how do we go about finding the
limiting reagent? Any of the three approaches described above can be used if we first
compare two reactants, determining which is the limiting reagent. This reactant is then
compared to the third reactant to determine the reaction’s overall limiting reagent.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Example 4. Determine the limiting reagent for the synthesis of AlCl3

Al2O3 + 3C + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3CO

given 10.3 g Al2O3, 15.9 g Cl2, and 4.08 g C.

Solution. Using the third approach to finding the limiting reagent, we first calculate the
moles of AlCl3 assuming, in turn, that each reactant is the limiting reagent.

1 mol Al2 O3 2 mol AlCl 3

10.3 g Al 2 O3 × × = 0.202 mol AlCl 3
101.96 g Al2 O3 1mol Al2 O3

1 mol Cl2 2 mol AlCl3

15.9 g Cl 2 × × = 0.150 mol AlCl3
70.90 g Cl 2 3 mol Cl 2

1 mol C 2 mol AlCl3

4.08 g C × × = 0.226 mol AlCl3
12.01 g C 3 mol C

Because 15.9 g Cl2 yields the fewest moles of AlCl3, it is the limiting reagent and Al2O3
and C are present in excess.

Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

A reaction’s theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product expected when the
limiting reagent is completely used up. In essence, the examples from Module 5 in which
we calculated the amount of product formed during a reaction were determinations of
theoretical yield. † . It is rare, however, for a reaction to actually produce the amount of
product predicted by the theoretical yield. There are many reasons why a reaction’s
actual yield might be less than its theoretical yield. For example, some reactions stop
before the limiting reagent is completely used up; such reactions are said to reach a
position of equilibrium. In other cases, there are one or more side reactions in which a
portion of the limiting reagent is used up. And, of course, even if we successfully
convert the entire limiting reagent to product, some of the product may be lost during the
process of recovering it from the reaction mixture (sort of analogous to your dog swiping
a cheeseburger!).

To indicate the efficiency of a chemical reaction, we typically report both the amount of
product obtained (the actual yield) and the percent yield, which we define as

actual yield
%yield = × 100
theoretical yield

†
See Examples 1, 4, and 6 in Module 5. See, also, Problems 1, and 3-10 in Module 5.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

where the actual and theoretical yields may be expressed in grams or moles (provided
that the same unit is used for each).

Example 5. Nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, is an important raw material for the preparation of

dyes. It is prepared from benzene, C6H6, and nitric acid, HNO3

C6H6 + HNO3 → C6H5NO2 + H2O

When 22.4 g benzene reacts with an excess of nitric acid, 28.7 g of nitrobenzene are
obtained. What is the reaction’s percent yield?

Solution. To find the reaction’s percent yield we first need to know the actual yield and
the theoretical yield. The actual yield is given, but we must calculate the theoretical yield
in grams.

1 mol C6 H6 1 mol C 6 H5 NO 2
22.4 g C6 H6 × ×
78.11 g C6 H6 1 mol C6 H6
123.1 g C6 H5 NO 2
× = 35.30 g C6 H5 NO2
1 mol C6 H5 NO 2

The percent yield, therefore, is

28.7 g C 6 H5 NO2
%yield = × 100 = 81.3%
35.3 g C 6 H5NO 2

Determining the Final Composition for a Reaction Mixture

Suppose you place a mixture of ferrous oxide, FeO, and powdered aluminum metal, Al,
in a crucible and heat the mixture in a furnace. At the high temperature maintained in the
furnace the ferrous oxide and aluminum react to make iron metal, Fe, and aluminum
oxide, Al2O3

3FeO + 2Al → 3Fe + Al2O3

After several hours you remove the crucible from the furnace. What are the contents of
the crucible? The tools that you’ve learned in Modules 5 and 6 can help you answer this
question.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Example 6. A mixture of 7.45 g FeO and 2.99 g Al is placed in a crucible and heated in a
furnace where the following reaction takes place

3FeO + 2Al → 3Fe + Al2O3

Assuming that the reaction goes to completion with a percent yield of 100%, what is the
mixture’s final composition?

