CHAPTER TWO

Sensors and Transducers

 Out Lines

o Temperature sensor
o Level sensor
o Pressure sensor
o Flow sensor o Position sensor

o Displacement sensor
e
2

5
 2. Introduction
 What is sensor
 is a device that detects variation of input or physical phenomenon and provides
equivalent electrical or non electrical quantity corresponding to it.
 it Produce measurable response to change in physical conditions.
 What is Transducer:
 is a device that convert one form of energy to other form.
 It converts the measurand to a usable electrical signal.
 It is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a proportional
electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

3
  Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing
element and transduction element.
 The sensing element is called as the sensor.
 The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.

Sensor output
Parameter
e.g. pressure, Sensing Transducing Electrical
temperature element element signal
force etc.

 What is transmitter

4
 2.1. Classification of Sensors
 Generally sensors can be classified as
o Passive and active based on the Energy source they use to provide an output
o Resistive, inductive and capacitive based on Physical effect employed
o Temperature , pressure ,flow, level, position ,displacement, force etc. based on the
Physical quantity they convert.
o Contact and non-contact
 So due to the change in physical quantity, there will be a physical effect or variation in R,L,C, then due to these
effects there will be a change in electrical signal such as current and voltage.

 Based on the Physical effect employed sensors can be classified as:

 Resistive: Here there will be a change or variation in resistance
 Capacitive: change or variation in capacitance
 Inductive: change or variation in inductance 5
 Based on the Physical effect employed sensors can be classified as:
o Resistive: Here there will be a change or variation in resistance
o Capacitive: change or variation in capacitance
o Inductive: change or variation in inductance
2.1.1. Variation in Resistance
 Resistance is the character or ability of an element to oppose the flow of current.
 Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the resistance change due to the change
in some physical phenomenon
Often the resistance of an element is given in either of formula;
 If any physical effect employed causes change in either of these parameter, then the
resistance value will vary in response to the cause.
6
Some of the very common sensors which work based up on this principle are:
 Potentiometer; for linear and angular displacement measurement,
 Resistance thermometer detectors( RTD), thermistor; for temperature measurement
 Strain gauge; for stress measurement such as; pressure ,force ,torque
 Photo resistor (photoconductor) , for light intensity measurement

7
 1. Potentiometer (POT)
 The potentiometer is used for voltage division. They consist of a resistive
element provided with a sliding contact and excited by dc or ac voltage source.
The sliding contact is called as wiper.
 The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of both.
 Fig shows a rotary pot and a linear pot.

8
9
2.3. Temperature sensor
2.3.1. What is temperature

 is the hotness or coldness of a piece of plastic, wood, metal, or other material depends upon
the molecular activity of the material.
 Kinetic energy is a measure of the activity of the atoms which make up the molecules of any
material.
 Therefore, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the material in question.
2.3.2. Types of temperature sensor
 Temperature sensors can be classified in to
o Contact:-RTD, thermistor, thermocouple, LM 35
o non contacts:-IR (infrared)
10
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as temperature

increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases.
 RTDs act somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to
voltage signals by the measurement of resistance.
 The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable
within a given range of temperature, and able to give reproducible resistance-temperature
readings.
 Only a few metals have the properties necessary for use in RTD elements.

11
 RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel.
 These metals are best suited for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-
temperature characteristics (as shown in Figure 1), their high coefficient of resistance,
and their ability to withstand repeated temperature cycles.
 The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature,
usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature.
 The material used must be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be
easily constructed.

12
13
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a
sheath of metal. Figure 2 shows the internal construction of an RTD.

14
 This particular design has a platinum element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator.
 The insulator prevents a short circuit between the wire and the metal sheath.
 Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy, is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath
because of its inherent corrosion resistance.
 When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath quickly reaches the temperature of
the medium.
 The change in temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool, resulting in a
proportional change in resistance.
 Figure 3 shows an RTD protective well and terminal head. The well protects the RTD from
damage by the gas or liquid being measured. Protecting wells are normally made of stainless
steel, carbon steel, Inconel, or cast iron, and they are used for temperatures up to 1100°C.
15
16
 RTD Summary
 The resistance of an RTD varies directly with temperature:
o As temperature increases, resistance increases.
o As temperature decreases, resistance decreases.
 RTDs are constructed using a fine, pure, metallic, spring-like wire surrounded by an
insulator and enclosed in a metal sheath.
 A change in temperature will cause an RTD to heat or cool, producing a proportional
change in resistance.
 The change in resistance is measured by a precision device that is calibrated to give the
proper temperature reading

17
 The resistance of most metals increases reasonably linearly with temperature in the range
−100 to +800 °C.
 The general relationship between the resistance RT Ω of a metal element and temperature T
°C is a power series of the form
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑇 + 𝛽𝑇 2 + 𝛾𝑇 3 + ⋯ )

where R0 Ω is the resistance at 0 °C and α , β , γ’s are temperature coefficients of resistance.

