Encpclopacdia Britanntea: DICTIONARY fe ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. THE SIXTH EDITION. ‘Mustrated with nearly six pundred Engravings. VOL. VI. ———— INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY; AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, 90, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 1823,China, gan to leave their enves and del Dm tayht to prepare clothes, 8c.” Tehine-fang, the frst cHI [2 houses, aud were monarch of the eighth £i, taught his subjects to take ‘off the hair from skins with follers of wood, and co- ver themselves with the skins 40 prepared. Ble taught lo to make m kind of wel o} their hair to serve ito their beads aguinst rain. ‘They obey with joy, and he ealled his subjects people ina. His reiga lasted 350 yeara3 that successors, also, named Yeu of one of his Tasted more than 3005 and his family cont 12 or 18,000 years. But what is very surprising, alt these thousands and sillios of years bad elapsed wit out mavkind’s having any knowledge of fire, Thi ‘was not discovered till towards the close of thie period, by one Souigine. After so useful discovery, he ‘aught the people to dress their victuale whereas be- fore they hud devoured the Besh of animals quite dronk their blood, and swallowed even their hair feathers. He is also sai to have been the inventor of fishing, letters, 80, Ty the ninth period, we find the investion, or Teast the origin of letters, attribated to ome Tsang who received them from a divine tot them on his shelly and de cy iam that carried red ther into the bends of Tanng-hie. During this period sls, music, maney, carriages, merchandise, commerce, 8c, were invented. There are various calculations of the length of these i or periods. Some make the time fom Puan-ko te Confucius, whe Gourished about 479 years befn Christ, to eoutuin 279,000 years others, 2,276,000 5 some, 2,759,860 yeurs others, 3,276,000 5 and some no les than 96,961,740 years ‘These extravagant accounts are by some thought to contain obscure and imperfect bints concerning the eamagony and creation ofthe worl, &c, Puot-k the frst emperor, they think, ropresents eternity pre« ceding the. duration of the world. ‘Ths succeeding -hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-boeng, they the creation af the beavens and xr, 0 of man. ‘The ten ki or ages, nine ‘of which preceded Fe-bi, mean the ten. generations preceding Noah, ‘This may very possibly be the case; for about 500 years before Christ, some Jews travelled i who might have made the Mosaic writings Knowa there. ag Wont have nom related, cova the ebaanee that part nese history which is entire fabaloos.” After the nive Eo apes” already taken notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-bi; and the ory, though atill very dafk, obscure and fabulous, begins to grow somewhat more consistent and intel- ible. Foshi was born in the province of Sbemsis mother walking opn the bank of sinks in tbat province, saw a very large print of a man’s foot in The sand there 5 andy being tarrounded with a0 iris or rainbow, became impregnated. ‘The cbild was named Foi; ‘and, when be grew up, was by his country- men elected King, on account of his coperior merit ‘and styled Tyen-tac, that is the son of heaven.” He invented the eight qva, of symbols, consisting of three lines each, which, diferently combined, formed 64 acters that were made use of to exprest every thing. ‘To give these the greater credit, he pretended that ] c HI hhe had seen them inscribed on the back of a dragon- chi horse (an animal shaped like a horse, with the wings —v and seales of a dragon), which arose from the bottom of alake, Having gained great reputation among countrsmen by this prodigy, be is aide have erented mantarios or officers, under the name of dragons. He i vey the emperors of Heal Having established a prime mizister, he divided the government of his dominions among four mandarins, and died after a reign of 115 years. a ‘Alter Fo-li followed succession of emperors, of Mince ‘whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in lie the reigo of You, the seventh after Foi, the son did rot set for ten days, so tat the Chinese were afraid of fu gencral conflagration. Fhin event the compilers of the Univeral History take to be the sme wath that yop) mentionca in the book of Joshua, when the sen_asdeoncen tmeon stoud still for about the space of a dag, Fo-hitht they will have to be the same. with Noah, ‘Fey imu"! F fine, that after the deluge thin patsiagch remained some foeme with bis deseradautsy bot on their wicked com sf from the along with Bf acne entered the fertile country of Chinn, aad ls the foundation ef that vast empire-—-Bat, leeving these fabulous and conjectural times, we shall proceod to give tome account of that part of the Chivese bstory which may be more ecrtsialy depended oo. "he the Chinese, egetrary to the practice of almost I nations, bave never sought to conquer otber coun- but rather ‘wil’ their own, theie history for many ages furnishes nothing remarkable, The whole af their emperors, latractng from those who are said to have reigeed in the fabulous times, are in 2a dyastis, mentioned io the fellowing le. Braperom, | Before Christ, 1. Hya, contains 3207 2 Slengrer tng | 2b | 3768 a Shem 35 a sin, 4 $f Hen, 35 206 ‘After Christ. 6. Hew-han, 2 220 Tein, 4 465. & Som Soo 9 Tot 5 2 10. Lyang, 4 1, Chany 4 357 12 Sut, 3 2 618 a | 3 3 936 2 u 9 a 9 1380 16 1368 3645c HI ina, Tin-tsongy avccessor to Chiagetsong, revived the eau. A rage of the Kitans and, in 1035, war would, have been reneged, had vot the emperor eondescended ta a shamefal a treaty a4 that concluded by bis father. ‘Two years after, the Tartars demanded restitution of ten cities in the province of Pecheli, which had been taken by Ke-ghey founder of the 18th dynasty : upon which Jio-taong engaged to pay them an anual trie Inte of 200,000 taels of silver, and 300,090 pieces of these i From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable pos- session of their Chinese. dominions till the y ™ Whey-tsong, at that time emperor, being ther to bea their ravages, oF by ‘imal to pat stop to them, resolved upon a remedy which al lant proved worse than the disease. ‘hiv was to call the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eastern Tartars, to destroy ‘tan. From this be was dissua- ded by the king of Korea, and most of his own mini- sters but, disregarding their salutary advice, he jo is forces to those of the Na-che. ‘The Kitan were then everymhere defeated ; and at last reduced to such extremity, that those ‘who remained were forced to leave their country, and fly to the movatains of the ry waste wo at Tne the "Thus the empire ofthe Kitan was totally destroyed, but nothing tothe advantage of the Chine 5 for the Tertar general, lated with his conquest, gave the name of Kin to bis new dominion, assumed the title of emperor, and began to think of aggrandiziog hin self, and enlarging his empire. For this porpote, he immediately broke the treaties concluded with’ the ese emperor and, invading the provinces of P heli and Shensi, niade himself master of the greater part of them. Whe self in danger of losing his domi advantageous proposals to the Tartar 5 who, seeming to comply with them, invited bim to come ond setile matters by ‘a personal conference. The Chinese monarch com plied: bot, om his return, the terms agreed on reemed Intolerable to cr8 5 80 that they told him the treaty couid pot subsist, and that the most cruel var ‘was preferable to such an ignominious peace. The Kin monarch, Leing informed of all that passed, bad recourse to arms, and took several cities. Whey- {song was weak enough to go in person to hold a se- 1g cond conference 5 but, on bis arrival, was immediate- They iake ly seized by He was kept prisoner ua- the cupe- der a strong guacd during the remaining part of Or vEWON- Fife; and ended his days in 1126, in the desert of ated his eldest son Kia-tsong to song began his reign with putting to death six the bands of the Kin Tartars. ‘The barbarians ia the meantiowe pursued their congueste without oppo ‘They crowed the Whang-ho, or Yeliow river, as handfol of troops might have prevented ; and ‘marching directly towards the impevial city, took and plundered it. ‘Then seizing tbe emperor and Sort, they carried them away captives: but many of the privetpal lords, and several of the ministers, prefer~ ring death tosuch an ignominious bondage, killed them- felves. ‘The Kin being informed by the empress ‘other emperor taken [4] cHI Meng that she had been divoreed, they left her bebind, Chiou ‘This proved the means of saving the empire 5 for by = hher wisdom and prodence she got the crown placed oa the head of Kau-tsong, ninth son of the emperor Whey- tiong by bis divorced empress. ‘Kao-tsong fixed his court at Nank of Kyang-oan but goon aller mao ittoKi the capital ed to remove, ang-chew in Che-kyang. He mude several f= forts to recover some of his provinces from the Kia, bot without effect. Ili-tsong the Kin monarch, mean time, endeavoured to gain the esteem of his Chinese subjects by paying a regard to their learning and learned meo, and bonouring the memory of Con- facios. Some time after he advanced to Nanking, from whence Kau-tsong hd re 1d took it: but, receiving advice that Yo-si, general of the Song, of southern Chinese, was advancing by long marches to the rit ofthat ety, they tt Bre Yo the palcey and xy retired northward." However, Yo srived times caough to fall opon their rear-goard, which soffered he Xie ‘very moch ; and from thie time the Kin never dared! to cross the river Kyang. In a few years afterwards the Chinese emperor submitted to become tributary to the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very dishonourable terme. This submission, bowever, was of litle avail: for, ia 1163, the Tartars broke the perce, and, invading tho southern province with a for- midable army, took the city of Yangchem. The ;, having approached the river Kyang, near ite mouth, where it is widest as well as most rapid, com- sanded his troops to cross it, threatening with drawn sword to kill those who refuted. On recei- ig toch an vareasonable command, te whule ar- my mutinied ; and the king being killed in the be- ginning of the tumult, the army immediately re- tired. 8 ime to the year 1210, nothing remark-Tey 0 able occurs in the Chinese history ; but this year,attac Tenghiz-khan, chief of the western Tartare, Moguls, Jem or Mungls, quarrelled with Yong-tsi emperor of the tts! Kin and atthe same time the king of Hy dingsed tie: refused assistance against Jengbiz-khan,threat~ on the west side. Yong-ts prepared for his defence s but in 1211, receiving that Jenghiz-khan was advancing southward with ny, be was seized with fear, and made pro- vals of peace, which were rejected. In 121%, the cre? Rogol generals forced the great walls or, according forced to tome writer, bad one af the gates trencerouny Seah pened to thee, othe worth of Shani and made in-t=™ drains as far a0 Peking, the capital of the Fie At the ance ting the province of iyat-toog ws almost totaly redoced by several Ritan lade wh Tad Joined Jeeghirkhan several strong pices were takes, and. an‘army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the Moguls “In attumn they lei siege to the city of Tupitoog-foy bere, altiough the goreroor Hyak ded, yet Jenghia'kban met with concrete resi sect. "Having leat avast eumer of men, and beg if wounded by an arrow, be tos obliged to pe and sti into Tartey 5 afer win th ‘The ext yerr, however, Jee the ; retook several cities. jz-khan re-entered China; retook the cities ‘which the Kin bad reduced the yetr before 5 and overthrew theiccHI .6] cHI Chinn, the other hand, the Kin generals advanced with 150,009 men to relieve the city; but. being obliged to divide their forces, in order to avoid in part the ‘great road, which Toley bad olatracted. with trees, they were attacked by the privce at a disadvantage, and, afier a faint resistunce, defeated with great slaogh ter, and the loss of both their generals, one killed and the other taken. The emperor now ordered the army at Toog-quan and other fortified places to march to the relief of Kay-fong-fu. ‘They assembled accord- ingly, to the number of 110,000 foot and_15,000 horse's and were followed by vast numbers of people, who expected by their means to be protected from the enemy. But many of these troops having deserted, fand the rest being enfeebled by the fatigues of their ‘march, they dispersed on the approach of their pur- ‘vers, who killed all they found in the highways, Af ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and some other ‘considerable posts ; but were obliged to raise the sieges of Qoey-te-fu and Loyang by the bravery of the go- vernors, Kyang-thiny governor of Loyang, had only 3 0F 4000 soldiers under him, while his enemies were 30,000 strong. He placed his worst soldiers on the ‘walls, putting bimself ut the bead of 400 brave men whom he ordered to go naked, and whom be led to all dangerous attacks, He invented engines to cast large stones, which required but few hands to play them, and aimed so true 8 to hit at x00 paces dise tance, When their arrows failed, he ent those shot ‘by the enemy into four pieces ; pointed them with pieces of brass coins and discharged them from wooden ubes with as much force as ballets are from n musket. ‘Thus be harassed the Moguls for three months so grie~ ously, that they were obliged, notwithstanding their 2___ numbers, to abandon the entery Beary of Oktay, at last, notwithstanding bis soecesses, resal- Meter "ved wo return to Tartary 5 and offered the Kin em wisest. or peace, provided he became th vered up to bim 27 families which be named. ‘These coffers were very agreeable to the emperor; bot Supu- fay, taking 0 notice of the treaty, pushed on t siege of the capital with more vigour than ever. By the help of the Chinese slaves wry the Mogol ‘efforts seem fd only to inapire the besieged with new vigour. ‘The ‘Mogols at that time made use of artillery, but were able to rake the least impression upon the city wall. ‘They raised walls round those they besieged,” which they fortified with ditches, towers, and battlements, ‘They proceeded alto to sap the walls of the city ere very much annoyed by the artillery of the bes ‘ged, especially by their bombs, which sinking into the galleries, and bursting under ground, made great ha- ‘wok among the miners. For 16 days and nights the attacks continoed without intermission ; daring which time an incredible number of shen perished on both 28 sides; at length, Suputay, finding that he could not Peace coa-take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence of cluded; conferences being on foot. Soon after the plague be ‘Kay-fong-fa 5 and raged with such violence, in 0 days, 900,000 biers were carried out, be- ‘moltitade of the poorer sort, who could not ty alford any. . . and vo. "Tp a short time two unlucky accidents occasioned en.” g renewal of the war; which now put an end to the a ‘empire of tbe Kin. Gun-yong, a young Mogul ford, obi hhaving assumed the government of same cities in ——> Kyang-nan, and killed the officer sent to take pomses- sion of them, declared for the Kin, The emperor tunwarily took Gan-yong. into bis service, and gave Tim the title of prince, Upoo this Oktay Toy, ateaded 130 olor perm tng affair 5 ee officers aoe them all, without being punished by the emperor. Soputay, having io- formed bin master of alll these proceediogs, was or dered to continue the war in Honan, Shet t defence ofthe capitals but before bis order eotld be obeyed, they were attacked and defeated, one after another, by the Moguls. ‘This obliged him to raise soldiers from among the peasants, for whose subsistence the people were taxed rlths of the rice they possessed. ‘The city began now to be distressed for want of provi- Sans td ti ys bat in a bad poste of dloes the emperor marched with an army sguinst the Moguls. 30 Hi crpelion proved waren eto of his army to city cal it wan teat lieu in pecs and Sapatay «soond ime at 6° before the capital. a ‘On hearing this bad news, the emperor repassed the and tal Whang-bo, and retired to Quey-te-fo, Here be had not been leug before the capital was delivered up by treachery, and Supotay pot all tbe eales of the inpe- Fial race to denth bat, by the express command of Oktay, spared the inhabitants, who. are taid to have amounted to 1,400,000 families. After is diouter, the unbappy moosrch left his troopa at Quey-te-fo, tenn amc ie Ne erst Geese, Honan, attended only by 420 persons. Here’ the Sieg!'y distance of the Mogols’ made him think of living ate ceases bot wbile he flattered himself with these ¥ain hopes, the enemy's army arrived before the city and invested it. The garrison were terrified at their ap- proach but were encouraged by the emperor, and bis rave general Hu-aye-bu, to hold out tothe lat. As there was not in the city a sufficient number of men, the women, dressed in men's clothes, were employed to carry wood, stones, and other necessary materials to the walls, All their efforts, however, were ineflec- tual. ‘They were reduced to such extremities, that for three months they fed on buman flesh ; killing the old and feeble, as well ax muny prisoners, for food. This being known to the Moguls, they made a gene- ral assault in Janaary 1234. The attack continued from mornia hts ovat last the asaiants were repolsed. Ia this action, however, the Kin lost all their best oficers; upon which the emperor res the crown to Cheng-in 1 prince of the blood. Next ‘morning, while the ceremony of investing the new em- _ecorming, the evemy. mounted the eath ‘were defended only by 200 men and the south gate being at the same time abandoned, the bole army broke in. ‘They were opposed, however, ty Hu-eye-ha; who, with 1000 soldiers, continued to fight with ame ei 33 itrepidts. Ia the mean time Uakayy Shew-oy aceing every thing treparaby lant, lodged hte ot the seal of the empire in a bouse y and then’ eausing®™Pe sheaves of strato beset round it, ordered it to be set a Bre as soon as he was dead. After giving th der he bangedCHI C chine. Yen was ordered to come to its relief bot, on bis A arrival, was put to the tortore and strangled ; of which the Tattars were no sooner informed, than they raised the siege, and returned to their own country. In 1636, the rebels above mentioned composed four great ar- ‘mies, commanded by as many generals; whicb, hovr- fever, were soon reduced to two, commanded ‘by Li and Chang. These agreed to divide the ampire be- tween them 5 Chang taking the westera provinces, and Li the eastern ones. The latter seized on part of Bhen-i, and then on Honan, hove capita, named Koysongsfi he laid siege to, but was repuleed. with EP enenel ie oe tothe aher bot ident success the besieged choosing rather to feed ea human ficsh than surrender. The imperial forces coming soon after to its assistance, the general made no doubt of ing able to destroy the rebels at once, by breaking dows the banks of the Yellow rivers but unforionate- ly the rebels escaped to the mouotains, while the ‘was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the inhabitants perished. After this disaster, Li marched into the provinces of Shea-si and Honan where he put to death all the ‘mandariog, exacted great suas from the officers in place, and showed no favoar to any but the populace, ‘whom he freed from all taxes: by this means he drew so many to his interest, that he thought himself strong enough to assume the litle of emperur. He next ade vanced towards the capital, which, though well ga risoned, was divided into f id taken care dis. guise: and by these the gates were opened to him the third day after his arrival. He entered the city in triumph at the head of 300,000 men, whilst the em- peror kept himself shot up in his palace, busied only with bis superstitions, Tt was not long, bomever, be- fore he found himself betrayed ; and, under the great- cst conerntion, made an efit to etenpe oot of the palace, attended by about 600 of his guards, He was Bill more sorprised to-see himself treacherouely aban- oned by them, and. deprived of all hopes of excapin the insults of his subjects. - Upoo i to the di ing alive iato tl ths empress, whom he tenderly loved, and the princess her daughter, into » private part of the garden. His grief was so great that he to iter a|mard bat she soon undertod i meaning, and, after a few silent embraces, hanged fell on’a tes in aiken sringe Hler bosband ‘only to write these words on the border of his vest «'T have been basely deserted by my subjects ; do what you will with me, but spare my people.” " He then cut off the young princess's head with one stroke of his tcymitar, and. banged bimself on another tree, in the 17th year of his reign, and 36th of his age. His prime mivister, queens, and cunochs, followed example ; and thus ended the Chinese monarchy, give piace to that of the Tartars, which bath continoed Te was some time before the body of the onfortu- nate monarch was found. At last it was brought be- iy and by him used with the utmost ity 5 after which he caused two of Whay-t sons, and all his. ministers, to be bebended ;, but eldest son bappily escaped by fight, The whole em- 2 10 ] cHI pire submitted pencenbly to the ueurpee, except Prince ch U-san-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the province of Lyao-tong. ‘This brave prince, finding himself unable to cope with the usurper, invited the Tartare to his assistance ; and Tsong-te their king immediately joined him with an army of 80,000 men. Upon this the vsorper marched directly to Peking ; but not thinking himself anfe there, plondered and. burnt the palace, and then fled with’the immense treasare hhe bad gots What became of him afterwards we are not told bnt the young Tartar monarch was imme- diately declared emperor of Chinn, his father Tsong to having died almost as eoon as he set his foot on that empire. ‘The new emperor, named Shun-chi, of Xunchi, bee ‘gun his reign with rewardiog U-saoghey, by confer- the title of king ; and assigoed him the ‘pital of Shen-s, for his residence, Unsan-ghey from re- the Tartars, or, a8 be elf used to plirase it, “in sending for lions to drive amay dogs.” Tn 1674, be formed a very strong alliance against them, and bad probably prevailed if bie allies bad been faithfol; but they treacherounly desert- fed him one after another : which oo affected him, that he died soon after. Tn 1681 Hoog-wha, son to U-san- ghey, who contiqued bie efforts against. the Tartare, wwas reduced to such straits that he put an end to bis uring this time, some resistance bad been made to the Tartare in many of the provinces. Two princes of Chinese extraction had at different times been pro- ied emperors but both of them were overcome sod pot to death. In 1682, the whole 15 provinces were 60 effectually subdued, that the emperor Kang-bi tal soccer to Shat-chiy dtermioed to iit bi waive inions of ‘Tartary. He was accompanied by an army of 70,000 meo, and continued for some mouths taking the diversion of hunting. For several years be repeated his visite annually 5 and in his journeys took Father Verbiest along with him; by which means we have a better description of these countries than could ba their art preserve the footing they bad got in China. ‘The causes of this alteration in bis resolotion are, by to have been the slanders of the bot, from the keown character of the Je- Il be readily believed, that there was some- thing more at bottom. ‘This emperor died in 17.22, and was succeeded by his son Yon-ching; who not only {gave no encouragement to the missionar ated all Christians of whatever denomit cepting even those of that imperial race. ining of bi reign he banished all the Je City of Canton, and in 1732 they were banished from thence into Maka, a litle island inhabited by the Portuguese, but subject to China. He died in 1736: bot thoogh the Jesuits entertained great hopes from bis successor, we bave not heard that they have yet met ‘with any success. ‘Thus we have given an accent of the most meme- rablecHI C rz] cHI meen pole. was always surprised fo find this vers SH arrow and shallow ia that place: but Tnever thoogh of ingoiing ito the cause of it, unl the loss ofa bark belonging. toa Christian family aforded portunity. In that place where the river most of m sodden, tt fows with great impetoosity ; sphere it revomes its former breedth it ie quall rapide At the a igh rod the wind strong, the bark T Fiving above Ch ven on eand-bank for Tetween these two places the river ia fall of moveable sands, which are continually shifting their situation, ‘The master of the boat dropped bit ancher vail the wind ahoold abate, and permit him to continue his voyage 5 but violent vortex of moveable sand, which was cast op from the botiom of the river, Ind the ark on itt side} a second vortex succeeded 5 then aficrwards 1 fourth, which shattered the bark fo ler. WhenYarived a the lice where thi lon, the weather was mild and serene; I perceived eddie inthe current everywbere round, Thich absorbed, and carried to the Bottom of the Fi ver, whatever fonted on the surface; and I observed, At the same time, that the sand was thrown vicleatly up with a vortial motion, Above these eddies the water was rapid, but without any fall and in the place below, where the river resumes its weal courte, Ro eddies ate to be seen, bot the sand ie thrown opi the same violent manner and in some places there are waterfalls and a kind of amallilands seuttered st some distance from one another. These islands which appear above the surface of the water, are not told ext bt consist of branches of tre, root, and herbs collected together. I was told that these booghs ose up from the water, and that no one koew the zm whence they came. I was informed that were 4o oF 50 feet in extent on awed, were immovesble and the bottom of the river; that it was dangeroos to appronch them, because the water formed whirl pool everywhere ‘arnad them tht, however, when the river was very low, the Bsbermen sometimes vet tured to collect the busbes that floated on its eur- face, and which they ated for fuel. Tam of opinica, aay atthe place of the river which in abore Che-pa, the water fas info, deep pity from wbence it forces tp the eand with that vortical motion} and that it flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine leagues below, where itcarice with itll the booghs, nd Toots, which it washes down in is course, nd thus forms those islands which appear above ite turface. We kow there are sore rivers tht lose themscives entirely, or in prt, in the bowels of the tarth, and which afierwardsarine in some other place 5 but I believe there never was one kaown to loee part ofits water below ite own channel, and agein to: re s7,__ cover feat the distance of some leagues.” yoy bainn Tas already been sid, that China iy in general, ibacbeet a ferile country; and indeed al travelers gree inthis te famiter regpect, and make encomiume on the extent and heant ing wef sta plains. So careful are the husbandaen of this Tertine empire to love none of thei ground, that neither ia- closure, hedge, nor ditch, ney, scarce a single tee, Sre ever to be met with, "In several places the land Dields two rope a-yenrs and even in the interval be- tmeen the harvests the people sow several kinds of chi ppolse and small grein. ‘The plans of the. northera “—y provinces yield wheat those of the southern, rice, becanse the country is low and covered with water, Notwithstanding all this fertility, than those of the European nation tries of Evrope prodoce mach lem than China. For A tre cet in ined 2, Th dso ° ropa by drought, bail, inuadations, lee cunt, es in which cave Chinn canoot like the’ Ex. opeau countries be supplied by importation. This is Caen by eontdering how it's sted wie to other natioos. On the north are the Mi tars, a lazy and indolent race, who subsist p cn the fsb of their flocks 5, sow Jet for their owa vse, The province of Leatong, hich lies to the north-east, is indeed extremely fer- tile, but too far distant from the capital and centre the empire to supply it with provisions; and be- sides, all carriage is impracticable but i the winter, ‘when great qoantities of game and frb, preserved in ice, are sent thither. No corn is broagbt from Carea to China and thoogh the Japan islands are only thiee or four days sailing from the Chinese provinces of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was ever made to obtain provisions from thence ; whether it be that the Japanese have nothing to pa count of the insults offered by thoee foreign merchants, - Formosa lies ce of Fockien j but 20 fu spply asy thing, that segs erp fe inl “The prviaes of Canton is also bounded by the sea, and bas nothing ‘on the south bot islands and remote countries. One year, when rice was exceedingly seurce there, the em- peror sent for F. Parranio, 1 Jesuit misicaary, and ‘eked him if the city of Macao could not farnish Canton with rice watil the supply he bad ordered from other provinces should arrive : but was informed ‘that Macao hed neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nog flocks, and that it. generally got from ‘Chios ‘what was necessary for its subsistence —The only method therefore, the Chinese can take to guard aguinet ing from theve causes, is to erect granaries jc magazines in every province and most i ‘of the empire. Thin bas at all Principal abject of eare to the pablic + but though this mode of relief stil takes place io theory, to many ceremonies are to be gone Through before any supply ean be drawn from howe public repositories, that it seldom arrives seasenably at the places where it ie wanted: and. thor numbers ‘of unbappy wretches perish for want. -2. Another ‘eause of the scarcity of grain in ire, is the prodigious consumption of i in 8 find & spirituous liquor called rock, Bat though go- ‘vernment is well apprised that this is one of the prio- cipal sources ‘of famine througbout the empire, it ne- ver eroployed means sullicieat to prevent it. Procla- tons indeed bave frequently been issved, probibit- ing the distillation of rack; and the appointed offi- cers will visit the stil-houres and destroy the furnaces. if vothing is given them ; bot oa slipping seme movey foto ei hands, they ant ther eye, and go some whereChine, courts but they cHI c ve neither influence not power, ‘and their authority is lower than that of the meanest 6 ‘Mandasine otdifereat laser ‘The mandarins are of two classes, vi tere, and the inferior sort styled mands those of let- ine of arms. ‘The latter by no means enjoy the same consideration ~ in Cl sith the former sort; indeed the litera Fighty honoured, and to their inlence Mf. Groter opposite may ie a great mearore scribe the illness and. oyity of the gorermmeats thong face ty fncloe ruber too mach Several degreen,antwering to thowe of bachelor liceniate, and doctor ‘petted trough before ene ean ataia to the dignity of «mn Garin of letarey thoagh sometines, by tag favour of the emperor, it conferred on thom who bave at fed only the’ two Bret degrees: but even the perscas ‘who have gone throogh all. the three, enjoy at Bret ‘only the government of a city of the second or third lass, Whea several vacancica happen in the govera- ‘ment of cities, the emperor invites to court = corre- renting, ntaber of the Hteraty whore meme. are tretten dowa ins lst, ‘The sues of the vacant gor re then put into a box, raised so high that ates are able only to reach it with their ae which they draw in these tras, and exch is appointed goverace of the city whote sate he bas dame “There are eight orders of these mandarias ia Ct 1. The calao, from whom are chosen the sters of tint, the presidents of the supreme courts, and all the tuperior officers among the militia. ‘The chief of t ‘order presides also in the emperor's council, and en- joys a great ebare of his confidence, 2. The te.hioec, ‘or man of acknowledged ability, is « title bestowed ‘upon every mandarin of tha sccond rank; and from these are elected the viceroys and presidents of the tapreme ceonell in te diferent proviacer 3. The ‘clang tchac, or ecoo of mantacinn cts tectatien to the emperor. 4. Ytchuen-ton ‘Those keep in re- pair the harbours; royal lodging houses, and barks Thich belong ts the cepare welew particalatly co gaged in come other ofice by bis order. 5. Tho ting fill have the inppection of the troops, 6. The ton Ticwha have the care af the highways. 7. The. Bo- ao superintend the rivers. 8, The het-t20 faspect the ten-couste “Thus the whole administration of the Chinese empire 7 Oo paniacion of letters ; cae ‘ho ‘age paid by the common people to every mandarin in “affee almost equals that peid to the emperor himself, ‘This indeed flows from the nature of their government. En Chine itis a received epition that the cmperee 8 ibe father ofthe mbol empire thatthe governor of» province is the father of that province's and that the Enandara who is goveroce of acy in alo the father of that ety. ‘This ten is productive of the highest re- spect aod subeiaioo, which is not at all lepened by their great number} for though the omandarine of letters ‘amount to more than 14,000, the same respect is paid te every one of them. "The peandarine of arms are never indalged with any shar the goveamant of he ste} horever tot ‘ain the digatty, it i alse neceenry to pass thoog he degrees of bachelor, liceatiste, and doctor of eras, 14.7 cHI ‘The accomplishments necessary for a mandarin of arms are, streogth of body, with agility and readiness in per-—v forming the various’ military exercises, and compre hhending the orders requisite for the profession of arma 5 an examination on these subjects must be under Trfore the eauddate can alts the wibedsfor alge are met with ia Chi nals is held 1. The manda ‘Toe pintpal of there tibet Peking, and ‘onsite of five elasns of the rearguardy called ere x Ofte ll wing or aga SOE the signe ceo, Gr yeocfcas. 4. Of the advanced tsinguatdy or te Tanesfen 5, Of ihe advanced yoardsertaenfou, Thewe five tribonis are subordinate to oe named tmg-tching fous the president of whichis one of theyre londe th emp te ly exe once tmem ofthe empire, By his high dignity be cul vder himself ormable evento the ener y batt Prevent tis inconrenieacey be hat for his. ascwso Bandas of eters, who eojoye the tle and exerciee the function of voperitendan of arnt,” le mast ae fo'take the advice af two inspector who are med by the emperor and mien there Toor have agreed pes sey mene i rven mat ai fe be ted co the revieal of higher court named pi ich in eourely ofa cvilnaturer, The hie of tens is x general of course whote powers are tquivelent to thee of our coe taal Sel hin ate eer modus ho a sli "These two clases of mandarin compose what i eall- the nobty of China but as we have alrendy bint 4, their ofce is not bereditary’y the emperor alone Continues or confer it. ‘Tey have th pivege of te- tmousrating tothe emperor, zilicr as tdivdedls or ia body, upon any pat of his conduct which appears Contrary tothe interest of the empire. There Hemon- Strand are seldom ill received; toogh, the sovereign Cemmplie wih tem only when be hil thas proper ‘The oumber of iterary mandarfos in Chine ie comput. td at upwards of 14,0004 and tov of armn at 18,0005 the former, bowever, are considered sr the pineal boty inthe cmpires and thin preference is Cooght to damp the miliary’ ardour of the tation in, gener, td tobe one cause of that weakness in war fr which to ite ine cing! computed in tine ree j00,000. Their pay amounts vast extent and population 5 of pence at more than to about two-peace halfpenoy and a measure of rice er day, though some of them have doble pay, aad the of 1 horseman is double that of foot solder 5 the emperor furnishes a horse, and the horseman re ceives two measures of smell beans for his daily wab- fistenee the arears ofthe army being panctally pid ‘up every three months. ‘The arms of «horseman are, a helmet, cuiras, lance, ‘and sabre those ofa foot soldier are a pikeand sabre; tome have fuses, and others bows and arrows. Ail there are carefully inapected at every review end if any of them are found in the least ranted, or otherwise ia& Paniality wade the Chinese. cHI C aah, which may be called a kind inquisition, is ecbdivided foto four others the rst entrasted with the care of selecting those who, on ‘account of their learning or other good properties, are capable of filling the offices of goverameat the second it tof the mandarin; ig the seals to the diferent public acts, to mandarins, and examining those of patches while the fourth inquires ia- to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not exce ing the prioces of the imperial blood themoelv priocipal sovereign court to which these four last are ‘subordinate is called Li:pou. ‘2. How-pow, or the grand treasorer, superiotends all the finances of the states is the guardian and protec- tor of the treasures and dominions of the emperor, keeping an account of his revenues, &c. superintend= if the management and lic magazines, custombooses ; and, lastly, Keeping 28 eager ofall the amie Un ie capi Te this court, 14 others are appointed tl ‘the diferent provinecs of the empire. 3. Li-pou, ot the court of ceremonies.