Confucianism

Current Population: _________ million

Location: Majority of believers are Chinese

Origins:

 Developed by _____________________ (551-479 BC)

 Developed during the “_______________________” era of the Zhou Dynasty o ____________ ____________made in
response to the turmoil of the time

 Considered an ______________ system, not a religion

 Formed principles of ____________ ____ __________ that became the foundation for social order in Chinese
____________

Beliefs:

 ___________ ______________: the good of the ____________ and ____________ came before the good of the
______________

 The ______ ______________________ : restore order & must govern society

 Ruler to __________

 Father to __________

 Older Brother to ____________________________

 Husband to _______________

 Friend to _______________

 Human nature is essentially _____________

 There should be respect for _______ and ______________

 There should be ordered society. Do what is expected.

 _____________________, _____________________and temperance are necessary.

 Ruler has the responsibility to rule for the __________ ______ _________ __________________

 Ruler should choose the most ____________________ and able of _________ social classes to serve as officials. The
mandarins became the highest social class o Problem:
_______________________________________________________ o Problem:
_______________________________________________________

Holy Book:

 The __________________ o collection of _________________ __________________ recorded by his students

Places of Worship:

 ________ ________________ ___________.

 Members are required to conduct ____________ to honor their _________________ Religious

Leaders:

 ________________- viewed as an ethical system

Confucianism that these relationships which we encounter everyday

should be the easiest to perfect, but in reality they are
There has always been a debate whether
the hardest to attain. Moreover, Confucius stressed the
Confucianism should be regarded as a religion or a
importance of rituals which would lead them back to
philosophy. Those who argue that Confucianism is a
the ideal society of their ancestors when there was
philosophy assert that when Kung Fuzi founded
harmony between heaven and earth. Confucianism has
Confucianism, he never meant to establish a new
often been categorized together with Buddhism,
religion; he merely wanted to interpret and revive the
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and Daoism as
ancient religion of Zhou dynasty. Since Confucianism
one of the world’s major religions, and has greatly
emphasizes the ethical dimension of the world, it gives
influenced the East Asian political and spiritual life. For
primary attention to human relationship, thus
these reasons, Confucianism may be viewed both as
advocating social values and ideals which should serve
philosophy and as a religion. It has become a practical
as the foundation of Chinese society. Advocates of
way of life for so many Chinese for a long time and so
Confucianism as a philosophy further argue that Kung
has been intensely embedded in the structure of
Fuzi seldom touched on religious matters, thus branding
Chinese societies and politics. As of 2010, the
him as a humanist advancing practical and ethical
Encyclopaedia Britannica estimates the number of
wisdom. On the other hand, Confucianism is considered
followers of Confucianism at more than six million. This
a religion because its ideals were inspirational, not in
figure is misleading, however, for it is said that people
the supernatural sense but in the sense of aiming for
from East Asia may profess themselves to be Buddhists,
excellence in one’s relationships with others. For
Taoists, Christians, Muslims, or Shintoists, but rarely do
Confucius, what happens in everyday life should not be
they stop being Confucians. Because of this, the actual
trivialized but should be considered as the realm of
figure can rise up to more or less 300 million.
moral and spiritual fulfillment. Focus on relationships
should be emphasized, for it is often taken for granted
 Adherents of Confucianism are called Advances in the said realms led to the emergence of
Confucians or Confucianists. Religions in East Asia are competing dynasties who wanted to establish
not mutually exclusive, hence one can still be a supremacy over other dynasties, hence the period was
Confucian/Confucianist while at the same time being a marked by social upheaval and chaos. This led to the
Taoist, Buddhist, Christian or Muslim. This is because, as search for political and social stability through the birth
mentioned earlier, Confucianism has often been of philosophies and religions which attempted to
debated if it is a religion or philosophy/ethical tradition. restore social harmony in China.
It is characterized as having a lot of ritual practice but
The Zhou period was divided into Western Zhou
with little formal worship or meditation. Hence, one can
(1122-770 B.C.E.) and Eastern Zhou (770-221 B.C.E.).
blend belief in the religious elements of Budhhism,
The Eastern Zhou was further subdivided into the Spring
Taoism, Shinto, and other religions with the ethical
and Autumn period ((722-481 B.C.E.) and the Warring
elements of Confucianism.
States period (403-221 B.C.E.). It was during the period
Symbols of Eastern Zhou, a period of great economic growth,
social change, and political development that
Two symbols which are important to
philosophies would emerge and the Classics would be
Confucianism are the symbols for scholar and water.
written.
The scholar, as represented by the Chinese symbol
above (the ru), is an important symbol in Confucianism. During the Zhou period, technological growth
It contains the symbol of a person, as well as the led to trading development, which led to a remarkable
character for need or desire. The foremost need of increase in wealth. Iron became common in China in the
people is nourishment, then education. When fifth century B.C.E. and had replaced bronze as material
combined, it means “the need of a human being.” for weapons, as well as agricultural tools such as the ox-
drawn plow, which in turn led to agricultural revolution
Water is one of the five important elements in
in China. This growth of production coincided with a
Chinese philosophy, alongside wood, fire, earth, and
rapid growth in trade, and, as a consequence, a new
metal. Water is considered as the source of life, valued
class of wealthy merchants emerged. Accordingly, this
for its significance in the natural world and for
became a threat to the nobility, which led them to
sustaining life. The figure below is the Chinese symbol
propagate a theory that society is composed of four (4)
for water.
classes in this order: the warrior-administrator, the
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND peasants, the artisans, and the merchants.