 Then the general r/ship between resistance and temperature of the metal is approximately
represented by

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)

18
Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:
o High accuracy.
o Low drift.
o Wide operating range.
o Stability maintained over long period of time.
Limitations:
o RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C .
o Have a slower response time.
o Less sensitive for small temperature changes.
o Are more expensive.

Exercise1:
A platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) has a resistance of 100 ohm at 25oc and its
temperature coefficient of resistance at 25oc is 0.00392/°c.
a. find the resistance at 65°c

b. if the thermometer has a resistance of 150Ω find the temperature

19
Exercise2:
1) A platinum resistance sensor is to be used to measure temperatures between 0 and 200 °C.
Given that the resistance RT Ω at T °C is given by RT = R0(1 + α T + β T2) and R0 = 100.0,
R100 = 138.50, R200 = 175.83 Ω, calculate:
a) the values of α and β
b) the non-linearity at 100 °C as a percentage of full-scale deflection.
2) A nickel resistance sensor has a resistance of 100.0 Ωat 0 °C and a temperature coefficient of
resistance α of 4 × 10−3 /°C. If the resistance of the sensor is 125 Ω, find the corresponding
temperature of the sensor.
3) A copper resistance sensor has a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C and a temperature coefficient of
resistance of 4 × 10−3 /°C. Find the resistance of the sensor at 100 °C.
20
 (thermocouple) Thermoelectric Sensing Elements
 Thermoelectric or thermocouple sensing elements are commonly used for
measuring temperature.
 is constructed of two dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end.
 When one end of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument, the
thermocouple becomes a sensitive and highly accurate measuring device
Thermocouples may be constructed of several different combinations of
materials.
The performance of a thermocouple material is generally determined by using
that material with platinum.
21
 The most important factor to be considered when selecting a pair of materials is the
"thermoelectric difference" between the two materials.
 A significant difference between the two materials will result in better thermocouple
performance
 If two different metals A and B are joined together, there is a difference in electrical potential
across the junction called the junction potential.
 This junction potential depends on the metals A and B and the temperature T °C of the
junction, and is given by a power series of the form:

𝑬𝑨𝑩 = 𝒂𝟏 𝑻 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑻𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝑻𝟑 + 𝒂𝟒 𝑻𝟒 + ⋯ .

22
Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit
when subjected to changes in temperature.
The amount of current that will be produced is dependent on the temperature
difference between the measurement and reference junction; the characteristics
of the two metals used; and the characteristics of the attached circuit. Figure 6
illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit

23
 Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage which is greater than
the voltage across the reference junction.
 The difference between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in temperature and
can be measured on the voltmeter (in millivolts).
 For ease of operator use, some voltmeters are set up to read out directly in temperature
through use of electronic circuity. 24
 If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into the circuit, so that current flow is
negligible, then the measured e.m.f. is, to a close approximation, the difference of the
junction potentials, i.e. 𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟏,𝑻𝟐 = 𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟏 −𝑬 𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟐

 Then the effective emf of the thermocouple is given as:

𝟑 𝟑
𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟏,𝑻𝟐 = 𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟏 −𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟐 = 𝒂 𝑻
𝟏 𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐
𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝑻 𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐 +⋯

where 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 and 𝒂𝟑 are constants of the thermocouple material

𝑻𝟏 = the temperature of the ”hot” junction ,𝑻𝟐 = the temperature of the ”cold” or
”reference” junction
Thermocouple is one of the most frequently used temperature transducers which are very;
o Rugged
o inexpensive,
o providing accurate measurement over a wide temperature ranges
25
 Figure 5 shows the internal construction of a typical thermocouple. The leads of the
thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath.
 The measuring junction is normally formed at the bottom of the thermocouple housing.
 Magnesium oxide surrounds the thermocouple wires to prevent vibration that could damage
the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer between the measuring junction and the medium
surrounding the thermocouple

26
 Law 1
o states that the e.m.f. of a given thermocouple depends only on the temperatures of the
junctions and is independent of the temperatures of the wires connecting the junctions.
o This is important in industrial installations, where the leads connecting measurement and
reference junctions may be exposed to large changes in ambient temperature.
 Law 2
o states that if a third metal C is introduced into A (or B) then, provided the two new junctions
are at the same temperature (T3), the e.m.f. is unchanged.
o This means that a voltmeter can be introduced into the circuit without affecting the voltage
produced. If a third metal C is inserted between A and B at either junction