“ It is an vundoabted fact (says M. Grosier), that ceremonies form, in part, the base of the Chinese government. ‘This tribunal therefore takes care to support. them, and enforce their observance it inspects also the arts and sciences. It is consolted by the emperor when be designs to confer particular honours; takes care of the annul sacrifices ofered up by him, and even re- alates the cotertainments which he strangers or te 3 for the diffrent religious sects in the empire. ted by four inferior tribunals. Pou, or the tribooal of arms, comprehends in fs jridiction the whole mln of the empire as spectiog also the fortresses, magnzines, arsenals, and Store-houses of every kind, a well ax the manufacto- Fes of ‘arms both olleasive and defensive; examining ‘and appointing officers of every rank. It is com posed entirely of mandarias of letters; and. the four tribunale depending upon it consist also of li- inal bench for the whole princes ‘there the tibonals are held, with the temples, tombe ‘of the sovercigas, and all public monuments. "Tt has besides the superintendance of the streets, public high- ‘ways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing rels et to interual or foreign navign in the discharge of these duties 5 the first drawing the plans of public works the second directing the worl fferent cities of the empires the third surveying the causeways, roads, bridges, canals, &e. 5 and the fourth taking care of the emperor's palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re= ceiving their produce. ‘All the tribunals ve, and the other of Tartars} and ove of the pro- fidents of exch superior tribunal is always a Tartar bora. None of the courte above described, however, 16] CHI has abtolate aothority even in ite own juradictions cu; ions be carried into exccation withoot =, for instance, bas is jurisdiction the whole troops of the pires bot the payment of them is entrosted with the acondj while the snc bee the care ofthe amy ‘oats, chariots, barks, and stores necessary for milita peratioasj 0 that nothiog relative to Theva ean pat in execotion without the cancarrence of all the three tribunals. a To prevent any unlawful combination among. thecene tribunals, each bas its censor appoioted. This ty is merely to watch over the pro- ‘ecediogs of the court, without deciding upon any if himell. He avn therefore at all ascombles, tration of affairs, or in theit pri 7, sometimes he will not scruple to reprimand the emperor far what ho suppowes tobe erroneous in hi ‘conduct. ‘These censors are never removed from their places bt in order to be 5 and thos, bolding their ‘offices for life, they have the greater courage to speak fut when they observe any impropriety or abuse. The ficient ost on fot an iguiy, is to a proof, in which case t fou ie ete, and never eld any esti he complaints of the cen- ‘ore, however, are referred to the very tribonal against hove members they complain; thoogh, being afraid of ‘ccatation themselves, they very seldom pase sea tence against the accusers. ‘Besides all this, the censors also form s tribunal of their own, named fou-iche-goen. Its members have & right of remonatrating with the emperor, whenever hia grr interest or that of the public renders it necewary. They inapect all lawyers and military men. in poblic employments.‘ In short (says M. Grotier), they fare, morally spesking, placed between the prince and the mandarins ; between the mandarins and the peo- have patitntly safleed death, rather than Betray the aus of truth or wink ae abuse, It not suficent therefore to have gt rid of one they mot al be rent= ei the ste aoe the ie Gn ight be pred rou trend fo the sume tepe with no less rewltion than the who went before fray. Inthe anon of 0 tation do we Sed an example of euch tonal, yet Rrappente to be necenary io all wioat exception, We movt ost, homever imagine, thas the privileges of 2 centr gi hiss tight to forget his ty te hi tovereignor to eomminicate 10 the peble those re- tourks lich be takes the lbety of king he would be_punis ‘would share the same fate did he, in any of his repre- seatations,CHI [ 18] cHuI ina, - ceed to:the dignity or titles of their father, theugh they terference ef the supereargecs of the East India Com. et i eee” Tin eogees sees ecu cecirhg, surrren scopes ef ibe Stepan Stee ween! elias and een the thy mt ernie when he sou attains the age of 705, though tis rerigeati Pconidered ae at advice ralher than alone The will of a fatber cannot be act aside in Chi on acount Sr any infornaliyj nor cam any tether inthis empire "Though the Chioese laws authorize slavery, yet, the povrer of the master extends only to those matters which ‘concern bis own service; and he would be puoished with death for taking advantage of bis poner to debauch the wife of his slave ‘By the laws of China busbandsien are exesopt from the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the earth to the beginning of harvest. Te appears, from recent information respectiog many interesting particulars relating to Ching, tat. the ut~ ‘most atteotion seéms to bave been paid to the diferent grees of enormity attached to those actions of mea which are denominated criminal. ‘The code of laws is pronounced the reverse of sanguinary, aod itis afirm ed by competent jodges, that if the practioe in all re- ‘pects coincided with the theory, few nations ceald boast of a milder or mare effectual administration of justice. Bot while they do not consider the crime o few small pieces of money as of equal enormity with the shedding of human blood, yet they pay too little at- ‘tention to the three different circumstances under which at action may exist 5 either as accidental, oni tional as to the extent of taking away life, or malici- ously premeditated. Even forcigners who have the tisfetone to Kill « Chinete, however casvaly it may be done, have been punished’ in the very same manner f deliberate assassin. AS foreigners ‘to reside in China may be at a loss to deter- ym, when, and by what various means their ay be endangered, the following abstract of the crimioal code of that country may perhaps be beneficial ‘to some of our readers, 1. Aman who kills another on the theft, shall be strangled, nccording to ide coromitted in an aff. 2, Aman who Gres at another with a musket, and Aaills him sball be bebeaded, a8 in cases of wilful’ mar- der, Ifthe safferer be wounded, but not martally, the ‘offender shall be seat into exil 3. A man who pots to death a criminal who hed been apprehended, and made no resistance, shall be strangled, according to the law against homicide com- mitted in'an alfray. - Aman who falsely accuses an innocent persoo of helt (in cass of grestent cieialty) in guilty ofa capital offence ; in all other eases the ofenders, whe- ther principals or accessaries, shall be sent into ex- ile. ‘§. Aman who wounds ancther usiateationally, ahali be tried according to the aw repecting, bows ven io an aliny, and tbe posithment rendered more Eten severe, aeording tothe degree of lnjery sue tained, GA ran why iteined ih Hann, comit cotrages agaiot the law, sill be exiled to w desert ountey, thereto erm fo sate of vervitedee "For this abstract me ae indebted to the humane i- Frequently took place with the "Chinese government, awing to accidents of the wost trivial antare, which the people sometimes met with from the British in the port of Canton. ‘The blood of « tratar is suppoted to be contamina- ted in this couotry to the 10th generation, although the lay in general is conceived to be axtafied with ia plicatiog ube oearest ale relatives ia the guile of the ‘etual perpetrator of the crime, but with commetation of ponishmeat from death to exile. "Tt appears to as, that nothing ean be conceived more tyrantical than law which pretends to indict ponishment oa an iano cent pero, since no man ota be a traitor, merely from the circumstance of bis being the relation of one, and the absurdity of upposing that 2 noo-existence is capable of committing crime, mast be obvious to every mao. The fifth law ia the forementioned ex tract is peculiarly cruel and unjust, since it subjects © ‘man to different degrees of poaishment, accarding to te at smay produce. with a degree of national pride that me tora from this cruel, aboard specimen of inese legislation, thi -sirange judicial thermometer, if we may be allowed the {zi othe an dcinionoe hh oe made ‘the laws of oar own ceaatry respecting di il got once ne meg ing have ready meationd, and which are diatogunbed by ‘appropriate names of manslaughter, culpable home cide, and wilful murder. ‘The denunciations of Moses, it may bo said, have some resemblance to this Gothic cade of the Chinese, expecially when be declares thatthe deity woold visit the iniguities of the fathers open the ebildren to the third and fourth generation. Tris not oar province ia sccoust of China, to write an for Mowen in particular instance, although it ast be granted that the bed a most obstinate and refractory race of beings to {overn, and to preserve a becoming degree of erder and ‘Subordination among them. Hle might therefore have oe- thing more in view than politcal expedience 5 an opi ai lh ae th cer ecge crt when we find the prophet Ezekiel ing the idea of making the innocent selfer for the guilty, ia the following beautfel pssage. * What mean use this proverb concerning the land of Tera, eay- ng, the fathers bave eaten sour grapes, and the chil- dteu'e tecth are at on edge? alive, Ye shal not have occasion any more to te 4s Kerael. the father, 80 also ‘the son, is mine. ‘The foul that sinoetb, st shall de, The soa shal not bear the iniguity of the father, nither sball the father boar the iniquity of the oa the righteousness of the right- cous shall be upon Aim, andthe wickedness ofthe wick ff shall be upon fino? In crnintl matters every pron acconed ust be cibaoals Guiries are directed not aly a, bot agninat His accuser, and the witnesses that appear in the ennee, ‘Ho is, however, obliged to remain to prison during the process: but (Says M. Grosier) the Chinese Privo are not horible dungeons like those of 40 ma By other uations ; they are spacious, and have even a degreefare fo Cases in which be pardon a see Grover Tae Chinen, Chinese, with regard to er fasting. Like other monarcl cHI small gashes ia the body, and then tearing off in like thongs. It is never applied but for toni great crime chat ireson or where the ein nas goilt has been clearly proved, and it i to mae him dncover bis tecomplice, Notwithstanding these drendful ponishments, M. at great pains te prove that the laws of the Chinese with al mater, are exirme= mild, One law (says he) will no’ doubt appear exceedingly severe und rigorun} it inf the push ment of death on those who use pearls. ‘Those who read the history of Chis fall into cer tain mistakes respecting the penal laws of that os- tion, Some of have, indulged, theme selves in gratifying sanguinary caprices which: were hot authorized ly the laws, and which have offen een confounded with them 5 but theve princes are even yet ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names till abhorred and detested throughout the whole The Chinese, in their criminal procedure, have a great advantage over all other nation ‘almost impotsible that an innocent man sbould ever be- ome n vitin tow falve accusation: ia wach cates the accuser and witnesses are exposed to too much danger. ‘Tho slowness of the proces, and the numberless re- visions it undergoes, are another safe ose Tn shar ng sentence of into execution until it has been approved and_con- firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole process is laid before him; a number of other copies ‘are also made out, both in the Chinese and Tart Fangunges, which the emperor submi nation of a like number of doctors, either Tartare or Chinese. When the crime is of great enormity, and clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand at the bottom of the sentence, * When you re this order, let it be executed” withoot delay.” ceases here the erime, though punishable by deat according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary class, the emperor writes at the bottom of the ven= tence, Let the criminal be detained in prison, and exceuted in aotomn 5” that being the season in which they are generally executed, and all on the same day. ‘The emperor of China never signs an order for the execution ofa criminal till he has prepared himself by hhe as the power of giving pardons; but in this respect is much more lie ited than any other. The only cases in which the Chinese monarch can remit the punishment inflicted by law are, £. To the son of a widow who has not married again} 2. To the heir of an anci The descendants of great men orc leserved well of their country 5 and, 4. sho ha becone illus ished himeelf by faithfolly.dischar- fing the dotier of bis afc, Nether a cid, nor iman of very advanced age, can be cited before * bunal. ‘The son of a very aged father and mother is pardoned, if private property or the public peace be not hurt by giving him s pardon; and if the sons of such a father and mother be all guilty, or aecomplices in the same crime, the youngest is pardoned in order to comfort his parents. Ta China the accused are always treated with ten- [ 20 ] . bours are even obliged to answer for on derness and lenity, being x a their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty excepted, they are scarce allowed to want for any thing. ir uvished who behaves rigorously towards ers; and the jodges most. lik for any additions to the severity of the law 5 the slightest punishment inflicted op- Substitotion is sometimes allowed by the laws of Chinas so that the near relation of guilty per- fon may pot himself in the criminal’s place, pro- sd however, that the chat 5 rvons are permitted to visit them in prisons, and to Fire them every ansistance in their power to do which {ood offices they are even encouraged, instead of being revented. PErery city erent quar-Of ters, each of which in subjected to the inspection oftit+ 1 certain officer, who is answerable for whatever passes 2 in the places under bis jorisdiction. Fathers of fa- nilios, as we have already observed, are answerable for the conduct of their children and domestics, Neigh- another, and are bound to give every help and assis of robbery, Bre, or any accident, especial night-time. All the cities are furnished with gates, trlich are taricaded on the commencement sf ight eatin are alto poted at certain distance theogh- ‘out the streets, who stop all who walk in the night, fand a number of horsemen go round the ramparts for the same porpoes 20 the itis slmost impel t ic viglance by favour ofthe darkness A strict watch “is ‘aso kept’ doting the day-lime and all tote who give any wspicion by thir looks, accent, oF behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin, pleasure of the snd sometines even detsned oll the Borer be korres Brive gare do nt ten ba it in rare that they ae. atten {The chanploee sometimes deete the 0 their stn, Bot mort frequently refer the ete to Gari, who very often * treet arme in public and oi privdege i extended Sten ft tly dri th te sony or en they neconpeny s maedatin, mourt gerry or siiew a sven Brie ae ot allomed fo eae ihn the walle o's city orto keep = hose of tit own trea io the auburts. ‘They ay, however, lodge fo the house af another but that ther iv accountable for every dvtrbance mich may happen oo ther ac~ nal the Chidese cite, and even in some oftheir coe condnary towns, there is anafice where money may bea Barewed upes pledges atthe, common rate of the ountry which however, inna lesa than 30 per cent, Every pledge ie marked with a number when Tet at the cfr, und’ mart be prodeced when” demanded 5 but ft betomes Jbe_ property of the ofce if lt there t tigle day longer than the term agreed ope for the payment. at the. money. ‘The bale tnametion Famine un invlae serety no even the ame 1 man- ders them both a soond drub- ‘None but military people are permitted tocHI Chien, and for want of small coin, a Chinese always carries about him his scales, weighis, and a pair of ecistars to cat the metal. ‘This operation is performed by put- ting the silver between the scisars, and then koocking them against stone till the pieces drop off. In gic of change, however, people have no right to va- Jae silver by the numerical value of copper, this be- ing entirely regolated by the intrinsic valoe of the me- tals.” Thos, an ounce of silver will sometimes be srth 1000 ‘copper pieces, and sometimes only 8003 ‘and thus the copper money of China may frequently be sold for more tban it would pass for in commerce. ‘The emperor would love moch by this recoinage, were hhe not the sole proprietor of all the copper mines in Chiou. ein however, expreiy forbidden to employ ture where it might be nd it is also forbidden to be told for the porpose of melting : but if the price of the metal bas not fallen, the infraction of this | rot very severely punished. On the other hand, the value of unwrought copper exceeds that ofthe coi ‘quantity of the latter is issued out to restore the equi Kibrium. ‘To keep up a constant circulation of all the coin in the empire, the Chinese government are attentive to preserve an equilibrium between the proportional value of the copper and silver ; that is to regulate the intro value of each in such a manner that the possessor of silver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper, ror the posessor of copper for ‘The method ‘used for this purpose make all copper, F finances ; but on this subject the Chi. ‘an opinion quite different from that of Commerce, according to them, is it eases the people of their super~ the Enropean aul sel fir sit x uties, and procures them neceesaries, For tl son they consider even that which is carried on at Canton ‘as prejodicial to the interest of the empire. «They take from us (say the Chinese) our silk and porcelain: the price of these articles throoghout the provinces : such a trade therefore cane rot be beneficial. ‘The money brought us by Euro- peans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany i Ere cere supenities to such state a4 ours, “Wo have v0 occasion for more bullion than what may be necessary to answer the exigencies of government, and to supply the relative wants of individuals, Tt was anid by Kovan-tse, two thousand years ago, That the money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any other way than as itis introduced by commerce. conmeree can be advaniageou long but that which consists in w mutual exchange of things necessary or tueful, ‘That trade, whether carried on by barter or which has for its object the importing of ar- tend to the gratifeation of pride, luxury, he existence of loxury ? mindance of superduities mong certain elasses of people, eupposes the want of necessaries among ® great many others. ‘The more Tiorses the rich put to their carriages, the greater will Ye the number of those who are obliged to walk on 2 [a2] cHI foot 5 the larger and more magnificent ther houses are, Chin 0 moch the more coofined and wretched must those of —r the poor be; and the more their tables are covered a variety of dishes, the mare must the nomber of increase who are reduced tothe necessity of feed- ing upon plain rice. Men, united by society in a large and populoos kingdom, can employ thei industry, tae Tents, and economy, to no better purpose than to pro- vide necessaries for all, and procare convenience for some.”” ss ‘The only commerce considered by the Chinese as History advantageous to their empire, is that with Russia and! tm ‘Taraarys by which they are supplied with thove fareT™ ® so necessary in the northern provinces. ‘The dispates onceraing the limits of the respective empires of Rowsia and China seem to have paved the way to this commerce. ‘These dispates were settled by treaty on the 27th of Aogust 1689, under the reiga of Ivan and Peter Alexiowitz. ‘The chief of the embamsy on the part of Russia was Golovin governor of Siberia and tivo Jesuits were deputed om the part of f China 5 and the conferences were held in tara they yi vigation of the river Amour. The frst intercoune had taken place in the begianing of the 17th centue 15 a whic time a small quantity of Chinete mer ‘was procured by some Rossi Kalmock Tartar ‘The rapid and profitable ale of these commodities encouraged certain Siberian ‘wayrodes to attempt a direct and open communication with China, For this porpose several depotations were Sent to the emperor ; and thoogh they failed of obtain- ing the grant of a regolar commerce, their attempts were attended with some consequences of importance. ‘Thus the Rossian merchants were tempted to send traders occasionally to Peking; by which means a faint connexion was preserved with that. metropali ‘This commerce, however, was at Inst interrupted by the commencement of hottilities on the river Amour but after the eonclosion of the treaty in 1687, was re- ‘sumed with uncommon slacrity on the part of the Rut thence arising were found hat a design of enlarging it was reat, Isbrand Ides, a native of ‘the liberty of trade, before confined to indivi was now extended to caravans. In the mean i 4 continued to trade as before, rot only with the Chinese, but also at the head quar tere of the Mogul ‘Tartare. ‘The camp of thes ro- ving Tartars, which was generally stationed near the coniluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the ‘southern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul desert, thus became the seat of an annual fair. Complaints, however, were soon made of the ‘of the Russians ; on which the C threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely, and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinese nor Moguls. This produced another embassy to P King in'r719, when matters were aguin adjusted to the. CHI’ [4] cHI Chine for diecharging the ordinary expences of goverament, omething leh by way of rover for aosyering ae” ental demande, td ty be ready in ate of necesty. ‘This sum becomes gradcally lest fiom the capital to of the fret, second, afd thet cases A'proper statement of wha the prove reserved inthe ‘ot eontained inthe aif ferent treasries txamiation of the grand trun the whole, sod. keeps an exact accwvat of triut ia consumed, and of whatever” surplos my be 1h nl fending money open interest has been use ia for sbout 2000 years, Tt-has often been abo- Tished, and an often etalished. ‘The fterest a8 bas heen alrendy hinted, ino Tee than 3 per eonte ad the year i only Toner. A tenth prt af this interest ie paid monthly: and concerning. neglects of payment, Tie fallowing- lame bave, been enacted.“ Hever toch the debt may have accumulated by tonthe or year, the principel and all renain always Resnme,” Whoever intings this lay shal receive 43 of pan-teces or an bondred, if he ones any ar tice toad the principal abd interest together” Ths law is explained by the following, Whoorer sball te convited beforsw mandarin of not Baving paid wet all eeeve ten lows Gey for tivo month, and thirty for thre and in thiv manner fs fara sicty5 that tt say, tothe sixth moothe The Aor ia then bliged to pay principal and latrent bat those mbo obtain payment by sing violence nad force are condemned to receve-24 lowe ‘any Chinese writers bare endeavoured ansuccers grigal. ‘tre great fally to” show why government shoald allow soch exe iycaene” orbitant interest tobe taken for money but the mort ‘ged. satisfactory and rational account seems to be, that the great intevst of movey prevents the rich from pur- Sfnsiog much land at landed estates woold only em- iimpoverith them, their produce being a0 Hor ta that af money. The patrimony oft ‘Chinn {packet divided aoa never ap pens ‘there, as in aluost every other country, that ‘Wealth and ticbes are eogrosed by one patt of the na Ton, bile the ‘other potemes nothing. “Agriculture is by the Chineve contiered asthe fist ‘nl ot hana af al profenion ota nhs mpire the husbandman ‘enjoys many and. great po Tepes, while the merchant and mechenie are much less eee. "He is cor next nly of ers of alate, from whom indeed they very fequeatly serie Selden Chin ekGrter he ground, ft even the prcsts are employed in agreulire, whet thee convents happen to be endowed with land.” From the principle thatthe emperor i absolute proprietor of the Soil, one would imagine that the tenant ost hold his ahare of it by a very precarious tenorey yet i is that when any tan is disposed, his wn cul pate conduct fs te cause. The Chinese are 10 babi- ated to comider« piece of land as their own, while they continue to be ponctoal in the payment of thir reat, that a Portuguese resident in Macao who at- tempted to raise the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard of losing his life. There are no prodigiously over- grown farsn in Ching, no movopolizers of faros, no sale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his 3 RTE ary bis race to re nd on mat. ei of the crop is allowed to be used in distillation 5 —v brat if the harvest bappens to be bad, this operation iz. 2 Prohibited. Iu Chins, the tite of the ear vie aly encouraged by law, but alsa by the e th emperoy o nncallytl the etc oe sands. "The beginning of spring ia China is always reckoned tobe in the month of February j bot it bet" Tongs to the tribunal of mathemati to determine the precise day. ‘The tribunal of ceremonies announces it to the emperor by a memorial; in which every thing requisite tobe dove Uy him is mentioned with the most scrupulous exactness, The sovereign then names 12, Of the mos illustrious persone in his court to accompa- ny hay and bold the plogh fer bes perform. Dart of the ceremony. Amoog there there are always three princes of the blood, and nine presidents of supreme courte and if any of them are too old a inBrm to undergo the fatigue, totes must be authorized by the emperor. ‘The festival is preceded by a sacrifice, which the emperor offers up to Changi (the supreme God); after which be and his attend- is prepare themselves by three days fasting and con- Tnenee. Others are appiated by the emperor, oo the evening before the ceremony, to go. and. prostrate themselves at the sepulchre af his ancestors, abd to ace ‘quaint them, that, on the day following, be intends to celebrate a grand sacrifice. ‘This is fered upon a small mount a few furlongs distant from the ety, trhichy by the indispeosable rules of the ceremony” rust be so feet in height, ‘The Cbangeti is invoked by the emperor, who sacrifices under the reign pont, and prays for an abundant ‘our of his people. He thea descen by the three princes and nine president at their hands to the ploogh along. wil set apart for this purpose being ata small distance from the mount. Forty labourer» are selected to yoke the oxen, and to prepare the isto sows and which are of five diferent kind heat, ree, two kinds of millet, and beans. They tre brought othe spot in. magnificent boxes, earried hy persons of the most distinguished rank. - The empe- rer thn lysed af the plough and urs up sere furrows the princes of the bed do the same, and then the presidents; after which the emperor throws foto the furrows the five kinds of seeds sendy men- ed: lastly, four pieces of cotton-eloth, proper for making dresses, are distributed to euch of the labour- ‘rs, who asist ia yoking the oxen and preparing the feeds and the sae presenta are made to forty other persons vwho have only been spectators of the cere- mon os “+ WWe must not (says M, Groter) judge ofthe Chi-oF he nese peasants from those of Europe, especially ia whats. rents to the lights “acquired by education (Free fchools are very numerous in every provinee of Chins, tod even tome of the villages are not desta of thi Advantage. "The sons of the poor are there rece ts readily av hove of the ich} their dates and the tudiea are. the sume; the attention of the masters is equally divided betwcen them; und from this obscore core talents fen pring, which ftervards make a Conspicuous figure on the grand stage of thing is tore common in China than toChioa, mand and erder,” &e. ti CHI C ‘Over these inferior mande- the inspector. of the province has a very valimited anthority, and can, by his owa power, deprive therm of their employments for a. great offence 5 nor doet he consult the cowst excepting where the immediate po- nishment of the criminal is not necessary. Every ove of the mandarins, of whatever rank oF denomi is obliged, ouce in three years, to give in writing an tuget account af the faults be has committed i the cexecofion of his office. If be is a mandarin belonging 10 aby of the four rst classes, this confessioe is examic ned at court; but if it in made by any of the infe- ior ones, it most be laid before the provincial tribunal of the governor. Goveznmeat, however, is not ea- tisled even with this confession; inguiry is wade into the truth of it, and the conduct of the mandarin is acro- Linizad with the utmost severity, the informations be- ‘ng subjected to the tribunal of mandarins ; where they ‘are care(ully examined, the merits and demerite of those subjected to this’ political inguisition carefully i ‘ferwaris divided into throe the secend, for whom are tonegit wreseney§ Soa the third of hou whe ee, ta be enpded Some tine, of removed sltogetber, from their elias. (OF these fast some are allowed (0 continue ; bat they receive no-aslary, and are not aly deprived of all ; wt even ef their fonoure. If they Ihave been guilty of any action tending to oppress the rly wceasion fie or sence ong the Jower ranks, their ponishment is not cenbined to dis- slo rm he ees at they are ae xia Ampaached. ‘The family’ borying-place of every Chi- rete i accounted anced; none darer eit dom the itces wth whieh overahadowed uel they breome decayed with oges and even then, not uotil their com dition baa been altested by © mandarin: bot for cer~ a cryoesopuia goraromet orton pone, tha be Qingce oe mantra ee to oe fd io kind of punishment, however, inflicted on a he Tio famige he will perhape the emperor concerning bis family, he will perhaps cally abewer, “My father was disgraced for" auch’ rime, my grandfather was beheaded for auch ano- ther,” without the acknowledgement being in the least Aetrimental. On the contrary, by great and import- fant services, it is possible for him to wipe out these stains from the memory of his ancestors. ‘Though the empire of China is governed by Tartar es, the latter seem to bestow much more care And attention on the Chinese tlan their own natural subjects, Should avy dispate arise between a Chinese ‘Tartar, the former must bave greatly devi from the rules of justice, if be is not acquitted even by those tribunals ‘which are composed of balf Chinese and bulf Tastars. The slightest fault committed by a ‘Tartar mandaria is always severely ponisbed ; but the panisbment of the Chinese is often mitigated if the de- Finquent be a Chinese; and the same severity is exer d towards those of the military department, Those faults, however, are punished with tbe greatest sever ty which burt the interes, of the people; for which ‘reason they seldom fall » sncrifce to that class of petty a 26 J cHI tyrants who ia other coontries prey upon and devour oy them, Every superior mand obliged to inform — ‘himelf of the faults of bis inferiors, and expote them 5 , he would be ponished far them bimeclf if be did not. "Yery Tile regard, ae we bave already lad secnion ris to objerve, is paid to hereditary rights in China, Even of pr the princes of the blood enjoy no other privilege by Se! ‘bat that of wearing a yellow girdle j and the™ ‘names of their children, with the exact time of theit birth, are inscribed ins yellow book appropriated to that purpose, Collateral princes ished by fan orunge girdle, and their children are marked in & ‘book of a red colour. ‘The sarnames of the prinoce ‘of the reigning family are determined by the empe- roe alone 5 the rest not being allowed to assume any ‘mame that too much resembles those of the Moguls or Chinese, ‘The rank even of the emperor's none dimir aisbes one ration ; so that, at the aventby oly the eldest beaach bos tite to meas the lle ‘icds, the vert beiog sunk ints the rank of 7 plain citizens, An hereditary sovereignty, however, asses from one eldest son fo another ; and thie title cannot be forfeited, oaless the possessor be guilty of Tn this case the emperor appoints to the soceession either ove of bis younger brothers or 1 cou ins but these must be always chosen from the same raneb, aa the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its Fight without the condemnation of all who compose it ‘The only hereditary aothority of the other princes ex- ints among these troope called the Tartar beads. There they enjoy, without opposition, that rank which they derive fot (heir birth but ia every thiog elie are of aa level with others. ‘They are subjected to « military ‘examination at stated periods, and are always promo- ted or degraded according to’ the degree of skill they coxbibit, "The same tral is undergone by the beir ap parent and his sons ; the only indulgence shown them being, that schools are appointed for their particalar vse," The princes are likewise indulged with a triba- al” appropriated on parpose for them, and before hich alone they cam be tried. Am insult fered to = Prince decorated with the yellow girdle ia punisbed With deat ba if he a omited to pot i, om, the cxcapes with a bastinading. A prince may TEtpot to death with the emperor's couseaty bot be “scapes every lighter corporeal punishment by paying fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges eoperior to those of common citizens 5 and are generally very poor, unless possessed of some lucrative ofice. Thos they are tometimes reduced to the necemity of accept~ ing the highest pay of a common soldier io the Tartar bands, When they, or any of their children, bow- ever, enter into the marriage-sate, the emperor usa- ally makes them a present of 100 ounces of silver. He them on other oceasins eit their in never departs most exact rules of economy 5 #0 that the in this reapect are much better than the re- lations of the sovereign hiaotelf. Fr. ib ‘With regard to the ancient religion of China, Aniot iat sy that after making © esearch, comparing and reasoning upoo fom, beat last concinded, that The Chinese are a Sue iatinet people, who,have ° tic marks of their Bret oricual rayérs tothe inferior objects of ‘plored their protection and medi ‘While. the empi ‘Bounds, one mountain was auficient for the ancrificess tout in procees of time it became necessary to consecrate four ster Theve mere sated 4 the extremities of ‘the empire, and were supposed to correspond with the ‘of the world; and the prince went suc- ely every year to one of these mountains to offer 1B occasion at the same time to is people, and to inform himself of ‘This costom subsisted for a long tis bt at leogth it was found coavenient to add a fith ia im the centre of the empire and ever sinoe these have been called the five Yo, or the five moun- taioe of sacrifice. This method of subjecting the em peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at- fended with many inconveniences. It was found neces- ry account to consecrate some spot in the neighbourhood of his palace, which might be substi tuted for the Yo upon all occasions when the emperor could not repair to them. An edifice was therefore ‘erected, which at once represented the Kioo, Tam, and the Hell of ancestors. This last was a neceaa Af the edcny tecase it was incumbent on tose who ‘fered up sncrfice, frst to repair Co ths ball, and quaint their ancestors with what they were’ aboot to form; and thither also they retorned after sacrifi- to thank the same ancestors for the protection they bed received from the Changeti after which they offered op sacrifice of thanksgiving in honour of them, and performed certain otber ceremonies to show theit respect. The building contained five separate halle, appropriated to different purposes originally it had neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and = staircase of nine steps condocted to the principal ea- trance. Afterwards, however, it was much more rich- ly omamented, each of the five halls being decorated ih alms over, which others were placed that Sop ported a second roof. In succeeding times it was strip- ofall te view to biog beck re- ligion to its primitive simplicity. Its four gates were covered with fine moss, represcating the branches of which the dooble fence of the ancient Kizo were form- ed. The ridge of te roof was covered with the same, apd the whole was encompassed by a canal filled with water at the time of offering up the sacrifices. ‘To «thie « second building was added, which they called * the temple of neatnett, and which was osed only for po fications and ceremonies, the former being entirely ‘consecrated to the worship of the Chang- ‘At preseot there are only two temples in Peking, mimed the Zian-tan and the Zi-fon iu the construc: ign of which all the elegance of Chinese architecture is displayed. ‘These are both dedicated to the Chang-ti, ‘but uoder different titles; in the one he is adored as the, ternal spirit; in the other, as the ereator and pre- aoqver of the world. The ceremonics of the modera 4} and nothing can ex- aed the splendour and magaificence with which these salemnitien are porformed. Sometimes before the day appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the geapdees of the court, and all those whom their ea Ployments qualify to assist at the solemnity, prepare. a sncrifices are great!y malt c { 28 J ue ,shieets of their requests bot that, in olferiag up their c HI themsalves by retirement, feating, and continence 90 ox aedience is given Ly the emperor, and the tribunals = tre entirely shut » marris s, rejoicings, aad cntertainmeats of every kind, are then forbiddes. At last, on the day appoiated, tho emporer appears, wt- tended by an incurable multitade, and hw person surrounded by a vast number of prinees, lords, and of- fioers, whi the dast, and speaks of bimeelf before the Chong.ti ia tera ofthe met abject submission wad bowl ‘The purity of the ancient. Chinese however, been long. conta and fanatical sects. Among these, one named Too-sse founded by 1 philosopher called Lao-kivm or Lao~ tse, who was born 603 B.C. He died in an advanced age, leaving to bis disciples a book entitled Tao-t, be- ing’ collection of ‘5000 seatences. yas ‘8 great resemblance to that of Epicaros, It covsiats pally ia ba I vehement desires and pase sions capable of peace aod tranguillity ‘of the soul. According to bim, the care of every wise ‘man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from ref and pais, and to glide gently down the stream of life, devoid of anxiety and care. ‘To arrive at this Dappy state he advises his followers all thooghts ofthe pty and to bain rom every vin and sles inguiry concerning fatority, ax well as all tormentis thoughts of ambition, avarice, Qt. Tt was foond by the disciples of this philosopher, bowever, that