PRESSURE VESSELS

• Any vessel which operates under pressure or in which pressure more than
atmospheric is maintained can be called as pressure vessel. such vessels
are usually designed according to pressure vessel codes.
• Ex: reaction vessels, boilers, heat exchangers,
• Internal pressure: if the pressure is maintained inside the vessel it is called
as vessel subjected to internal pressure.
• External pressure: when pressure lower than atmospheric is maintained
inside the vessel it is termed as subjected to external pressure or operating
under vacuum.

• The vessel used for operation may be cylindrical or spherical. Spherical

vessels are better in strength and lower in cost but due to difficulties in
fabrication cylindrical shells are most commonly used
• Pressure vessels are classified as thin walled and thick walled.
Thin walled: if t/d < 1/10.
Thick walled: if t/d > 1/10.
where, ‘t’ is wall thickness .
‘d’ is diameter of vessel.

When a vessel is subjected to internal pressure, the various stresses induced

in the vessel are :
i. Hoop stress or circumferential stress  2
ii. Longitudinal stress  1
iii. Radial stress 
3
• For low values of operating pressure or for a thin wall the radial stress
variation is negligible and the longitudinal stress and circumferential stress
can be taken as constant over the wall thickness
• For high operating pressures or for a thick wall the magnitude of radial
stress is will be significant and the circumferential stress will vary across
the wall.

• Pressure vessel codes and standards to maintain safety:

1. In UK : British standard BD5500
European standard EN13445
2. In US : ASME code Section VIII
• Membrane stresses in shells of revolution:
A shell of revolution is the form swept out by a line or a curve rotated
about an axis.
Most process vessels are made up from shell of revolution: cylindrical and
conical sections, and hemispherical, ellipsoidal and torispherical heads.

The walls of thin vessels can be considered to be membranes, supporting

loads without significant bending or shear stresses, similar to the walls of
balloon
• Consider the shell of revolution of general shape,
under a loading that is rotationally symmetric, that is,
the load per unit area on the shell is constant round
the circumference

Let,
p = pressure
t = thickness of shell
 1 = longitudinal stress,
 2 = the circumferential or tangential stress
r1 = the meridional radius of curvature.
r2 = the circumferential radius of curvature.
Cylinder:
• The cylinder is swept out by the rotation of the line parallel to the axis of
revolution, so r1 = ∞, and r2 = D/2.
pD
2 
2t

• The vertical component of the pressure

force is = p r2 sin  2

• This is balanced by vertical component

of the force due to the longitudinal stress
acting in the ring of the wall of the vessel.
2 1t r2 sin  sin 
pr2
Equating these two forces gives, = 1 
2t
Sphere:
r1 = r2 = D/2

Hence, 1   2 
pD
4t

Cone
r1 = ∞
r2 = r/cosα

Substituting we get,
pr
2 
t cos 
pr
1 
2t cos 
Ellipsoid
for an ellipse with major axis 2a and minor axis 2b, it can be shown that,
radius of curvature,
r23b 2
r1  4
a
pr2
1 
2t
p r22 
 2  r2  
t  2r1 

At the crown, r1= r2 = b²/a

pa 2
1   2 
2bt

At the equator r1= b²/a and r2 = a,

pa pa  a2 
1  2  1  2 
2t t  2b 
Torus: A torus lid formed by rotating a circle, radius r2, about an axis.
pr2
1 
2t

R R  r sin 
r1   0 2
sin  sin 
and,
Pr2  r2 sin  
2  1  
t  2R0  r2 sin  

At the outer edge, point a, θ = π/2, sinθ =1 and

pr2  2 R0  r2 
2   
2t  R0  r2 

On the centre line of the torus, point c, θ = 0 and

pr2
2 
t
Primary stress Secondary stress
• Stresses that are necessary to • Stresses that arise from the
satisfy the condition of static constraint of adjacent parts of the
equilibrium. vessel.
• Membrane stresses induced by the • The thermal stress caused by
applied pressure and the bending differential expansion of parts of
stresses due to wind loads. vessels
• Primary stress are not self • Discontinuity that occurs between
limiting, if they exceed the yield the head and the cylindrical
point of the material, gross section of a vessel
distortion and in extreme • Secondary stresses are self
situation, failure of the vessel will limiting
occur.
• Dilation of vessels :
Under internal pressure a vessel will expand slightly. The radial growth can be
calculated from the elastic strain in the radial direction .