The proliferation of Chinese classical thought Alongside technological and economic growth
happened within the reign of the Zhou dynasty, the was the development of stronger political units, which
second historical dynasty in China. It was the result of led to the emergence of four vassal states that
several factors such as technological and economic competed against each other for political supremacy.
advancement, stronger political units, political and These vassal states were Qin in the west, Jin in the
social improvement, and even military development.
north, Yan in the northeast, and Qi in the east. The was Qiu and his family name was Kong. He came from a
struggle for supremacy among these vassal states noble family, but by the time of his birth, they had
characterized the Warring States period in Chinese already lost much of their wealth. His first teacher was
history. Their political stability was enhanced by military his mother, and at the age of 15 he set his heart upon
development. The use of chariots, iron weapons, and learning, thus love of learning became one of the
the use of cavalry all contributed to the newfound highest virtues in Confucian ethics. He married at the
power of the vassal states who tried to overpower each age of 19 and had a son at the age of 20. At this point in
other through the use of warfare. his life he had already served in minor government
posts and had already gained a reputation as an all-
Amidst the development and chaos, China was
around scholar. When he was in his 30s he had already
faced with a dilemma: the failure of old authority made
started a brilliant teaching career because of his
it necessary for new guiding values to restore social
mastery of the arts of ritual, music, archery,
order. It was in this very crucial time that philosophers
charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was also
would try to find solutions to the social problems being
familiar with classical tradition, particularly in poetry
faced by society. Incidentally, interest was focused
and history. He is often considered as the first person to
primarily on society and not on the individual. Because
devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the
of this, these philosophers have often been classified as
purpose of social transformation and improvement. He
practical politicians because they were products of the
held several government positions including as arbiter,
proliferation of literacy and part of the new
assistant minister of public works, and minister of
bureaucracy. They went to different states to offer their
justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his ideals and
services whenever needed. One of them was Confucius.
policies were brushed off by his superiors, he soon left
Among the four rival states which competed for Lu. For 13 years, he wandered from state to state, trying
supremacy, the Qin dynasty would emerge as the victor to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned home
and would establish the first empire of China in the 3rd to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to
century B.C.E. The name China would come from the preserve his classical traditions by writing and editing.
Ch’in, the first to create an imperial Chinese identity. He died in 479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left around

THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS 3,000 followers who preserved and put his other
teachings to writing.
Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and
the honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master Kong.”
He was born on September 28 on 551 B.C.E. Hence, it is SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS
considered a day of celebration in East Asia—an official
The Five Classics are a group of books which
holiday in Taiwan (Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural
was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts. This
celebration in mainland China, Hong Kong, and
includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the
Singapore. Confucius was born in a small feudal state of
Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the Spring and
Lu (now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal name
Autumn Annals. The Analects is also considered an chronological accounts of imperial achievements and
important source of Confucian teachings since it rules of government.
contains a record of his conversations with his disciples.
Book of Poetry
Let us now take a look at what these classics are all
about. The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of
Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a collection of three hundred and
Confucius has often been considered as the
five songs compiled around 600 B.C.E. which includes
author or editor of the Classics, but contemporary
four sections of various themes such as love, courtship,
scholarship has shown that even though many of these
abandonment and dances. It also includes feast songs
texts can be traced back to Confucius, they have
or state chants. It was supposedly compiled by
undergone a long period of development. Moreover,
Confucius from an ancient repertory of three thousand,
these Classics were burned during the reign of the Qin
and is considered as the oldest existing compilation of
dynasty nand was restored only during the Han dynasty.
Chinese poetry.
It was Confucius’ followers who exerted effort in writing
and collating his teachings and philosophies. Classic of Rites

Book of Changes Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the

Classic of Rites is a compilation of ceremonial rituals,
Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes
administration, and social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It
is believed to have existed at the time of Confucius and
is considered as a complete body of work which
is the oldest of the Classics. It focuses on short
includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili), an early manual of
predictions following a type of divination called
protocol for the nobility, describing such occasions as
cleromancy wherein six random numbers are picked
marriages and funerals, sacrifices and even archery
and arranged under sixty-four hexagrams. A hexagram
competitions. It also includes the Book of Rites (Li-
is any of a set of sixty-four figures made up of six
chi/Liji) which is composed of forty-nine sections of
parallel or broken lines. Later on, commentaries were
ritual and government guidelines, as well as essays on
added to the predictions, the longest of which was the
education, the rites, music and philosophy. Also
Hsi-tz’u or Appended Remarks, which discusses early
included is the Institutes of Chou (Chou-li/Zhou Li)
cosmological and metaphysical assumptions in an
which is supposedly an ultimate depiction of
obscure language.
government offices in early Zhou times. These texts
Book of History were supposedly compiled in the early first century
B.C.E. based on earlier materials.
Also known as the Book of Documents or
Shangshu, the Book of History is conventionally Analects
attributed to Confucius by early scholars. It is composed
The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or
of speeches (or prose) of royalty and ministers mainly
“sayings”), is also known as the Analects of Confucius. It
from the Shang and Zhou dynasties. It also consists of
is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the
Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries, human intervention to bring its will into action. For him,
traditionally believed to have been written by the li or ritual propriety is the way through which the
Confucius' followers. It is believed to have been written family, the state, and the world may become parallel
during the Warring States period (475 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.) with Tian’s moral order. He believed that only by
and finalized during the middle of the Han dynasty. At performing the ancient rituals, which was done by
first it was considered as merely a commentary on the earlier kings, could harmony between heaven and earth
Five Classics, but later on acquired tremendous be revived.
significance that it has been classified as one of the Four
Rectification of Names
Books along with Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean,
and Book of Mencius. Among other important Confucius believed that to return to the ancient

Confucian works, it has become an influential canonical Dao, people must play their assigned roles in society.