all their endeavours to obtain a perfect tranquillity of mind were vain, as long as the thoughts of death faterveneds they therefore declared it possible to discover « compo- ‘ition froma which drink might be made that woold re der. mankind immortal. Hence they were led to the study of chemistry 5 and, like the western alchemists, ‘wearied themsalves in setrch of the philosopher's stone, until at last they gave themselves up to all the extras vvagancies of magi Se desire of together natural to unenlightened minds, quickly prode- ‘ced a nomber of converts to the sect of Tao-sec, Ma i woestion of tnd the art i ly diffored ‘been prescribed by their master. At they distributed, and sold dear rats spirits with which they bad peoy the earth. These were, by their commend, ‘as s0 many deitics independent of ‘the Bo preme Boing : and ia like manner, several of the an- Eien emperor were invoked ae gods. ‘Being patronized by the emperors of several dy- nastics,as that they pluck out the eyes of the cHI E ing the most alsurd stories concerning the missionaries; converts to ‘construct telescopes with, &ce. The 7 and the more sensible part of the nation, hold them ia the greatest contempt. "We shall conclade this detail of the Chinese reli- persion gion with giving an account of ove other superstition tthe fonge whi tbe fone hi ews end tothe nation. It is named fong- ies wind and water. By this they ‘mean’ the lucky of oulucky sitoation of a bouse, bury ing-place, Se. If any improdent person has built a house close to that of a Chinese, in soch a manner that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or oof of the former house, the proprietor ever after lives in terror of utter ruin and destruction from the ‘malignant influence of that angle. An implacable Ihatred instantly commences betwixt the_ two famil and often gives rise to a law-auit, which fori ter of discussion for some of the superior tribunals, If no redress can be bad at law, however, the Chinese is then reduced to the necesity of erectiog, on the top of his house, an enormous image of a dragon, oF some ith its mooth gaping towards the angle, it were, threatening to swallow it up3 after ns_of the proprietor begin to subside, and tranquillity is restored to the family. Tn this manner the governor of Kien-tchang secured him- telf from the influence of the church of the Jesuits, ich being bil onan eminence, overlooked is pax Not ing, however, entirely on the good gon, he also took the wise precaution of altering his principal apartments, and raising, at the distance of 200 gaces from the church, kind of large fagade three stories high, But une Teciy the dnt Sf hi ecco wan tiated to this fagade for the mandarin being attacked with a disorder in the breast, which made him spit up a white phlegm, this epmptom wae thought to be owing to the ‘walls ofthe facade, which were very white, and which were forthwith painted black. ‘The tion, however, happened to be taken too late } for the agovtnor ded notwithstanding the black cler ofthe walls. “ We should never have done (says M. Grosier), ‘were we to relate all the superstitious ideas of the Chic pose, repecting the Incky'and_unlocky situation of houses, the quarter which doors ought to front, and the plan and day proper for constructing the stoves in hich they cook their rice.” But the object oa which their greatest eare is the choice of the ion for a burying-grouad. Some quacks follow no other profession than that of pointing out hills and mountains which bavo ao aspect favourable for works of that kind. When a Chinese is persunded ofthe tra of each information thee in sm which ‘would not give to be in possession of the fortunate spot. The greater pert of the.Chinese are of opinion that all the happiness and misfortones of life depend upon the fong-chou. ‘A-colony of Jews wat catablished in China about the year 206 B.C.3 but they are now reduced to a omber of families at Cai-fong, the capital of rovince of Honan. The Mahometana bave mal- ied much more than the Jews. It is about 600 years since they Grst entered the empire, where they, 3° J eut have formed diferent establishments. At fint their chi ‘pumber was augmented only by marriages; but for ‘some time past they have been more partioolarly at tending of theit sect and propegating ‘The principal meass employed for arpore are, to parcbase a great number of chile dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor are glad (8 part with and these they ciroumeise, and afterwards instract in the principles of their religion ‘Dosing the tine of «famine hich dented the pro~ Vince of Chang-tong, they purchased mero than 10,000 of these children ; for whom, when grown up, th rocored ives, built houses and ven Tersed whole villages of them. ‘They are now become so numeroos, thats te plas whee hay rode try rely ox lade every inbabitant who does not believe in. their prophet, aod froquent a te: ith regard to the manners of the Chinese, they erem bear no resemblance to those of any other nations and, fman if wo may believe their historians, they are the same at this day that they were 4000 years ago. ‘The wo- ‘men are condemoed almost to perpetual imprisonment within the precioets of their own houses, and are ne- ‘ver seen even by tended husbands before mare riage. He knows nothing of her looks or perton, but from the account of some female relation oF confidant, so inch eats aci the part of matchmaker thy if imposed upon either with ‘to her age or fine ea bore recone (ee dveces Tp sume matrons who nego ast pay, to the Father dace net gro sum which the or close palangnin, the key of which is committed: to the care of « trusty domentic, mbo mast deliver it to tone bot the husband, The latter, richly dreseed, waits at his gate for the arrival of the procession. As soon ts it approaches, the key is pot into his hands he ‘eagerly opens the chair, and for the firot time perceives i TE he: is contented with his ‘deocends and enters the hoose, conelnded by feasting and mee- rimeot as in otber countries but if the bri isappointed, he suddenly shats the chair, sends the bride home to her relations. To get rid of her in this manner, however, costs a som ogual to ‘bat be originally gave in dowry to obtain ber. ‘The Chinese women, even of tho first rank, seklom quit their apartment, which is situated in the most re- tired part of the house, and in which they are-secho- ded from all society but that of their domestics. ‘The book of ceremonies requires that there should be two i ior one for the ‘Thoy most-even ‘be separated by wall or wooden partition, the door of which is carefully guarded 5 nor is the bosband at liberty to enter tho wife's apartment, or she to-qut it, ais chin on, Ascent ot the_pratling pacity of x woos are zeokor sufficient grounds for.n divorce, If tl in fact, the women of China are either ubexampled for taciturnity, oF elae multitudes af divarces most bo daily socurreaces. A woman, however, candet be divercedcH} ._ nations which they are obliged to undergo before they Gide almited tthe Brot degrees De Hilde gives a remarkable stance, viz. that “a candidate for de- contrary to order, made use of sa ab- ion in writing the character ma, which sign a horse, had the mortification of seeing his composi- tion, though in other reapects excellent, rejected mere- ly on that account ; besides being severely rallied by the mandarin, who told him a borse coald not walk: une Tess‘he bad all his legs.” Alter the scholar has made himself master of the ‘characters, he is then allowed to compose ; but the subject of is composition is pointed out to him only by ane word, Compatitins are likewise established » but, most of them are of a private nature. Twenty briny Tae, ho areal of the une ame, and who consequently have only one ball for the names oftheir ancestors, agree among themselves to send their children twice’ month to this hall der to compose, Each head of family in turn gives the subject of this literary contest, and adjudges the ‘prize ; but this costs him a dinner, which be most cause {o be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about ‘tenpence is imposed on the parent of each scholar who absents himself from this exercis Besides these private competitions, every student is sblged to compete at lest tice year under the tion of an inferior mandarin of letters styled Hio- Huan,” Te frequently lappent alse thatthe mandarine of eter order tte eadents to be browgh. before them, to'examine the progress they have made ia t dies to excite a een ong the, sod make them give suc ay qualify them for any employment in the aate,, Even tbe governors ‘of cities do not think it below their digaity to take this care opon themselves dents ‘who reside near them to appear before their tribonal fonce a moath : the author of the best competition is honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the caodidates onthe day of competion at bis, own ex- mee. In every city, town, and village in Chis Rie e selene each suck ever known in that country. Parents possessed of a certain fortune provide masters for theit children, to attend land instruct them, to fora tl ls to virtue, and to initiate them in the rales of good breeding nd the sccustomed ceremonies, ar wel ns tomake hem ac. ied with the laws and bistory, if their age will ‘These masters have, for the most part attaine gd tone orto degres among the Tierat and Srequeutly arrive at the frst employments of the state. "Hic edoenon af the Chines women coved to giving them a taste for solitude, and accustoming them to modesty and silence 5 and if their parents are rich, they are kewise instructed in such accomplishments as may render them agreeable to the other sex. “Frere is litle datnetion in Chiou between the or- inary drom of men and women. Rank and digoity ished by certxin nccessary ernaments 5 and the person would be severely chastised who should pre- sume to assome them without being properly aot zed, The dress in general consists of a long vest wl Feachos to the round. One past of thi ey viz that on the left side folds over the other, and is fasten- ce to the right by four or five small gold or silver but- C 32 ] cHI tons, placed at » litte distance from one another. The | Cli sleeves are wide towards the ehoolder, growing narrow er as they approach the wriat, where they terminate in the form of « horse shoe, covering the bands entirely, and leaving nothing bot the ends of the fingers to be cen, Round their middle they wear « large girdle wich bang dowa to the “his girdle is suspended sheath containing = feces af thor emall sticks which they ws as rks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawe in sommer made of linen, sod Yo winter of atin ned sur, wometines of” cottny tnd tome of the northern provinces of skins. ‘These are sometimes co- ‘vered with another pair of white talety. ‘Their shirte are always very short and wide, of diferent kinds of cloth, according to the season. Under these they wear silk net to prevent it from adbering to the skin. In trarm weather they bave their necks always bare ; hg it rod sey vere cmlee ade of SK ad trimmed wit sbeep aki, or ‘That of people of quality is entirely lined ins brought from Tartary, or trimmed with sable and in the spring it is lined with ermine. “Above their robe they wear also a kind of surtout with wide sleeves, but {ery shorty which ined in, thse, nase, The emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to Sear yelow cra madarne hate. erty tment of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony : general they are ‘clothed in black, bloe, or violet. ‘The common people are allowed to wear no other co- Toure but blue or black ; and their dress is always com- posed of plain cotton cloth. Formerly the Chinese were at great pains to pre- Chine scr ther hur bo te Tartar, who subdued them, he Compeled them to cut of te greater part of i, and tte alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fashion.‘ ‘This revolution in dress was not effected without blood- d, though the conquerors at the same time adopted in otber respects the faws, manners, and customs of the conquered people. Thus the Chinese are painted as if bald, but they are not so caturally 5 that small por- tion of hair which they preserve bebind: orn the tops of their heads, now allowed them. ‘This they wear very long, summer they wears kind ed cone, lined ‘ery prety wrought. ‘The top termi point, to which they fix a toft of red h Aprends over it, and covers it to the brim. Thi grows between the legs of = kind of com, and is c pable of taking any coloar, especially a deep red. This ‘ornament ie much used, and any person who chooses ‘mandarins and literati wear a cap of the same form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red sat ther! and covered on the outside with white, A large tuft of the finest red silk is ized over it, which is slfered to hang down or wave with the wind. People of di- stinetion generally ute the common eap when tbe} trovat on hrrchack oF dorlog bad weathers, being Letter calculated to keep off rain, and shelter those who wear it from the rays of For winter they have another eap bordered whh sable, ermine, or fox'scHI and all the rest of the guests do the same, otherwise the ‘woold be gone through with each of them. inment i cneladed By some hentia re- ‘of the coun- behold these theatrical representa ‘women are allowed to view them throvgh contrived #0 that they may behold them without. bein seen tbemeseees 7 7 * ‘The entertainments of the Chinese are begun, not” 1, but by drinking; and the liguor they driok lways be pure wine. ‘The intendant, hotel, falling down on one knee, frst invites the guests to take a glass on which each of them lays Hold with both hands of that which is placed before hhim, raising it as high as the forehead, then bringing it lower down than the table, and at last potting it to bis mouth they all drink together, and very slowly, taking three ot foor draoghts.. While they are drink. ing, the dishes on each of the tables are removed, and others brought in. Each of the guests has twenty- foor set before him in succession 5 all of them fut, and in the form of ragouts, ‘They never use kaives in their repasta and two small pointed sticks, ornamented ‘with ivory or silver, serve them instead of forks. "They never begin to eat, however, until they fz and the ‘gone through every time they are of wine, o begia's new dish. ‘Towards the of the entertainment the soup is brought in, accom- penied with small loaves or meat pies. These they take up with their small sticks, steep them in the soup, and eat them without waiting for any signal, or being obliged to Keep time with the rest of the guests. ‘Tha entertainment, however, continues in eter re, pects with the utmost formality until tex is brooght in} after which they retire from table and amuse themselves in another bal, or in the garden, for a short time, until the dessert be brooght in. This, Tike the cotertainment itself, consists of 24 dishes, which are made up of ewectments, fruits difereatly prepared, Jams and salted ducks which bave been baked or dried in the oan, with shell and otber kinds of fish. | ‘The fun eremeno whch poe the Spe oe to renewed, and every one sits down at the same place Fe octapied before, Earger cope are then broght in, and the master invites the guests to drink more ee begin tomrds evening, and entertainments begin towards evening, never en il midnight. Aaa om of mosey is given to the domestics; when every one of the guests goes home in a ebsir preceded by several servants, ‘tho carry large Ianthorne of oiled paper, on which are inscribed the quality, and sometimes’ the name, of the master. Without such an attendance they ‘would be taken up by the guard ; and the day fellow ing they never fail to retara a card of thanks to the ‘Their method of drinking ten is oot like that of other nations. A. small quantity of bobea, sufficient to tinge the water and render it palatable (for they C 4] China. pliments, ond begs to be excnsed from sitting in such ‘——-— an honourable seat, which nevertheless he accepts of; cHI drink no green), is taken in the mar Sato a veel adopted to the number in stands till milk-warm ia which state i whole day, and a cop drank now and tt sugar or aik, in order to exhilarate the ‘when ‘exhausted by fatigue: and if a stranger call by accident, or a visitor by appointment, the first thing presented, after the usual ceremonies of meeting, is a very small pipe filled with tobacco of their own growth, and a cup ‘of the tea already mentioned, or of some fresh made of better quality, together with eweetmeats, &cc, Tea is the daily beverage ia Chioa, and is drank by all rranks of people. Some change has been made in the ceremonial of tte Chinese, by the Tartar conquest, and some new dishes also introduced by the same means; and here 'M, Grosier observes, that the Tartare are much better cooks than the Chisese, AI thir dishes ae highly without their spiceries, they are able to hes out of the same materials, None of their viands, owever, are mare esteemed than stags sinews, and the net of pricolr species f birdy wich ave the erty of a raost agreeable relish to what ver is mixed with them. Other dishes are inrodoe ted at these repasts, which would be accounted very inagreeable with us} such as the Resh of wild horses, the paws of a bear, and the feet of several wild animels. ‘The greater part of these pro brought peered ia atom Sian, Exmboye, and ‘The wines of China have no resemblance to oars chic either in taste or quality, being procured from rice, wint ‘and not from the vine. “A particolar kit employed for making them, and the gra ced for 20 or 30 days ia water, into which ingred ‘of a different nature are successively thrown : they af- terwards boil it and as soon as it becomes dissolved by the heat, ately fermeats, and. throws up a vaporois scom not unlike new wine. A. very fiquor is found onder this scum, which is drawa ‘off and put into vessels well glazed : From the re- ‘maining leys an inflammable spirit is made, little io- ferior, and sometimes even superior to the Euro- pean.” Another kind of wine is used by the Chinese, or rather Tartar, called lamb wine. Tt is very strong, and has « disagreeable smell and the same may be belioved of kind of spirit distilled from the flesh of sheep; though this last is sometimes used by the emperors. hese entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary. repaste; the Chinese being natorally sober, and those in easy circumstances living chiefly on pork ; for which reason a great aumber of hogs are bred in the country. ‘Their fesh is much easier of digestion, and more agree- oi th ae cha hn of Ears The Cote ame are in high estimation, ‘The common people live tery pcry | Esog etude i te of sey wih the Hah of dogs, Uren, cat, and rats, which last are sold publicly ia the streets. ly the emperor tills the ground with ‘alto celebrated on the same day througbout the em- pire. In the morning the govecaor of every city comesnies, ‘The emperor marches Vin proportion to his superior quality. a8 Kae ee diy clined to a Ee CE. anne on ok upon them an many degreet CHI th still more magnificence, ‘The trumpets toed i is procenion tre best thee fet lng, eit inches in dameer tthe lower extrmityy and’ prety much stsembling' bella shape thir sean pee iy aapted (tint of the trom, Hy crane i noc by 2000 mandarian'of Iter, and many of tra. Bonstimes tbe grest wandaret ssl the tmperor, travel fa bla their itendahg then mewbat diferent, but. the magnificence almost the ime he honours pid ton viceroy who be governed f provoce wile uit are eccoedngy greet ow Ui departure fom i "Hz bas scarcely ete capital of the province when be findi on the highway, for the tpact of two or thre lenges, tables mged at een listances, each of which is surrounded cc of Sk that bang down tothe erty Rte eandlen are placed even the open dey: pvfowes tre burnt opon them and they are loaded witha prov a mn of victaals, and ea kinds of fit, ee tea ted wine are propel far him on thers” The pos lo throw themselves on their Kuces as he panes, and re thett heads even to thee pretend odo oy vue present i nny others Regoenly pull of him new ones, These boots, whic fod ony eh moment are. eatdered’ q Ronoment ; thove fit taken off are preserved in a. tage aver the gts of the ety the rat are cael kept ty his friends. Hitherto eur author, Grosier, has seemed in- ive a favourable idea of the Chinese, and to ior to ‘ourselves in the practice of virtue and morality ; but ‘when he comes to give an account of their dealings trade, he is then obliged to confess that they are as di ‘arace as any thht exist. The most of Europe (says be) afford bat = {dea ofthat immense number of buyers and sellers wil ‘hich the large cities of China are continually erowde ed. We may almost say, that the one balf are em= ployed in overreaching the other. It is, above all, against strangers that the Chinese merchants exercive, ‘without any sense of shame, their insatiable rapacity. ‘OF this F. du Halde gives’ striking example, which sight be tupported by many others: * The captain of to English reel bargained with 2 Chinere merchant st Canton for several ble of i was to provi srere ready, the captain went with his foterpreterto the Toute of the Chinese merchant to examine whether they were sound and in good condition. sre tr tain on thie fell into a great passion, and reproached the merchant io the soverest terms for his dishonesty. The Chinn afer cng adie fr som ine, vith great coolness, replied, * Blame, Sr, your knave Sian ttrpretry be lured te tht Yon wold ont fospect the bale ‘The lower class of people are, above all, very dex- teroot in counterfeiting and adulteratiog every thing they tell. Sometimes you think yoo bave bought © taper, and you receive nothing but skin all the rest has boca scooped out, und the place s0 ingeniously. fled, C 36 j cHYI that the deception cannot be discovered tll the momen jou begin to eat it. ‘The counterfeit hame of Chin Tite teen often mestioed, They are made of pice of wood cet in the form of a bam, and conted are swith» certain ‘covered with hog? iy peated and prepare necessary to detect the fraud. Mr Or ig one day observed Hind wn tome of thot trees ealed 6 i be porchased one, mbich to closer examination, he found thatthe lowers were take: from another tree, and that one calyx was eo neatly ft ted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that h should scarcely have discovered the deceit had not th flowers begun to ‘The tree itself had buds, bu not one open flower. ‘Te robbers in Choa sgualize themselves sso the dexterity and ingenuity which they display their profession, ‘They seldom have recourse to acts ¢ violence, but introduce themselves into hoose eithe ly or by forming some connection wit the fa tie as diGicalt in China to avoid robbery a8 1 apprehend the criminal in the fact. If wo ar desirous of finding among the Chinese openness of tem per, benevolence, friendship, and, lastly, virtue, we mot not seek for it in cities, but in the bosom of tbe coun 7 among that class of men who bave devoted th aclves to labour and agriculture. A Chinese rosti often discovers moral qualities which would add ; Tune tothe character of, men of the mot exalt rank. Tt appears that rora life natorally inspires sen timenta of benevolence ; by contineally receiving th gifts of nature, the mind is , and men an fnsensibly accustomed to diffuse them to those aroon: them.” ‘The internal commerce of Chit than that of all Europe: but its foreign trade is b; ‘n0 means equal to that of any of the grand Enropeai powers. Its internal commerce is greatly fcilitat by the vast number of canals and rivers with whiel the country is intersected. ‘The Chinese, however faze not at all fitted for maritime commerce: Fer ef their va go nyo the erie of Sand the to Malacca extended only as far x ‘Ackeco, tavards the straits of Batavia, and. north wards to Japan. “Their commerce with the last mentioned island, con sidering the article of exchange, which they procure x Camboya or Siam, produces them cent. per cent. ‘The trade with the Manilles brings only about 50 per cent Their profit is more considerable aboot Batavia ; anc the Dutch spare to pains to invite them to traffic « their settlements, ‘The Chinese traders go als, thoog! not very frequently, tb Acheea, Malacea, Thor, Patan and Ligor, belonging to Siam aod Cocbi whence they bring gold and tin, together ‘objects of Toxury for the table. "A great obstacle the foreign commerce of the Chinese. ie their indi bout maritime affairs, and the bed constroctior ir vessels. This they themselves acknowledge but say, that any attempt to remove it would be dero- gating from the laws, and subverting the constitutior of the empire. ‘The burying-places in Chinn. aro always stented at ther.cHI Ghina, men, "The eldest son, clothed ia 8 ‘having his body bent ‘and leaning on a staf, follows near the coffin and behind him bis brothers and no- phews, but none of them clothed in canvas. Theo ‘come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning, aand followed by a great number of chairs covered with ‘white stuf, which cootain the wives and ferale eaves of the deceased. ‘These make great show of sorrow by their doleful eres ; bat MI. Grosier observes, that, in spite of all they can do, the lamentations of tbo Chinese are so methodical, that an Earopean would be ‘apt to conclude that they were the eficts of art ra- fie ces aoe secs te angel ‘oppressed with grief. When at the bary- ing place, the coffin is deposited in a tomb apgroprin- ted for it, not far from which there are tables arran- ged in different balls, and on which the avsistants are ntertained with great splendoor. The entertainment 4s sometimes followed by fresh marks of bomage to the corpse bat these are often changed inte thanks to the ‘eldest son ; who, however, answers only by signs. But 4f the deceased was a grandeo of the empire, a certain umber of his relations naver leave the tomb for m ‘month or two. There they reside in apartments Joely provided for then, and every day renew chee ‘aarks of grief in company with the children of the de- ‘ccated ‘magnificence of these foneral cereme- ies is ioned to the wealth or dignity of the decemed. ‘That of one of the brothers of the em ror was attended by 16,000 people, each of whom EGd's persinior ofce anigned hm relting 00 the ‘ceremony, ‘Mourtiog continvee io Chia for three during all this tiwe they are obliged to abstain from the use of flesh and wine} nor can they assist at any entertainment of ccvemeny, er attend any poblic ai sembly. At frst they are not even permitted to ge 5 and wien they do vo they are carried in a covered with « white cleth, Semetires the filial ‘iety of the Chinove ie carried to such « leogih, thet ‘hey preserve the bodies of their doceased fathers a thet hone for tne or four ere and these me do ‘20 impose also oyon themselves a great nomber of other duties, using no other seat duriag the day bot « stool ch white serge, nod no ther bed but «pla tmat made of reeds whic is placed near the cola. 3e only diversions of the and Shing, dancing net if forbidden by law. Finb- rather a5 an object of com- merce and industry than amusement. ‘They catch fish bby various methods ; vsing vets in their great Beber- ice, bat lines in the private. In certain provinces also they uso n certain kind of bird, whote plumage great reeembles that of a raven, bot with a moch longer bill, ‘ery sharp and booked.’ ‘hie method of Brbleg ie practised in boats, of which great mumbers may be ‘teen o0 the river’ about eun-rising, with the fshi birds perched on their prows. ‘These birds are tau to catch fish almoet in the tame meaner that doge pur: ‘ve game. ‘The Sshermen, after making several torne ‘with their beats, bent the water strongly with one their ours. ‘This serves as » sigual to the birde, who, instantly plunge into the water, and diving, swall ‘es many small bes as they oan, repairing immediately a frock of canvas, 95 and and Gahing: Kein, tised, and tog © enidere by hem C 38 ] cHI sfterwards tothe bout, and carrying « lenge on sil thes bl The eal onesT ora pe im paasing into the stomach by a ring placed on par- ose fo conde te gollts and thos the Gabermest by froaking ite neck with the heed dowawerdyy makes the bed dngorge all those small chit bao ewallowed, ‘Wen they have dove faking the riogo are takew of, and the bird allowed to fet When the Bah bappens by the ted to be too large for n single bird, the others have city encoph toa it one taking it by thet am aaher by the heady ee. and chun they trneport i to ir master. ‘Another method of fishing, practised only in Chios, is us follows: They mail a board aboot two feet in breadth, which is covered with » white shining Kind of ‘varnish, upon the edges of loog narrew boat, from ‘one end to the other. This board is ploed in snch a manber ss to lope ales bly to the water. eis owed ooly ia the ai ays turmed towards the moon, thet the ight Foca the Jominary ay focresse the splendowr of the verni. ‘Be Eb in spring, fe mistake this arobed rd ‘water snd endeavouring ta throw themselves inte Tie ldo have « parole method ho soldiers have parti of Bekin wrth bow sod arrows the later of which i fzed tothe bow by's string, both to prevent it from bein Jost, and to coable them to draw out the fb whi the’ arrow has picroed ; others make ove of tidests to catch large fab which are sometimes found ia the mod. "Besides these diversions the Chinese have some strll- ing players, bot no regular theatres they bave like tie obiciae and singers, i Pole ne ty Sn ME, Grsiers open, withoat cient, at sed on bas never changed ioe inebtnte aod if revlon have ented oy seirtre of ew I Sy the anciak Ttogenge ban slwsgs Eeen predomizant, and’ tnt the sew octlers hove learned aod spoken it s+ the Mae Site Tartare her tne rage 3." mit teligent and dacernng of the lira agrer, that the tr tne ft Cr Sag were written ‘under the reign af Yao, 2300 year heloe Chain j nad fa teva Several apeecbas of the Sia emperors ar related ord for wordy aod it isnot probable that the looguage of those princes was diferent fom that of the Binet ‘4A compliment paid to Yao by one af be robert, Tiles tre Cong compel ndee the ans Tag Tell ae tr ong came Tag a ingenge spoken Srocgbut the mite ot he the empire at oy. tinerebave, borrowed tog frome aie ad enact hom toma, and Co antiquity, mist wodoabtedly be very a retrable to sey fangeation, Toe lnpange ope by the vulgar, Indeed, must have moe gt) Dt ne ny be sowed val, aetng alyc HI Chien, dectioe. They pretend indeed, but without addocing any eatnacory prot oft trihy that the monowents ofl 14 Chinese ‘writing. ont Posty. teratare were destroyed by the tyrant Bhe-whang- te a0 yur Infoe the Chelan ey tat meee ‘geoerations might consider him as the first civilized ‘emperor who had ewayed the sceptre over that extea- sive country. The chief works at present among thom ‘are most valued, etudied, and least understood, are the five clauica collected by their favourite Coog” foo-tae, 450 yeara B.C. mod which itscem bad the good fortune to escape the aalettered fory of She-wbang.te- ‘These classice are esumersied by Mr Barrow in the following order. 1, Shoo-king. A collection of records and annals of. rious princes, commencing more than 2000 years BC 3 a - ES ing. Oies, sonnets, and maxime ; most them so abundsat in metaphor, snd so obscure, that much of the sense is to be made out by the transla- tor. 3, Yeking. ‘The perfect and the broken lines of ‘Forshee the most ancient relick in China, and perhaps the first attempt at written language: now perfectly incomprehensible. Chung-choo. Spring and automa. ‘The history of tome of the kings of Loo: the work’ principally of Cong-foo-tse, ‘5 Leerkee, Ceremonies and moral duties, a compi- ation of Cong.foo-tse. ‘Witbout a complete change of the Chinese language, and a more exfensive and friendly intercourse with fo- reign nations, it is not at all probable that that peo le will ever rank high for theit knowledge of litera- ture, ‘There are five kinds of writiog mentioned by the Chines literati; the mest moderaof thod of tracing oot the characters with » pencil. res much experience at any rate it disfigures the characters greatly, and is therefore nly used in the prescriptions of phyricians, books, and inscriptions of fancy. The tract acters with neatness and accuracy, however, at have already had occasion to observe, is greatly ad red in Chive, ‘They are often preferred to the mort ‘elegant painting ; and some will give a most exorbitant rice for a page of an old book, if it happens to be ‘eatly written. They pay particolar attention to well formed characters even in the moat common books ; and if any of the leaves happen to fall of will replace them with tbe greatest attention. To apply them to pose, tread them, under foot, &e. would be ‘unpardonable violation of deceucy and ‘olitencas; nay, it often happens, that workmen, such “joiners, dare not tear » printed leaf of fixed to the wall. ctuntion was not formerly used ia China, nor are points as yet employed in works of an elevated style, (oF such as are to be presented to the emperor. try ia seldom an object of attention, though the taste for it seems to be pretty general in China. » Their ver~ sification has its rules, aad is no less difficult than that of other nations. Only the most harmoniout, energe- tic, and picturesque words, are to be employed, aod they most almays be used io the same senve in which they were used by the ancients, Exch verve can con- 3 Py [ 40 J cHTI tain only a certain number of words; all of which cay must bo Fanged according to the rules of quantity, and Woy tormiate in rhyme. ‘The number of verses in a strophe in ot determined but they must be uniform, and pre- seat the same diatributon of rhymes. ‘The amall sua- ‘ber of poetical expressions contained in the Chinese Tanguage bas rendered it necessary to extend the pocti= cal licauce to a great length in this repect.. The Chi- ese poets are allowed to employ a blank verse in eve- sy four. ‘They are acquainted with most Kinds of poo- Uy in use among ve. They have stanzas, odes, elon ‘21, idyls, eclogues, epigrame, satires, and even bouts ‘The common people have iso ballads and soags peculias to themselves. Some ofthe moat dstia- {oished of the literati have even thought it of impor {ance enough to tara tho moet celebrated maxims of morality, withthe rules of civility, into verse. Their poetry i seldom diograced by any hind of obacenty 5 fd indeed any such thing would be severely panished by goveroment. That severe attention with which every thing tending to corrupt the morals is watched jn Ching, prohibits not only poems of this kind, but likewise romances of all sorts. ‘The police, however, permite such novels as have a useful tendency, and ia ‘which nothiog is introduced prejadicial to sound mare lity. Every author who writes againat government is dished with death, as well as all those who have ad any band in tho printing or diatbaion of his ‘The arts of making paper and printing have been chinese Jong Laowa among the Chacse. ‘That ked of paper res now in use was Brat manufactured about 105 yeaTe ber fore the Christian ers, Before that period ibey wed cloth, and various kinds of silk stuf instead of papers and to this day they all preserve w custom of writin the praises of the dead upon large pisces of silky whick tre suspended on one side of the coffin, and carried in faneral processions; and of ornamenting their apart. feats with maxi and moral eens rien i the same manner. In ages atill more early, they wrote with a kind of style upon pieces of bamboo, oF even upon plates of metal. ‘The fret paper was invented by x mandaria, He took the bark of trees, bemp, and Ud picces of silk-tul, boiling them together wat! they were reduced toa kind of paste of which be formed his paper which by degrees was brought to perfec- tion, and the art of whitening and giving it « lustre found out. A great number of different obetances are now used in this empire for making. paper such nie tami eed tects tray the bark. of the at called kou-chu, and of the mulberry tree jh the straw of wheat and tice, parchment, the code of the silk-worm, and several other substances unkoowa in Europe. 