The radial ( diametrical strain) will be

Same as the circumferential strain ε2 .
Substituting the corresponding stress values,
A cylinder : 2

PD
2   
4tE
A sphere :
PD 2
 1   
4tE
• General design consideration in pressure vessel:
Design pressure :
Design pressure = 1.05-1.10 of working pressure
If the hydrostatic pressure at the base of the vessel is significant, then it has to
be considered and added to the operating pressure.

Vessels subjected to external pressure should be designed to resist the

maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in service.

Design temperature:
The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature, therefore the
design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken
as the maximum working temperature of the material.
• Material of construction:
General MOC for pressure vessels are plain carbon steels, low and high alloy
steels, other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics.

Pressure vessel design codes and standards are followed for the selection.
• Design stress: nominal design strength
Maximum allowable stress offered by the MOC.
• Welded joint efficiencies:
The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the
quality of the welding, radiography is NDT used to analyze the welds and
can also be checked by visual inspection.

Allowable stress is multiplied by “welded joint factor ‘J’ ” during design.

taking J as 1 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate.

What will happen if lower joint efficiency is used?

• Corrosion allowance:
The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added to
allow for material lost by corrosion and erosion or scaling.
 A minimum allowance of 1mm has to be considered.
 For severe erosion an allowance of 4 mm has to be provided.
 For mild erosion 2 mm allowance has to be provided.

• Minimum practical wall thickness:

There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads.
General guidelines for wall thickness of any vessel including a corrosion
allowance of 2 mm.
Design loads:
A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and collapse
under all the conditions of loading.

Major loads( must be considered) Subsidiary loads:

1. Design pressure: including any 1. Local stresses caused by supports,

significant static head of liquid. internal structures and connecting
pipes.
2. Maximum weight of the vessel and
contents, under operating conditions. 2. Shock loads caused by water hammer,
or by surging of the vessel contents.
3. Maximum weight of the vessel and
contents under the hydraulic test 3. Bending moments
conditions.
4. Stresses due to temperature differences
4. Wind loads. and differences in the coefficient
expansion of materials.
5. Earthquake (seismic) loads.
5. Loads caused by fluctuations in
6. Loads supported by, or reacting on, the temperature and pressure.
vessel.
 Design of thin-walled vessel under internal
pressure
• For a cylinder shell the minimum thickness required to resist internal
pressure can be determined from :
Pi D
f 
2t
where cylindrical stress will be considered,

If Di is the internal diameter and ‘t’ is the minimum thickness required, the
diameter will be (Di + t), substituting this in eqn
Pi Di
t
2 f  Pi

If a welded joint factor ‘J’ is used, then

Pi Di
t
2 fJ  Pi
• The minimum thickness of sphere is
Pi Di
t
4 f  Pi
• The equation for a sphere given in BS 5500 is:

Pi Di
t
4 f  1.2 Pi

If a joint factor ‘J’ is used, then

Pi Di
t
4 fJ  1.2 Pi
• Heads and closures:
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The
principal types used are
 Flat plates and formed flat heads
 Hemispherical heads
 Ellipsoidal heads
 Torispherical heads
Choice of closure:
• Flat plates are used as covers for manways, and as channel covers for heat
exchangers.
Flange only heads are the cheapest type of formed head to manufacture but
their use is limited to low-pressure and small-diameter vessel.

• Torispherical heads are the most commonly used end closure for vessel
upto operating pressure of 15bar, and above 15bar ellipsoidal head will
prove to be the most economic closures.

• Hemispherical heads is the strongest shape, capable of resisting about twice

the pressure of a torispherical head of the same thickness.

- Fabrication cost is the limitation for hemispherical shells but they are
used for high pressures
• Flat plates
Flat plates are use as covers for manholes, as blind flanges, and for the ends of
small diameter and low pressure vessels.
two limitations:
1. When the edge of the plate is rigidly clamped, not free to rotate; which
corresponds to a heavy flange, or a strong joint.