Solution. To determine the mixture’s final composition we first must find the grams of
Fe and Al2O3 produced in the reaction, and the grams of the excess reagent (either FeO or
Al) remaining. First we find the limiting reagent.

1 mol Al 3 mol FeO 71.85 g FeO

2.99 g Al × × × = 11.94 g FeO
26.98 g Al 2 mol Al 1 mol FeO

Because we have less FeO than needed to react with the aluminum (7.45 g FeO available
vs. 11.94 g FeO needed), FeO is the limiting reagent.

Using our limiting reagent, we next determine the theoretical yields for Fe and Al2O3

1 mol FeO 3 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe

7.45 g FeO × × × = 5.79 g Fe
71.85 g FeO 3 mol FeO 1 mol Fe

1 mol FeO 1 mol Al2 O3 101.96 g Al2 O3

7.45 g FeO × × × = 3.52 g Al 2 O3
71.85 g FeO 3 mol FeO 1 mol Al2 O3

Finally, we determine the amount of Al remaining. To do so we calculate the grams of

Al consumed when reacting with the limiting reagent

1 mol FeO 2 mol Al 26.98 g Al

7.45 g FeO × × × = 1.87 g Al
71.85 g FeO 3 mol FeO 1 mol Al

The grams of Al remaining, therefore is

initial grams Al - grams Al consumed = grams Al remaining

2.99 g Al - 1.87 g Al = 1.12 g Al

Because FeO is the limiting reagent, none is left when the reaction is complete.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Practice Problems
The following problems provide practice in meeting this module’s objectives. Answers
are provided on the last page. Be sure to seek assistance if you experience difficulty with
any of these problems. When you are ready, schedule an appointment for the module
exam.

1. Potassium superoxide, KO2, is used in rebreathing gas masks. As shown here

4KO2 + 2H2O → 4KOH + 3O2

KO2 serves as a source of oxygen upon reacting with moist exhaled air. What is the
limiting reagent if 0.25 mol KO2 comes into contact with 0.15 mol H2O?

2. In the first step for making nitric acid, ammonia is burned in the presence of oxygen
to give nitric oxide. The balanced reaction is

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O

What is the limiting reagent if 2.04 g NH3 react with 0.140 mol O2?

3. Methanol, CH3OH, is prepared industrially by the following reaction

CO + 2H2 → CH3OH

What is the limiting reagent if 35.4 g CO react with 11.2 g H2?

4. One source of acid rain is the conversion of SO2, a gaseous pollutant produced during
the burning of “dirty” coal, to sulfuric acid, H2SO4. The balanced reaction is shown
here

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4

How many grams of H2SO4 can be made from the reaction of 5.00 mol SO2 and 2.00
mol O2? You may assume an unlimited supply of water.

5. The depletion of ozone, O3, in the stratosphere is of increasing concern because

ozone provides the earth with some protection from high energy UV light. One of the
pathways leading to the loss of ozone is its reaction with nitric oxide, NO, which is
present in the exhaust of high-altitude jets, such as the SST. The reaction is

O3 + NO → O2 + NO2

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

If 0.0154 mol of O3 reacts with 0.670 g of NO, how many grams of NO2 will be
produced?

6. Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, and barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2, are soluble salts. Barium
phosphate, Ba3(PO4)2, however, is insoluble. As shown here

2Na3PO4 + 3Ba(NO3)2 → Ba3(PO4)2 + 6NaNO3

mixing together solutions of Na3PO4 and Ba(NO3)2 produces a precipitate of

Ba3(PO4)2. How many grams of Ba3(PO4)2 can be made from the reaction of 3.50 g
Na3PO4 and 6.40 g Ba(NO3)2?

7. Titanium, which is used to make airplane engines and bicycle frames, is obtained
from titanium dioxide, TiO2, in a two-step process. In the first step, TiO2 is
converted to titanium tetrachloride, TiCl4; the reaction is

3TiO2 + 4C + 6Cl2 → 3TiCl4 + 2CO2 + 2CO

What is the theoretical yield of TiCl4 upon reacting 4.15 g TiO2, 5.67 g C, and 6.78 g
Cl2?