1a this manofactore the bark of tree and is used, and the woody subatanee of the bamboo and cation rey afer th ben macerted and odor ced to a thin paste. Mott of the Chinese paper, bow Ationded with the disadvantage of being very suvceptible of moisture, readily attracts the dust, and ‘worms inseasibly got into it: to prevent which incon ‘enicnces, it is ecomary to beat the beoks often, and « expote them to the sun.” That made of cotton ib the prettiest, and most used of any. All of them, bow- ‘ever, are much softer and smoother than oures’ which i abuoloely necemary for their method of writing withCHI L China, particular ose of two kinds; ove named: fouan-tte, 9 ‘1 kind of satin mach stronger, but whieh has leso lastre, 130 Poretsia, at Glan ot Tile eatie ation, 132 Medizine, than that of Europes the other s kind of talety, of which they make drawers and linings. It is woven exceedingly close, and is yet so pliable that it may be rumpled and rubbed beiween the hands without an} cerease ; and even when washed like cotion-cloth, it loves very little of ite lustre. They manufacture also Kil of gold Urocades, bot of rach « alight atare, that they cannot be worn io clothes : they are fabrica- ted by wrapping fine slips of gilt paper round the ince of Gang Erected fa. the es of Perkien and Canton, bot ur pordain ity several clas tes, according to its diferent degrees of fineness and beaaty. ‘The whole ofthe first is reserved for the ume ef the emperor; 10 tat none of it ever coves inte the bands af ther persons, unless it happen o be cracked cor otherwise damaged in auch manner as to be Un story of being presented to. the sovereign. Amoog Gatto the emperor, homever, there 1 same talain of an inferior qoality, wich be dipones of present, ‘There is some doubt, therefore whether any Erte Snest Chinete porelaia was ever acenin Europe Some value, however, i-now put upon the Esropea porcelain by the Chinese themselves ‘The an of lana in very ase in Chin hngh it doesnot appear that great valoe was ever put open this Lied of ware, the art of manefectaring i harog teen frequesty lost and revived again dn this empire ‘They greatly Admice the. workmanship of the Euro: pean, cystal, bot prefer thir own. poree ands lat liqoors, and is much les lable tobe broken, ‘The litle estimation in which this vabtance wae held, is even mentioned by their own writers i speaking of the fale pearls, tre, and other toye which were ade in former agen. "The remembrance of « very Jarge glass reese), homever, which was made in 627, sll preserved nd of which it wav anid that» cule oald'asexaly enter it ax a gaat could eater pitcher. In order to transport thir monstrous veel from the place where it was manufactured to the emperor's pa- They it was oeceery to inlet in wnt the four corners of which mero fed to four caring. same indifference with regard to glass is alll entert by the present emperors; borever x glass ouse fs established at Peking, where a number of vases and other works are made ; and these are so much the mare difficult in the execution, as none of them are blown. This manufactory, as well as many others, is cansider- dcly san appendage ofthe court, dened forthe poses of pomp and magnificence. P'yfvceme evden tint ndicioe most have boon one of the earliest studies to which mankind toroed their attention, at least when they had attained to some de- Tt is the commen lot of humanity sparks fiy upward, and there> fore an assidooos application tothestudy of those dneases 4a 3} cHI to which man is subject, shes with a vigw to eect 8 chin radical core, or oven to mitigate the virulence of theie Seow fymptoms, mort havo secured to sich charsciers the cxtoem and admiration of the worll, Even anvagen tive discovered respect for such oftheir owe nalfon am could remove sbutrutiou, heal bruiser, or ndminitte fell to the rserable in any shape whatever, Tha Gilera ar pare wig nd em to dif fiom avery bation under Beaven in thei bo ‘af medicine. ‘They bave'no public seminatiee where, the healing art thay be teogit, becevve they do not coosider the knowledge of any branch of tmedicine as in the smallest degree necessary. series erermance of ti ar tobe et with i i oe fe oe or cea af the names and supposed qualities of diferent plants, Se snc ata habe for cong © inene physician, In a countey where the people are severely, and ihe medical a nach e205 8 trould be a singular circumstance to find wo quacks Tn every cli, therefore, of this vest expire, multi tides are 10.60 ret with continually vending notramt, 4 pretended species Tor some dtess or olher aod the they eredaity of the people ards them a comfortable Weer Ch vere 2 perpetaal stranger to every spe- cies of disease, it would enable us to account for thee erence about the study of physics bat 1 will rain an inexplicable paradosy Irion we ate atsred upon undoubted authoety, thal they are subject to The smallpox, ophthalmi the venereal or Canton olcer, as it is denominated by ladies incident to the imulus, themacven, are «few of the Chinese, which might coositate a ponefal ne would imagine, tothe ety of yoyic, tating assidoty, wbich fei Cerala tppeats Trom the rulacquentstcrtion of ii the preston, most enpiron ie face tthe earthy a emp hat wat ir popolows, and highly civilized 2oco yeare ‘Thea tis county was av eavage as New Zenlad i’ Freseaty vo such good medal wid can be oblainedo- Toang the people fiat a emart boy of 16) whe bed ieee mei appressed and well eae Plyed Edinburgh surgeon, night reasonably be expect fd fo aford? “Thin gives vn 8 aaa are of the state of meicine in Chion, hich, however, fanérmed bythe wnited testinony ef Sir" George Staunton and Mr Barrow. ‘The people of China are said to be inthe postession of a method for ascertaining whether man has been murdered, or committed an act of suicide, of the pro~ ability of which our readers will be able to jadge from the following process. The body to be examin- cd is washed with vinegar. A large fire is kindled in spit dog for the purpose, six fect loog, three wide, ‘and the same in depth, ‘The fire receives new acces: sion of fuel till the pit acquires the temperature of a heated oven, when the whole of the remaining foel is taken out, and a large quantity of ‘poured into the pit, "Tho body is then placed at full length on ‘csier twigs over the moath of it, and covered with a cloth for two hours, that the steam of the wioe ‘act upoa the body in all directions, The Chinese,cHI chin of China thero are belle for marking the boors and — matches of the night. They generally ote pantogs. : vide the t into five watches, beginning at seven or eight : (On the Sbmmecoent of he et they give one stroke, wbich is repeated a moment af- ter 40d thus they Comino fortwo hour tl the bee ginning of the second: they then give two stroke ‘which tre repeated at eqoal intervals till the beg of the third watch 5 and thus they proceed to the fourth tnd fifth, always increasing the number of the strokes. For the same purpose also they ute enormous drums, ‘which they beat in a si F. Magaillans spntions one at Peking epwari of 40 fet in eircom. ference. ‘The instroment called Jain, which is made of baked ‘earth, is highly esteemed by the Chinese on account of its antiquity. Tt in distinguished into two kinds, the ‘great, and small ; the former being of the size of a Bootes eggs the Tater ofthat ofa ea’, Te has six holes for the notes, and a seventh for the mouth. ‘The kin and tche have been known from the re- ity. ‘The kin has seven strings made of goided. into thre kind, dering 25 strings, and is divided into 25 ki ‘buree toy that we bave oo iostrament in Europe which deserves to be preferred to it The instruments which emit the sound of wood are the tchau, the yu, and the tchoung-ton. ‘The first is shaped like a busel, and is beat on the inside with a Lammer 5 the second, which represents a tyger squat- ting, ia made to sound by scraping its back geotly with a rod the third is a collection of twelve pieces of hoards tied together, which are sed for beating ts by holding them in the right band, and knocking them gently aguinst the palm ofthe left. Many instroments are constructed of the bamboo, ¢ courat of pipes joined together, or separate, and pierced with nore or fewer holes. The principal of si thes wind inatramet i he ich eat ‘ound of a gourd. This ia formed by cutting off the heck of goard, and reserving oly the lower part ‘To this a cover ib fitted, having as many boles as are equal to the number of sounds required, In each of these bolee pipe made of bamboo is fixed, and shorter or longer according to the tone intended. ‘The mouth of the instrament is formed of another pipe shaped the neck of a goose which is fixed to the gourd o side and serves to convey the air to all the pipes it contains. ‘The ancient cheng varied in the oamber of ‘Brie pipes) thove used at present bave only 7 “Tee Fainting of the Chinese is undoubtedly ioferior to that of the Europenne, though we aro act by y means to judge of the abilities of the painters of this tmpie bythe performances which are brought Enrope. M. Grosier remarks, that the works of the + eminent Chinese printers are never brought to Can- ton, because they cannot find porchasers. among the Eoropean merchaots, The latter delight only in by ‘scene pictures, which are not permitted by goverament, nor indeed will any artist of character execute them, though they prevail upon some of the inferior daubers to gratify them in this respect. It seems, however, C 443 cHI to be universally agreed, that the Chivese have no no- Chin tion of correctness or perspective, and little knowledge y= ‘of the proportions of the human’ bod it not be dented that they excel i pai ‘animals. In these they pride themselves in a serupu- Jously exact imitation of oature, insomoeh that it is no ‘uncommon thiog to hear a painter ask his pupil how ployed but their offer of erecting a school of painting wat rejected, let they shoul by this means revive he taste for that art which it had been formerly thought to suppress, — ing in fresco was known io China long before the Cian ern and ike the Grecian, the Chines ‘oust much of their celebrated painters of antiguity. ‘Thos we are told of a door painted by Fan-bien, which ‘was so perfect an imitation, that the people who ent ced the temple where it wens, attempted to go oot less prevented by thote bo bad seen it before, The. present emperor bas in bis park an European vil- ige punted in fece, which prodoced the most agree able deception. ‘The remaining part of the wall re- Presents landscape and litle ily which are xo bappi- Ij blended withthe distant mountains that nothing can bbe conceived more agreeable. This was the produc tion of Chinese painters, and executed from designs sketched out for them. ‘Aner this account of the state of painting in China, chieBy on the autbority of M. Grosier, we beg leave toremark, upon the authority of more recent, and seem= ingly more competent as well as more inquisitive ob- servers, that, painting in Chin ich made s certain ari ence exch re fit for nothing but weighiog silver, and Heo” Thay cantcopy with tolerable exactness what inlaid before them, but so deficient are they in respect prodent Pa to ajo of lightand shade and there- fore without discovering single symptom of tate, bers- tod defects are alike davishly imitated. ‘Tbeir supposed excellence in drawing fowers, birds, and ine sects to the life, is most remarkable ia the city of Cane ton} from which Mr Barrow conjectores that they nc- uire their eminence by copying the prodections of Europe, occasionally sent over to he transferred to the presai desigoed fr exportation 137 sgraving in three, four, or Sve colour, ane Eagitt t'amongithe Chey tnd wa koowa in this ems pire loog before its discovery in Europe. ays ‘Sealpture is very litle known in this empire nor Seale is there a single statue in any of the squares or poblio edifices of Peking, not even in the emperur’s palace. ‘The only real statoes to be met with in the empire are thove which, for the sake of ceremonious distinction, ‘are used to ornament the avenues leading to the tombe ‘of princes and men of great rank ; or those. that are placed near the emperors coin, and that of bs sot And daughters, in the interior part of the vault, where- their remains are deposited. ‘The Chinese architectare in eatirely diferent from Aros rertonscHI isorders. ‘With this view it was made use of for some oot time ; bot has long since given place to more powerful calle, Bd Curva-Ware, See PonceLatn. CHINCA, ' sex-port town in Pera in South Ame- cm situated in an extensive valley of the suve name, Jn W. Long. 76, 0. 8. Lat. 13. 0. CHINCOUGH, » convulsive ki which children are generally nject. Truex, see ‘CHINESE, in general, denotes any thing belong ing to Chins ofits inbabitants. ‘Curvase Swangon. See ADACU. CHINKAPIN. "See Facus, Borax Indes CHINNOR, « mosicalinsroment among the He- isting of 32 chords. "Rircher has given 8 tepied on Plate CKLV. CHINN, an ancient town of Tonrr remarkable for the desth of Henry TI. king of Eng Tandy and for the birth of the famote Rabelat. Tt is seated onthe river Vienne, inthe department of Indre and Loire, E, Long. 0. 18. N. Late 47. 2 ‘CHO, or Cosy an ai Tying near the vast of Natols to the peninsula of To he ancien by the name of Ethalis, esas rll tn af Cio “Ae ‘he island of Chios was peop Te was at fist governed by ya:'but afterwards the government aiomped a re wean forme which ty. ke dimen of Tecraes Mas modeled after that of Athens, They mere, how ‘ver, soon enslaved by tyrant, and afterwards conquer si by Gran King of Pera” "hey jane’ the oer Grecins in the Yonian revolt but were shamefll thaudoned bythe Samiany, Lesbian, and eters of theit Allen: so that they mere aguin reduced under the yoke Of the Persians, who treated them with the wtmoxre- erty. They continued robject to them fil the battle oF Byeale, when they were restored to their ancent Tiberty: this they enjoyed till the downfal of the Per- ian cropirey whch they became acbject to the Macedo- facet. In the time of the emperor Verparian the iland was redoced to the form of « Roman pro- ince ; bot the inhabitants were allowed to live accord: ing t their own laws under the tuperintendence of & preter. Te io now object to the Turks, and is clled Bao.” See that acl. CHICOCCA. See Borawy Index. CHIONANTHUS, the Srow-pnor or Fricr- starz. See Botany Inder ‘CHIONE, in faboloos history, was daughter of Deedalioo, of whom Apollo and Mercury became famoured.” "To enjoy her company, Mercory lulled Her to seep with bit eaduceus sand Apollo in. the 1° ander the form of an eld womtn, sblained the sume favours an Mercury. “From this embrace Gtione became mother of Bhilammon and ‘tly teusj the feruer of whom, ne being aon of Apollo, became an excellent a spel stray robin of whieh i fae ercury was the patron. Chote grew to proud of her commerce with the gods, that she even preferred her beauty to that of Jose fer wbich impiety she was Killed by the goddess and changed into» bawk-— ‘Another ofthe ame name was dnoghter of Boreas sad of cough to See Meiciwe (46 7 ian y and the latter was” c HI Orithia, who bad Eumolpus by Neptone. She threw herent te ven bat la peered by he Ee ‘CHIOS. See Cnro and S10. CHIOURLIC, an ancient tovn of Turkey ia Exe od in Romania, with a sce of a Greck bishop. ated on s river of the tame ame, in E. Leng. 747. N. Lat. 4x. 18. CH102Z0, an ent and handsome town of I of Austria, and it island, near the Lagunes, with a podesta, bishop's see, and a harbour defended by a fort. E, Long. 12. 25, Ni Tal 460 ‘CHIPPENHAM, a tonn of Wiltshire, seated on the river Avon, containing 3410 inbabitants in 1811. Tebas a handsome stone bridge over the river, consisting of a1 arches; and sends two members (© parliament, ‘There is here a manofactore ofthe best superbne woollen cloth in England. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. $1, 25. CHIPPING, ‘2 phrase ‘used by the poiters fen to eiprem that common accident both of ywn stone and earthen ware, and the porcelain of the flying off of small pieces, or breaking at jar earthen wares are particalarly subject to this, and are always spoiled by it before any other flaw appears in them. Our stone wares excape it bet- ter than these 5 but not so well as the porcelain of China, which is less subject to it than any other mano- factore i the world. “The method by which the Chi nese defend their ware from this accident, is this ‘They carefolly burn some small bamboe canes to a sort of charcoal, which is very they reduce to a fine powder, thin paste, with some of th for their ware they next take the vessels when and not yet baked, to the wheel 5 sofily roond, th cover the whole circumference with a thin coat of it} the vestel is again dried and the border . paste appears of pale grayish colour is thorooghly dry. They’ work on it aftere covering both this ed and the rest of the vessel with the common varnish. ‘When the whole is baked on, the colour given by the ashes disappears, and the edges are as white as other part ; only when the baking has not been st cient, or the edges have not been covered with the #0 cond varnishing, we sometimes find a dusky edge, as in some of the ordinary thick tea-cops. It may be ‘a great advantage to oor English manafactorers 10 at= tempt sometbing of this kind, ‘The willow is known ‘to make a very light and black charcoal : but the el- der, thoogh » thing seldom used, greatly exceeds it, ‘The young greea aboots of this shrub, which are al- rot all pth, make the lightest and the blackest of all cbarcoal ; this readily mixes with any liquid, be easily used in the same way that the Chinese uve the charcoal of the bamboo cane, which it « Hight hollow vegetable, more resembling the elder shoots than any other English plant. It is vo wonder that the fixed salt and oil contained in this charcoal sboold be able fo pencrte the yet ram edge of the ware, and to give them in the subsequent baking s somewhat. fferent degree of vitrification from the other parts of the vessel; which, though, if given to the whole, it ed, ‘and torning them with pencil dipt in thin. paste, 1d might ou cx &CHI C48] cHr Ghiren tise on ‘the diseases incident to horses and other qua- & coat of mail, The shell is plated, and consists of ma~ ~drupeds, drmuasgqc 5 the lexicographer even pretends, ny parts lying upon each otber trasevereely : the inbae ""y Mba Row Sk vrei Code fved Lstome, Wan apse of the Dont Sor Concaozocr Cth Fabricius gives a list of the works attributed te Chi Index. _— — on, and discoues the claims which bave beea made for _ CHITTIM, in Ancient Geography, according te otbers to the same writings : and in vol. xii. he gives Le Clerc, Calmet, and.others, was the same with Ma- sininguinbed pace in is catalgue of aint sedi peopled by Kit the on of Javan od ged hysiciane. 00 of No CHIRONIA. See Borax Index. ‘CHITTRICK% sexpscrv vor rae sroxe. This CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of represent. medicine was some years ago kept as a secret, and bad ing any past transaction by the gestures of the body, great reputation as lithootriptic, which indeed it ‘more especially by the motions of the haods: this seems in many cases to deserve. 18 was discovered by made a part of liberal education ; it had the approba- Dr Blackrie to be no. more than aoaplye 5 and the tion of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato nmeng the following receipt for using it was procured by General Political virtues, ‘Take one teaspoonful of the strongest CHIROTONY, among ecclesiastical writers, de- soaplye, mixed: in two table-epoonfals of sweet milk, ‘notes tbe imposition of hands used in conferring priest- an hour before breakfast, and at going to bed. Be- Iy orders. However, it is proper to rematk, that fore you take the medicine, take a sup of pure milk, chirotony orginally was a method of electing tagie- and immediately alier you baveowalowed the medicine trates, by holding up the hands. take another. “If you find this agrees with you for CHIKURGEON, or Sunctox. See Suxorow. tno or three days, You may ad inf as mach fare to CHIRURGERY. See Surcrar. the dove : CHISLEY-zann, in Agriculture, a soil of amiddle CHIVALRY, (from cheval, ‘a horse”) ‘ab- Dafoe satare between sandy and clayey land, ‘miztore of pebbles. CHISON, Kisom, or Kiso, (edge ie and v) a river of Galilee jaaid to rise in Mount Tabor, to run by the town of Naim, and to fall into the Mediterra- ean between Mount Carmel and Ptolemais, (x Kings with a large ad- 40). ‘CHISBEL, or Carset, an instrument moch used in scalptare, masonry, joinery, carpentry, &c. hese are chissels of different kinds ; though their in their different size and strength, of steel well sharpened and tempere ilferent names, according to the dilfer- ‘ent tes to which they are applied. ‘The chissel us in carpeotry and joinery are, is used frst of all before the’ parting afer the work is scribed, 2. The’ ps which bas a fine smooth edge, and is tsed to pare off ‘ot smooth the irregularities which the former ‘makes, ‘This isnot struck with a mallet as the former is, but in pressed with the shoolder of the workman. 3. Skew. former: this is used for cleansing acute angiee with the ator corner of its narrow edge. qToe ortie- 15 which is narrow, but very thick and strong, to endare hard blows, and it is cat to a very broad basil. holes in the wood Je whereof serves to prepare the fre and the other to cut tach ond ts Eko be rounded, tollonedy 8G. Socket chincly, hich are chie ly used Uy earpenters, Eres have thes thank made with's hollow ocket at tops to nective 8 Stroog wooden epig, Sted inte it with a shoulder. ‘These chisel ‘tre distnguisiedy ecordiog. tthe breadth of the Unde, ime hall foc quarters of a och ehfe, Seen Switch fa socket cine ofan iach Biont edge, wth no bail tot Tie w {wo pices of mood asunder, by forcing ie tbe bloat elge between them, “CHITON, in Zavlogy, a genot ofthe order of ver- soe tevtacem, ‘The oame cit it from yore, treo, 3 way for an at ‘or tear tract term, used to exprese the pecaliar privileges, ob- Tigaios, tod torn of und, with all th ether dinn- ‘glishing characteristi of that order of men who flou- Tshed in Europe in the dark ages, daring the vigour Of the feudal spams of goveromeaty undee the name of Knights or Knights Erront. . ‘To necertain the period at which the order spraag Difisdty op, ad the cireumetances to which ita origin was om f Uae i it 10 eaay tank. In the history of society, such ort 2 cooltiplicity of collateral facts appear interwoven’ together, and causes and ee into each other bya gradation vo imperceptible, that it is exceedingly ately even forthe nicest ey to dco sates from their immediate effects, or to distinguish to ich aneog a number of collateral clscmtances te righ of any partcalar event i wo be relerred, "The ge to which we mort lok forthe etgin of chivalry tia engulary rude and iterate, Seven the principe rents ofthat period, emigration, wars and the ene- Hishment of sytteme of lave aad fr of goveranest, ‘have been but imperfectly, and in many instances uu. faibflly, recoeded. But the transactions which took Place inthe ordinary corse of tivl and domestic lie, {End which, though loss etriking, most have always pre” pared the’ way for the more remarkable events, have Exe generliy thought unworthy of tranemstoa to postehy, aod haves very soln founds Biserian, ‘Add to these difficulties which oppose our researches his object, thet. to ation of Eoope were in age mized malitede, coussting of the aber. ginal Tababitaots, who, though ‘either subdued by te fleean arte, or at least compeled to ree to the woods and mcontsiny ail obetinatcly retained eit custome ; Roman colonies, and inal inhabitants of the countries in which tablished, as had yielded not only to the tri ofthe Hemant, bot alo Yo be indoor of there od the barbarians, who poe» trom the northern regions of Asia asd Eorope, the wile of Seythin and Germany, dweolved tie of the Romarear hee the mart releaten,¥ cHI tony, were imputed to the beroic ages. Actilles was 4s Nindiclie implacable and fe have the very same repre- (Goth romances. “Ae Ya thos a= , dangers and distresees ofall kinds abounded, there would be the same demand fer compassion, gen tleness, and generous attachment to the vofortuaate, those especially of their oma clan, as of resentment, rage, and animosity against their enemiew "7. Agais, the martial games celebrated in ancient Greece, on great and solema occasions, bad the same rgin andthe same porpose as the touraameats of the Gothic warriors. &, Lastly, the passion for adventores so natural in totic ituatlon, would be ax uatorlly attended. with the love of pate and glory Hence th sme excoo- ragemeot, inthe old Greck sod Gothic imey, to pee sepia apt Te a, ai of sein and lantry, indeed, the resemblance between the hero Soa the aight do pot ao striking. | But the religiose character of the knight was an accident of the times, sand no proper effect of his civil condition. And that his devotion forthe fair eex should 0 far surpass that of the hero, iva confirmation of the system here advanced. For the consideration bad of the females in the, feudal Gonstitation, will of itself account for this deference. Te made them capable of succeeding to fief, as well ‘as the men, And docs not one instantly perceive what reopct aad dependence his pivege would dun upon Te was of great consequence who should obtain the ‘And though, in the strict favour of a rich heicess, igs did not last long. Hence we find some di- stressed danwel was the ‘pring and mover of e Soy Sele Sees ok ee oe arms, or woa by the fame and admiration of bis mea. The plin meaning of all which wae this: at as, in these turbulent times, a protector was neces- sary tthe weaknes ofthe sexy so the courteous abd pee Knight was to approve bimself fully qualified that Te may be observed, that the two poems of Homer were intended to expose the mischiefe and incoave- riences arising from the political state of Old Greece 5 the Ziad, the dissensions that naturally spring up a mong independent chiefs and the the inso- lence of their greater subjects, more especially when unrestrained by the presence of their sovereiga. And ‘ean any thing more exactly resemble the condition of the feudal ten, when, 00 occasion of any great eae terprise, as that of the crusades, the designs of the ‘confederate Christian states were perpetually frustra- ted, or interrupted at least, by the dsseosions of their eaders aod their aur a home, perpetzally di ‘eedered by the rebellions usurpations of their greater istals?"Jeraslem was tothe Earopean what Tr ad been to the Grecian princes. See the artic Katonr. See alto Coivanny, SoPrLtaext. Curvacer, in Low, is osed for a tenure of lands by koigh’s tervice,, whereby the Koight was boond rform service ia war unto the king, or the mesne be of whom he beld by thut tenure,” And chivalry ‘was either general or, special : general, when it was C 52 ] ‘only ia the feofiment that the tenant held per aerotiam chive wos iin sy specication fern, cane cHI 5 pera, ben it was declared particlaly BY tat kindof knight service the land was bells For the better understanding of thi ‘been observed that therein we land diately or immediately of the crown by seme service 5 nd leefore all freold thet are to us and our bers are called feuda or feoda, fees” as proceeding from the King for some small ynry rent and the perform ‘uch services as were originally laid pon the ied the donation ters. For atthe king gave to the great nel immediate teoants, large posses soo pet Sl fi fo th oat treo reat; 40 they in time parceled out to such others as they liked the same lands for rents and services as they Serpe grok sed Abe seven geo by Teen ivided into two kinds, cAivalry and socage the Grst whereof was martial and military, the olber rustical, Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of service, where the tenant was obliged to perferm some noble or mili- {ary oc ante hi ford: and it wat of tw kinds 5 i that is, heli oaly of the king ; or common, trv Scld af scone fenour TR whi ‘ight Torte only of the King wae called erotinm o argon: fia and sain ned fate grand sod pt er Jeantry. The grand eerjeantry was where one held lands of the king by service, which be ought to do in his erven : at, to bear the king's banner or spear, to in host, to find men at arms to Bight, Bcc. Petit ry was whon a man beld lands of the, king, to ir him annually some eal hing towards ia wary Zea sword, dogger, bom, Sc, Chivalry thet Te halen of Sorin piven was termed soto escoage ;” that is, service of the shield either ancertain or certs Excuage uncertain, was likewise two-fold: frst, where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, going in per- ‘00 to the king's wars, ether himself, ot sending a suf feat mn thi lace, thereto be maintained at his xyece,o long swat agreed upon betmen the Jord sedi Ht nan at the granting of the fe sad he days of such service seem to have beea rated by the quantity of land so holden; as, ifit extended to a whale ela fn nm te tment tt fli le 40 od if bat to balf« kaight’s fee, then 20 days: part, then ten days, &ce. "The otber kin int ofthis escuage was called caste ward, where the tenant was obliged, by himself, or some other, to defend a Castle as often as it sboald come to his tara. And these werg called g¢ uncertain ; because it was uncertain ‘man should be called to fallow bis lord to and what his charge Escuoge certain, was where the tenure was set at a certain oom of mosey to be paid in licw of such ser vice 5 as that a man should pay yearly for every knight's Fes aon for haf a knights foe tou. or tome ike rte and this service, because itis drawn to a certain rent, groweth to be of « mixed natare, ost merely socage, ‘and yet socage in effect, being now neither certain, The tenure called chivalry bad the stats 13 Car TL. anoezed to it: bat there is a 624, whereby eres by Laight service fhe king, alteration made ia these thingscHO Ghium thalmio medicines. Hence Seritonius C 54 J cHO ‘Largas directs with these they mix a very small quantity of cinnamon, Chocolai the freshest vanilla, and the finest sugar, bot very sels ‘dom any cloves. In England the chocolate is made Choerit Cesta“ CHIUN, or Cuzvan, in Hebrew We rect with this word in the prophet Amos, cited in the ‘Acts of the Apostles, St Luke reads the passa than: Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, tnd the star of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to ‘worship them.” The import of the Hebrew is ax fol- lows: * Ye bave borne the tabernacle of yonr kings, and the pedestal (the chiun)‘of your images, the star of your gods, which ye made to yourselves.” ‘The Sep- toagint in all probability read er Revan, in stead of Chiun oF Chevan, and took the pedestal for a Some say that the Septuagiat, who made their trans- ation in Egypt, changed the word Chiun into that of Barrage in his bok eed Jewish ‘ete fer nage, in his book entitled Jewish Antiguiti hhaving discoursed « good deal opon Cision, oF concludes that Moloch was the sun, and Chion, Chim, ot Remphan, the moon. CHLAMYS, ia antiquity, a military habit worn by the ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the patricians, and was the same in the time of war that the toga tat nthe tine af pace, Thi nt of gu ‘was called picta, from the rich embroidery with figures in Phrygian work ; and purpurea, because the ground~ ‘work was purple. ‘The chiamydes of the emperors were all purple, adorned with a golden and embroider- Tose ® CHLOEIA, in antiquity, a festival celebrated at Athens in honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name XAuy #6 grass, they sacrificed a ram. CHLORA. * Seo Borany Indes. CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, « dee, commonly called the green sickness, incident to young git ‘Mepicixr Index. rong CHOCOLATE, in commerce, » kind of paste or ake roared ofcrtin ingredients the basi of which is cacao, See Cacao. ‘The Indians, in their frat making of chocolate, used to roast the cacao in earthen pots and baving after- wards cleared it of the husks, and braised it between tivo stones, they made it into cakes with their hands. ‘The Spaniards improved tis method. When the cacao 4s properly roasted and well cleaned, they pound it in mortar, to reduce it into a coarse ‘mats, which they sftermards grind ons won tilt bo of he utmet fine. ness the paste being suficienthy ground, it ht into tin meals in which it conga ttle time, ‘The form of these moulds $ the cylindrical oat Belding two or throe ponds, cre the most proper, because the bigger the cakes are, the longer they will keep. Observe, that these cakes are very liable to take any good or bad scent, and there- fore they most be carefully wrapt up in’ paper, and Kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, that the Spaniards mix with the eacao nats too great’ a quantir ty of cloves and cinnamon, besides other drugs with- ‘out number, as musk, ambergris, Bcc. ‘The. grocers ‘of Paris use few or none of theve ingredients 5 they aly choose the best nuts, which are called caraccay from the place from whence they are brought ; and of the simple cacao, excepting that sometimes ted vwetines vanaf wld ca Chocolate ready made, and cacao paste, are pro Dited to be imported from any part beyond the sens, If made and sold in Great Britain, it pays ioland doty 18, 6d. per Ib. avoirdopoise: it must be inclosed in pa pers containing one pooud each, and prodaced at the excise office to be. stamped. ‘Upon three days no- excite, private families may a nee, provided no lese than balan bopdred weight of nots be made st one time. ‘The chocolate made in Portogal and Spain is not ‘ear so well prepared as the English, depending per. haps on the machine employed ‘there, viz, the double cylinder, which seems very well calculated for exact triture. IF perfectly prepared, no oil appears on the ‘olution. London chocolate gives up 00 oil like the foreign ; and it also may in some measure depend on the thickness of the preparation. ‘The solution requires more care than is commonly imagined. Tt is proper to break it dowa, and diclve 1 thorooghy in cold water by milling it with the chocolate stick. "IF heat is applied, it should be dove slowly ; for, if suddenly the beat ‘will not only coagulate it, but separate the cil; and therefore much boiling after it is dissolved is hartfal. Chocolate is commonly required by people of weak stomachs; bat often rejected for want of pro preparation. When properly prepared, itis ensily dis- solved and an excellent food where » liguid nutrient ‘vegetable one is required, and is les fatolent than any fr Henly, an ingenious electrician, has late rered that chocolat Freeh foe the mil, a teas in the tin pans into’ which it is received, becomes strongly electrical; and that it retains this property for some time after it has been torned ont of the pans, Dut soon loses it by handling. The power may be once ‘or twice renewed by melting it again in an iron Indle, sod pouring it into the tin pans as at first; bot when it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable of being revived by simple melting: but if small quantity of olive-ol be added, and well mixed with the chocolate in the Indle, its electricity will be com= Bley stored by celing i in the tinpan ae before, rom this experiment he conjectures, that there is x ‘and the electric affinity between carbonic oa, indeed they be ot the ae ing. Choconars Nut-tree. See CACAO. CHOENIX, yun, an ancient dry measure, con taining the 48th part of a medimnus, or six boshels, ‘CHOERILUS, a tragic poet of Athens aboot the 64th Olympiad. "He wrote 150 tragedien, of which 13 had obtained the prize—An historian of Samos— ‘re ater pons, one of whom was very intinate with ‘Herodotus, He wrote » poem on the victory which tho Athenians had obtained over Xerxes ; and on ac- count of the excellence of the composition he received 1 piece of gold for each verse from the Athenians. ‘The other was one of Alexander's Gatterers and friends. CHOERINA,cHO C Corde the name of perfest to all chords, even to dissonances, whose fondameatal sounds are below. Imperfect chords ‘are those in which the sixth, instead of the fifth, pre- ‘vail, and in general all those whose lowest are not their fandamental sounds. These denominations, which ‘bad been given before the fundamental bass was knowa, ‘are cow most unbappily applied : those of chords ai ‘rect and reversed are much more suitable in the same Chords are once more divided into cousonances and Aissooances. The chords denominated consonance, ate the chord, and ite derivatives 5 every other dissonance. A table of both, according to the system of ML. Ra- smean, may bo een in Rousens's Mic Dictionary, Lit pay. “Af the table to which oor renders ve been re- ‘mitted, Roossean adds the folowing observations, which ‘ze at the same time so just and so important, thet we should be very sorry if they escape the reader's attea- tion. ‘At the words Aarmony, fundamental Base, compost. ton, Se. he promises to treat concerning the oa2- ter of osing all the chords to form regalsr barmo- xy and only adds inthis place, the subsequent reflec- tio , sof inves Vy eli «capital error to imagine, that the methods ing the same chord are in all cases equal- ible for the harmony and for the expression. re ie not one of these fliferent arrangements but sou hhed its proper character. Every one fecls the con- trast between the softness of the false fifth, and the grating sound of the tritone, thoogh the ove of these intervals is produced by a method of inverting the other, With the seventh diminished, and the second ‘redundant, the cate is the same with the interval of the second in general use, and the seventh. Who does ‘aot feel how much more vocal and souorous the fifth when compared with the fourth? ‘The chord the great sixth, and that of the lesser sixth minor, sare two forme of the same fundamental chord: but how much less is the one harmonioos than the other ? ‘On the contrary, the chord of the lesser sixth major is much more pleasing and cheerfal then that of the false fifth, And ooly to mention the most simple of all chords, reflect on the sonjesty of the perfect chord, the aweettess of that which is called the chord of the sixth, and the is composed of ‘8 sixth and 1 fourth: all of them, however, compo- ‘ted of the same sounds. In general, the redundant harps on the higher part, are proper by iy to express violent emotions of mit which, when « mesician knows bow to avail Te may command at will the sections of those who ear bin. 2. The choice of simple intervals is scarcely of lees importance than that of the chords, with regard to __ the atations in which they ooght to be placed. It is, fe itane, ithe lower pres tat th ite and oc fave. should'be used in preference in the upper parts, the third and sixth are more proper. If you trasepose 3 56 J this order, the harmony will be ruined, even though the Cheed: cHo same chords are preserved. 