resource in Chinese and East Asian philosophy. This was later called the rectification of names, or
zhengming, The Five Relationships include: 1) ruler-
CONFUCIAN DOCTRINES/BELIEFS
subject; 2) father-son;
Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for
3) husband-wife; 4) elder and younger brother; and 5)
his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you
friend and friend. The responsibilities originating from
would not have them do unto you.” Found in the
these relationships are shared and reciprocal. For
Analects, this saying teaches the ethics of mutuality and
example, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child
reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others
owes filial respect to the parent. In return, rulers must
equal to themselves and in equally the same manner as
care for their subjects, and parents must care for their
they would have wanted to be treated. Some of the
children. The Five Relationships emphasize the upright
most important Confucian doctrines include the idea of
sense of hierarchy. Among friends, for example,
Tian or heaven; human nature; rectification of names;
seniority of age requires a certain deference.
the five constants; filial piety; and ancestor worship.
Zhengming helps bring social order for it advocates the
Belief in Tian idea that every person has a particular role at a
particular time in life, and that by abiding to this
“When you have offended against Heaven,
particular role, one is able to fulfil one’s social duties
there is nowhere you can turn to in your prayers.”
and responsibilities, thus creating social harmony.
(Analects 3.13) This is one of the passages in the
Analects which shows Kung Fuzi’s idea of Tian or Human Nature as Originally Good or Evil
heaven. Although Confucius is wellknown to be a
Confucius himself was silent on the concept of
practical philosopher who was not much interested in
human nature, but there were two philosophers who
the superhuman realm, he believed in Tian or “heaven,”
had different interpretations on the subject of human
an all-encompassing god. Tian may also refer to that
nature based on the Analects. They were Mengzi and
which is beyond human control. He believed that Tian is
Xunzi (Hsun tzu). Their views on human nature were
analogous with moral order but dependent upon
opposed to one another. For Mencius, renxing or
human nature is naturally disposed toward ren, or Relationships); it can also be achieved by following the
virtue of the superior man. Mengzi believed that all norms of ren, or righteousness. Zhi, or
human beings are born with innate goodness which, on knowledge/wisdom, can be achieved by knowing what
one hand, can be cultivated through proper education is right and what is wrong, which is innate in people
and self- discipline (li); or be thrown away through who are basically good according to Mencius. Lastly, xin,
neglect and bad influence, on the other. However, it or fidelity can be achieved by keeping one’s word and
needs cultivation through li (ritual propriety) as well as being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed that only people
obedience to one’s qi (vital energy). Human nature may who are faithful can be trusted with important tasks.
be impeded through negligence or an unfavourable Fidelity is also seen as the key to nation-building.
environment naturally organized toward ren. On the
Filial Piety as an Important Virtue
other hand, Xunzi believed that human nature is
basically evil but can be improved through self- For Confucius, family relations provide a model

cultivation. Like Mencius, Xunzi considers the li as the for social behaviour. Respect for elders, whether your

key to the cultivation of human nature. own or others, is emphasized, as well as kindness to
your own children and juniors, including those of
The Five Constants
others. These were said to be instructed by Mencius
The Five Constants, also known as the Five and have provided inspiration for generations of
Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are the five most Confucians. Filial piety is said to have provided China
important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects with a strong sense of solidarity not only in the Chinese
and the Book of Mencius. These include the following: family, but also in Confucian social organizations and
ren or benevolence; yi or righteousness; li or propriety; even among Chinese communities in different parts of
zhi or knowledge/wisdom; and xin or fidelity. Ren, or the world.
benevolence, can be achieved by returning to li, or the
Ancestor worship is a manifestation of filial
traditional Chinese rituals. It means following the social
piety, or respect for one’s parents, which is directed
hierarchy patterned after family relationships. Ren can
toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of
also be achieved by extending one’s filial love for
ancestor worship is based on the key Confucian idea
parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can also
that it is expected of children to respect and obey their
be achieved by avoiding envy or harm. Yi, or
parents in life, and to continue remembering them after
righteousness, can be achieved by having the moral
they have died through the proper observance of
disposition to do well, which can only be possible after
rituals. One way to remember them is by worshipping
recognizing what is right and good. It can also be
ancestral tablets which can be kept at home. These
achieved through the ability to feel what the right thing
ancestral tablets contain the information regarding the
to do is. Li, or propriety, which is considered as the
place where the family originated and the names of the
concrete guide to human action and social order, can be
ancestors. Another way to remember ancestors is to
achieved by following the guide to human relationships
worship them in their graves. People occasionally visit
(rectification of names, doctrine of the mean, The Five
the graves of their loved ones, clean the graves, offer necessarily death, and as there is beginning, there must
food and wine. The ancestors were believed to have be an end.”
tasted the food before the whole family eat the meal
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES
being offered. Ancestor worship is an expression of a
union between the living and the loved one, clearly a The Book of Rites recorded the rituals practiced