2. When the edge is free to rotate (simply supported); corresponding to a

weak joint, or light flange
Design of flat plate:
• Though the fabrication cost is low, flat ends are not a structurally efficient
form, and very thick plates would be required for high pressures or large
diameters.
• The minimum thickness required is:

Where, f = the maximum allowable stress (the design stress),

D = the effective plate diameter,
C = a constant, which depends on edge support,
0.43 (completely rigid)
0.56 (free to rotate)
• Hemispherical heads:

The thickness of the head is only half of the cylindrical sections. But as
dilations of the two parts would be different, discontinuity stresses would
be set up at the head and cylinder junction.

Ratio of thickness of hemispherical heads to thickness of cylindrical shell is

7/17
If the stress in the head is greater than that in the cylindrical section then the
optimum thickness ratio is normally taken as 0.6.
• Torispherical Heads
A torispherical shape, part of torus and part of a sphere.
Rk = knuckle radius (radius of torus)
Rc = crown radius (radius of the sphere)

The ratio of knuckle radius to crown radius should be made

not less than 6/100 to avoid buckling

For the spherical portion,

pRc
1   2 
2t
For the torus:
pRk
1 
2t
 2 depends on the location and is a function of Rc and Rk
The thickness of the torispherical head is:

Pi RcCs
t
2 fJ  Pi Cs  0.2
Where, Cs is Stress concentration factor =
1  Rc 

Conditions: 3
4  Rk 

Crown radius should be less than the diameter of cylindrical section
Rk
 0.06
Rc
• Ellipsoidal heads:
Usually major axis: minor axis = 2:1

Pi Di
t
2 fJ  0.2 Pi
• Conical sections:
o Conical ends are used to facilitate the smooth flow and removal of solids
from process equipment; such as, hoppers, spray-dryers and crystallisers.

o The thickness required at any point on a cone is related to the diameter by

the following expression:
Pi Dc 1
t
2 fJ  Pi cos 
Where,
Dc is the diameter of the cone at the point,
α = half the cone apex angle.

• This equation will only apply at points away from the cone to cylinder
junction. Bending and shear stresses will be caused by the different dilation
of the conical and cylindrical sections. Therefore a stress concentration
factor will be introduced
Cc Pi Dc
t
2 fJ  Pi
• Cc is a function of the half apex angle.
Vessel heads:
Sphere:
The critical buckling pressure of a sphere subjected to external pressure:

Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3

²

The critical pressure to form a dimple is 1/3rd of above eqn.

A value of safety factor 6 is considered , the minimum thickness required is

A cylindrical pressure vessel of O.D 1.8m in dia and 5 m in height is
subjected to a internal pressure of 8 kg/mm². Corrosion allowance is 2mm
and maximum allowable stress is 1400 kg/mm².
If the vessel is fabricated as :
Class B vessel with J=0.85
Class C vessel with J=0.5 and J=0.7,
What will be the minimum thickness of the vessel?
If a strip of suitable size is welded all along the longitudinal joint (J=1),
what will be the thickness of the vessel and how much percentage saving in
the material can be achieved?

PDo
t 
2 fj  P
 A cylindrical pressure vessel of O.D 1.8m in dia and 5 m in height is
subjected to a internal pressure of 8 kg/mm². Corrosion allowance is
2mm and maximum allowable stress is 1400 kg/mm².
If the vessel is fabricated as :
Class B vessel with J=0.85
Class C vessel with J=0.5 and J=0.7,
What will be the minimum thickness of the vessel?
If a strip of suitable size is welded all along the longitudinal joint (J=1),
what will be the thickness of the vessel and how much percentage
saving in the material can be achieved?
Solution:
Design pressure: 8 x 1.1=8.8 kg/mm²
PDo
t 
2 fJ
For J=0.85
8.8 *1800
t = 6.65 mm+2mm= 8.65 mm
2 * 0.85
• For J =0.7,
t = ? mm, therefore 13.3 mm standard plate thickness,

For J= 0.5,
t = ? mm,

For J = 1,
t = ? mm,

Percentage saving,
ti-t1/ti
• A vessel having 1.6 m ID is to operate at a pressure of 5 kg/cm². The
permissible stress of the material used for fabrication is 1020 kg/cm².
welded joint efficiency is 0.85, calculate the thickness required for a
cylindrical vessel and a spherical vessel?
Which vessel should be selected for operation?

Design pressure: 5x1.1 = 5.5kg/cm².