3. Tn a word, the chords are rendered still wore Oat jimsted and ooly divided harmonious by being 3 by the smallest practicable intervals, which are mere suitable to the eapacity of the ear than such as are re- smote. This in what we call contracting the barmon tan art which few composers have skill and cooogh to pat in practice. The limits in the natural compass of voices, afford an additional resson for les- Se Bowen of the eran mocha te armony of as much as possible. We ‘may affirm, that a chorus is i ly composed, ‘hen the distance between the chorde increases } when those who perform the different parts are obliged to ‘tcream when the voices rise above their natural extent, and are so remotely distant one from the otber, that {he preetion of hamenical relations betmen them is ite ‘We say likewise, that an instroment is in concord when the intervals between its fixed sounds aro what they ooght to be; we say in this sense, that the chorde of an instroment are troe or false, that it presorves or does not preserva its chords, ‘The same form of speak- ing is oned for two voices which sing together, oF for ‘two sounds which are beard at the same time, whether in unison or in parts. Cuonns, or Conns of Masical Instruments, are strings, by the vibration of which the seanation of is excited, and by the divisions of which the se- -veral degrees of tone are determined. ‘CHORDEE, in Medicine aod Surgery,» eymptom attending consign «violent pain act of the aethray ‘govorrhces, ‘under the fremum, and along the daring the erection of the penis, which is incurrated downwards. ‘These erections are frequent and invo- lente CHOREA Sancrr Virt. See Vrrvs's Dance, Mrprcinz Index. CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient holding © middle rank between ters, aod de within certs ‘and prea ted to exercise episcopal jurisdic ‘Tstrita, when the boundaries of partic ccular churches, over which separate bishope presided, ‘were considerably enlarged. It is not certain when this office was firt introduced ; vome trace it to the close of the first century : others tell us that chore piscopi were not known in the east tll the beginning tthe fourth century 5 and inthe west about the eat 439. They ceased both in the east and west in the centary. ‘Cionzriscorus is also the name of silt tobsining in some, cathedral, parclucy in Ger ‘many; signifying the same with chori episcopus, oF Wikop ef the claro” The word, inti seme, does not come from ager, Place, bat xager, choir, a the charch of Cologoe, &ce- the first chanter is called CHOREUS, rawr, » foot in the ancient poetry, more commonly called trochaws. See TRocuxe. CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, = foot, sistingc HR ‘Chous person is first advanced to it, be i called a kucha, ot Tittle chous; after this he in’ advanced to be the alloy Chri. chius that is, the messenger of ceremonies ; and from this, baving passed through the office of petcima, or ‘procurator of the effects of the bedy, be is advanced to be the bas chous. CHOWDER-2ezn, a provincial phrase of Devore shire, denoting a cheap and easily prepared driok, highly commended for preventing the scurey in long ‘voyages, or for the care of it where it may have been contracted. Tt is prepared in the following manner : Take twelve gallons of water, in which pot three pounds ands fall of Sack sproce: Boil it Yor three hours, and baving taken out the fir oF spruce, with the liquor seven pounds of melasses, and just boi it op; strain it through a sieve, and when ‘put to it about four spoonfals of yeast to work it. two or three days stop the bung of the cask: and five or six days, when Tne, bottle it for drinking. Two gallons of melasses are sufficient for a bogshead of li- quor but if melasses cannot be procured, treacle oF coarse sugar will answer the purpose. CHREMNITZ, the principal of the xine towns in Upper Hungary, situated aboot 68 miles north-east of ‘Presburg, and subject tothe house of Avstrin. E. Long. 19, Nhat 98-45, CHRENECRUDA, « term occurring in writers of the middle ages, and expressing a. costom of those times 5, but its ation is doubtful. It is men- tioned in Lege Salica, tit. 61. which says, he who kills ‘man, and hath not wherewithal to satisfy the law or pay the fine, makes oath that he hath delivered up every thing be was postessed of; the truth of which mast be confirmed by the onths of 12 other persons. ‘Then he invites his next relations by the father’s side to pay off the remainder of the Gne, having firt made over to them all his effets by the following ceremony. He ‘goes into his house, and t iy band © small Guantity of dust from each of the four corners, he re- turns to the door, and with his face inwards throws the dast with his left hand over his shoolders upon his nearest of kin. Which done, he strips to his shirt 5 ‘and coming out with a pole in bis hand, jumps over the edge Hin elation, wheter en of several are upon this obliged to payoff the composition for the irs “And fhe (ay one oft) arent le to pay strum per it chreccruday qui panperior cat, jactat, etic totam Iegem componat.” Whence it ap- that chrenccruda jactare, isthe same with throw. lng the dust gathered’ from the four corners of the house. Goldastus and, Spelman translate it viridem erbam, * green grass,” from the German gruen kraut, fom the Dutch green,‘ green,” and grutd, “ gras.” ‘Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that by this word denctori purificationis approbationem, from chreiny * pore, chaste, clean;” and keuren, to proves” so that it must refer fo the oaths of the twelve jurors, Be this as it wil, King Childebert reformed this law by a decree, chap. 1. both because it savoured of ‘Pagan ceremonies, and because several persons were thereby obliged to make over all their effects: De chrenccruda lex quam paganorum tempore observabant, ddeinceps nunguam valeat, quia per fpsom cecidet mult. ‘rum potertas. ‘CHRISM (Grom xp, I anoint), oil consecrated by 2 T 58 ] the bishop, and weed in the Romieh and Greck church, Jn the adminstraton of bptinn, contrat tion, and extreme woction, wich is prepared on bly Thursday with moch ceremony. Ia. Spore t waa a cleoty the contr for tne bishop to take one-third of Stl forthe chris striated fo cach churehy ou a out ofthe Blea tht entered st composition ‘Du ‘Cange oberves, nt there are two Linds of chism 5 the one prepared of cil'and bali, weed in teptism, confemetien, and ordsation the’ other of ail alone, concerted by the Wishop, ed sucieatly fr the catecbument, sod til in extteme suction "The itn before the on with Rome, bee tod bleu, wed mosk, salfer, cinneaen, fraakincente, end several eter ruge wes? Hpsld fatty il the def ach st Dani rat to Movot Liane ie quality af te pope's noociy ordained, fos eynd eid there ia 1596, that chee for the Tatore thoald be toade ouly of two ingredient, il and bulma the te representing the human atoreof emus Chris the ‘ther bi dire autores The ection af inpaing’ the Shrinm i ealed chromatin: this the geocraity ofthe Rominh dvies bold to be the neat caer ofthe oacrez tient of confmatin, roe Boned The Jet ‘The chrismation in baptism is performed by the priest that in confirmation by the bisbop 5 that ia or- dination, Bcc. is more usually styled unction, Cunssw Pence, Cunisaarre Denarii, or Case seats Denard, tl ty paid to the bishop by the parish clergy, for their chrism, consecrated at Easter forthe ensuing year: this was afterwards cou demned as simeniacal- CHRISOM, a white garmeat put upon» child the priest immediately after baptism, accompanied wit this devout prayer; “Take this white vesture as «token of the innocency ‘which, by Goi's grace in this boly baptism is given unto thee, and for a sign sdmoniahed, so long a3 thou livest, I to inaocence of living, that after this tran thom mayest be partaker of life everlasting. From this cireumatanco the white garment got the name of chrisom, which, afer being worn a few days, ‘was delivered to’ the pricat as a sacred deposit, to be produced in fotare as an evidence againtt the person, should be be so impious as to renounce his baptismal engagements, This ceremony continued in. use for = considerable time after the reformation in the charch of England, which required the mother of the child, when charched, to offer the chrisom and other customary oblations. On pre he above mentioned pray- the priest anointed the head of the iofaat, saying, ‘Almighty Ged, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ, ‘who bath regenerated thee by water and the Hol Ghost, aod hath given nto thee the remission of all thy sins, voucbsafo to anoint thee with the unction of Holy Spirit, and briog thee to the inberitance of everlasting life. Amen.” CHRIST, an appellation synonymous with Messiah, usually added to Jevas:: and, together therewith, de- nominating the Saviour of the world. See Cunisrr— awry and MEsstas. ‘The word xoere signiies anointed, for ypu i "Sometimes the word Christ is used © T anoint aly, o onsChai Naterat ‘Sendocive othe ale Kistory ton of of cHR ich cannot be broken but by an absolute aubver- Sion of all biatorical authenticity. Nor ia this all: fccording to him, the facts on wbich Christianity founded, not only constitute but are’ Hikewise in’ for supplying the chastas iu the histo and pretring the tenor of is anna of our oatare, entire, eu themeles re etier ator er nperoatare, ‘By natural facta we mean auch occurrences as happen ox may app fom the various operation of mecha Bical powers, or from the iaterpmsition of natural a- gets withoot higher assistants, Such are all the com on occurrences of history, whether natoral, biogea Dhieal, or civil. By supernatural fats, we mean such 4s could got have been prodaced without the interpo- tition of Deity, or at least of pomers superior to the Jans of mechanism or the ageney of embodied Among there may be reckoned the immediate without the intervention of medicine, the resus of the dead, and others of the same kind. In this or- der of occurrences may likewise be nomobered the ex ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, where U persons by whom these extraordinary talents were dis- played could neither by penetration nor conjecture un- Favel the mazes of foturity, and trace the events of which they spoke from their primary causes to the remote completions. So that they must have been the passive organs of some superior Being, to whom the wale conatnation of cases and efeca which oe- of nature, fa great many emergencies nobly illustrate the story tore in general. For this a Christian might offer fone instance, of which philosophy will not perhaps bo ‘eto prodace any tolerable slution, thot having recourse to the facts upon hich Christianity is found- ed. For if mankind were origioally descended from ‘one pair alone, how should it bave happened that lonj Before the date of authentic history every tation bad its own distinct language ? Or, if it. be supposed, some late philosophers have maintained, aan indigenous animal i ticular it may be demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the immense diversity of languages ? Is the language of intuitive, or were they dictated by exi- PAF the last of, taterial and intellectual nature must have happened ! ‘What accessions of knowledge, refinement, ci tion, most human intercourse have gained before the formation and establishment even of the most simple, imperfect, and barbarous language! Why is a period ‘0 vast obliterated so entirely as to escape the retreepect of bistory o tradition, and even of fable tel? Why wth oguntian and inyrovement of ober as infinitely distant from that of lnoguage, that the ern of the later is eniely lost, mbt we ean trace the fre { 60 ] cHR ier fram thi origi throgh the various gradations of cis "These desley, I the lights af > history oF philotophy, th yt mop he Corin rks ion of tongues ; wisely intended 0 sepa-plicble rate the tribes of men. one rom another, to repleahbet byt the surface ofthe globe, Henin habitants thote opportunities of be derived from experiment and industry, va ously exerted, according to the diferent situations ia which they were placed, and the different employ- ments which these situations dictated. ‘Thus the time of nature's existence toa period within the en of human intellect. Thus whatever has happen ‘ed might have happened during the present. mode of things; whereas if we deduce the origin and diversity 3f language from period ao remotely datant as to be sbuolutely lost, and entirely detached from all the Know acuretes and vcmitaes of tiny weet audit the present forms and arrangements of thiogs to have subested perhaps for a much longer dation than any mechanical pbilotopher will allow to be. poe- Ie. Other instances equally pregnant with coavie- might be multiplied but precluded by the lite of our plan, we proceed toa single observation open the fact nhic tave been termed erpernateral °° ve changes mbich happen in sensible objects Mince seatation slbas can be judge." Heaton bas voting to beso fois the aati” Ble may drew conclonne fom, the testimonies of sense, but can never refute them. POC, Tf, therefore, oor senses inform us that sow eae i yan woul the mort learaed ad we hile endeavour to convince i that it was of 8 cootrary colour. He might confound, but never could per- tuade vs. Such changes, therefore, as appear to bap- pen in sensible objects, most either be ren or fllac- tot.” LF renl the miracle ie admitted; if fllacioon, there must be a cause of deception equslly unsccoust- able from the powers of natore, and therefore equally cilous, Hf the veracity or competency of the ses be questioned, the Christian anewern, that they most be competent, because the fact which they relate are uot beyond their capacity to determi Th mise be faithful, beenine they bad tectlar motives for maintaining, bot many for 4 1g oF disguising, what they tated, Now the 3 appents tothe wbole erie of history Fences whetber such a man ie or can be fotod, as will Offer a voluntary, solemo, and deliberate sacrifice of truth atthe shrine of eaprce. But uch facts as ater 2 Tong continuance of time have been found exactly oni Agreeable to predictions formerly emitted, matt a0-is om persede the fidelity of testimony, and iafalbly prove tere i that the event was known to the Being by whom it Pende! tras foretold, In vai it bas been urged, that prophe- rie cies are ambiguous and equivocal, Fer though they tay prefigure subordinate event, yet if the grand oc- farreics to lich they okimately rate, an alone Full them in their various cieumstances, and timost extent, it plain, that the Bog by whom Mera actly precio we bad thems ia slew the predictions were uttered. For thin ee ledcoitia. tiolate the freedom of moral agents, in recali Buttd” without presopposing sacred and esta ‘yet onlyystem of religion has ever yet been ex ff a cHR them to the pathe of virtue and bappiaess by = mechanical — and irresistible force. Te will be geanted to philosophy by the Christian, that ato theory of mechanical aire nn be formed rarely if ever the order and larity of things. But ho cannot admit, that the Eaportant ends of moral and intellectual improvement tay be oniformly obtaived by the same means, He ‘ttn, that if the band of Gad should either remain iwaye’eotirely invisible, or at least only perceptible ‘he operation of second causes, itlligent beings ‘wold be apt in the course of time (o resolve the inter petitions to the general laws of mechanism 5 fo forget hie consexion with nature, and consequently their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the dante commen sent, and othe unaninat ‘every religion in or climey for the por- ce of winiom and betevlence, God may nat only Sentroul, bot has actually oentrovled, the common course aod general operations of nature.” So that, a3 the material world the law of couse and efféct is general- ly and serapulously observed for the purposes of natu- rl sabaisteace and accommodation : thus suspenses and changes of that universal law are equally necessary for the advancement of moral and intellectual perfec- tion. Bot the disciple of Jesus not anly contend nt no ‘sotent with itself, 20 con commen sense of mankind, as Chrit ‘wise avers that it is infinitely more productive of real sad weaible concaton than any other religious ot - philosophical tenets, which have ever entered into the Set ben apne to the bear of mune For what is that mind which considers eternity as the career of its existence ? What are the frowns of for- tune to bim who claims an eternal world as bis inbe- tance? ‘What is the lout of friends to that beart ital quickly rejoin them in » more tender intimate, ‘and permanent intercourse than any of which the pre ‘susceptible ? What are the fluctuations and tudes of external things to a miad which strongly formly anticipates a state of endless'and immu- What aro_mortifications, disappoint. ‘Timer edectally vert the digeity and rivi Tiga notore? Inve word, as earth i bt a peck joo, as tine is got an intant fo properties to ech ar the hopes and poet he Chi nary mitertoes or refs nis judgeent, the eteroal Iss and indelible opprobriom of man, gion 00 worthy af God,'so watable tothe Frome and circomsiancer of obr ante, vo cooooast to oer nyo ely Yo he tal improvement of iteligent beings, peegeant Pomfortwod delight should be rejected and Sepiaed" Were thee spony of epee or bei= comparison of every [ 63 ] cHR tation between this and any other religion extant, he hve. could freely trust the determination of x question 20 important to the candid decision of real virtue and im-—— partial philosophy. Te must be allowed that the utmost extent of boman vestigation and research into the dectrine of fatare life reached no farther than splendid canjectare before the promulgation of Christianity, at which period life and immortality were clearly brought to light. I therefore a singular circumstance tbat the dist a wonderful superiority of the Christian stem, ifit bad nothing else to boast ‘of but this single docti t with unalloyed felicity. If Christianity’ be false, the believer of it ‘bas no ose, since it ineculeates a mode of coo- ‘ever be amiable in the eye of infin goodness ; but if it be true, he bas every thing to ga ‘hile upon this bypothesie the deist bas every thing to Jose and nothing to gain. This is a momentous con- sideration, and that man most be truly infatuated who can treat such an idea with contempt. 1s it History of the Decline and Fall Me Gib- ire mentions five secondary causes o> th ry Sale Cops vo to which he thinks the propagation of Christianity, feos thet all the remarkable cleumstances which attended Ue it, may with intinuate, that Divine Providence did not act in a sin- gular or extruordinary manner in disseminating the 2p'o'sas- religion of Jeaus through the world 5 and that, if every set om ‘ther argument which bas been adduced to prove thetbe cpere- sacred autborty of this religion can be parried or re-Uot of fated, nothing can be dedaced from this source to pre-nch,te, ‘ei from sharing the eae fate with other eytems abode of superstition, The causes ofits propegation were in deced his opinion founded oa the principles of buman nature Pt ot and the cireuniatances of the propagation of Mahome of Zerdost, to an extraordinary interposition of Divine Provides by an unperceived influence on of the Loman heart, and controuling ‘and confouading the ordinary laws of nature 5 neither can we, opon any reasonable grounds, refer the promal- gation of Christianity to such an interposition. ‘The secondary causes to which he ascribes these ef- The exc fects are, 1. The inflexible and intolerant zeal of thee Christaas ; derived from the Jewish religion, bat pa fed from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, ia stead of ioviting, deterred the Geatiles from embracing the law of Moves. 2. The doctrine of a fatore life, ime proved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important troth, 3. The miraculous powers ascribed to. the primitive ‘church. 4g. The pure and austere morals of the Chri« atians.” §.'The sion and discipline of the Christian ‘which gradoally formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire. ‘Before we enter oa the examination of Mr Gibbon's ‘causes in the order ia which they are here enumerated, wwe beg leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the propriety of denominaling some of these ‘antes, since the miracalous powers ascribed to the pri~ mitive chureb, if they were real, must have coostituted mary canse, and if fallacious, could have been 0 ‘cause at all if not of its complete subversion, As lit. tle ean we conceive how soch an elegant and learnedhratia- autor could i nity iy and properly ine flexible and intolerant, ax qualife to produce titer et than the destroction of the system hick Cane 1. Oberae tions ia an- vances concerning they are allowed to have been anxious to promote. Bat our sentiment of these causes assigned by Mr bon will be more filly developed nt me’ proceed in ott candid and imps ination of them. ot between the first of these tnuser andthe effects which he represents a ar- sing from it, this learned and ingeaious writer observes, thal the religion of the Jews does not seem to have been intended to be propagated among the Heathen ted that the canrraio of rote a rather ace jetal than consistent with the porport,of the genera it of the amitions ot Sodio Ti Jeah were, of contequence, stadious to preserve themselves x peca People. heir zeal for ther own religion was tolerant, narrow, and wosocel. In Ch when it made ite appearance in the world, all the better part of the predominant spirit of Tudaiom was retained ; but whatever might have ency to confine ite infloence. within narrow li Inid aside. Christ and adhere to the constitutions of their rel ‘They were nat to violat glance to Jerus by entertaining or profes Fence for Jopterov anyother of te Hlethen dete ‘ot even necessary for them to comply with the poslve and ceremonial foaitatione of the law of Mo- ‘es,—although these were acknowledged to have been of divine origin. The zeal, therefore, which their reli gion incolcated, was in exible. Tt waseven intolerant : for they were sot to content themselves with profest- ing CI ty and conforming to its laws 5 they were to'Ishour ‘with rem ving smsty, and to expose themselves to every difficulty and every danger, in converting others to the same faith. ‘Bat the same cireorstances whi lee i ‘Jews was intended only forthe stianty was to become a catholic religion ite advan tages were to be offered to all mankit “All the diferent sects which arose among the pri- nitive Christians uniformly maintained the sxme zeal for the propagation of their own religion, and the same abhorrence for every other. ‘The orthodox, the Ebi iter, the Goostics, were all equally animated the same exclusive zeal, and the same abborrence of idolatry, which ed distinguished the Jews from other sation Bue the general purport of what Mr Gibbou a nfluence of the firat of those ondary causes in the propagation of Christianity. It would be socandid to deny, tat bis satement of fats appears to be, in tis instance, slmost fair, and bis de- uctions tolerably logical. ‘The Grat. Christians were remarkable for their detestation of idolatry, and for the generous disinterested zeal with which they Inbour- ced to convert others to the same faith. The first of these principles, no doubt, contriboted to maintain the ity and pority of Cin tnd the second to disseminate it through the world. But the facts stich he lates re sare content tronghent, He to represent the zeal of the first Christians as 60 3 C 6% J cHR hhot and intolerant, that they could brve no social io- chi fercomre with tone who atl adored to the worship of. feathen deities. In this case, how could t Frc tier region? Nage ce ny oven ak How could they live? If they could not mingle with the ‘Heathens in the transactions either of pence or wars ‘nor witnese the marriage or the funeral of the dearest friend, if« heathen 5 bor practise the clegant aris of cloquence, or poetry ; no rersation the language of Gi at ety toe wha of disseminating their Tf, in auch circumstances, and observing rigidly such ‘senor of conduct, they were yet able to propagate their religion with ‘soch amaziog success as they are said to have done ; they most surely either have prac- tised some wondrous ‘arts vakoows to us, or bave Seen sane Wythe sepernteel spec of roe "Bot all che bstrical records ofthat period, whether sacred or pofine, concur to provy that the, primitive ‘appealed to Heathen magistrates, and eub- Bitad teapetlly to ues decane hhosbaad was ‘often a Heatheo, and the wife n Christin ; or, aguia, the husband a Christian, and the wile a Heathen, ‘These are facts s0 universally knowa aud believed, that ‘we need not quote authorities in proof of them. ‘This respectable writer appears therefore not to have stated the facts which he produces under thie head. theuflicient ingenuousnete; and he bas taken care to te and improve those which he thinks wsefal te his purpose with ll the dazzling and deluive eoloers of eloguence. But bad the zeal of the first Chr intolerant as he represents it, it most has been highly enfavourable to the propagation of the religion: all their wishes to make converts would, in that case, have been counteracted by thoir unwilliog- ese to mix in the ardioery intercourse of life, with those who were to be coaverted, Their zeal and the liberal spirit of their religion, were indeed secondary causce which contributed to its propagation: but thie zeal was by no means 40 ridiculously intolerant as this vriter would bave us believe; if it bad, it moat have produced efiects directly opposite to those which be Aacribes to it. In illostrating the influcoce of the second of theve 8e- ance ondary causes to which he ascribes the propagation of Cvitianity Mr Giston dipays no le ingenity than in tracing the natore ad the efects of the brat,” The doctrine of « fature life, improved by every edditional ciscomstance which can give weight and efficacy to that important troth, makes a conspicuous figure in the Christian system ; and itis a doctrine highly Aattoring to the nataral hopes and wishes of the homan heart. Thoogh the Heathen philosophers were sot unac- auvined with hie doce yet to he the sprite. ality of the homan soul, its capacity of ei Separate state from the body, prospect of lasting happiness in « fate I igs pousible and desirable, than troths fully established upon solid grounds. These doctrines, Mr Gibbon would persuade us, bed no influence on the» otra: fin sc of wich ty were. become “i geet pc te Clctaiy atts weir ew to Taper Leh hete alt wes et fon od he poen oa ete nee do meta ete ta eet ie nebo eae ind. Of those who admired, some were eager to Peet pepnede conn ‘Their virtues, too, were rather of that species which Sea el aoe takes eee ‘ence of social order, and contribute te the ease and con. Stee ie bath tine cates wei iataiog dee anna ich coer: The fey geicued hoiouy bt ole nd ree ge ners iter der apoelina i arabe eed duced mambers to embrace their faith. ‘Wetman bower tasitogy dle thet thi x pays toed aac oP cia or ins, and the motives from which they o- Hp Tb eee ang ema sae eee fom heel ‘converts to Christianity ; save what was indispensably Ferra eeengr elf aroy het eg ered TED, Larter ates aes wae pi ocd reeds ser‘hatie Cael ecases 2 detr aers acd sien a ee alow tae teats wiieatatie faker heeatene nee eset Tanta tcnanoccana Be Se ae circumstances in which the first Christ seamen degree social. The most prominent feature character was, “ their continuing to entert Sat patees tere ay Neg a Pics Artec ae ont, pets sw a eter Sa Creed bare integrity and justice, in their conduct towards Tr cannot be sid wit truth, that such 2 proportion of the primitive Christians were people whote charac- ters bad been infamous and their circumstances deape- rate, as that the character of the religion which they embraced can wufler from this circomstance, "Nor were they onfy the weak and illiterate whom the apostes and tick Inmetiae rccewors converted bythe precke ing. The criminal, to be sure, rejoiced to hear that Ihe might obtain absolution was will to reecve comfort minds of teGned and lings vere deeply afcted. with iad ifoced the Son of Gad to cjudices of the great and the eancs, at are so cate the Chrntnnchuarh {from the aspersions by which it has been represented as being in the fist period of its existence merely a body of criminals und idiots. C 68 J The principles, too, from whi frst Christians originated, were aot pecal and selfish aay, they seem to have been uncommonly —~— sublime and disinterested. Remorse in the guilty mind, is a natural and reasonable sentiment 5 the desire of happiness in every human breast is equally so. It is ‘uncaadid to eavil against the first ing, like the rest of mankind, influenced by these seate ments: And when me bebold them overlooking tea porary possessions and enjoyments, extending their jews to futurty, and “living by faiths” when we ‘obverve them “deing good to those who bated them, blessing those who cored them, and praying for thove bby whom they were despitefally osed:” can we deny ir vi been of tbe most generous and dis- stians must ave contributed to the propagation oftheir religion : but pain that we observe this re- spectable writer studiously labouring to misrepresent the inciples from which those virtues arose and not oaly ‘the principles from which they arose, but also their im portance in society. ” The fifth cause was the mode of chorch goverament Came ¥. adopted by the frst Chri by mbich they were mith together in one society; who prefered the church "i interests to their country and civil concerns, ot to deny, that the mutual attachment of tributed to spread the ine and the order which they ‘maintained, in consequence of being animated with thie ‘spirit of brotherly love, aod with such ardent zeal for the glory of God, must no doubt have prodoced no Jess happy effects among them than order and regula- rity produce on every other occasion on which they ly observed. Bat whether the form of charehe government, which was gradually established in the Cristian chorch, was actoally the happiest that could tre any with more. opty endear fo ely at Feadertcoenbare. rr ‘From the whol of this review of what Mr Gibbon Gend2s has to specoulyadrncedconerning the inrnee afar: these five secondary causes in the propagation of the S°%°cr™- gomreh, we think ourselves warranted to conclode, EO" FRE the teal of the Brat Chritins wan oot an be geet Se prcsais iy intlerants That the deci of the deere Eeraltyof the buman woul ae somewbat beter one derstood in the Heathen world, particularly among the Greeks and Romane, and the Jews, thao he representa itto have been and bad an influence somewhat hap- pier than wint ke nscribee tot: Tint the adaitieal Efcamatancs by which, he tells, the Bit prenchere ‘of Christianity improved the efleots of this doctrine, wwere far from being calculated to allare converts : Tis he Sete, ther wee at ut wall wrepared for an eager reception of this doctrine as he ocld pervonde ‘t they were} and, of cooerquenee, Soa nt eo lnlonced by tia vo ensderle nde? rein this conversion: That rel coquetonable az aclet, performed by oor Saviour, by bis apa, and oYChinians, that part of the world. to + take care, lest, in tortor CHR The enpror alse the 1 and ponishing thove thom they accused of Atbeiom (meaning the Chr tian), they shoold sender them Snore sstinatey ne cad of prevailing apn them to chuge tl Since ther religion taught them to fer i fore for the wake of Col.” As to the carl wre al happened, be put them in minh They themselve are alwayy dscoureged, an sink une der such ssfrtnes 5 whereas the Christians never discovered more cherflness and confidence in God than open ch ocesion®™ He tell them, that ‘they pay to regard to religion, aod. neylet the swertip ofthe Eleroals andy beenove the Cl Tonout and adore Him, therefore they are jealous of them, and persecute them even to death.” Ie cone clodeas “ Ktany of the governors of provioce bave formerly written to. my flther concerniag them; and lis ancwer always way, that they should ot be molest tor dtoried provided they quietly nobmitted to the Subority of te governments’ Many Prvone have ker trite coovlied re open this aay dT have returned the same aramerto thom ally sare, thi if any one sctases a Chritian merely oo aecout of bis religion, the accoed person shall be aoqited, andthe sctouet melt punished” ‘Tis rdiennce, according to ER- war palily Gixed op at Epoeus in an Sealy of the states. It is no difficult matter to di many persecutions to which the Christians were ex- cover the causes of the posed during the three frst ceutories. ‘The parity of the Christian morality, direetly opposite to the cor- ruption of the Pagans, was doubiless one of the most powerful motives of the public aversion. To this may be added, the many calumpies unjustly spread about particularly the Jews, ‘And this occasioned so strong a prejudice against them, that the Pagans condemned them without inguting to their doctrine, or permitting them to delend them- selves. Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ ax God, was contrary to one of the most ancient laws of the Homan empire, which expresly forbade the acknow- ly, and very soon made a su ress in the Ta the thi there were Christ palace: in short everywhere, but in the temples theatres: they filed the towns, the country, the Islands, Alen and women of all ages sod condons, and even thote ofthe fist dignities, embraced the faith; insomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve: rues of their temples were ruined. They were in such ‘great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertollian ex- [Presses it) were they to have retired into another try, they would bave left the Romans only « frightful ude. ‘The primitive Christiane were not only remarkable for the practice of every virtue they were also very cemiveatly distinguished by the many miraculous gifte td graces bestomed by ‘God opon them | Sa of the Christians (says Irenseus) drive oot devils, not in appearance ooly, but so as that they never return: [70 J cHR whence it often bappens, that those who sre dispor cis essed of evil piri embrace the faith and are received remove inte) s coun Ing from Christina an exer tty ore favours, to science than’ Sweden wat. nem and incoostancy of ber vex for even Christina, Concerning the merit of this action, the world banal: twith respect to this man, showed herself to be weak ways ben divided in opinion it kas been condemned Zod ioosant, At last abe wan compelled, by the like bth by the ignorant and bie indigain t baih e, nworhy tings andthe ge" Een adie, i he wat no sconer gooe than ber regard for at Conde: reat wat the magnaniatty frat aban cod.” She was shamed ofthe favour she bad hie princess (eid be)y who could so eatly give op Teown bit} and in short time, thooght of hin with that for which the reet of mankiod are contincally hatred or cootenpt. ‘This Bourdeoty doring his as- destroying exch other, and which #0 many through cendeney over the queen, had supplanted Count Mag- ont their whole liver porsoe without attaining Tt tos de In Gard son of the constable of Sweden, who appears, by the worke of St Evremond, that the abii- svat a relation, favourite, and perhaps the lover’ of cation of Christina was at that time the universal to- Giritinn.M. de Mottvlle, who had seen bim ambas- pic of speculation and debate in France. Christinn, tador in France, says, in that bespoke sides Shdicating her erowo, abjored. ber reigi of bis queca in erm go pomionste and Terpectaly tat bot thi act was univerally ‘approved by one. party very one covcladed hit autachment to her to be 'more and censured by anothers the Papists trivmpbedy and trdeat and. tevder thao a mere tente of doty can the Protestants were ofended. "No prince, after & acts ‘This nobleman fell into disgrace becavse he long imprisonment, ever showed +o. much joy upon Frowed an el ‘govern while M. Bourdelot restored to his Kingdom, as, Chistian didi teemed to sim at nothing more than to amoie and quitting bers. When she came to ite brok, which Coveney Oder te suepeted carictr of al, Speraee Suden frm Denar oe gt oat of Bet the ral atcendency which be exercised over the queen's carriages and leaping on the other side ried out fn mind. traveport of joys AC last T nm frees and out of ‘Aboot this time, an accident happened to Christina Sweden, hither, I hope, I shall never setaro.”” srhich brought ber freater danger than that She dismissed her women,’ and laid by the babit of Thich be been related already. Having. given or- her sex: “I would become a man (std she); yet I Jers for tome ships of war to be bult afte port of do not love men becnoe they ave met, bat becanae Biockholm, abe eat to sce them when they were fi- they are not women.” She made her abjorstion at bed jad at ae ms going ot bard of them, ens Brass heros sa the great Condo, win, fier 3 4Chine. beds Is chiedy saga, coon, o= Dierest Sypoeis oon cHR ‘The air is 1e ail Bab at abject to Ea sandy, and froitfel ; odes fraita, W. Long. 62. 