manifestation of filial piety. by the Chinese for many centuries. Some of these
rituals have been classified under Family Rituals, also
The concept of hun-po or soul is important in
known as the “Four Rites,” which are rituals or
Chinese cosmology and early concept of dualism.
ceremonies that characterize a person’s growth and
Accordingly, the human being is made up of two souls:
maturity, namely: coming of age rites, marriage
an upper or intellectual soul (hun) which becomes the
ceremonies, mourning rites, and sacrificial rituals. Many
spirit (shen) and climbs to the world above; and a lower
of these rituals are no longer observed, but they offer
soul (po), which becomes the ghost and goes down with
functional proof of the religious nature of Confucianism.
the body into the grave. Thus, ancestor worship is
important because of the belief that even the bodies of
the dead ancestors possess souls which need to be
worshipped and revered. According to the
Four Rites
Confucianscholar Zhun Xi:
COMING OF AGE RITES are ceremonies held to signify
“Consciousness and movement are due to yang, while
that a young person has reached the marriageable age
physical form and body aredue to yin. The clear breath
and could join the different activities of his/her clan as
(qi) belongs to the heavenly aspect of the soul (hun) and
an adult. Two important coming of age rites among the
the body is governed by the earthly aspect of the soul
Chinese are capping and hair pinning ceremonies.
(po). A person is born as a result of integration of
essence and material force. One possesses this material Capping refers to doing the male teenager’s hair in a
force only in a certain amount, which in time necessarily bun/coil and wearing a cap. This is a ritual that male
becomes exhausted. This is what is meant by physicians teenagers have to go through sometime between the
when they say that yin or yang no longer rises or falls. ages of 15 and 20. In this occasion, a male Chinese
When exhaustion takes place, the heavenly aspect of receives his formal hat and ceremonial gown, as well as
the soul (hun) and the clear breath (qi) return to his formal name. Also, a wine libation (a drink poured
Heaven, and the earthly aspect of the soul (po) and the out as an offering to the deity) is made and the young
body return to the Earth, and the person dies. When a man is formally introduced to his ancestors.
person is about to die, the warm material force leaves
Hair Pinning refers to the gathering of a girl’s hair into a
the body and rises. This is called the hun rising. The
knot, and securing it using a hairpin or a hairclip; often
lower part of the body gradually becomes cold. This is
done by 16-year old women after engagement and
called the po falling. Thus as there is life, there is
before their wedding day.
MOURNING RITES often involve intricate practices, chamber; on the wedding night, friends, and relatives
which include the following steps: are supposed to banter the couple; and on the third
day, the couple would go back to the bride’s parents’
First, there should be public announcement of
home to pay respect.
grief through weeping, and the wearing of white funeral
clothes by the family of the deceased. Mourning also SACRIFICIAL RITUALS are performed regularly
constitutes the offering of symbolic goods like money by the descendants of the deceased ancestors.
and food from the living to the dead, preparation and Sacrifices are often given at festivals.
setting up of a spirit tablet, payment of ritual experts,
One such festival is the Qingming Festival
the playing of music and chanting of scriptures to
celebrated annually by Chinese all over the world to
accompany the corpse and to pacify the spirit, the
honor their dead. Qing Ming means “clear and
sealing of the corpse in a coffin, and the removal of the
bright”which describes the weather on that particular
coffin from the community.
day of the year. It is observed by visiting the ancestor’s
There is also a tradition of exerting effort to grave to clean and repair it, and through offertories,
recover the deceased, which is being practiced to avoid such as food, fruit, wine, incense, or candles.
false death. They do this by trying to call or shout over Descendants of the deceased normally bury their
the wandering soul through the person’s clothes, in ancestors with belongings that they wanted to be
case the soul just lost its way back to the body of the transported to the spirit world with the dead. During
person. ancient times, some royal families put bronze vessels,
oracle bones, and human or animal sacrifices in the
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES are an important aspect of
grave. These were considered as things one may need
Chinese culture since marriage is considered as a
in the spirit world and as a form of continued filial piety.
central feature of society; through marriage, patience
It is the oldest and most enduring Confucian ritual still
and love are cultivated to promote the right virtue.
observed today.
Traditionally, a marriage is decided by the
DEVELOPMENT OF CONFUCIANISM
parents of the couple, with wealth and social status as
the primary considerations. Monogamy is preferred, Mozi’s Mohism
which means married couples should be loyal to their
The school of Mozi was considered as
partners for the rest of their lives.
Confucianism’s primary early competitor. Mozi was
Marriage rituals include giving of gifts and believed to have been born around or soon after the
following the necessary etiquettes, from marriage death of Confucius. His teachings can be found in a
proposal to the wedding ceremony itself, in which the work entitled Mozi which, like the Analects, contains
groom and his family meet the bride at her home, after essays and dialogues compiled by his students. His
the bride sent the dowry to the groom’s house; on the attacks on Confucianism can be seen in a more extreme
wedding day, rites include carrying the bride to the stand on matters discussed by Confucius. For example,
sedan and the couple leading the festivity at the bridal Mozi believed that hereditary princes should surrender
their thrones to their obvious superiors. His belief in his subjects would move toward him. A true king
utilitarianism was reflected in his advocacy to enrich the provides for the well-being of his people, thus his
country, increase the population, bring order to the concept of “Mandate of Heaven” asserts that the basic
state, and it made him attack anything that did not justification of a ruler’s power is when he is accepted by
contribute to these goals. He advocated that people his people. Thus, the “Mandate of Heaven” is
should only be given bare necessities in terms of food, synonymous with the mandate of the people.
clothing, and housing, and did not concern himself with
any artistic expression and advocated that all emotions
be stifled. He also frowned upon the detailed rituals of Xunzi