Thickness of cylindrical vessel is
Pi Di
t
2 fJ  Pi
Thickness of spherical vessel,

Pi Di
t
4 fJ  Pi
According to BS std. Pi Di
t
4 fJ  1.2 Pi
• Estimate the thickness required for the component parts of the vessel
shown in the diagram. The vessel is to operate at a pressure of 14 bar
(absolute) and temperature of 300°C. The material of construction will
be plain carbon steel. Welds will be fully radiographed. A corrosion
allowance of 2 mm should be used.
Solution:
Design pressure: (14-1)*1.1= 14.3 bar
From table, maximum allowable stress at 300⁰C is
12900 psi= 88.9 N/mm2

For a cylindrical section:

Pi Di
t = 12.7 mm
2 fJ  Pi
 Torisphere:
Crown radius, Rc=Di=1.5 m
Knuckle radius = 6% of Rc = 90mm
As heads of sizes would be formed by pressing, therefore J=1,

1 Rc  = 1.77
Cs   3 
4
 Rk 


t
Pi Rc Cs = 22.0 mm
2 fJ  Pi Cs  0.2
 Ellipsoid: standard major : minor axis = 2:1,
Pi Di
t = 22.0 mm
2 fJ  0.2 Pi

 Flat head
Cp = 0.25 use a full gasket, Pi
De=1.7 mts bolt diameter t  C p De
f = 88.4mm
 Design of vessels subjected to combined loading
• Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be
designed to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.
The main sources of load to consider are:
Pressure
Dead weight of vessels an contents
Wind
Earthquake(seismic)
External loads imposed by piping and attached equipment

Primary stresses for a cylindrical vessel:

1.The longitudinal stress: PDi
L 
4t
The hoop stress: PDi
h 
2t
2. The direct stress is due to weight of the vessel, its contents and any
attachments. The stress will be tensile (+ve) for points below the plane of
the vessel supports, and compressive(-ve) for points above the support
Wz
w 
 Di  t t

where, Wz is the total weight supported by the vessel wall at the plate
considered.
3. Bending stresses resulting from the bending moments to which the vessel
is subjected. Bending moments will be caused by the following loading
conditions:
(a) The wind loads on tall self-supported vessels.
(b) Seismic (earthquake) loads on tall vessels .
(c) The dead weight and wind loads on piping and equipment which is
attached to the vessel, but offset from the vessel centre line.
(d) For horizontal vessels with saddle supports, from the disposition of
dead-weight load.

The bending stresses will be compressive or tensile, depending on location,

and are given by:

Where, M= total bending moment at the plate being considered

And Iv is the second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
4. Torsional shear stress  resulting from torque caused by loads offset
from the vessel axis.

T= the applied torque.

Ip= polar second moment of area = (

Principal stresses:
the principal stresses are given by

σz = total longitudinal stress

=  L w b
Third principal stress is radial stress which will be negligible for a thin walled
vessel , an approximate value= 0.5P
5. Compressive stresses and elastic stability:
Under conditions where the resultant axial stress σZ due to combined
loading is compressive, the vessel may fail by elastic instability (buckling).
Local buckling can occur at a lower stress than that required for overall
buckling.
For curved plates , the critical buckling stress

Where Rp is radius of curvature,

For a poisons ratio of 0.3 and E=200000 N/mm², and adding a safety factor
of 12,
6. Weight loads:
The major sources of dead weight loads are:
1. The vessel shell.
2. The vessel fittings: man ways, nozzles.
3. Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling
coils.
4. External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
5. Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers, agitators.
6. Insulation.
7. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water
for the hydraulic pressure test; and may fill with process liquid due to mis-
operation.
• For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel
with domed ends and uniform wall thickness can be estimated by the
following eqn.:
Typical values for weight of fittings:
(a) caged ladders, steel, 360 N/m length,
(b) plain ladders, steel, 150 N/m length,
(c) platforms, steel, for vertical columns, 1.7 kN/m² area,
(d) contacting plates, steel, including typical liquid loading, 1.2 kN/m² plate
area.
Typical densities (kg/m³) of insulating materials:

• Wind loads:
Wind loading will be important in tall columns installed in open. For a uniformly
loaded cantilever, the bending moment at any plate is given by:

Where x is the distance measured from free end and W the load per unit length.
7. Dynamic wind pressure:
The load imposed on any structure by the action of wind will depend on the
shape of the structure and the wind velocity:

Where,
• Pw = wind pressure (load per unit area),
• Cd = drag coefficient (shape factor),
• ρa = density of air,
• Uw = wind velocity.
Cd= fn(Nre, shape of the structure)

• For a smooth cylindrical column or stack the following semi-empirical

equation can be used to estimate the wind pressure:

• Pw — wind pressure, N/m2,

• Uw = wind speed, km/h.
• If the column outline is broken up by attachments, such as ladders or pipe
work factor of 0.05 is increased to 0.07.
• The column must be designed to withstand the highest windspeed on the
location site provided by meteorological records.
• A wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) can be used for preliminary design
studies; equivalent to a wind pressure of 1280 N/m2 (25 lb/ft2).
• The load per unit length of the column

Deff = Do+allowance for thermal insulation

8. Earth quake loading:
The movement of the earth's surface during an earthquake produces
horizontal shear forces on tall self-supported vessels, the magnitude of
which increases from the base upward. The total shear force on the vessel
will be given by:

where ae = the acceleration of the vessel due to the earthquake,

g = the acceleration due to gravity,
W = total weight of the vessel.
9. Eccentric loadings:
Ancillary equipment attached to a tall vessel will subject the vessel to a
bending moment if the centre of gravity of the equipment does not coincide
with the centre line of the vessel

We = dead weight of the equipment,

Lo = distance between the centre of gravity of the equipment and the
column centre line.
Ref: Exa 13.3 from Sinnott’s
 Pi Di
t
2 fJ  Pi

Density of SS = 7.8 g/cm3

 PDi
L 
4t

PDi
h 
2t
Given: 135 N/mm2
The maximum compressive stress will occur when
the vessel is not under pressure =dead weight stress
+bending stress = 7.4 + 61.1 = 68.5 N/mm2, well
below the critical buckling stress (135 N/mm2). So,
design is satisfactory.

Could reduce the plate thickness and recalculate.

Problem 1.
A vertical vessel with a cylinrical shell and hemispherical heads is to be
installed in a closed shed. Internal diamter of the vesssel is 1800 mm and its
thickness is 12mm, tangent to tangent length of vessel is 10.5 mts. The vessel
contains a liquid of density 800 kg/m³. the vessel is filled to 75% of its
capcacity. Determine the total weight of the vessel and the longitudinal stress
in the cylindrical shell above and below the support which is at the lower head
of the junction.
Permissible stress= 1040 kg/cm², density of material=7800 kg/m³, J=0.85

Problem 2:
Calculate the thickness for the shell and head for the given vessel data
Inside diameter 10’ 6”
Design Pressure 650 psig
Temperature 750o F
Material SA 516 Grade 70
Corrosion allowance 0.125”
Head is 2:1 Ellipsoidal with 100% radiographed joint.
• A vertical vessel with a cylinrical shell and hemispherical heads is to be installed in
a closed shed. Internal diamter of the vesssel is 1800 mm and its thickness is
12mm, tangent to tangent length of vessel is 10.5 mts. The vessel contains a liquid
of density 800 kg/m³. the vessel is filled to 75% of its capcacity. Determine the
total weight of the vessel and the longitudinal stress in the cylindrical shell above
and below the support which is at the lower head of the junction.
Permissible stress= 1040 kg/cm², density of material=7800 kg/m³, J=0.85

Soln:
Internal design pressure= P= 1148.6 KN/m²

Longitudinal stress= PD/4t=43073 KN/m²

Dead weight of the vessel above the supports= shell weight + hemispherical head weight
=54520N+ 4673N= 59.193KN

Resultant longitudinal stress (above the skirt) = 43073KN/m² - 59.193/(πDt)

= 42200.7 KN/m²

Weight of fluid = 22.33*800*9.81= 175.24 KN

Weight of hemispherical shell= 4.67KN

Resultant Longitudinal stress (below the skirt) : 43073 KN/m²+ (175.24+4.67)/πDt

= 45724 KN/m²
• Internal design pressure= P= 1148.6 KN/m²

Longitudinal stress= PD/4t=43073 KN/m²

Dead weight of the vessel above the supports= shell weight + hemispherical head weight
=54520N+ 4673N= 59.193KN

resultant longitudinal stress (above the skirt) = 43073KN/m² - 59.193/(πDt)