32. CHROAST ACES, applied to gem, prcheu do able colours, ae viewed i dierent I ferent positions; of wbich kinds are the epat and the Asteria or cat's eye. CHROMATIC, a kind of masic which proceeds several semitones in succession. The word in de- Tived from the Greek gana, which signifies colour. For this denomination several causes are umigoed, of which none appear certain, and all equally unsatstae- tory. Instead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we sball offer a conjectore of our owns which, however, we do not impose upon the reader as more worthy of his attention than ny of the former. Xeon may per- haps not only signify « colour, bot that of n shade of ggloe by bic it ela nto anther, or wiat ‘reach eall nuance. If this interpretation be admit- it will be highly applicable to semitones 5 which being the smallest interval allowed in the diatonic scale, will moat eusly run one into another. ‘To Gnd the rea soos assigned by the and their various al Dictionary. At present, that species Consists in giving sush a proedure tothe fundamental bass, that the purts in the harmovy, or at least tome ‘of them, may proceed by semitones, as well in ris ‘as descending 5 which is most frequently foond i rioor mode, {rom the alterations to which the sixth and seventh note are subjected, by the natore of the mode itself, ‘The successive semitones used in the chromatic spe- ies are rarely of the same kiod 5 bat alternately ma- jor and minor, that is to say, chromatic and diatonic : for the interval of « minor ‘tone contains a minor oF chromatic semitone, and another which is major or din- tonic, measure which temperament renders common to all tones : so that we eannot proceed by two minor semitones which are conjunetive in succession, wi C 44 cHR ‘ctteiog inte the ecbarmenic apecieny bat two major ee semitone twice Tellow cach other in the chromate Cor Sr et tie sae, "The moet certain procedure ofthe fondaiental base to generate the chromatic elements im aceon, it alter- rally to deaoend by thirds, and ree by foortb, mtiloe il We horde cary the thied mejor.” HT the’ fonde- freatal bans poocesde fear dominant to dominaot by perfect cadens rreided, it prodaocs the chromatic i Tcscendiag. ‘Te produce both at once, you interwenve the perfect and broken cadences, but at the eame time ‘As at every nate in the chromatic species one mart change the tone, that succesion ought to be regolted fod lnited for fear ef deviation. For this porpone, it tril be proper to recllect, thatthe apace oat sats ockromalls movements ia between th extremes ofthe domisant and the ton in steending, and between the tone end the dominant in devoending. In the major trode, one may alto cromatically descend from the do- tioant upon the second net,” This nation is very Comuon in Italy ; snd, eotwithetandiog ft bens, bo- Ein be ite an common ng om "The chromatic species ft admirably fitted to express grief and efliction 5 these eoonde boldly strock faa Eending tear the sol, ‘Their power is 00 leew mage al in deveending iti then thatthe ear seems to be piereed with etl groans. Attended with its proper [erronys this specs appears proper to express every thing, fo ample, by rem te mod, teertices & part of its expresionj and for this Firing from the fulness of the barmcny, ‘nly be compensated by the natore and ge ue of the movemeat., We may ald, that in proper: tion tothe energy of this specie, the’ compose 0 to wse it with greater eattion and. parsimony j thooe elegant vnnde, mich, when profosly adwini- sate with hi sondancn 5 fs much ae they delight uv when enjoyed with temper Sherine och do they eingut when devoured wi pe: digalty. "Eunouarte, Enharmonic. See EXBARWORIC. CHROMATICS; "THAT ret of optics which explaise the several properties of the colours of light, and of natural bodies. ‘Before the time of Sit Imac Newton, we find no hypothesis concerning colours of any ‘consequence. ‘Tie oplatont ofthe old phionphors,bemever, we shall briefly mention, in order to gratify the carisity of our readers. ‘The Pythagoreans called colour the ruperfices of body. Plato said that it was a fame is- fniog from them. According to Zeno, it is the Bret configuration of matter and Aristotle oui, it was that ‘which moved bodies nctunlly transparent. ‘Des Cartes asserted, that colour is a modification of light ; but be Imagined, that the diference of colour preceeds from the prevalence of the direct or rotetery motion of the particles of Light. Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and many others, thonght the diference of colour depeod- ick or slow vibrations of a certain ela verse. “Hobaslt fe fined thatthe diferent calowrs were made by the rays at light enteriog the ray at diferent angle with respect fo the opti are aod rom te phenmere of hea bow, be pretended to ealelate the precise qoantity the angle that constitoted each partiular color. Last- ly, Dr Hooke, the rival of Newton, imagined that co Teor is cared by the sentation of the pelee of light 5 tnd this being capable of bo more than Tro varictie, he concladed there could be no mere tha. eee SCG, Gi Inne Newton Thiet a the year 1666, Sir Teanc Newton begua to ives: TBH ml tigate thid subject 5 ‘and finding the coloured image offtct inn the uo, formed by a glass prism, to be of sa og SineCHROMATICS. in the following table, wherein on one ioned the colours appearing on the plates by relcted light, and on the other thon which mere te to them, and which became visible when the e+ were eld up between tho eye and the window. ‘We have already observed, that the centre, hen the lates were in full contact, was perfeely transparent. ia spot, therefore, when viewed by relected light, appeared black, because it transmitted all the rays and for the same reason it appeared white when view- cd by teanamitted light. Conouss by Reflected | Covovas by Transmitted Light. ight. Black © Wie Blue Yellowish red White Black Yellow Violet Red Blue ‘Violet White Blue Yellow Green Red Yellow Violet Red Blue Porple Bloe Greea Yallow Red Green Red Greeuish-blve Red The colours of the rings produced from reflection by the thick plates, followed the order of those. prom duced by tranemiston tiroogh the thin ones 5 and by the analogy of their phenomean with those produced from the thin plates, Sir Isaac Newton concluded that they were produced in a similar manner. For he found, that if the quicksilver was rubbéd off from the back of the speculum, the glass alone would produce the same rings, but much more faint than before; +0 ‘that the phenomenon did not depend apon the quick- iver, except in as far as, by increasing the reflecto at the back of the glass, it increased the light of the coloured rings. He also found that a speculum of m tal only, produced none of these rings which ma him conclude, that they did not arise frem one surface oly, but depended on the two wurfaces of the plate of ilass of which the specolom was made, and upon the thickuess of the glass between them. ‘From these experiments and observations, it will be easy to understand the Newtonian theory of colours. Every substance in nafore seems to be transparent, rovided it ie made suficiently thin. Gold, the moat ave substance we know, woen reduced ‘int thin leaves, transmits bloinhrgeeen light throogh it, Tf, therefore, we suppote any body, gold, for iastance, to be divided foto vast number of plats, 40 thin a be almost perfectly transparent, itis evident that all or greatest part of the rays wll pats throogh the ep- per plates, and when they love thir free will be re- flected from the under ones. ‘They will then have the same number of plates to passthrough which they hhad penetrated befoves and. thos, accarding to the amber of thove plates throogh which they are obl- ged to pase, the object appears of this or that colocr, Just as the rings of colours appeared different in the experiment of the two plates, according to their di- ‘tance from one another, or the thickness of the plate of gi between them, a . i theory is adopted by Edward Humey Delaval, Ms Dele. ig bin Exponent gue itn the ein of the tt changes of colours in opaque and coloured bodies. meats He endeavours to confiru it by a number of expert (arctic ‘ments on the infusioos of flowers of different coloars but bis strongest arguments seem to be those derived from the different tinges given to glass by metalio bstances. Here he observes, that exch metal gives a tinge nccording to its specific density: The more dense metals producing the less refrangible colours, and the lighter ones those colours which are more easly refran- gible. Gold, which is the densest of all metals, ime Farts rd cilour og wheove i can be divided fo particles so minute, that it m capable sized with the materiais of which gas ie made. Ie seems indifferent by what means it ia redoced to this state, nor can it by any means be made to produce Snother colour. IU tin mined ia large masea without gh form. Lead, the me- tal whose density is uext:in order to that of gold, af fords a glass of the colour of the hyacinth 5 a whose distinguishing characteristic in that it i Ted rth an adixtar of yell, the ame colour which in usually called orange. Glass of lead is mentioned Cereal ducaes at saposton proper, whet a ‘ddition of any otber ingredient, for imitating the by- acith. Silver, next ia density to lend, can only bo ‘made to communicate 2 yellow colour to glans. IF the metal is calcined with sulphur, it readily commu cates this colour. Leaf-ilver Inid upon red bot gla, kemise tinges it yellow. When we mest with ww. thors who mentiog a blue or greenish cslaur comma icated by silver, the cause must have beeo, that the filver used in auch processes was mixed with copper. ‘Mr Delaval antares ts, from silver porified by the test retains so mueh copper, that, then tlied several times wih nite and bre ia ‘ways imparted green colour iat the frst and second mye me = rence ot eS ad cad tainable from i. Th Der is grec itil or = copper 18 prepared in order to tioge the glass, provi ICM exposed without anyother tgredieat tor ra cient degree of beat. If x quant the preperation, they will, by attenuating che mix tare, make the glass incline to bloc, the colour next in order: but this happens only when the fire is mo derate ; for, in a greater degree of heat, the redan- dant salts even those of the most Bod: polled. It ia trac, that copper is mentioned’ by some ‘writers as an iogredient in ved glase and enamel : bat the red, which ie the colour of the metal not disolved. ixed with the glass, remains oaly while the com- ition is exposed to uch 1 degree of beat a8 is too Foal to mel and incorporate tj or if it be suBered to remain in the furnace a fow minutes after the cope per is added, the mass will turn out green instead of red. Iron, the metal next in density to copper, is apt to‘guished present] CHROMATICS, surfaces are more or less united. These figores will ‘ot fail to appear, if the glances aro well wiped and ‘warmed before the friction. “+ When the colours are formed, the glasses adhere with considerable force, and would always contioue #0 ‘withoot any change in the coloors. Tn the centre of all those ovals, the longer diameter of which generally ‘exceeds ten lines, there appears a small plato of the ‘tame figure, exactly like a plat of gold interposed be- ‘twoen the glasses and in the centre of it there is often 1 dark spot, which abeorbe all the rays of light except the violet: Yor this colour appears very vivid through prism, ‘TF the glasses are separated suddenly, either sliding thace berzeatlly tver one another’ or by the ‘ction of fire, a8 will be explained hereafter, the ¢o- Joars wil immediately upon their being pat to- agather again, without the least friction. ‘Beginning by the slightest touch, and increasing the prstre by inven degree, here Ent ste of «faint rey sd in the mide of it» spot af lp grece, mich args by the pressare, decomes a green oval, with a red spot in the centre 5 ‘and this, enlarging in its taro, discovers a green spot nits centre. ‘Thus the red andthe grou acoced one sscother in turns, assuming diferent shades, and having ‘ether eclours mixed with them, which will be distiae erence betweon these colours ex- hibited between plane surfaces and thore formed by ‘ourve ones is, that in the former case preseure alone Ir not produce them, except in the case above m: tioned. “With whatever force he compressed them, bis attempts to produce the colours. were in vain without ‘Previous friction. But the,reason of this plainly was, ‘that with sliding ons of the glasses over tbe other, they could not be brought Longe ear oat for the “The greatest sue re oe doubt, to the separation of the rays. of light. by the prism. In this case, diforeotly coloured ov of Be he ae of plinth at mock we, snd only appeared yellow abot it eigen, ‘The plate having black spot in its centre, was bordered by a deep purple. He could not perceive any violet by his naked eye, bat it might be perocived by the belp of a leon with a weak light. It appeared in a very amall ‘quantity at the confines of the purple and the blue, fad seemed to him to be only a mixture of these two colour. It was very visible in each of the coloured Fings by inclining the glasses to the light of the moon. Nest tothe purple and violet appeared toe, orange, red tinged with parple, light green,.and faint porple. ‘The other rings appeared to tho naked eye to con- sist of othing but faint reds and greens and they ‘were so shaded tbat it was not easy to mark their ter~ minations, ‘That the order of these may be compared with Newton's, he gives a view of both in the follow. ing table: Orden ofthe Colours in ‘Plane Glasses. | Newt. Object Glasce, tr | iti ov ne Order.) Yalow border | White Deo Yellow parple a Blue Violet Ordee I, } Oras Blue Pa Green Greenish blue | Yellow Onder IHL. {xier green | Red Purple red | Purple Bilao Green Order IV. feat Zi Faint green | Green Order V. Famer a jeak green | Greenish blew One Het os = ery faint cernih bee Onder VIL. } Vo9 fiat wd | Red Greenish bloe Pale red «Yn a es ep oo aatnaes tos memati ly, though the glasses still continued to-adhere to one sir ectcerets aie oe they were seed to coo} the colours retard by de- seme metre fier this the AbDE took two plates mock thicker than the Foren, none obnore at bs eerste ‘tion of fire upon the matter which be supposed t» dace the clots 5 and shervdy at a they grew ‘warm, the colours retired to the edges of the giaseer, ‘and there became narrower and narrower till they were Tedaced. to imperceptible lies. Withdrawing, the flame, they returned to their place. This be continued till the glasses ware beat. by the violenow lth beat, Ib was pleasant be sey to sbecrv thee ‘colours glide over the surface of the giase ss they were the fame. “At the frst out author hed: no. doobt bat that thoes colours wene owing to m thin plate of ain between the glasses, to which Newton has ssoribed them: but the remarkable difference in the circumstancos-attend- ing those prodoced by the fat-picces, and those produced: by the object-glasees of Newton, convinced hiaw that the air was not the cause of this appearance. ‘The colour: of the fat plates vanished atthe 4] of fame, Dat those of the object-glasses did uot. He-even est ced tho latter till that which was next the flume: was cracked by the heat, before be ooald obsorve the least: dilatation of the coloored rings. This difference. was aot owing to the plane gles being lm than the conver. ones} for thong tbe fomser, were compressed over so mvc ir of ibdid not ia leat insect ames ‘Afterward be pt bath the ‘lee lance aad’ the convex ones into the receiver of an sir pemp, surpend- ing the former by a thread, and keeping the latter com= reseed80 CHROMATICS. suddenly, he observed pon their surface very thin ‘apours, ‘which formed diferent colours, but pesent- iy vanised altogether. "To try the effect of vapour, he breathed upon ‘one of bis plates of glam, and olverved that the va- Pee nbch edered ete ga sometines fred, re they were satrely dispersed, a sarprting va ety of colours ‘This experiment be obeerves, does Bot tinays succeed at the frat tia, ‘The glass'most te breathed upon several timen, and care matt be tar Ken to wipe it every time with one’s band, both to ff the moisture) and also to make upon the. glass Tnvch to the ‘arlety of colour, by making inequaltce fn the thick Bete of tho vapouts. It it necessary also, thatthe {lames on which these experiments are’ made bave 10 Stickellver upea them. ‘When the peticie of water mhich formed thi vapour ‘were too tick to exhibit thete colar, be truck them several tines with hi peoel, in order to tenuate them 5 and thea be saw a0 inltity of small Caled thrende whch socteded cot anter with reat rapidity. “Pulling drop of water between two pieces of common zits, be obuerved thatthe compresion of them produced no caloors bat if, while they were compres: 203, the water was made to pass from goo place to an. Tet behied it large" spota, red, yellow, green, Se, ad te pate ed iret el ih ‘apdity and preeeated to the eye a most Bena ty fi an a “Ta order to determine with greater certainty whe- ther they were vapeure that caused the eoleurs ia bis frst obuervation, he Gre breathed opon oe of his pater af glats, and then rubbed them againet one ansber, trben tho calars appeared inthe sate order as before, bot darker, and dispersed in confusion inthe places oc- csp by te apie: bat when made oe of ry 7 : having introduced a drop of water be- objet glass, obnervedy that ter insinuated itself between the glases, ter, and the rings 2 these colours to the thickness of the plate of water, as he ascribed the former to that of the plate of air, be measored the diameters of the colour- dsings mide by the pate of water, and conladed that the intervals between the (glasses at the similar rings of these two mediums were nearly as three to four and thence he inferred, that in all cases, these intervals would be as the sines of the refractions of these medioms. “The Abbé Mazeas, in order to assore bimelf whether, agreenble to this rule, the coloured rings of in glasses depended upon the thicknets of the water only, dipped one of the edges of his in a vessel of water, having taken care to wipe and by warm them well, before be produced bis colou ftin. The water was considerable tine sing as bigh ast in proportion as it ascended, be perceived a very thin plate of water, which seemed {fo pate over the mater which be thooght roduced the colours, without mixing with its Eojood this plate of water, be ill petocived the oo- 3 loors in the same place and order, bat deeper and durker} and holding the glatees above the fame of Candle, be saw the ‘alours go and come geval times fhe moved. them nearer toot farther from the Bae. He then moistened both the glasses more than before avd robbing thom a2 cron, be always saw tbe some ‘ppearance j and seizing the momest when the cor Toure bad daappeared to separate tho glases, be al- ways found thet they were wet. On this Aosouat, Te thooght that it evuld not be the water on which the colour depended, bot some anbatance much more to beat He aloo thooght tht thee esloored loge could pot be owing” to the compression of the Gletes or that, if thin circumstance did. contribute Soy thing to ther, it served rather to modify than to generate them. s hs du Tour gave particular attention tothe pro-s do ceding observations of the Abbé Mazean. Hl repeat- Toure eee In sme variation of cxeom email Stancen, particularly comparing. them ‘with thovo of Sir lonse Newton, He ie so far from supposing « plata of ais to be neccstary te the formation of these co- Toored rings tht he thik the reason of Tetween the Hat plates of glass ir dl Fing of the air to their sfaces ad that mere pres: sure is not sufficient to expel its except, as the AbbE observed, the rings bad before been made ia the same place 5 in which eate, simple appoution with sufficient 5 the air, probably, not having hhad time to apply itself eo closely to the surface of the "The contact of some otber substances, ME da ‘not 40 prejudicial in this experiment for be found, that, if he only gave the plates n sight coating of any kind of grease, the rings ‘would appear without friction, Also dipping them slightly them with bis finger, we sowwet the mame purpose. He verified his conjectres by means of the air-pamp 3 for, two glans in watery one of which bad been wiped, 30 the other ot, the former appeared to bave no bubbles adhering to it when the air was exhausted, whereas the other ‘When one of the glatees is convex, our autbor observes, that the partioles of air may'more easly make their excape by preware only } whereas their re- treat is io manner cut off when they are compreased Detween two flat surfaces. ‘The sir-pump, he foond, vas not able to detach these particles of sir from the surfaces to which they adhere leaving theee fat plates for a coosiderable time in an exbausted reosiver, was rot sufficient to prepare them #0 well for the experi- that Sir Isaac Newton ima-ments o ted Wy rect thove curious experiments am of light through hole in a piece of pasteboard, and observed the rings of colours reflected by a concave glass mirror of equal thick- iaces. ‘These experiments were resnmed, ly pursued by the duke de Chauloes, “who trcribed theo clours tothe afcction of ight ®. Chance @ See ¢ Ted the duke to observe, that when the nearer surfaoe!’* of the glass mirror was clouded by breathing upon it,Itaae New. Finest found to be * Seed. ‘hand. yim Pisco. CHROMATICS, evident, that the plates of which wo ww tural bodies to be’ composed, roast be, si that is perpetually varying in ing the plates of which any substance is composed to be of any determinate thicknews, 9 millionth parte of an inch for instance ; such of the rays as are reflected from this plate will be red. But if any. of thom pe- netrate to the depth of 11g of these parts, they will be reflected by a violet coloar, Sc. and thos most al- loy and obscure the red and 20 of ethers, If wo suppose the colours to be prodaced by infection, it will be equally diffcolt to account for some particular rays being inflected and others not} sesiog we ob- cere nt all of them are capable of being infected every substance whatever, when they pass very ET aes ‘when the light is neither refracted nor inflected, ns far ‘4s we can judge 5 anil this seems to obscure the theory of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men- tioned. "As the experiments we are now about to mention are of the greatest importance, and in direct tera coatra- dict one of Sic Isaac Newton's, we shall give a fll ac ‘count of them, from Priestley's History of Vis ail ma. tm one thickness 5 for suppo- ton's second book of Optics: “ He (Sir Isaac New- too) found, be says, that when light goes oot of air through several costiguous refracting mediums, through water aod glass, and thence goes out 2 into air, whether the refracting surfaces be parallel or to ove another, that ight, as often ns, by con- trary refractiona it i so corrected, that it emerges in parallel to those in which i was iocideat, con- after to be white but if the emergent rays be inclined to the incident, the whiteness of the ing light will, by degrees, in passing on from ‘emergence, become tinged at its edges ith colours. ‘This he tried by refracting light with iam of glas, placed within a prismatic veseel of wa- ter, i: By theorems, deduced from ths experiment) be infers, that the refraction of the rays of every sort, made out of any medium into air, are known by ba- 3g the refraction of the rays of any one sort and 0, that the refraction out of one medium ito another found as often as we have the refractions out of them both into any third mediom. On the contrary, a Swedish philosopher (M. Klin {gensticran) observes *, that in this experiment, Fays of light, after passing through the . glass, though they come out parallel to the incident sens eh ay Sa ot peel Be eat prim is, the nearer will the result of it approach to Newton's description. “This paper of M. Klingenstierns, being communi- cated to Mr Dollond ‘by M. Mallet, made him enter- tain doubts conceruiog Newton's report of the resolt of his experiment, aud determized him to have re- courte to experiments of his own. “He therefore cemented together two plates of parallel glass, nt their edges, so as to form a prismatic ‘esiel when stopped at the ends or bases; and the edge being turoed dowavrards, he placed in it'a glass prism with 000 of its edges upwards, and filled up the vue ancy with clear water 5 so thet the refraction of the + Jritt wan comtived to be contrary to thet of the wae En in order tat a rey of light trommited threugh tat thew refracted eocdimns might pe efeted by the ference enly between the two refractions, he found the water to Felrct more ores cin theme priamy be diminished increned the ange bette {he gam plates, tl he found the two catrary retra tone to be ogee, which he dacovered by viewing at Feet through thie doble pritms For wheu it ape cl tees done doped bo Peete the refractions mere eqonly und Ghat thee rays ree peralel tothe icident, eect "Now, socerding tothe prev serves, tt the ebeet shouldbe {his doable prim ine oataral col Fereace of tirangiility tnd been til renpets equa, inthe two qual felracions, they would beve rected, ach ater. "Bat ths experiment, folly proved the fal-Colours lacy ofthe received opioton, by showing the divergen- poses YH the light by tie glse pom tobe akon esc ist SF tat by We ters Soe age et te abe ac: thoogh nat at all refracted, war yet a3 much infected ‘rit priate cslare no Uhoogi it bud ben, seen hong i wedge ony who gle aw ear 30 aol STs experiment ie the very same withthe of Sir Taaac Newton abore mentioncly netwithtandiog the sk wae sealife: tt Mr Dad theres un tht be ved al posible preeeton and care We Kept his apparses by biny that the trath of mba he wrote, Whenever te abutld be properly required to do Hl plainly samy bomever, tat if the refrac le ofthe water veel Cond have adie of out cleat increase, the divergency of the coloured res sronld bave been greatly diminished, or entirely rect eds; and the there wood have been avery gre Fraction without esloor, at be bad wlvendy predoced sree dcarig wit racton ot Gee Senency of to lange an angle at that of the prinmatic ‘easel must have been toring the ight fo an equal Energy at af the gle ron, wie sage wav alot 6 ade it mc oy oe ee tens ofthe rame kied with smaller noice “Accordingly be gta wedge of pata he angle of which ra only nie degrees) uals wobg. A The sue circumstances, he inreaed the eagle of je wateromedge in which tas placed, evey ofthe hight by the water was eqoal to that by Te'gacey that tl te image of the objet, howe Considerably refrcced by the exon of the reftncton of the wate, sppenrednevertbsle quite free fam any Garr prcteding rom th dferestrfoghy ot “ Notwithstanding it evidently appeared, I may sy pest to alae al pier tnt Me Dold ba wade as areal dvcovery of something ‘et comprebeoded ia the opti! principles of Sir Issac Newton, it didnot typear to ev sanble o an, sed so good's etic {lan ou Mi Murdoch is veversaly Scknowledged to te Upon this ocasion he aterpoted in the defece, be aginedy of Sir Ione Newiony meiatians that ‘Mr Dalia position, which be ayy fot by what mishap have been deemed prndotarent bodies to reflect ight, being dedaced from very omerous experiments, cay therefore be beld as 2 ge Sera lam. wll appent the tore extensive, ire onder, that, fr the most part, the tnging particles of liguors or other transparent eastance are extracted fiom opugue Boden thatthe opaque bodies ome theit colours to thse particles, in like manner as the tran area subtances dos al tht by the lon of them they ta Eee deprived of theit colors. Apparates For making his experiments, Mr Delaval osed small Mate peti loc evs oarspeicepiesna thee e590 their height, exclsive of the neck, sboat two the base about an in length. ide, except at ite ie was carefal to avoid ight might be ad~ secret tiaagh the noe or arr de of the hints, in these experiments itis of importance to have the fand as many of the liquors are t, they ought to be’ pot into the phinls only at the time the experiments are to be made, The uncovered side of the phials should not be laced opposite to the window through which the light is admitted 5 because in that situation the light woold be reflected from the farther side of the phil} and oor thor oberven tat emeoth Mack eobstancee rect ot as compliabed by cha sityaton tha it may form's right angle withthe window. ‘With thete precattions, our author viewed a great soni of etn bt af ed etal ul ad " 3c Lnging atx of vegetables vaiverallyobery- tana ing, that tbe coloce by reflection wes Mack, whatever ime be whe ieed by tried light, TE hve Tigoor, however, are apread thin pon any white ground, theyappenr ofthe same coloar as when elemed by trant- mlited lights but ona Sack grovod they afford no co- Hour, voles the Back body be plished jin which caso the rection af the light throogh it produces the sume eect as tranemiaon. ‘The experiments with tinged glemes were io many respects analogos to theee ith Urneparent cxlored Tiguors For thes be made several parcel of elon lane ghsses, prosipally uteg ene composed of equa pertsof bork and white sand: The glase was reduced Erperder, and afterwards groan, together withthe irediate by which the coleure weve imparted. This thod (71 he) of incorporating the tinging particles i greatly prefereble to mizing them with the Faw ma tele aod the lanes thon composed excel mest others sabi, eg ere aero ine to reat "The real ofall the experiments made in this man- ner wat that when materi of sch thinnesy and the tinge 0 dilated, that Bight can be transmitted throoge CHROMATICS. ity the glases then appen 5 bat whe they are in larger masse sing tmtler ‘more densely difved through them, they appear black for theve, s+ well as the tramepareatcvlonredigoors, thew thee calor by tenomanicn. “The flowing ox? veto determine the pro- of Ungiog, matter which peoduees colour of Trae "ate 1 Glass was tinged green by adding to it goth of apt su ght of copped nbd tat betes Iaee wansetst> a A bloc glee war ade by the addition of care porple one by mangencre, » red glass by gold, and2irice oot ghamen by nce sod cacted ion” le aa lass revernbling topaz was likewise made by {ition ofa aral quatity of ebarcoa! in powder. tame colour was likewise procored by the sddition of trhen-Boor, ros and everal ether flarmable wat= Terme Bull pcccr of cach ofthese glasas, being ground bya lapidary, resembled genw oftheir diferent Soar. Having formed pisces of euch plasee sbont two ockea thicks he incloeed them in lack cloth on al except ther farther and anterior eurfacen” In tution exch af them showed a vivid colour mhen Tight wat tame them bot whet” the prteriorearface was likewise covered ith te cloth ta ranemiation, no other colour then black ted by any of then. “When plaice of trameparentcoloued gla, some- whit thicker than common window-glam, mere made tee of they always exhibited thelr ealare by trae. ined gh On intereepting the light transmitted through these coloared platen they a constantly appeared black then plsced in eoch rection ab fo form a right Thgle with the window. ‘From there phenowseas Mr Delaval deduced the fdllowing obervationn: 1. That the clearing prticles donot reect any light. 2. That n mediue, och ao Sic Tease Newton bas decribed, i difsed over bth the anterior and farther sorfaces of the platen, where- by objects are equally and regolany rafecied'es by o iisrer. Hence, when ti sud. that light i reflected by the surface of any enbtanee, it should be wnderstood fom ths expen that the reece ted by laced near one ofthoteo re. colada the Bein feted bythe meio ct sich ich over th noc src. The images celoor bel iinised, ad wot inthe least eoret tinged by the coloured gla. a "7. Hf the plate be not o itentay colored, or #0 int ato Finder he rate of th i fhe rn, here appar ssnday image - Winncheet by the mete, aetigunu to We Farther surface ofthe glass and uote Tight thus ree fected pases through the coloured gas i is Cnged rer vii. 8. When such a mixture of them as does not compose whiteness, or any uf the gradations between white and black ; such, ss are called by Sir Isaac Nemten, gray, dan, or roseet brown.86 CHROMATICS, acilyreemliog the colo which bad been extracted from the leavers After th coloar had been totally extracted by the vinous eprt, the leaves remained apperlly ote lteredy ier on to gore or textare; bot wert en: Tiely white or bed there whiteness lightly tinged with rome, vq Red, porpl, sod blue fowers, were also digested in opin of win all of which yiclded ther clsoring trater tothe epnty aod berate hte by being de- prited of it, From met of these Bowers, however the i acquired citer to tinge a all ot only» vary ney bot when acidelated, i became redy nod by the aidton of am alkali appeared blue, purple, or fveen, according tothe quantity of ak fief he feo. Toe ello hem, when Siewed ‘by tranemited ight or posed spon x white ground, slowed their colours, but universally appeared Ena by refexion B Ie, and bloe flowers, were di tito 2d Its erie oh by eteatin wih ee tal might be preterved for many years "The wend gure were ebgedgren, blo, ot porple, by the addon ofa alkalis bat ere av'the me before; slo tems yeding vid tor Toor by trenton, bat vone by reflections In a tile experiment care mort by taken toad thea. all very radealy3 i to the rd Tiguor, the red andthe green'will be wanting, ‘To balf a oonce Of the red Inaron i proper to ad at once, only the amallest quantity tht eat be taken Upon the’ pint. hie addition slow, antl ence of the colour be prodoced "7, The fowers, after having been repeatedly mace- rattd in udolated water; lot thee eclouring ete, tinctures of these flowers were subjected to the same ‘experiments as had been employed in the examinat of the liquors already mentioned; snd appeared. yel- low by transmitted light, but did not reflect any co- Jour. Tours are imparted to the linen, afords much insight into the manner ia which natural. colours are prodat ced. Tt bas already been observed, that, men tho eo- Touring matter of plants in extracted from them, the ivested of their covering, dis- their ontoral whiteness. White linen, paper, formed of such fibrous vegetable matter} is bleached by dissolving and detaching the he- slouring particles, "When these are dyed vegetable colours, ident that they donot differ in their manner of acting on the rays of light from natoral vegetable bodies both ielding their colours by transmitting, through the transparent coloured matter, the light’ which ie re- “flected. fromthe. whit is white matter frequently exists, withoot any cousiderable mixture, bile they are in a atate of vegetation 5 as cot- 2 ton, white flowers, the pith, wood, seeds, roots, and ‘other parts of several kinds of vegetables. When de- caved trees, Bcc. have been long exposed to the atmo- sphere, their coloured juices are sometimes so perfect- ly extracted, that the fibres appear white, This white matter is not distinct from the vegetable earth to which plants are reduced by borning. Mr Delaval bas ren- 49, dered ashes intensely white, by carefully calcining Bom eM them, and afterwards grinding with a emall propor- male in. tion of nitre, and exposing them to such a degree oftensely Ibeat as would cause the nitre deflagrate with the re- "bite. maining quantity of phlogiston. Lastly, the ashes were digested with muriatic acid, in order to distalve the fer- Gnovs matter difiwed. through them, and. repeated- iy washing the remainder in water. Miziog ether thos povided with borax, and applying a witrifying beat, aa ‘Gpeqte enamel is obtained, remarkable for its whiter ‘Hence it appears, that the earth which forms the Whi substance of plants is white, and separable from that earth of ‘Site which eves ter pol whenever i i ait olooriees medity it shows its ontive whiteness the only vegetable matter endowed vith x relecive refit power.” Itvimay be dacovered, however, by otheright Teare than that of borsing ‘thus, reece: tany be whitened by exposing: them to the vapour of burning Tiphor: an efiteewbich cannot be airibated to the telphuric acid, bot tothe phlogton contained in that ayour. This was proved to be the ces, by exposing Deteral kinds of red and pple fevers tae pilogt ttle vapour feng” from hepa slp : and by this every one of them was whitened; their colour being af- terwards restored by the addition of aa acid ether i= eral or vegetab * ” “Thus (says appear A Touring matter of the Sowers is not discharged or re-matier de moved, but only dissolved by carbonic acid; andsred ty thereby divided into particles too minute to exbibit other sobatances of that kind, when exposed (o’the the light <88 6 Ottis co Tear of| Mood, ofuedbel, CHROMATICS, is produced, to the vegetable bodie "he tinctoes and iafsins of yield their colours when Tight them, bat show nove by rete ox gall with water, and exami ready mentioned, that part of it which was in the neck of the phial, aod viewed by transmitted. light vwas yellow; bat the anterior aurface was black, and reflected no colour. Flesh derives its colour entirely from the bloed, and when deprived of it, the fibres and vessels are perfectly white as are likewise the mem- Tats, sites, and bones, when freed from their aqoe- fous and volatile parts; in which case they are a mere arth unalterable by fe, and capable of imperting an opaque whiteness to glass On examining bod lsd with water in one of the phials formerly described, it transmitted a red co- Jour, and the anterior surface was ulmost, but not en- tirely, black 5 for it received a slight hue of brown from tome coagulated particles that were suspended ia the liquor. In order to procure blood sufficiently loted, nud at the same time equably and perfectly solved, he mixed as much cruor with spirit of sal am- rmoniae as imparted a bright colour t ‘being then viewed in the phial, that part. which was contained in the neck, and transmitted the light, ap- peared of a fine red; but the anterior part reflecting ty wan intensely black, Hence red colour of the fesh arises ay treated of Hi of a thro ing fet ag it in the phils al tod back. through the red. tranaparent co= ‘ering wbich the blood forms on every parte it ‘Blood, whee recently drawn, docs not assuae the sppearanes common to transparent colored liquors; forthese, when too massy to transmit light from thet farther surfaces, always appeat lack 5 bot blood, when recently drawoy alwaye shows s fie red colotr i iatewer way ie be veved, This fe ceeasoned by 0 Shite matter difoned throogh the Moody and. which acquires a red colour, and ought to be changed daily. n'a few days it ill acquire to more tinge s andthe remaining masses of the cruor are no longer red, bat In like manner, the red colour of the shells of lob- SHRSAAEL sters, afer boiling, is no more than a mere superficial 38 feather, covering spread over the white calcarcous earth of which the shells are i, and may be easly re- ping or filing. Bef the application of he superficial covering. it much denser, insomoch that, in some parts of the shell, it appears quite black, being too thick to admit passage of the light to the shell 5 but ‘where this trausparent blue colour of the unboiled lob- ster is thinner, it constantly appears like « blue film. In like manner, the colours of the eggs of certain birds are entirely superficial, and may be scraped of, Jeaving the, white calcareous earth expoved to The ct isthe sme with ether, which om ‘colours entirely to u very thin layer of some trans Tent matter upon'a wie ground. Our tutor ascere tained this by scraping off the superficial colours from certain feathers which were strong enough to bear the 3 operation 5 and thus separated the coloured layers from the white ground on which they Dad been eteraly spread, ‘The lateral bres ofthe feathers cannot indeed have thei surface separated in this manner 5 but thei texture, when viewed by a microscope,-sceme (0 i cate, thatthe colours fe prodaced upon them by ‘ther means than thove alteady related, In the ex mination of some animal subjects, where the colouring matter could not be separated by chemical means, out tuthor bad