27
 Law 3 states that, provided the two new junctions AC and CB are both at the same
temperature (T1 or T2), then the e.m.f. is unchanged.
o This means that at the measurement junction, wires A and B can be soldered or brazed
together with a third metal without affecting the e.m.f.
o A voltage measuring device can be introduced at the reference junction again without
affecting the measurement.
 Law 4 (law of intermediate metals) can be used, for example, to deduce the e.m.f. of a
copper–iron (AB) thermocouple, given the e.m.f. values for copper–constantan (AC) and
constantan–iron (CB) thermocouples
 The fifth law (law of intermediate temperatures) is used in interpreting e.m.f.
measurements.
28
 For a given pair of metals we have:
EABT1,T2 = EABT1,T3 + EABT3,T2
where T3 is the intermediate temperature.
If T2 = 0◦C, then
EABT1,T0 = EABT1,T3 + EABT3,T0

29
The fifth law (law of intermediate temperatures) is used in interpreting e.m.f. measurements

30
Types of thermocouple sensor

31
 Thermocouple Summary
o A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar wires joined at one end and encased in a
metal sheath.
o The other end of each wire is connected to a meter or measuring circuit.
o Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage that is greater than
the voltage across the reference junction.
o The difference between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in temperature and
can be measured on a voltmeter

32
Example:
It was found during experiments with a copper-constant thermocouple that a1 = 3.75 × 10−2
mV/oC and a2 = 4.50 × 10−5 mV/oC2, if T1 = 100oC and the cold junction T2 is kept in ice,
compute the resultant electromotive force
Ans : 𝑬𝑨𝑩
𝑻𝟏,𝑻𝟐 =4.20 mV

33
Thermistors
 The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature.
 By choosing materials that are very temperature sensitive, devices can be made that are
useful in temperature-control circuits as well as in temperature measurement.
 Thermistors are semiconductors made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as
Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper and Uranium.
 Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient.
 That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature rises.
 Resistance at 25oC for typical commercial units ranges from the vicinity of 100 Ω to over
10 MΩ.

34
 A graph showing resistance versus temperature for a family of thermistors is given in Fig
below

Typical samples of thermistors

Figure: Typical Thermistor resistance versus
Temperature curves

35
36
Typical thermistor configurations as shown in the above figure, and the electrical symbol of the
device is depicted in the figure below.
Thermistors is a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) in a highly non-linear way

37
 where Rθ1 is the resistance at reference temperature θ1, usually θ1 = 25oC = 298K
Functional use of temperature detector

 Temperature detectors are used for:

o Indication
o Alarm functions
o Control functions
 If a temperature detector became inoperative:
o A spare detector may be used (if installed)
o A contact pyrometer can be used
 Environmental concerns:
o Ambient temperature
o Humidity 38
39
Exercise
A thermistor has constants K = 0.1 Ω, β= 3200 K. Find the resistance at the ice point

40
Applications of temperature sensors:
 Temperature sensors are used just about everywhere. There are in the homes we live
in, the cars we drive, the schools we learn in. They are even in planes, trains and
boats. You will also find them in all sorts of electrical appliances and electronic
devices. Refrigerators, stoves, hot water tanks as well as computers, GPS devices
and battery chargers all have temperature sensors.
 Today's digital medical thermometers, which are used in hospitals and millions of
home every day, all have a temperature sensor in them. Here below list are some
applications of temperature sensor.