8. The production capacity for acrylonitrile, C3H3N, in the United States is over 2
billion pounds per year. “Why so much?”, you ask – well, acrylonitrile is the
building block for polyacrylonitrile fibers and a variety of plastics. It is synthesized
using propylene, ammonia, and oxygen

2C3H6 + 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2C3H3N + 6H2O

What mass of acrylonitrile can be produced from a mixture containing 5.00× 102 g
C3H6, 5.00× 102 g NH3, and 5.00× 102 g O2?

9. Zinc metal is obtained from zinc oxide, ZnO, by reacting it at a high temperature with
carbon monoxide, CO

ZnO + CO → Zn + CO2

The carbon monoxide for the reaction is obtained from carbon

2C + O2 → 2CO

What is the theoretical yield of Zn in grams that can be obtained from 75.0 g ZnO and
50.0 g C in the presence of excess O2?

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

10. Nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9, is a powerful explosive. Upon detonation, it decomposes

to form nitrogen, N2, carbon dioxide, CO2, water, H2O, and oxygen, O2

4C3H5N3O9 → 6N2 + 12CO2 + 10H2O + O2

Detonation of 0.200 kg nitroglycerin produces 6.55 g O2. What is the percent yield
for oxygen?

11. Silicon carbide, SiC, is an important ceramic material that is made by reacting sand,
SiO2, with carbon at a high temperature. The balanced chemical equation for this
reaction is shown here

SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2CO

When 100.0 kg of SiO2 reacts with 100.0 kg C, 51.4 kg of SiC are recovered. What
is the reaction’s percent yield?

12. Acetic acid, CH3COOH, reacts with isopentyl alcohol, C5H12O, to yield isopentyl
acetate, C7H14O2, a fragrant substance with the odor of a banana. The balanced
reaction is

CH3COOH + C5H12O → C7H14O2 + H2O

If the yield from the reaction is only 45%, how many grams of isopentyl acetate can
be produced from the reaction of 3.58 g of acetic acid and 4.75 g of isopentyl
alcohol?

13. Dibroane, B2H6, is a useful reactant for the synthesis of organic compounds. It is
prepared by the following (unbalanced) reaction

NaBH4 + BF3 → B2H6 + NaBF4

Balance the reaction and determine the yield of B2H6 in grams when 1.00 g NaBH4
and 1.00 g BF3 are allowed to react. Assume that the reaction proceeds with a
percent yield of 75%.

14. The fizz produced when a tablet of Alka-Seltzer® dissolves in water comes from the
reaction of sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, and citric acid, C6H8O7

3NaHCO3 + C6H8O7 → 3CO2 + 3H2O + Na3C6H5O7

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Suppose that a tablet containing 1.00 g of sodium bicarbonate and 1.00 g of citric acid
reacts to completion. How many grams of CO2 are produced and how many grams of
the excess reagent remain when the reaction is complete?

15. Bubbling hydrogen sulfide, H2S, through a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
leads to the formation of sodium sulfide, Na2S, and water, H2O. Write a balanced
equation for this reaction and determine the grams of Na2S expected upon mixing
1.50 g of H2S with 3.0 g of NaOH.

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 Module Six – Limiting Reagents, Theoretical Yields and Percent Yields

Answers to Practice Problems

1. KO2

2. O2

3. CO

4. 392 g H2SO4

5. 0.709 g NO2

6. 4.91 g Ba3(PO4)2

7. 9.07 g TiCl4

8. 553 g C3H3N

9. 60.3 g Zn

10. 93.0% yield

11. 77.0% yield

12. 3.2 g C7H14O2

13. 3NaBH4 + 4BF3 → 2B2H6 + 3NaBF4, 0.15 g B2H6

14. 0.524 g CO2, 0.238 g C6H8O7

15. H2S + 2NaOH → Na2S + 2H2O, 2.9 g Na2S

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