recourse to mechanical division; bot this can only be employed when the principal part of the scbnnoce i enmited wih the caloued costo covering which is spread upon its surface. All of them, bowever, by whatever means their colours eould be separated, showed that they were produced in the ssme' tanner, namely, by the tranaminsion of light from a whive ground throogh s tranaparent coloured medium. ‘The coloured substances of the mineral kingdom are or 12cm: principally to two clasesjloun afm ite former) when pore, arctenl wh ance, very nomerows, and belon Vir carte aod metals Lrpereeiy white, and thie colort tive rom’ car boots or male tixtres. Calarcov erthy when indorated, coostitate marble and may be tinged. With eloure by ‘means of metalfc sletine:" all Thich ae siailar fa their aatoe tothe dyes pot pea Pky cotton, ot lines, and invariably prose frome fame caine, viz. the tantaiaion of ight throng © tery thin and transparent coloured. meivm, its tre formed from silccous eatin, wad owe their coloot ter which produced their colour. When impreguated: with metals, they form agates, comelians, jasper, and coloured crystals. The coloured geme also receive their diferent hoes from metals: and all of them may be imitated by glasses tinged with such carbonic or me tall matters as enter into the composition of the ori ‘inal substances. ‘Thos our author concludes, that the coloured earths, of secale gems, &c. exhibit their various tints inthe same ‘manner with other substances ; viz. by the transmiseion of light reflected from a white ground. Our author, however, proceeds farther ; and asserts, that even the coloure of metals themselves are produced in the same maer Gold (says he) exbi sel with yolowe. Thee 2 white light, which is this expression, be- cause it appears from experiment that gold reflects © ‘bite light, and thet it yellow colour is & tinge super- Added to its whiteness. ‘The experiment in thos set forth by Sir Isaac Newton. Gold in this light (that in, a beam of white light) appears of the same yellow colour as in day light, bot by intercepting at the lene ‘due quantity of the yellow-making rays, it will ap- pear white like silver, as Thave tried which shows that is yellowness artes from the exces of the inter- cepted rays, tinging that whiteness with their colour ‘when they are-let pase. “ Thave already shown, by numerous experiments, what manner coloured tinges are produced j and it uniformly appears from all these. experimeaty. that colours do not arise from reflection, but from trans. missin only. A solution of silver is pellucid and co- loarless, A solution of gold trannmits yellow, but re- fectsown by CHROMATICS. only by the white or colourless icles. They con- tin of pelcid mediay tireoghont wh at which white oF co- loarless opaque particles are dispersed. The latter are ‘Some forts of rays penetrate through such masses, while others, which differ from them in their refrangibility, are relleted by the light or caloarless particles; and from thenco are transmitted throogh the pellocid part of the mediom which intervenes between the reflecting particles and the anterior surface of the mass. On the same principle our author explains the blve colour of the aky, the green coloar of the sen, and other natural phenomena : and from his nomerous experiments on this aubject at last concledes, that the power by which the several rays of light are transmitted throogh differ- Gamaiied ent media is inberent in the particles themeelves, and Tight therefore it nt confined tothe wrfaces of such med For the teaneniaive force was exerted atthe surface nly, the. Chioner plates of coloured aubstances would scp he ra apwerly a hcker manent it appears ffom experiment, that in proportion asthe aye pats through diferent thckneetes of coloured me- SE, hc eae los dient eli ee, bot freqtently in species alto, ‘The a's light, by are laminated, consists of all the rays of ‘which a while light is com: pounded. Those rayt, in their entire and ondivided Tate, ar incident ‘pon the opaque particles of cemi- pellocid sobetancen, and upon the ealoring particles Sf traneperent ecloured setaness, whenever, these tnedin are expaed to the light When the raya accede tothe opegte, particles of semipellcidacbutances, tome sorts of them are reGectd back from the ane™ or orface of theve particles: the other sorts of 1878 hich are not reflected back, are diverted from the direction which is opposite to the anterior surface ofthe opaque particlen, and paming throogh the inter- ‘ale between the particles, ere tramitied throogh the maa “When the rays are incident upon the particles of transpareoteclomed bodice, nove of them are reflected bck Bete the eolariog particles are not endowed ik ay ving every bt some of fe eee ‘liber slopped atthe fnterior sorface.of the. particles, ted into wach direct render them int throogh semipellacid media. Thue iti evident, that mcr ye ears enum rong pallocid substance, ar inflected by the opaque particles; Tad these ich ae trzeoitcd towed eseereset. tlored substance aro inflected by the fae” the peeing sinrain i pears, that the articles of caloured media faflect (be eral sorta of rays according to the several sizes and easton ofthe paticlees ale in proporon tothe in- Sammabilty of he media. which ‘one their colour to Iecred aye depends open tafe ryt depends opon thet fflectin, servations are coafarmable to Sir Lae Newton's doc- 2 tine that the rays of light are reBected, refracted, and infectdy by one and the came prociple ctig vari only in various cireomstances.” “the mont remarkable part of Mr Delavals doctrine that conceroing the metals; for the better under- standing of which we shall premise a sbort abstract of his general doctrine concerning white bodies, and the manner in which light is reflected by them. All the, earths, (he observes), which io their natural state of x pore white, constitute transparent colourless media ‘when vitrified with proper flaxes, or when dissolved in from their solutions are transparent and colourless, mile they retain the water which is essential to their exystallization, and are not flawed or redaced to pow der bat after their pores and interstices are opened jn such a mancer as’ to admit the air, they become then white and opaque by the entrance of that rare mediam. The earthy. particles which form the solid parts of bodies generally exceed the otber in density 5 ‘consequently these particles, when contiguous to tare media already mentioned, must reflect the rays of light with « force proportionate to theit density. ‘The rellective power of bodies does not depend merely upon their excew of density, but upon their difference of density with respect to the sarroonding media. Trans- parent colourless particles, whose density is greatly in- ferior to that of the media they come between, also orerfully reflect al srs of ray and thereby become white, OF thie kind are. the ltr other rare fig ‘which occupy the interstices of liquors ; and in gene Fal ofall deer media in whos ateriics voc Fare particles are admitted. Hence we may conclade, that white opague bodies ‘ae constitated by the union or contiguity of two or more transparent colourless media diflering cootider- ably from cach other in their reflective powers. OF thers rane eas rape i rh, Suit or other imperfect combinations of pellucid liquors, mit, snom, ealined or polverized tals glass of ery” stal redaced to powder, white earths, paper, linen, and ven thooe metas which are called white by mincralox sists and chemists: for the metals jost mentioned do. not appear white unless their surfaces be rough ; as i. that case ooly there are interstices on their surfaces raf ficient to admit the air, and thos make areflection of s white and Bot the that white surfaces cannot act 0} rors} because all the rays hick them are blended in a promiscuous and disorderly ‘manner, “The sbore mentioned phenomens gj the clearly show, that even the rarest trans Jess substances, when their surfaces are adjacent to me- dia differing greatly from them in refractive power, y thereby acquire a perfect opacity, and may amame sx reepleadency and hoe so similar to that of white me- tals, thut the rarer pellocid substances cannot by the ‘ight coloor' Slur wenn ted the slioe tases stele Sees mach in- OF es sight into the natore and cause of opacity: as they exe of92 CHROMATICS ploor of thane three. For the yellow they are equal in quantity, will draw the green equally toward them, and Keep ity anit were, in ‘quilibrio, that it verge not more to the one than to the other. To this ‘compound green there may be added some red and violet; and yet the green will not immediatly cease, but gr les vivid till by adding imcre red and violet it will became more diluted at last, by the prevalence of the added colours, be overcome, and turned into some anomalous colour. Tf the sun's white, composed ofall kinds of rays, be sdded to any homogeneoos colour, that colour will ‘not ‘vanish, vor change its epeces, but be dilated 5 1 adding more white, it will-become continually more diluted. "Lastly, if red and violet be mixed, there will bbe generated, according to their various proportions, vvarioos purples, such as are not like, i to the colour of any homogeneous light; and of these purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new colours may be composed. IIL. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yellow, end blue, to produce all the other prismatic colours, Gnd al that are intermediate to them. Provide three panes of glass (Gg. 2.) of about five finches aqoare ; and divide each of them, by parallel Fines, into five equal parts. Take three sheets of very thin’ paper whic you. mt print lightly, ane Hcy toner lo ante hed (0), Tes, pao of the glace five pcees of the red. paper, which most cover the whole snd only the the three lower, the foar lower divisions, the nly. On the other glass yellow papers most be pasted in like manner. You must ‘tho have a bor of about six inches long, and the same depth and width as tho glasses 5 it most be black on imide tet one nd be, quite open and in the ‘petite end there most be a hole large enough to see enc completely. Te won shops atthe ton, ‘that the glasses may be placed in it conveniently. ‘When you have pat any ove of these glasses in the bor, and the open end is turned toward the sun, yo ill'se five distinet shades of the colour it contains. 1f yon place the bls and yellow gases similar direction, you will se five shades o tinetly formed. ’ When the blue and red f bright violet will be produced: and by the heeverl sadly of rnoges 7 side AB of the yellow gla against the ‘side BD of the bloe, you will sce all'the varivos greens that are prodoced by natore (£5 if the blue And red glassen be placed in that manner, you will hve all the powsible varieties of purples, violet, Bee. 5 nnd lastly, if the red and orange glasses be so placed, there il be all the iotermediate colours, as the mmrygold, surora, 8. LV. By sean of the three primary colors roel, ise, togehe wi Nght eid shad pod All the gradations ofthe prismatic calour On seven square panes of glass, paste are painted withthe seven prismatic colo Imanner asthe last experiment ‘The colors fer th forange, green, indigo, and violet, may ie by fring the other ther. ‘Then with baste (Fy) well luted, shade a sheet of very thin paper, by inying it ton both ite siden, With pieces ofthis four-Gfths of « glass, of the same size wit laying one piece on the four lowest. di other on the three lowest, a third on the two lowest, fand the fourth on the lowest division only, and leaving. éi ‘uncovered. When one of the placed that the coloured glasses ae of shades, Plied to eral grada Shoe manne a drapery odo punted wi Te in on this principle that certain French artists have preceded in hei endear in sigan printed in colours printings in ol ‘bby Toor platen ofthe terme sey engraved the sume design. One of these cont the shades that are to be represented, and which are painted either black or with a dark gray. One of the three other plates is covered with blue, another with rely and the hed ih yolow; etch of them ng ograved on those parts only which are to represent that colour (6); and the engraving is either stronger ‘or weaker, 19 proportion tothe tone of colour that is ta be represented (H). ‘These four plates are then pasted alternately under ‘he the bor, together with the of (®) Water-coloars must be used for this purpose: the blue may be that of Prosia, and very gk the red, ‘earmine;, and the yellow, gamboge, mixed with a little saffroo. (00 both sides of the paper. ese colours must be Inid very hight and even, ing these glasses in a similar posi-Fig. 3 (2) In the first position of the glasses, the quantity of blve and yellow being equal, the same sort of green was xy ah ety ho neg tn iam the ‘quantity oF the crloure being constantly uoeqoay & ‘ery plating variety of tins ie profoced (i) The Batre here need most be ade of sot, not that fn stone, (6) When s red drapery is required, tit engraved on be and Ube: but i ne of the ther colours be wantigy npposevicet; N mist be engraved on thor tet prt the red blue; and so of the rest. ‘The plates of this kind have beea engraved in the manner of mezzotinto 5 pe eee slo ce Wy managed, are soon effaced. avings in the manner of crayon will per- eee on Le rissa diene in ttre of sograiog stn from wat of sift ‘plats that procise degree of engraviog which will predace the tone of coloar required. te assigned to that colour 5 and so of yellow plat at, t,o ging bight ren$4 Bet CHROMATICS. ‘VILL. ‘The diatonic scale of colours, ‘The illaptrious Newton, in the course of bis investi- gations ofthe properties of Light, discovered that the th of the emer which the, seven primary calears possess in the spectrum, exactly corresponds to those EFeeberds chat sound the seven notet in the datone scale of music: As is evident by the following experi ‘ment. ‘Ona paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of light be lnrgely refracted into the spectrum AFTMGE (Bg. 7) and mark the precise boundaries of the several colours, as o, 5, &0, Draw lines from those points i o0 will fiod to the opposite side, and ‘that the spaces Mir fE, by which the gcd, by which the orange is bounded; gp d, by which the yellow is bounded, &c. will be in exact prom ‘portion tothe divisions of a moral chord for the notes ‘of an octaves that it, a8 the intervals ofthese numbers Lh bhih tet IX, Colorfic musics Father Castel, a Frenchman, in a curious book be hhas published on chromatics, supposes the note wt to answer to blac in the prismatic colours; the note re to llow, and ms to red. The other tones he refers to the intermediate coloars from whence be coastructs the folloming gamut of calorific music: Blue z Ekin aes ‘Yellow as Red 2 a ‘Thin gamot, according to this plan, is tebe conti nved in the same manner for the ‘alow ig octave 5 ex- ‘cept that the colours are to be more vivid. “te ppc tat thus clu, bysrking th pe in tho sume wocrsion tthe sousde (to wich ‘onkes them analogous) do the ear, and in the same trder of time, they will produce correspondent sen~ sations of pleasure in the mit It is on these general incipleny which F. Castel bas elucidated in bie trea tise, that he has endeavoured, thoogh with little success, to ati hin colar brgichord ‘The construction of to efnet prehe Soya x plained wil tow tht the eles produced by clears Bye tame aoower thes of ands, and Unt the principal relation there is between: them consists in ‘the doration of the time that thoy.respectively.affect the ese me Between two circles of pasteboard, of tet iaches dia- meter, AB and CD, (6g: 8), inclose a bellow paste- board cylinder E, 18 inches long. Divide this cyline der into spaces half an ich wide, by a spiral line that runs round it from the top to the bottom, and divide its surface into eix equal, parts by parallel Tinos drawn between its two extremities: an is expressed in the figure. ‘Let the circle AB, at top, be open, and let that at Dottom, CD, bo closed, and supported by an axis or screw, of balf an inch diameter, which mut tara free- ly in a nut placed at the bottom of a box we shall presently describe. ‘To the axis jost mentioned adjort a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dis- meter, and that bas 12 of 15 teeth, which take the endless screw H, Let this cylinder be inclored in a tox TLMIN (ig. 9.) whow base ie oarey and. at whee batten ha a atin who sae tarns, Observe that the endless H shoald come Cut of the box, that it-may receive the bandle O, by hich the cylinder isto be turne ‘This box being closed all round, place over it atin covering A, which will bo perforated in diferent parts; from this cover there must bang three or four Tights, uo placed that they may strongly illamine the Sai of tepid, 1 ne eof bx (hich should be covered with pastebourd) cot eight apertures, by oy dy es fs Ay (Bg. 9) of half an inch wide, and ig. : of am in they must be directly over each ‘ther, and the distance between them must be exactly two inches, It is by these openings, which bere correspond to the musical notes, that tho various co- Joars unslogoos to them are to appear; and which being placed on the pasteboard cylinder, as we ave shown, are reflected by means of the lights placed vwithia i. Te is easy to conceive, that when the handle O is conrequence rising. balf an tured, the cylinder inch, if it be turned five times round, it will svcoes- sively show, at the openings made in the side of the boxy all hose that ere inthe ylioder itself, and which sare ranged according to the direction of the inclined Jines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the daration of the notes which are to be expressed, that the apertores on the cylinder are to be cut. Observe, that the space between two of the parallel lines drawa vertically oa the cylinder, is equal to ope measure of Une therefore, far evely ture of the cylinder, tere fro six measures, and thirty measures for the air that in te be played by this instrament, Tho soveral apertures being rade ia the side of the gylinder, in conformity to the notes af the tone tbat into be expressed, they are to be covered with deuble pieces of very thia paper, painted on both sides with the colours that are to represent the musical note. ‘This experiment might be execated in a different manner, and with moch greater extent 5 bat as the en- ‘tertainment woold not equal the trocble and expeace, iteoflicient to give the above, by which reader will be caabled to judge bow far tho aval posed by FE, Castel really exits, Seo the arti (Crmowarics in the SurrLaxcxy. CHRONIC,Digitized by Googlecoos, appl appellation given to . SM WMotendisioctin te thve tha soon termite, a cHR CHRONIC, o Cxnowicaty ameng ry are called acute, ‘CHRONICLE, in matters of literatare, a species cor kind of history disposed according to the order of time, and agreeing in ost respects with anoals. See Anvats, Porion Cnnonrcis, See Anvwpezzin Marbles Bince that article was given of Me Robertson's doubts and observ ing the aothenticity of the Parian Ch two. publications bave appeared in answer, bat none of them calcalated to remove the obj ally to afet the argoment that hd been ‘0 moch learning and ingenuity 2 Towing sritares, however, with 00's performance, seem to merit consideration. a jen Phe the carctrs A crea feocal markzof entguity, the Reviewers remark, EL ee tba sows an objection, If a zealous. id appt t eharctes and yr an dechive pects aft bing peace it would be proper enoogh to answer, that these circom- stances allord vo certain criterion of aotbent in this word certain acalks an unlucky ambiguity. If ‘tmean dementratve, it mst be allowed that ve scription can be proved tobe certainly gennine from these appearances’: bot if it meant no more than high- 3y probably many inscriptions posses suc to give their claims this degree of cer- wit. ‘he tre qoestin i, Has not the Pari ronicle every mark can be expect- ot cainiog the tye of 2008 ear?) i are, by Mr Ho own confession, iw cccringeosie iveriptios nd te ay a mer, that an impostor might copy the forms of these ietee from ether inscription, te slready to eappene the inscription forged, before it is rendered probable by argument, ‘The learned author of the Dissertation seems to some doubt of his own conclusion : for be adds, p. 56. “that the antiguity of an inscrip- tien can never Be proved by the mere farm of the let ters, because the most nocient characters are as easily ‘counterfeited as the modern.” But this objection ‘equally applicable to all other ancient inscriptions ; tnd i not to the purpose, ifthe present inscription bas any pecoliar marks of impostare in its characters and Ee soppoud te bef tore ancien dee” They ‘posite reason to this will be a sufficient answer to the ther objection, “ that they do not resemble the Far- esinn pillars or the Alezandrian MS." “IF “they ier in many reepecs rom the Marmor Sndvicent, they may be presemed to many. secre to reeeuble ore then any other, the alpbabet taken by Montfaogon from the marmor’ Cyzicenom, ‘Thos it appears that the Parian Chrovicle most nearly resembles the two incctiptions, to whote age it most "Wile BEr Re eds, that the Teter are suchas ler of * Tage te Uiphete sow i tae” be mat be wed test cum grime sli "The engravce of» facile enerally omits some nice and ste touches in ta~ og Hi copy bry even ith this sbntementy me dare tpptaltoaty adept in Grek calligraphy wheter the HPecinen ncog'h $6. wil jl cor wRon! The foal ters (0. 8, Enens the rg, havea aie of action and ar oF "Then bute greater prt of niet net tiooe an air of affectation and artifice, "For the ° % perpetually engeeved ia ey ana Being of & Kined bound ted. of « Kindred cape, ‘how can we wonder that all three shonld be represent- ed of the ss needately fellows! the mare oor No. daiv.theve very ture leltrs are ‘often much smaller of hich tie medals in the second. pert of Dervle's Sicus, Tab, 3vi Nomb. 7, 9- ‘From the archaisms, such as #y Aveaguac ty KeBoey ys Tlagas, 8c. Bc. no conclusion can be drawn io fae ‘oar of the authenticity of the inscription.” Yet sure~ Ty every thing common to it with otber inscriptions, confenedly geouine, creates 2 ressonable presump- tion in its favour.“ Bot what reason coold there be for these arcbaisms in the Parian Chronicle? We do rot usually find them in Greek writers of the same age, or even of a more early date.” ‘The reasca is, + that auch archaisme were ae them, barbarisms) are frequent. Nothing can i inferred from eelGeae) writers, paeales i fhe ig en ran of cay a in lines 4y 12) 27, Money either i a0 ald ir id, will demolish not only al most every other inscription, but almost every writin Satocyer. For example, in the fscrption jort quoted, No. xxiv. we find eoN erviu, 1. 20. und ora, yr, 24- A Tittle farther, N° xxvicl. 31. me have i Mayet, 57. 3-81. 1K Mayraiay a0 106, 308. SEE Mayrorss. "The Coreyrean ince pin (este ‘gon, Diar. Teal. p. 420.) promiscuously uses Soi’ aemZqun. "Yo English, who is srprned to od. Aap aad hay @ hand und on hand, 6 wel and an wa ful, inthe works of the same author? We could pro- ‘doce instances of this inaccuracy from the same page, aay from the same sentence. The these arcbuisms appear, must, bo establish ‘they can be produced in opposition to the present ar- gument.” This is, we cannot help thinking, rather {oo severe a restriction, If no inscription may be ‘quoted before it be proved genuine, the learned author of the Dissertation need not be ry i ‘be geauine, til its aathenticity be readered id cHR ry stone-eatter would probably layed to engrave a Greck inscription, nccord- ——CHR C Crevice, by probable arguments. We will conclude this head 96 } cHR whether be thought it a place beneath bis care 5 oF chronicle whether he had devoted a separate inscription to the S—y—— Sele Si two short eherrations In Selden'seopyy le 25: tras writen TOMIN, which the latter editions hae a tired to NOIEIN, but witha ing the more anciet way of writing, ramon a ISS, tnt sorctinee fond on scriptions” (See, Kee Noieton Grace de Distt: 3) In Byte tare han Keatuy for which’ Balaer wished to fobottote Redd De Taylor telat bia fom the ‘Meormor Sondeicense, observing 4 the same tne, Unt wrtlogreghy ccvory in we tbr play whetcrer except in these (wo monomentn, Int ikly th agravers should by chance ein take, or tht the forgerof tie Peran Chronicle it Fe forged) should have wea the Mormon Sundoiense tid eaken ooice of this pocliarty with the ination of afterwards employing iti the forcation of estore? Peitbe reviewers next proceed to coosder, bot more Iriel, the other objections 1 Less nt probable that the Chromite was engraved “for private uatents Bocas it was meh on erence ot Prlearned Grecks were ele ta aford Itenly few tree able to afurd fy some oe of those fem might be willing to incor i. Hut let Me R, cosier how like Ty ih thaw modern, and probally s needy Grech slootd'be more able to aord ie inthe lant eat, th 1 leaned Greck 2000 years ago! 3. d manuorpt teire rei cioolaied. Do wen aver prcier cairo tplendor to cheapoess and convenience? Aad it thi Composition, intend of bring engraved on marble, bad fen commited to parchmenty wuld it bave hada etter chnace ef coming dows to tbe. preeat ogo? Bach's fying sheet wovld som be lst ore if py Ina, by miracle, been preserved to wy the objections toils being gensne wotld be more plewible tha an that have been urged again the inerption, Wnt Me BR anye about the eros to mich an nserption Table, 22 wil only prove that chrouslogieal tveip- tons ought otto be engravedy bat aot that they Serres Wo lin ht th men meted oP Tag nthe reign of Ptolemy Pliladlpbor was Nov ou STONES. Hut it waa common enough to occur to the tind of aay pervon wbo wished to leve behind hia Semorina ance of hi leetning and megeence- Tl, Tue shjecton, thet the morble des net appear ta be engroved by pubic authority we shall real ad mits though Beailey (Dian on Postar py 25ty) tens Xo the eontrary option. in explaining tis sbjection, the leaned: Gisetator observ that thought ex Preston, eezerr e lagu, wos end us te rapose that The scription related to Paron, not sage Hance inthe bistory ofthat flan netioeds ‘his expesion oly shows thatthe author wars in- habitant of Paros, and intended to Clue, or paroprgmcy bythe aif ch they might adjest the general chronology of Greece to the dates A their om history. Tee abeurd as would be a 3g the revolutions of Eng- ordity in sapporng. «bok fo be written in Jamaica containing the revolutions of Enghnds” ‘The ative of aro tre ot uitereted in eventa relating to the general history of Greece, purticlarly of Athens 5 an0 ow cto we tell whether Te suthor mee.a0 ingulinu, oF x ative ofthe ands 3 chronology of Paroe ? TV. Lo has been frequently obseroed thot the eorice periods ofthe Grecian history arcimonfoedinderknestund Confusion. Granted. It follows thea, that “an author ‘who should attempt to settle the dates of the earlier pe- riods would frequently contradict preceding, and be con- tradicted by subsequent, writers that be would nate. rally fll into mistakes ; nnd at best could only hope to ‘adopt the most probable system. But the diftealty of the tas, of the impossibility of succem, are not sufficent to prove that uo man has been rash er mad enough to make the attempt.” On the contrary, we know that many have made it. What a number of discordant opinions bas Mr R. bimeelf given us from the ancients Caacerning the age of Homer? ‘This consideration will in part abviate another objection, that the Pasian Chronicle does not agree. with any ancient author. For if the ancients contradict one another, how could i Tm more ha one of them? od wy might oat the uthor, without any imputation of ignorance oF rashnets, sometimes depart trom them all’ It indeed hhe disagrees with them when they are unanimous, it ight furnish matter for suspicion: though even @ ‘would be far from a decisive argument, unless the an- cients were so extremely ualike the moderas, as never to be fond of singular and paradoxical patios. LV. This Chronicle is nat ance mentioned by any writ af antiguity. "How many of those inscriptions, which Sire preserved ta the present day, are mentioned by classical authors? Verrios Fiaceus composed « Roman Kalendar, which, as a monument of his learaing and Indu, wa engraved on marie, und zed the mst blic part of Preneste, ents of this very kar Rendat were lately dog pat Prema, ‘and have been published by a learned Italian. Now if the passage ff Suctonivs, which informe us of this circumstance, bad been lott, would the silence of the Lat weitere of said that the cases are not pr agle autbor mentions the Parian Chronicle, whereas Suetonius does mention Verrius's Roman kalendar. ‘To this we answer, It is dangerous to deny the auibenticity of say monument. on the slender probability of its being casually mentioned by a single nuthor. We shall also observe, that this fact of the Hemicyclium of Verriue will answer some part of the Distertators second objection: The Parian Chro- clei ot an scription hat might ave a private Why not ? vy bulky and might formerly have been ‘concealed in a private library, or io x private room, with as much ease as many iaser ceuled in very narrow spaces. But unless this moc ment were placed in some couspicuous part of the island, and obtruded itself on the notice of every trae veller, the wouder will in great measure cease why it is never quoted by the ancients, Of the nive authors ‘named in p. 109, bad any one ever visited Paton? If Pasanon ad Waal le, snd ied i de scription of the place, we might perhaps expect to eo a of this marble in so eorious and in 4uistive a writer. But though the inscription existed, find were famous at Paros, there seems no necessity for any prove that the fragments were not. genuine remai sotiqoity? It may bec HR in his Various History. So that whether Elian copied from the marble, or only drew from a common source, he might, and very probably would, eonceal bis authority. of the divcovery of the Marbles is ‘VILL. The hint obscure and unsatisfuctor ithe inseriptioa has not any of thoee truth always posterer, and which flerood. always wants, it i most certainly forged. The learned ase tertator seen for a moment to have forgotten the mo- Gest character of a doubler, and to personae te dog mais, But waving this, me shall addy thal, a far Be we can see so aperioe af fas coer in any part of the trnwection. The history of wea inser pons is related in a manner equally wocatisfuctoe ys aod if it cold be clearly proved that the marble at dog op at Paton what caold be ensier for erto, ho istdetermined ct any rate to objec than to say, that it man buried there ia order to be sfierward dog ‘up? IT the pervon who brought this treasure to light Id been charged 00 the spot with forging il, et coo erring inthe forgery, and had then refesed to pro- iter te external ertncs ‘finan we should bave a tight to question, or perbape to deny, that it was gentloe, "But no toch objection bavieg been made of hinted, atthe eriginal time of its discor anreasonable to require such testimony as sible to obtain. There eT. Roe'snegotatioos.” "Thornes Kew aothing of it lieved it to be sparious, or forged it, of was privy to ? Sarely nothing of this kind ean be pre- jut let our author account for the circum- the fo as relic; and from this composure he scems to 2d some secret suapicions ofits authenti- city.” Pierese would bave had no chance of recovere ing it after it was in the possession of Lord Aruadel's agents, He was either a real or a pretended patron of letters and it became him to afect to be pleased that the inscription bad come into England, and was illu- strated by his learned friead Selden. Joba F. Grooo- ‘ius bad, with great laboar acd expence, collated An- san Compena’s Alexiades, and intended to publish them. ‘While he was waiting for some other collation they ‘were intercepted, and the work was published by an ther. At soon” as Gronovios beard this unpleasaot news, be answered, that learned men were engaged in ‘common cause 5 that if one prevented another ia any ‘publication, he ooght rather to be thanked for light~ coing the burden, than blamed for interfering. Bot ‘bo would conclode from this anawer, that Grove henght the Aleaindes spurious, aot worthy of any re ir R, caloalates, that the venders of the marble re- ceived 200 pieces." But bere again we are left in the dark, voless we koew the precise value of these pieces Perhaps they might be equal to an buadred of our pounds, perbaps only to fifty. Besides, as they at first 2 C 98 J Chrovicl, them from Athenets: yet ZElian never mentions Atbe- CHR bargained with Samees, Picresc's soypased Jew for fifty pieces only, they could net have, forged the —— inscription with the clear proopect of mece either docs it appear that they were paid by Samm Ts is flly as reasonable to swppose frnod om the side as on the nther and if Seossoo, after having the tmarble in bis possession, refused or delayed to pay the ‘um atipolated, he might, in cameequence of eveb ref sal or delay, be thrown into prison, and might, in re- venge, damage the marble before the owners could re cover it. We own thie account of ours to be a ro but it is lawful to combat remsace with ro- TX. The world has Been imposed as bo end ncript nd hare eal e remy cons ah ed I ew et tunden the venerable name of emtigeity. "Moch tra is observable ja this remark, Bot the danger lies in applying sach general apophthegas particular caues. In the first place, it must be observ 4, that no forged books will exactly nuit Mr R's purpose, bot auch ae pretend to be the auther’s own hund-writing 5 nor any inscriptions, bat such as are still extant on the original material, ot sack as were Known to be extant at tbe time of their pretended dis covery. Let tho argument be bounded by these mits, and the nomber of forgeries will be very much reduced. We are not io posession of Cyrinces Anco- nitanos's book 5 but if wo were goverved by authority, ‘we should think that the testimony of Reinesios in bis ty overbalances all that Avgustinus has suid ces The opinion of Reimesnn it of the 3, because he jaus of publishi soe imeauments, We likewie find the ‘nett, ineot critics present ing Cyrineoe ‘rthoot suspicion (Vide Hubaken tn Tine! Lex. Plt, P. 10. apud Koen, ad Gregor. p. 140.). The dectriae silvanced in the citation from Hardouio is exactly cos- formable to that writer’s usual paradoxes. He wanted to destroy the credit of all the Greck and Latin wri- ters, But inscriptions beng like « eck of his jet He sure worh ‘a general accusation. joted a few ao heed Bad quoted few more from Hardouia, in wi ick be endeavours, after his ma- ter, to show th frgery of some fseripton, be would at once have adminiatezed the poison and the antidote. Bt to the reveries of that learned madman, rerpoct- ing Geeak. supposititious commpesitions of thie ‘vere, esl ote arcs with ppg the sentiment of a modern critic, whose judgment on the subject sporious inscriptions will not be disputed. Matic is the introdoction to the third book, ©. 1. p. §1. of admirable, though unbinisbed, work, de Arie Critica Lapidaria, wses these words: Inscriptions Greece lo- (quentium commenttias, si cum Lotinis comparemus, de. prekendi poucas enim llr omnino cst, sn tan ta debocehantixim Uibidine, monumenti ge- sms, in quod si sibi mina licere i ‘at, paucitsinas uague in hanc diem ob erudits eiris, et fn hoc literaram genere plarimum versatisrejctas eee, damnatas. of Cnsonscias, « camaieal writing of theCHRONOLOGY. Chronicle, OM Testament. Te is uncertain which were writen T= fret, The Books of Kings, or The Chronicles, since = cere He each refer to the other. However it be, the latter is oRen more foll and comprebensive than the former. ‘Whence the Greek interpreters call these two books Hiacarwypipe, Supplements, Additions, or things omit- ted, because they cootain seme circomstances which are ‘omitted in the other historic books. ‘The Jews make ‘bat one book of the Chronicles, wader the title of Dr- bre-Hoaiamins, i.e. Journals ot Annals. Ezra is ge- erally believed to be the author of these books. It ix certain they were written after the end of the Babylo- Bish captivity and the fret year of the reign of Cyrus, cof wom mention is made in the last chapter of the 9o- nd book. "The Chronicle, or Paralejpomena, are an abridge~ meat of all the tacred history, from the beginning of the Jewish uation to their first retarn from the wpti- Chrono taken oat of those books of the Bible which we gram. tai have, and cot of other naa iad then’ by him.” The dex Site toe toe aed propagates ofthe pene of Felater to the rie and propagation of the people o Tnrncl from Adam, and givers poncteal and exact ae= Sam hte ign of ar, he sed tak at ra the progres and end of the kingdom ta the very year of their retorn from the Batylooish captivity. CHRONOGRAM, » epecice of fle wit, const. ing in this, that a certain date or epochs is expressed by noweral letters of one or more verses ; such is that which makes the metto of # medal etruck by Gostavus Adolphus in 1632 : ChrlatVa DVX: ergo trl VMpbVs. CHRONOLOGY, the method of measuring its ing these, when distinguished by ‘pat transactions, for ‘Tris science therefore con- ‘ints of two parts. ‘The first treats of the proper mea ‘sorement of time, ‘and the ndjostment of its several di- iio the second, offing the den of the varias events recor tory, and ranging them accord~ tag to the several divivens of time, fa the order ia sha hy bape Chronology, comparatively speaking, is bat of mo- dern date, ‘The ancient poets appear to have been en- tirely unwcguniated with it} and Homer, the most ce- Iebrated of them all, mentions nothing like a formal Kalendar ia any part of Tn the most early periods, the only measurement of time was by the sex- the revolations of the son and moon 5 and many anges most have elapeed before the mode of compatation ‘by dating events came into general use. Several cen- ‘aries iotervened between the era of the Olympic gxmes ot and the fret historians 5 and several more between these i *E st 8 began to be reckoned, we find iag_and the frst anthors of chronology. When time frst ‘measures very inde- termivate, The evccession of Jono's priestemes at Ar {gps served Hellanicos for the regulation of bis narra- five; while Ephoras reckoned his matters by genera- tions, Even in the histories of Herodotos amd Thocy- iden, we find no regular dates for the events record: cod: nor was there any attempt (o establish x fied ers, util the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who attempted it by comparing and correcting tho dates of the O- Ipmpinds, the kings of Sparts, and the succersion of ec riesees of Sono at Arges. ‘Eratosthenee and A pollodorus digested tho events recorded by them, ac- cording to the saccestion of the Olympiads and of the ars ofthe envret ft fo the mot periode renders the histories of thore times equa- ekteies sad oven ter the renon of te ‘ancient historians very inatten- tive 10 them, and inaccurate in their computations. Frequently weir cerns aod years were reckooed di ferently without their being seosible of it, or at least without giving the reader any information ‘concerning its a circumstance which bas rendered the fragments of their works gow remising of very litle use to por sterity. The Chaldean and Egyptian writers are ge- erally acknowledged to be fabulous} and Strabo ac- guaints us, that Diodoras Sicolos, and the other early historians of Greece, were ill informed and credslons ‘hich the author Chross. 