Confucianism and considered warfare to be useless. But Xunzi was a Chinese philosopher who lived
he did favor sacrifices to the spirits which would bring around 300-237 B.C.E. and, like Mengzi, left a profound
worldly blessings. Central to his ideas was his belief in legacy on Chinese civilization. He became successful as
universal love, that “everyone would love every other a politician and teacher, and had an anthology of essays
person as much as he loves himself.” Condemning the entitled Xunzi. Some sections of this book were
violence and aggression in society during the Warring incorporated into the Record of Rituals. Central to
States period, Mozi’s goal was to remove the bad Xunzi’s teachings was the belief that human nature is
elements or factors in society in order to achieve peace inherently evil because it is derived from a distant,
and harmony. unethical heaven. Human nature can be improved,

Mengzi however, through education; hence the teacher has a

very significant role and must be considered sacred. For
Mengzi (Mencius) was more successful than
Xunzi, learning “begins with reciting the Classics and
Mozi in passing on his teachings to later generations.
ends in learning the li,” which he viewed as the
Mencius lived around 370-290 B.C..E. in an area near Lu.
repository of all vital wisdom. Xunzi’s emphasis on
Like Kung Fuzi, he went to different states to seek high
education, rituals, hierarchy, and strict rule contributed
government office but failed. A self-proclaimed
to the authoritarian pattern in government. His
Confucian, he added other important teachings to
negative view of human nature together with his
Confucianism as seen in his book Mengzi. One was his
emphasis on authoritarianism were further developed
claim that human nature is basically good, and this
into a philosophy known as Legalism, which advocated
innate goodness can be further developed through self-
the idea that strict laws and retributions are the only
cultivation and education. He also believed that people
means to bring harmony and security in society. The
should extend their love to those beyond the family
ruler has the right to become tyrannical if it is for the
circle. He was also of the opinion that the government
good of the people. This type of philosophy was closely
was primarily an application of ethics and argued that
associated with the state of Qin and was later adopted
the guiding principle of the government should be
by Qin Shi Huang as the state philosophy. People act
righteousness. For him, the right way to rule was when
based on the the norms prescribed by the terms used to
a ruler showed himself to be a fully moral man, for all of
name their roles. This doctrine is called zhengmi, or painting ‘The Vinegar Tasters,” therefore, may be
rectification of names, which was also articulated by interpreted to show that “the three teachings are one.”
Xunzi. The doctrine of zhengmi emphasized role-terms,
The term Neo-Confucianism is a Western
which advocates the idea that bearing of particular
coinage, while in China this was known as the
names in society compels a person to act according to
‘Metaphysical Thought,” for advocates of this
the norms associated with his or her name.
philosophy looked for the spiritual legacy of
Neo-Confucianism Confucianism itself, which emphasizes the relationship
between the universe and human reason; of being
Neo-Confucianism refers to the revival of the different
humane while being rational. It also emphasizes on the
features of Confucian philosophy and political customs
“Li” or propriety, which refers to the rational principle
which began in the middle of the 9th century. It was
or law governing the natural order of things. Neo-
able to reach new heights of intellectual and social
Confucianism believes in the basic pattern of the
resourcefulness in the 11th century during the Song
universe, similar to the Dao in Daoism and the Dharma