41
1)Oil Exploration
Today's oil drills must drill far down into the earth in their search for oil. As they drill down
deep into the earth, through rocks and dirt, the temperature of the drill increases. Oil
workers worry that the oil drill's bit will become too hot and break. To prevent that from
happening, these oil drill bits often have a temperature sensor built inside of them. When the
temperature reaches a dangerous level, that is, a level that could break the drill bit, the
sensor sends an electronic signal to the oil workers to stop drilling. (here the T sensor measures
the T the tip of the drill bit and gives feed to the controller).
2)Radiator Overheating
Your car contains a radiator. In it is a temperature sensor. The reason it is there is to warn
you if the water that circulates in your engine becomes too hot. And that's because if it does,
your engine could break and will require that you purchase a new one.The temperature
sensor in your radiator measures the temperature of the radiator to the temperature gauge in
your car. As the temperature of the water increases, the temperature sensor creates a larger
electrical current to flow. That current flow causes the needle of your temperature gauge to
move further to the right. (the T ,sensor used here measure the T of the water inside the
radiater and gives information to the driver 42
or control).
Battery Chargers
 Battery chargers are used to recharge all sorts of batteries, such as car batteries, flashlight
batteries and even batteries in your computer. However, battery chargers must be designed so
that they don't overcharge your battery and also so they don't undercharge your battery.
Because the amount of charge a battery can store varies with temperature, the battery charger
must know the battery's temperature to determine when to stop charging and when to begin
charging. In these applications, the temperature sensor is used to turn on or turn off the battery
charger.(the T sense here measured the corresponding T for the various charges status .hence
,the charger will stop charging when in fully charged status.)
Hot Air Balloons
 For hot air balloons to rise, the temperature of the helium gas that is inside of the balloon must
be above a prescribed level. If the temperature of the gas is below that level, the hot air balloon
will start to fall. If it is exactly at the prescribed level, it will neither rise nor fall. In order to
control the temperature of the helium hot air balloon, and hence to control whether the balloon
rises or falls, gas temperature sensors are used to find out the temperature of the helium gas in
the hot air balloon.(
43
 2.2.Displacement sensor
 Introduction
 Definition
 Types of Measurement
 Contact Type
 Resistive
 Capacitive
 Inductive
 LVDT
 Non-contact Type
 Ultrasonic
Displacement-is vector represent a change in position of a body or a point with respect a
reference.

44
 2.2.1.Variation in Capacitive Sensing Elements)
 A typical capacitor is composed of two parallel plates of conducting material separated by an electrical
insulating material called a dielectric.
 The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is given by:

d
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝑐 =
𝑑

 The parallel plate capacitor is used to measure some physical parameters such as displacement or
thickness.
where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space (vacuum) of magnitude 8.85 pF m−1,
𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the insulating material
A is the area of overlap of the plates in m2, d is their separation in m

45
 In capacitive transducers the measurand is converted to a change in the capacitance.
So variation of the parameters such as Area , length and thickness will have an effect on the capacitance value.

Figure 8.9 Capacitive sensing elements.

46
 If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the
capacitance of the sensor is:
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨
o Variable separation displacement sensor 𝒄=
𝒅+𝒙

i.e. there is a non-linear relation between C and x.

In the variable area type, the displacement x causes the overlap area
to decrease by ∆A = wx, where w is the width of the plates, giving:
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
o Variable area displacement sensor 𝒄= (A-wx)
𝒅

47
 In the variable dielectric type, the displacement x changes the amount of dielectric
material ε 2 ( ε 2 > ε 1) inserted between the plates. The total capacitance of the sensor is
the sum of two capacitances, one with area A1 and dielectric constant ε 1, and one with
area A2 and dielectric constant ε 2, i.e.

𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝑪= +
𝒅 𝒅
Since A1 = wx, A2 = w(l − x), when w is the width of the plates,

𝜺𝟎 𝒘[𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝒍+(𝜺𝟏 −𝜺𝒓𝟐 )𝒙]

o Variable dielectric 𝑪 =
𝒅
displacement sensor

48
Exercise
1) A variable dielectric capacitive displacement sensor consists of two square metal plates of side 5 cm, separated
by a gap of 1 mm. A sheet of dielectric material 1 mm thick and of the same area as the plates can be slid
between them as shown in Figure 8.9 in your text book. Given that the dielectric constant of air is 1 and that of
the dielectric material 4, calculate the capacitance of the sensor when the input displacement x = 0.0, 2.5 and 5.0
cm.
2) A parallel plate capacitive displacement sensor consists of two square metal plates 8 cm × 8 cm, separated by a
gap of 2 mm. The space between the plates is completely filled by a slab with a dielectric constant of 6.0. If the
permittivity of free space is 8.85 pF/m, find the capacitance of the sensor.

49
 2.5.2. Inductive displacement sensors
 In order to discuss the principles of these elements we must first introduce
the concept of a magnetic circuit.
 In an electrical circuit an electromotive force (e.m.f.) drives a current
through an electrical resistance and the magnitude of the current is given by
o e.m.f. = current × resistance

 A simple magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 8.11: it consists of a loop or core

of ferromagnetic material on which is wound a coil of n turns carrying a
current i.
 By analogy we can regard the coil as a source of magneto motive force
(m.m.f.) which drives a flux 𝜙 through the magnetic circuit.