= 42200.7 KN/m²

Weight of fluid = 22.33*800*9.81= 175.24 KN

Weight of hemispherical shell= 4.67KN

Resultant Longitudinal stress (below the skirt) : 43073 KN/m²+ (175.24+4.67)/πDt

= 45724 KN/m²
 Vessel supports

• Vessel support:
Types of support to be provided to a vessel depend upon its
a) configuration,
b) H/ D ratio of a vessel,
c) convenience of location,
d) operating temperature and MOC

Design of support for vessel:

The 4 types of vessel commonly used:
1. Skirt support 2. Saddle support( horizontal)
3. Bracket or lug support 4. Leg support.
Skirt support: a skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded
to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the
load to the foundations
Skirt supports are recommended for tall vertical vessels
The skirt is usually welded directly to the vessel.

Typical skirt-support designs (a) Straight skirt (b) Conical skirt

Saddle support:
• General practice of supporting horizontal cylindrical vessels.
• The horizontal vessels when resting on the vessel behave as a beam.
Lug support :
• Brackets or lugs are widely used to support vertical vessels of smaller
height. Lugs are welded to the vessel and rest on columns or beams
Advantages:
a) Easily constructed and attached to vessels with a minimum length of weld
seam.
b) They can absorb diametrical expansions and are easily levelled.
Disadvantages:
a) As a result of the eccentricity, compressive, tensile and shear stresses are
induced in the vessel wall.
b) In thin walled vessel this type of support requires reinforcement of the
wall with backing plate.
• Skirt supports are used for tall, vertical columns;
• Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of vessel.
• The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and
contents, and any superimposed loads, such as wind loads.
• Supports will impose localised loads on the vessel wall, and the design
must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below
the maximum allowable design stress.
• Supports should be designed to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings
for inspection and maintenance.

Bracket supports (a) Supported on legs (b) Supported from steel-work

Skirt thickness:
• The max. stress will be induced in the skirt due to action of the dead
weight of the vessel and the wind or seismic bending moment. Resultant
stresses in the skirt will be:

• Bending stress in the skirt, σbs

• The dead weight stress in the skirt, σws

σws
Design a skirt support for the column specified in earlier Example.

Solution
Try a straight cylindrical skirt (θs =90º) of plain carbon steel,
design stress 135 N/mm2 and Young’s modulus 200,000 N/mm2 at ambient
temperature.
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full
of water.

Exa 13.4 in Sinnott’s

Storage vessels:
• Generally used for storing gaseous and liquid products during intervals
between production, transportation, refining, blending and marketing.
• To supply a sufficient balance on each stock to ensure continuity of
operations.
• To ensure product is conserved and maintained at an acceptable level of
quality
• MOC: MS, SS, Al and Clad Steel.
• Fixed roof storage tanks:
Depending upon volatility of liquid, the tank is designed to have a pressure
tight roof.
A vent is fitted to these tanks.
An anti vacuum valve should also be provided and also connected
separately to the vent, so that air can enter whenever a vaccum is generated.

• Variable volume tanks:

a) Vapor-lift roof type: the roof rises vertically whenever vapor volume
increases or when the liquid is pumped.
b) A liquid seal prevents the loss of vapor at the jn. of roof and shell.
c) Liquid seals are protected by wind apron.
d) Relief valves are used to prevent accidental excess pressure or vacuum
Floating roof types:
• The roof is not supported either by the shell or columns, but is made to rest
on the stored liquid and is free to move with the level of the liquid, the
vapor space is thereby eliminated.
• No breathing losses (P is maintained).
• Due to imperfection in seal between floating roof and the tank shell, a
certain amount of liquid is lost.
• Three types of floating roof s are available:
a) Pan b) pontoon c) double deck.

Pan type is cheapest.

Double-deck type will give the greatest structural protection as well as hold the
evaporation losses to the minimum.
• Storage of gases:
Spherical vessels:
Extensively used for storage of gases and volatile liquids in the pressure
range of 1 to 10 atmospheres.

Under similar operating pressure conditions, the thickness of the plates

required to form a spherical vessel is about half of a cylindrical vessel.

Surface Area/V is less for a sphere. Hence reduces the amount of

insulation required.