dynasty. This revival of the Confucian tradition was
in Hinduism.
initiated by the great philosopher Zhu Xi and became
the point of reference for all future Confucian Neo-Confucian philosophers reformulated
intellectual discourse and social theory. The Neo- Confucian philosophy on the basis of a smaller body of
Confucian movement included speculative work which includes the Four Books: the Analects of
philosophers, as well as painters, poets, doctors, social Confucius; the Book of Mencius; the Great Learning
and political theorists, historians, local reformers, and (taken from the Book of Rites); and the Doctrine of the
civil servants. It sought to promote a unified vision of Mean (also taken from the Book of Rites). Neo-
self-cultivation that would end up with a person Confucianism became an international movement and
becoming a sage, or a wise person. spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. It has become the
official philosophy for China.
The painting “The Vinegar Tasters” represent
how Buddhist and Daoist ideologies were incorporated SELECTED ISSUES
in Neo-Confucianism. The painting depicts the founders
Certain issues arise when we try to reconsider
of three religions---Kung Fuzi for Confucianism, Laozi for
the relevance of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism.
Taoism, and Buddha for Buddhism---who tasted vinegar
One characteristic of the Confucian social order is the
and had different reactions to it. This shows how the
fixed and strict hierarchy, with the higher partners
three religions, despite their differences and
being composed of men—fathers, husbands, and rulers
distinctions, can all be considered as one. Neo-
exercising more right and privilege over women who
Confucianism shows the influence of these teachings,
are placed in a subordinate position. Another issue
for Neo-Confucianism is considered as the synthesis of
related to hierarchy would be authoritarianism, which
Daoist cosmology, Buddhist spirituality, and Confucian
was an influence of the philosophy of Legalism and
ethics in relation to government and society. The
which became the guiding principle of the Chinese
government during the Qin dynasty. Still, the issue of among poor families, having female children has
Confucianism’s incompatibility with environmentalism become a burden rather than a blessing. This also paved
is another aspect being analyzed by scholars. the way for more cases of female infanticide and
abortion every year (although abortion is prohibited in
Female Subordination
Confucianism except in cases when the life of the
It is often said that a woman’s life under mother is at risk). Implementation of the one-child
Confucianism can be summed up in three periods, also policy by the Chinese government in the 1970s and the
known as the “Three Obediences:” obedience to her 1980s made it even worse for women. Some would say
father while at home; obedience to her husband when that despite the elevation of the status of women in
married; and obedience to her son when widowed. China during the time of communist rule, the one-child
Women, being at the bottom of the Confucian policy paved the way for the return of Confucian values
hierarchy, are expected to display ideal behavior and and made it once again trendy not to have girls. If the
accommodation. They are expected to demonstrate parents have a daughter for a first born, they would
obedience before all other virtues and are not expected often try to have a son. If the first three children were
to act as independent beings. girls, it is not unusual to keep the first girl, give away the

Women lived separately from men by custom. second girl, and abort the third girl. For critics, it is

Women were also assigned the role of providing a male obvious that the more Confucian the society became,

heir to ensure the continuation of the tradition that the less freedom the women enjoyed.