50
 Fig.8.11:Variable reluctance reluctance sensing elements
 for a magnetic circuit is: m.m.f. = flux × reluctance =𝜙𝑥ℛ
so that reluctance limits the flux in a magnetic circuit just as
resistance limits the current in an electrical circuit. In this example
m.m.f. = ni, so that the flux in the magnetic circuit is:
𝒏𝒊
𝝓= weber
𝓡 51
 This is the flux linked by a single turn of the coil; the total flux N linked by the entire coil of
𝒏𝟐 𝒊
n turns is: 𝑵 = 𝒏𝝓 =
𝓡

 By definition the self-inductance L of the coil is the total flux per unit current, i.e. Self-
𝑵 𝒏𝟐
inductance of a coil 𝑳= =
𝒊 𝓡

 The above equation enables us to calculate the inductance of a sensing element given the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is given by:
𝒍
ℜ=
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑨

52
Where l is the total length of the flux path,
µr is the relative permeability of the circuit material
µ0 is the permeability of free space = 4π×10−7 Hm −1
A is the cross-sectional area of the flux path
 Figure 8.11(b) shows the core separated into two parts by an air gap of variable width.
 The total reluctance of the circuit is now the reluctance of both parts of the core
together with the reluctance of the air gap.
 Since the relative permeability of air is close to unity and that of the core material
many thousands, the presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance
and a corresponding decrease in flux and inductance.

53
 Thus a small variation in air gap causes a measurable change in inductance so that we have the basis of an inductive

displacement sensor.

54
 A typical variable reluctance displacement sensor, consisting of three elements: a ferromagnetic core
in the shape of a semi toroid (semicircular ring), a variable air gap and a ferromagnetic plate or
armature as a shown in the figure below.
 The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is the sum of the individual reluctances.

55
 𝕽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝕽𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝕽𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝕽𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒑

 The length of an average, i.e. central (core), path through the core is πR and the cross-sectional area is 𝝅𝒓𝟐 ,
giving:

𝑹
𝕽𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝑪 𝒓𝟐
 The total length of the flux path in air is twice the air gap, i.e. 2d; also if there is little bending or fringing of
the lines of flux in the air gap, then the cross-sectional area of the flux path in air will be close to that of the
core. Assuming the relative permeability of air is unity.

𝟐𝒅
𝕽𝒂𝒊𝒓 gap =
𝝁𝟎 𝝅𝒓𝟐

56
 The length of an average central flux path in the armature is 2R; the calculation of the appropriate cross-sectional
area is more difficult. A typical flux distribution is shown in Figure 8.11(c) and for simplicity we assume that most of
the flux is concentrated within an area 2rt, giving

𝑹
𝕽𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝑨 𝒓𝒕
Then

𝑹 𝟐𝒅 𝑹
𝕽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = + +
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝑪 𝒓𝟐 𝝁𝟎 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝑨 𝒓𝒕

57
 𝑹 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒅
𝕽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝝁 𝒓 (𝝁 𝒓 + 𝝁 𝒕)+𝝁 𝟐
𝟎 𝒄 𝑨 𝟎 𝝅𝒓

𝕽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝕽𝒐 + 𝒌𝒅
Where
𝑹 𝟏 𝟏
𝕽𝒐 = 𝝁 𝒓 (𝝁 𝒓 + 𝝁 𝒕 ) is the reluctance at zero air gap
𝟎 𝒄 𝑨

𝟐
𝒌=𝝁 𝟐
𝟎 𝝅𝒓

 Then the Inductance of reluctance displacement sensor is obtained as

𝒏𝟐 𝑶 𝑳
𝐋= = 𝟏+𝜶𝒅
𝕽𝒐 +𝒌𝒅

58
Exercise
1) A typical inductance reluctance displacement sensor has n = 500 turns, R = 2 cm,
r = 0.5 cm, t = 0.5 cm, µ C =µ A = 100
Find the
i. reluctance at zero air gap
ii. Inductance zero air gap
iii. reluctance of the sensor at d=1mm
iv. Inductance at d=1mm

59
Assignment 1
1) By taking a central flux path, estimate the inductance of the sensor shown in Figure below.
(a) for zero air gap; (b) for a 2 mm air gap. Assume the relative permeability of core and armature is 104 and that of
air is unity.

60
2.2.3. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 commonly used sensor for displacement measurement applications.
 Is a transformer consisting a single primary winding and two secondary windings wound on a tubular
ferromagnetic former.
 the output is the difference of the secondary windings.
 When the core is in the center, the voltage induced in the two secondary windings is equal.
 When the core is moved in one direction from center, the voltage induced in one winding
increase and that in the other is decreased

61
 When the core is exactly at the center Output voltage vo is zero. This
position is called “null position”

62
63