male children should perform the ancestral rites. This Authoritarianism

also excuses the husband to take on secondary wives if
Authoritarianism is another challenge that
the first wife failed to provide him with a son, while
Confucianism still faces at present. Because
women were not allowed to see other men other than
Confucianism stresses the hierarchy between
their husbands and close male relatives. In the “Five
relationships, this has reinforced top-down values and
Relationships,” it is very clear that the relationship
hierarchical systems by encouraging deference to one’s
between husband and wife should be based on male
superiors—ruler, father, teacher, or anyone older.
supremacy. In the Book of Changes, the male-female
When Confucian values are used to suppress
relationship is represented in terms of the superiority of
opposition, thwart fresh ideas to surface, or to protect
heaven over inferior earth.
apathy, then Confucianism poses a serious threat to the
The patriarchal nature of Confucianism is development of society and the flourishing of
manifested in certain beliefs like preference for male democracy.
children. Men are expected to inherit the family names
Confucianism has been criticized on the issue of
and property, and are responsible for the care of their
father-son relationship, especially on the aspect of
parents, that is why having male children is preferred.
allowing the bad behavior of a father and requiring the
For one, women are the ones expected to give dowry to
son to accept it when this occurs. After all,
the family of their groom when they get married, and
Confucianism teaches that a father must be respected One more issue that Confucianism faces today
at all costs and a son must obey his father no matter is that of environmentalism. While it is true that
what. This suggests that children must not question the Confucianism advocates respect for the environment,
authority of their parents and simply accept their its acceptance of people’s dominance of nature poses a
subordinate status. When they become parents, the son threat to the issue. The Analects mentioned the
will become a father hence that is the time that he will subordination of animals to social interests. Some
enjoy a superior status over his son. Meanwhile, the experts also say that when faced with the dilemma
daughter, when she becomes a mother, will continue to between maintaining social duties and the
be in an inferior position, this time to her husband. The environment, Confucianism would lead one to choose
following passage explains the nature of father-son the former than the latter. Confucian logic would give
relationship: The Master said, “In serving your mother priority to defence of social duties over environmental
and father, remonstrate with them gently. On seeing protection.
that they do not heed your suggestions, remain
The Analects contain passages that suggest
respectful and do not act contrary. Although concerned,
Confucius’ neglect of or lack of concern for animals,
voice no resentment.” (Analects 44:18)
such as the following passage: “There was a fire in the
While Confucianism has been considered as the stables. When the Master returned from court, he
key to success of East Asian societies, it has also been asked: ‘Was anybody hurt?’ He didn’t ask about the
seen as the source of mediocrity. In companies and horses.” (Analects 10:12) There was also a passage
even government offices, Confucian emphasis on when Confucius preferred the sacrifice of the sheep for
authoritarianism might drag everyone down, so to ritual’s sake, not heeding Zi Gong’s appeal to spare the
speak. Organizations steadily become comfortable with sacrificial sheep. Another Confucian thinker, Xunzi,
the least effort from their employees. One does not advocated that people should exert control over the
have to strive hard to rise to the top or to propose new natural environment and put it to good use. In general,
ideas for the growth of the organization, for as long as critics noticed that Confucianism has not provided
the employees’ behavior does not endanger the system, anything to promote an environmentally sound
the organization would survive, thereby promoting philosophy. Since Confucianism values economic
laziness and incompetence. Confucianism is also seen as prosperity and family success, it faces a greater
being incompatible with liberal democracy for challenge than other Eastern philosophies when it
emphasizing the values of loyalty, unity, social duties, comes to weighing between economic concerns and
responsible paternalism, over the values of individual environmental sustainability.”
freedom, diversity, individual rights, and individual
Summary
autonomy.
• Human nature is basically good, and this innate
Environmental Ethics
goodness can be further developed through self-
cultivation and education.
• The goal of a person is to be a “gentleman” by
following the moral way consisting of the virtues of
love, righteousness, wisdom, propriety and loyalty to
promote harmony in society.

• Ancestor worship is an important aspect of

Confucianism; for Confucius believed that one way of
achieving harmony in society was by way of performing
the necessary rituals which would bring reward (social
order) or punishment (social chaos)

• Since Confucius believed that the afterlife was not on

the realm of human comprehension, people should live
based on the promotion of social relations rather than
on the expectations of rewards or punishments after
death

• Confucius discouraged his students from worrying

about the afterlife, but he believed in Tian (heaven)
which is analogous with moral order but dependent
upon human intervention to bring its will into action;
the li or ritual propriety is the way through which the
family, the state, and the world may become parallel
with Tian’s moral order.

Critical Thinking

1. Do you agree that Confucianism is both a religion and

a philosophy? Why or why not?

2. How did Confucianism try to find solutions to the

social problems prevalent at the time it was
formulated?

3. Do you think Confucian values can be a solution to

the problem of corruption in the Philippine
government? If yes, how?

4. What particular Confucian values do you think can be

applied to solve particular social problems at present?