4 aneiont Bie Hence the disagreement among the ancient historians, tase nt and the extreme eanfusion and contradiction we meet i268 ‘with on comparing their works. Hellanicus and Aca. ilaus disagreed about their genealogies 5 the latter re- jected the traditions of Hesiod. ‘Times accused E- rus of faltchood, and the rest of the world accused FRonwoss "fhe mou fbulow legends were fpored fon the world by Herodotus ; and eveo Thucydides and ‘Diodorus, geverally accoonted able historians, have ‘been convicted of error. The chronology of the La- ‘tins is still more oncertain. The of mans were destroyed by the Gaule ‘or, the most ancient of their historians, was obliged ‘to borrow the grextest part of bi ion from the Greeks. In other European nations the chronology is wtll more imperfect, aod of » later date; and even in modern times, a considerable degree of confusion ‘and inaccuracy bas arisea from want of attention in the historias to atcertain the dates and epochs with preci- ‘From these observations it 1 proper system of chronclo ‘understanding of history, and likewise how very di colt it must be to establish such a system. In thi however, several learned _men have excelled, particu. 8 larly Julios Africanus, Eosebive of Casares, Ge Cyocalle, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petav, Cloviar, Calvisins, Usher, Simson, Marsbam, Blair, and Play: fair. Ite founded, 1, On astronomical observations, particularly of the eclipses of the sun and moon, com. ined with the calcolations of the eras and years of dif- ferent nations. 2. The testimonies of credible authors, 3+ Those epochs in history which are oo well attested ‘and determined, that they have never been contro= Na verted, cbvioos how neces mast be for the nehe 5 FY siti of Tah chrono,100 yerted. 4. Ancient medal inscriptions. ciently int coins, monuments, and None of these, however, can be sufi igible without an explanation of the first ‘we have already observed, considers the ions of time, and of which therefore we sball teat «ithe frst place. she di; "The most obvious division of time is derived from the iWon of apparent revolutions of the celestial bodies, particular wun ly of the sun, which by the vicissitudes of day and dare ight becomes evident to the most barbarous and ig- ora onion Tn ect propriety of pec the word sigaire ooly that portion of time duriog which the aun difses light on any part of the earths but in the most comprehensible sense, it includes the night also, and is called by chronologers a cies! day 5 by astronomers a natural, and sometimes an orificial 1 ar 8% Gi solar, “By a civil day is meant the interval betwixt the Ee. 406" gua departure fom any given point in the heavens find next rears to the sue, with as moch more at tovwers tots diraal mation tastward, which i atthe Tate of 59 minutes and 8 seconds of w degree, ot m= Maes aad 57 seconds of Gime, It ale aled tle diya in lnge ha re yim, ay i former be divided into 24 equal parts or bot, the latter will consist ooly of “23¢heums 56 eniontes, ‘The apparent inequality of th en's tin, likewise, arising from the obliquity of the ecliptic, produces an- other inequality in the length of the days: and hence the ierncs bei reo ape ine 0 tt the appurcat motion ofthe san cannot always be a tree meanare of doration. ‘These inequalities, however, are. capable of being reduced to x general standard, ‘rich Forsisbes an entet mensorethrenghout te year whence arises the difference between mean and appa- rent time, as is explained under the article AsTRo- insert “Rhee have bes erable dierences among, re have been very considerable diferences aol nations, with regard to the Sepsing sod eng of SIOMUME their days. ‘The beginning off the day was counted eset Jom sare Uy the "Babylonians, Syrian, Persians, aay and Indi 0 civil day of tho Jews was logan from sunrise, and their sacred one from sunset; the latter mode of computation being followed hy the A- thenlans, Arabs ancient Gauls and ober Earopeas ations.” According to some, the Egyptians be their day at tonsets while otbers are sf opcion that ‘they computed from nooo or from soarisej ond Pliay informs us that they computed their civil day from one Bid Yonathes. Ie probable, bower, at they had different modes of compotation in different provinces or cities. The Ausonians, the most ancient Gibcbitante of Italy, computed the day from mide night and the astronomers of Cathay and Oighur in the East Indies reckoned in the same manner. This mode of computation was adopted by Hipparchos, Copernicus, and other astronomers, and is now in com- son the atong ourselves. The asrosomieal day, how ta allel, on sccouat of ts being tied astronomica) calculation, commences at noon, an ends atthe same time the following day. The Mahar metans reckon from one twilight to another, In Ita- Ipy lke lvl day commences at vere indeterminate Joint after sunset 5 whence the time of noon varie with Roe season of the ‘year. At the summer solstice, the CHRONOLOGY, clock strikes 16 at n000, and 19 at the time of the Winter solstice. ‘Thas also the length of each day di Tere by soveral minutes from that immediately preced= ‘This variation requires & coosi- ii adjuting their time by clocks. It plished, however, by 2 sudden movemeat ‘which corrects ‘the difference when it amounts toa quarter of an hour and this it does sometimes at the end of eight days, sometimes at the ead of 15, aed somtimes at tbe end of 40. Information of allthis jiven by x printed kalendas, which anoouaces, that from the 6th of February, for instance, te the 24th, it will be noon at a quarter past 185 from the 2gth of February to the 6th of March, it will be noon at 18 ‘flock precisely; from the fist of June to the 13th of Joly, the hour’ of nooa will be at 16 o'clock 5-00 the 1xgth of July it will beat balf an hoor after 165 and 15 00 throughout the different, months of the year. ‘This absord method of measoring the day continves, otwithstanding several attempts to suppress itthroogt- out the whole of Tay a few provinces ely €5- cepted. 10 "The subdivisions of the day lave not been less vari-Vasioos os thau the computations of the Jay itself. The mostssbaivieas ‘obvious division, and which coold at no time, nor in°f te dy no age, be mistaken, wae tht of mering and evening. In time the two intermediate poi Taos af tne we erm te quarters wat in uw Tong before the invention of ‘From this subdivision probabl ved by the Jews and Romans af dividing the day and i ‘or-watches. ‘The first began at oF six in the morning j the second at i dat tmelve 5 nad the four at th ternoon. In like manner the night was four parts; the first beginning at six in the eveaing, the second at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourta second the sixth; the third the mnth ; and the foorth the twelfth, and sometimes the eleventh. Another di 3 {8 use, not only among the nations shore men- , but the Greeks also, was that which reckoned idnight the second to sunrise; the third, of morning watch, from marsiog to uoon ; and the fourth from nooa to sunset, ” a uncertain at wbat time the more minate sub-Teveation division of the day into hours first commenced. Itofboen does not appear from the writings of Moses that be ™*tain- ‘was acquainted with it, ax ho mentions only the morn ing, mid-day, evening, and sunset. Hence we may conclode, that the Egyptians at that time kuew no- thing of it, as Moses wan well akiled in their lear According to Heredotes, the Grecks received the knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the di ‘was actually known acd in use bofare the name dear "was aplied ait os Cencsinn informe us that term was not made use of in Rome for 300 yeare afer is Foundation 5 nor was it Keown, at the iow the twelee tables were constructed. "The eastern nations divide the day and aight ia ‘ery singalar manner ; the origin of which is not casi incorerd102 6 OF weeks. ortel. aay " (Of month, CHRONOLOGY. ‘of the pondslam 5 bat at see, where x pendalom cen- tot be used, the inaccuracy is of consequence moch ‘Rreater ; nor was it thought possible to correct the er- ors arising from these causes in any tolerable degree, tion of Mc Harrisoa’s time-piece, division ‘of time, with the methods of mesoring them, we must now proceed te the larger ; which more properly belong to chronelogy, sod which mast be Kept on record, ss no instrument can be made to point them out.” OF these the division into weeks of seven days is ove of the most aucient, and probably took place from the creation of the world. Some, jndéed are of opinion, that the week was invented ime’ after for the mere conveniest netation of ‘bat whatever may be in this, wo are certain that it is of the highest aptiquity, and even the most de and barbarous nations have made use of it. It singular indeed thit the Greeks, notwithstanding their Tearning, should have been ignorant of this division tand M. Goguet informs vs, tbat they were almost the aly mation who were so. By them the month of 30 ‘days was divided into three times 10, and the days of it named accordingly. Thus thé ‘rth day of the month was called the second fifth, or Bfth of the se ‘cond tenth ; the 2jth was called the third fourth, or ‘the fourth day of the third tenth, ‘This method we in the days of Hesied, and it wan oot antl ve- veral ages bad elaprod, that the use of weeks was re- ceived into Greece from the Egyptians. | The inba- Ditants of Cathay, in the northern part of Chine, were Tikewise ooacquainted with the week of seven’ days, Dut divided the year into six parts of 60 days cach. ‘They had also 2 cycle of 15 days, which they wood ana week, ‘The week was likewise vaknowa to the ancient Persians and to the Mexicanes the former having a different name for every day of the mootb, tand the latter making vse of a cycle of 13 days. By almost all other nations the week of seven days wat adopted. Tt is remarkable, that one day ia the week bas ale eT bese accounted a ered by evry nation. Thos turday was consecrated to pioos purposes among the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuesday by the Afri- cans of Guinen, and Sondsy by the Christians. ‘Hence also the origin of Ferme oF holidays frequent Ay made one of in Systeme of Chronology § and which ‘trove from the following circumstance. In the burch ‘of Rome the old ecclesistical year begun with Easter weeks all the days of which were enlled Feri or Fe. itt, that is, boly or snered days and in proce ime the day of other weeks came to be dist tingwish- ced by the.anie appellation, for the two following rem tone, 1. Becaae every da} ong tobe bely inthe ee Srain of Chinn, 3: Bete al age ae bly cay whose ine sugit te be caticiy dee religion worship—The term sce in tme- Times uwed to rignfy seven years, not only in the pro- Pivtcal writings, tat lkcwine by prfvee utberes ‘thus Varro, in bis book inscribed Hebdomades, informs tm that e had then entered the 13th week of hs 7"FTke next division of tone euprior to week is that ‘of montis, ‘This appears to have bees, if not coeval with the creation, at least in use before the flood. As this division is naturally pointed out by the revolution ‘of ‘the moon, the months of all uations were origi- nally lunar’ wotil after some considerable advances bbad been made in ecience, the revolutions of that lu- FY were compared with the euo, and thos the li- f the month fixed with greater accoracy. The division of the year inte 12 months, as being foand- ced on the number of fall revolutioas of the tioen in ‘that time, has also been very general; though Sir Jebn Chardin informe us, that the Persians divided the int 24 ments and the Mexican ite 18 mania of 20 days cach.” ‘The months generally centained 30 days, oF 29 a8d 30 days alternately thoogh this role sr Tar fen blog bent ou e months of the Latins consisted of 16, 18, 22, or 36 dayss year of 10 months the year into"10 monthes, reckoning the time proper for Ine boar to be nine meathe, and the winter season, when Shey re obliged to reanin inactive only at eos me is been vcr ancient cio to give names the diferent months of the year, thoogh this appears to have been more modera than the departure of the Inracltes out of Egypt, as they would otherwise doabiedly have carried it with them ; bot for a con siderable time after their settlement in Cannas, they distingoiabed the months oaly by the names of rst, second, &e. Afier their retara from the Babylo- nish captivity, ‘the names given to the moathe by the Chaldeans, Other mations various umes, and the months. themselves sccordiog to their fancy. From this lst circumstance ferises the variety in the dates of the monthe; fer as the year has been reckoned from diferent sigas in the ‘ecliptic, neither the number ner the quantity of months hhave been the same, and their situation bee likewise been altered by the ioterealations necowary to be ‘Those interealations became necessary 0 sccoant of the excess of the solar above the luoar year; and the months compoted of i days are likewise called embokimal. ‘These embolism meatbe are cither ‘neturel or civil, By the former the solar and henar ‘7e edjosied to ove another ; and the latter arises om the deft of the cil yeu it.The aden of the Jews, which always consota is an ex- tpl of he rater etbatemal month” ‘The Romans bad a method of dividing their mente inte kalends, nones, and ides. ‘The first was derived from an eld word cal, to call; bocawse, atovery new orl nud called or sonoeobedy a ad called over, oF as moeny days a TSetrcved btwn tn ad the nse n enero Ay the ens a in and ete of Seine 2d, 3¢, 4th, stb, 6th, and 7th of March, May, July, and j were the soves of thee rwonths | tbat in the other moaths were the ad, 3d, qth, and sth days only. Thor the sth of January was its nowes 5 the 4th was, pridie nonaram ; the 34, fertio wonarvm, Ec." The idew contuined eight days in every mouth, fand were nine days distant from the neoos, ‘Ths the 4th day of the far ecatin ltendy mention wa104, ‘ticos of this were ill founded. By reston of the ine- quality above mentioned, the heliacal rising of Sirion gradually advanced nearly at the rate of ove day in {one years; so that in 1401 years it completed a revo- lation, by arising on every succeeding day of the year, turning to the point origially xed for the bee 1, ining of the year," This "period, equal to 1460 as Julian years, was termed the greet Egyptian year, ot ont Snes rue he greet apt yr Him ret. time thatthe eanicular cycle was renewed, the time of its original commencement may be gathered with to- erable certainty. Thin happened, according to Cen- nas, in the 138th year of the Chriatian era. Ree tackward therefore from thit time for 1460 years, we come to the year B.C. 1322, when the son ent ig rsd al Hs tomer pened on Jaly sth. pune till the time of Avgestor, when year was received at Alexandria by his order ; but even this order was obeyed only by Greeks and Romane who resided in that city 5 the superstitious natives refusiog to make any addition to the length of «year which bad ben wo longest a4 _ ed among them: Uncrinine "We are not informed at what precive period the tof the "true year was observed to consist of nearly six hoors “ccit" more than the 365 days. ‘Though the priests of Thebes sistas slaim the merit of the discovery, Herodotus makes n ofits nether did Thales, who introdaced the year of 365 days into Greece, ever u2e any inter alton Pinto and Fader resi to hae obi ‘ed it as a secret from the Egyptians abeut 80 years after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece 5 ‘which showed, that the knowledge of this form of the F was at that time recent, and only known to a few 2s learaed men. Xemmot The year of the ancient Jews was lunisolar; and SE2°"™ we are iaformed by tradition, that Abraham preserved in bis family, and transmitted to posterity, the Chal- dean form of ‘the year, consisting of 360 dayes, which remsined the sae withoot any correction ont the date of the Era of Nabonassar.” Tho solar year was ‘adopted among them after their retura from the Ba- Dylonah eaptivity but when subjected to the succes = sors of Alexander in Syria, they were obliged to adm the lanar year into their Kalendar. In order to adjust io year tothe course of the suo, they added at cer tain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned, and called it Ve Adar. ‘They ‘composed also of 19 years, in seven of which they inserted the inter- ‘calary month. Thiv correction was intended to regu Inte the months ia such a manner, as to bring the 1b ‘of Nisan to the equinoctia point ; and likewise the purses ofthe sete and fasts in ach manne, that the law re= cele Reforma. We shall not take up the reader's time with any tion ofthe farther account of the years made use of by diferent hala” ations all of which are resolved at last into the Juni- ‘ill be sufficient to mention the improve- made by the two great reformers “ope Gregory XIII. institution of the Roman yerr by Romulos has been already taken notice of; bat as this was evidently very ‘imperfect, Noms, oo his advancement to the thrane, 3 CHRONOLOGY. ‘undertook to reform it. With = design to make = complete lanar year of it, he added 50 days to the 304 of Romulus ; and from every one of bis meaths, bic contd of 3t and 36 days be borowed one day. OF these additional days he composed two ‘onthe 5 calling the one January, and the other Fe- broary.” Various other corrections and adjostments ‘were made but when Julius Cassar obtained the sove- eignty of Rome, be found that the moatbe had coa- siderably receded from the seasons to which Noma bad tajrted them. "To bring them forward to tei place, he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days which, account i it length andthe ain wth whic as formed ae been cal the yor of confi. It terminated on the frst of January 45 B.C. and from this period the civil year and months ‘were re- ulated by the course of the sun. The year of Nae toa being ten days shorter than the solat year, two days were added by Jalivs to every ove of the months ‘of Janoary, August, und December; and one to April, Tune, September, and November. He ordained like: ‘wine, that an intercalary day sbould be added every foorth year to the month of February, by reckoning the 2gih day, or sixth of the kalends of March, twice over. Hence this year was styled bissestile, and also leap year, from its leaping a day more than & common 7"TThe Julian year has been weed ‘by modern chronclo- ‘ger, a1 being u measore of time extremely simple and soffciently accorate. It is stil, bowerer, somewhat i for as the trve solar year consists of 3654. sare that in 131 years alter the ‘sun must ave arrived one day inoctial. poi ring Cosar’s reign the vernal equinex hed beea obse Sosi- the asth of March 5 bat by the time of the liceoe council it bad gone backward to the 21st. ‘The cause of the error was not then known} but in 1582, whea the equinox happened on the 11th of Marc, it was thought rr to give the kalendar its lant cotrection. Pope Gregory IIE. having nvited to Rome a considerable namber of mathematicians and astronomers, employed ten the examination of ther several formal, and at lat gave the preference thers, ‘Ten day ‘the month of October, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the isthe “Te prevent the season ffom receding in to come, he ordained that one day sbould be added ‘every fourth or bissextile year as before j and that the x6ooth year of the Christian era, and every fourth centary thereafter, should be a bissextile or leap year. ‘One day therefore is to be intercalnted in the years 12000, 2400, 2800, &e. but in the other centuries, a8 1700, 1800, 1900, 21G0, Bc. it ito be suppres, sod these are {o be reckoned as common Eves this correction, howorer, is not absolately exact ; but the error must be very incoosiderable, and scarce a- mounting to a day and a half in 5000 years. ff ‘The commencement of the year has been deter-Commrene mined by the date of some mesiorable event or occar- ment of! renee, such asthe creation of the world, the universal7®™* deluge, 2 conjunction of planets, the incarnation of our Saviour, Bcc. and of course has been referred to diflereat points in the ecliptic, ‘The Chaldean and theDoniaieal Jeter Aoi the trath fm impomsible to have si th leapgeare witht in whieh there are 19 leap-years without Bat even theo, to hace it of perpetual use,,it must be adapted to the olf style 5 because, in every centennial year not divisible by 4, the regothr course of leap-ycars i interrupted in the few 5s ab the case in the year 1850. 2, The cycle of Easter, also ‘called the Diontyian yo rind, ina tevolation of 32 year fund by multiply ng the dolar esele 2 by te lunar eyele 19.” If the new tmoone dngt anticipate upon ttn eele, Ekster day woold alwaysbe the Sunday next afer the fst fall moon which follows the aret of March. But, of account of the above anticipation, to which no proper regard #7 Iuad before the late alteration of the style, the eccle tic Easter has several times been a week differnt frock the true Easter within this last centery’s which incon venience is now remedied by making the table, which d to find Easter for ever, in the Common Prayer Book, of no longer use than'the funk difference froin the new style will admit of. he earliest Easter possible is Tatest the asth of April. Withit ts are 35 days, and the number beloiging to each of them is eall- 2d the number of direction; beeaose thereby the time of Easter is found for any given year. ‘The first even leters of the alphabet are commonly laced in the annual almanacks, to show on what days of the week the days of the months fall throughout en letters most is printed in ‘being inserted denote the other six days of the week. Now, since a common Jolian 365 days, if this number be divided by 7 (the numbeg of days in a week) there will remain one day. IF there had been no remainder, it is plain the year would constantly ie day of the weeks but since one rem that the year ind end on the same day’ of tKe ‘week j and ‘next year will begin on the day follom- ing. Hence, when Jancary begins on Sunday, Ais the do ar Sonday letter Tor that year: ‘Then, because the next year begins oo Monday vill fall on the seventh seventh letter G, which therefore will cal letter for all that year : and as the third yea Degin on Tuesday, the Sunday will fall on the sixth day5 therefore "will be the Sunday letter for that year. Wheace it is evident, that the Sunday leiters il go annually in a retrograde order thus, G, F, Ey D, GB, A. And, in the course of seven years, if they were ali common ones, the same days of the week and dominical letters would retorn to the same days of the months. But becawe there are 366 dayeiomleap- year, if this number be divided by 7, thete will remain “ CHRONOLOGY. two days over and above the 52 weeks of which the eee Che Ane Baar ha SyPabn S ot ng Mine ond eae Zs fall oo the sixth of January, to which is annexed the fab Be Seite sie bel Sor Eid on = cme pom, oy order of the dominical letters is interrupted and’ the Sra ce et ee ret de er nen ee SRLS ogee ee TABLE 1 fol | sea 4 | | hy] pala Pog aha] oe an] Ig 4 iearal af | |r q TABLETes ihe sratf the abgot the end of the pa — €HRONOLOGY. TABLE IL. Haste, showing the Golden Number (which is the same both in the Old| ‘and New Style) from the Christian Era, to A. D. 400+ 9 "Yeare lee than a bondred. FEE 9 gee cele hale jaglagl2|26j29] |31/32133]34)35}30)39] Wrpaaaispeun tals sasaasse4 fof 36 3b ooo 708691207] 73 74h /80}8 1|8.2}8 318418 <|86)87/88)/89:9019 1191931041 199} |_| rehiaaliearshaley Bi Srdterhdealegtestede|@hig) 3| a1 at 4 rspseaet aa ala 4,8 3 } 3] SeSeshSleshal 63] 8 gecfesheglateseofqt Big 3 olealrafealzq) lr6lea]e8rol x| 2] 4| hgebesh a 2) al § relay a “4 | Bf oftcha sla afr alrale six 78 3 ealeahegltsttoeal@ieg | 2] 1 Beateg seg a}eSio} 3) 21 3) 41 31 4 Heosanee| — fesaeshohrhahs a a al al 3167 iol ex0o|goo0] — (8g 3| af a4] 5 of 2} | sees alslege oly raockszoa] — fs} 6 3] & oleces}ctesagl lege] 3 a | 30013200] — ghrojranatratraes j17|xB|no) 1} 2| i 4} | 4 | tgoo}33ea] — faslesheleg Bll 3) 21 of 43} 2] 8 hcleafate e seefaaoe] — [es] a} 2 al 3] 6) off oftcfesicialeallegene Boclssoo] — | 31 4 3] 8 oeclsleeleai sheen] al 2) 9 goon] — frceahaasial a) 93 gral 1.47183 sboolsroo] — frsjssea} ool 3 2] 4 $f 62] 8] gpop|sfafeal From the moltiplication of the solar cycle of 28 years into the lunar eycle of 19 years, and the Roman indiction of 15 years, arises the great Julian period, isting of Jo80 which had its begioning 764 years before ‘supposed year of the creation (Coe no later could all the three cycles begin together), and it is not yet completed: Aad therefore it inelodes all other cycles, periods, and eras. ‘There is bat one year ia th period tat has the same oubers for ‘the three cycles of which it is made up: And there- fore, if historians bad remarked in their writings the cycles of each year, there bad been no dispute about the time of aay action recorded by them. ‘The Dionyuisn or volgar era of Christ's birth was Zep af the Solin pernd 4715 fand consequently the frst year of his age, according to ‘hat account, was the 4714th year of the said period, Therefore, if to the carreat year of Christ we 1713, the sum will be found to be the Jalian period. Rs sear 1789 il be found to be the 6soad_ year af that period. Onto find the year of the Julian pe- rind answaring to any given yrar before tbe first year of Christ, subtract We namaber of that given year (rom 4714, and the reesaindat will be tbe yoar of the Jolian petiod.” Thos, the year 585 before the first year of Criat (which was the 584th before his birth) was the 4tagth year of the suid period. Lastly, to find the yeles of the sun, mova, and iodictioa for any given year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19, Tal t55 the ree remainders wil bo the eylos soght, and the quotients the nomber of cycles rua since the beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year of the Jolian period, the cycle of the sun was 10, the eyele of the moon 2, and the eyele of indiction 45 the tolar cycle having ron through 168 courte, the lunar 248, and the indiction 314. "The vulgar era of Chris’ birth was never settled till year 527, wheo Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman ab- the bot, fixed it to the end of the 471th year ofthe Jalian period, which was four years too late; for our Saviour’ ‘was born before the death of Herod, who sought to him as soon 1s be heard of his birth, And accord. ing to the testimony of Josephus (B. xvii.ch-8.), there sas a els of the moon in he tne of Here's lant illness 5 lipee appeara by oar astronomical tables tate Beene he yetr ofthe Jala peed qyicy ‘March 13, at three bours past midnight, at Jerosalem, ‘Now, as our Saviour mast bave been born pame months hpefore Herod's death, since in the inter¥al he was car Hed into Egypy the latet ime io which we ean Sx a 107 Near or Chet ira whem settled.108 the tree ora of his birth is aboat the end of the 479th. 38 __ year ofthe Julian period. Pras'er E- As there are certain ized points io the heavens from wschs” "which sstronomers begin their computations, co there are certain points of time from which historians begin ‘to reckon and these points or roots of time are called eras or epochs. The most remarkable eras are, those SF the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building of Rome, the era of Nabonasear, the death of Alex- ander, the birth of Ci the Persian Jesdegird : veral others of less note, bave their beginnings fixed by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, to the age of the world at those times, and to the yeary before and after the year of Christ's birt, . sider the second part of chronology, vi more immediately relates to history, and which has already a been observed to have the four following foun- 1 Astronomical observations, particularly of thors. 3.E~ Le ary asiealy allowed tory universally allowed rat medals cn, monuments thall consider thea four principal parte ta the ender they bere stand. ot elec F, ele with great reason thatthe eclipses of the oun Ce nd noon, and the aspects of the ether plants, IShvomlogial maura we canet make any geet iP me are ignorant of the use of avtronomic Eee, fd he elation of eles |The ancient Teqaried the latter a2 ice of ea Beart the ln of bate tthe deat of monarch he” And it i to this eopertion, to tia wretal ignorance, that we happily owe the vast laboor that Tetocino have taken to record so great » nomber af them. The meat able chrosclogers have colletod them with ail grestr labor. -Calvsiag, for example, founds his chronology on 144 elipce ofthe suo, and 127 ofthe mony hth ye en ated” The od conjnction of the ne superior planets, Batorn Sed Topiter, which, according to: Kepler in B00 years io the same has happened only (tbe Inat time in the moath.of December 1603), may also farnish chronology with incontestable proofs. The same may be suid of the transit of Venos over the sun, ich bat boen observed ia our days, and all the other acommmon positions of the planets," But emong these ‘cletial and natural charactere of times, there are alsa tome tha are named civil or artifio, and whichy Aeverthelese, depend op autronomic ealelaton. Boch are the solar and lunar eycles;. the Roman - indiction ; the feast of Easter the bissextle year; the jebilen; the tabbatio youre} the coobals and lym le games of the Grecks, and Hegira of the Mabo- Tactaze, Bcc, And to these may be added the peri tras, poche, and year of diferent nation, enciong We only remark on. this occasion, CHRONOLOGY. that the period or era of the Jems commences with the creation of the world; that of the ancient Romans with the foundation of the city of Rome that of the Greeks at the establishment of the Olympic gamess tht of Naboaaar, wth the advancement of the et king of Babylon’ to. the throne; the io Jerk ith st King ote Peis of tat Same the Hegira of the Turks, with the light of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the birth of Christ was the 4713th year of the Julian period, According to the comuon method of reckoning. “Astron ‘omical chronology teaches us to calcolate the precise a ofthe Jolin period in which ech of then pele [= The testimony of authors is the second part of historic chronology. ‘Thoogh no man what-tineny of fever bas a right to pretend to infallibility, or to be re- garded as aancred oracle, it woold, however, be ma- Klog a very unjust judgment of mankiod, to treat them, allan dupes or impostors 5 and it would be an injory ‘offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the vera city of authors oniversally esteemed, and of facts that, are in themselves highly worthy of belief. Tt woold be even a Kind of iftuntion to doubt that there have been such cities as Ath tay- Rome, Carthage, fies or tha Kersea rigetd ta Feria wed Augentes in Rome: whether Hanaibal ever was in Italy; of that the eroperar Constantine built Constantinople, Bo. ‘The unanimous testimony of the most reopectable bis- torians will not admit any doubt of these matters, ‘When aa historian is allowed to be completely able to judge of an event, and to have no intent of deceiving hy bis relation, bis testimony is unexceptionable. But to avoid the danger of adopting error for trath, wid to be atid ofa fact that appears doobfl ia istry, we aya soo of the Fr fllowig rola they are unded in reason, ~ We ought to pay a particular regard to the tex timooies of those who wrote at the same time events happened, and who bave not been contradicted. by any cotemporary author of koown authority. Who ‘ean doubt, for example, of the truth of the facts re Inted by Admiral Ansoo, in the history of his voysy rand the weld? The admiral saw al the facts there mentioned with his own eyes, and poblished his book ‘when two hundred companions of bis voyage were still ving in London, and could have coatradicted hin ian mediately, if he bad given any false or exaggerated elation 2. Afior the cotemporary authors, we shosld gi amore credit to then we lived near (be Une the event happened than those who lived at a distance. Those doabiful incipal Ofte exe ‘4. Wo must distrost the troth ofa history that ia re- Jated by modern snthors, when they donot agree song Themis in several circumstances, nr ite ‘cient historians, who are to be regarded as origi tourer ‘We should expecially Jobe the troth of thoes brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleasore by such as never knew the persons they are intended for, and: ‘even made several centuries alter their decease.110 Before Chri. — altered’ by trnateribers. ‘The Greeks begun to wi CHRONOLOGY. Nomberless books have been lost, and the world, bhave come down to us are mutilated cr those. whi very late. | Herodotus, their first historian, was of = credulox li infatuated with notions of their own merit and gran- dear: their historians were sltogether as unjust as was their senate, toward other nations that were frequently fu mare speciale 5. Th cry the yar ee de, and epochs, were not the same ia each nati tnd they, moreover, began at diforet seasons of the year. All this has thrown so much obscurity over honslogy, tht it appears to be beyond all bomen opacity to it, init il ad asinted near 1200 year, ly how many years had passed 7 before they Loew pe tince the birth of our Saviour. They taw clealy that the volgar ern wan defective, bot Toog time fore they could comprehend that it required four wie yar to make op the tron prod ABE Do the Little, who inthe yeur 432 was the fret among the ‘Chestince to frm the eraof that grand epochs aed te oan te yer ro tnt ine rds, make their chrood Christian, ered Bis caleiaany anit Ted aft Europe ite They count 133 contrary opiioas of ceonceraiog the year in which the Mei 9 tie egrth, ‘BE. Vallemoat names 6 of them, and all scien Aso all hse aut howe ver, there icin 700 pram. Bat een th Le wit moderate fx the birth of Christ {Ge goocth year ofthe world, The reasons, however ‘on which they found their pinion, appear to be sufi: cletly arhitary. Be these matters, however, ax they may, tho wise dom of Providence basso dipoted all things, that there in saicieot lights to enable un nearly to connect ies of events! for in the first goco years ofthe trorld mhere profane history ia defective, we have the ronclogy of the Bible te direct ox aod afer tbat Petiod, where me find more ebecurity inthe chroacl: BL si ihe Hy Seplirewe be on ther ighte from profane eutbors. Ie ie a {is peblod that opin the Une wich rv ele stories a, since the time of the Olympiads, the tra cf toch eveata at bave Chrenel History 5 tod, fn eetura, mrvan it on 0 guides Refer- ing the reader, therefore, to the arucle Histony, and the Chort thereto annexed, we shall conelade the present article with A Cumororocicar Tante of Remarkable Events, Discoveries, and Inventions from the Creation to ‘the year 1830, bet chris. 44008 ‘The Creation of the world and Adam and Exe. 4007 The birth of Cain, the-Grat who was born of & 3017 Enoch, for his piety, is translated to heaven, 2350 The old ner doped by digs which pars ‘continued 377 2247 The toner of Babe built abt tha tie by ‘Noah's posterity, upon which God miraculous ly confounds their language, and thus disperses them into different time, Noah is, with sppated to have parted Wis eibtg, and te hove ed alony of tome of the more tractable iato the east, and there cither he or one of his successors to have yehied the Chine Bah 2234 ‘The exletil observations art begun at Babylon, 4 Tegel oer sea the sciences. 2188 Misraim, the son of Ham, founds the kingdom of Egypt, which lasted 1663 years, down to the ‘conquest of Cambyscs, in 525 before Christ. 2059 Ninos, the son of Belos, founds the kingdom of syria, which Insted above 1000 years, and fut of ite ruins were formed the ASeyriaas Babylon, thee of Nineveh, andthe Ligon of the Medes, 1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves Haran, 10 g0 into Canaan, which be- ins the 430 years of sojourning. 1961 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are dest for their wickedness by fire from heaven. 1956 The Kingdom of Arges, in Greece, begins on- 1822 Moron the Egyptian iovents the ltrs 1715 Prometheus frat strack fire from fina. 1635 doweph dis in Earp. ed by G 41574 Aaron born in Egypt 1490, appoint od 574 Meo high pict ete reales 1574 Moses, brother to Aaron, bora in Egypt, and ‘adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, who educates iin al he lenraig of tho Exyptins. 1556 Cecrops briogs 1 co ites from Egypt Attic and beg at Lingio of Ake 1555 Masee performs « nomber of miracles in Egypt, tand departs from that kingdom, together with Geo,e00 Tunes, besides biden, nich completed the 430 years of sojourning. They miraculously pase throogh the Red sea, and come to the desert of Sinai, where Moses re- czives from God, and delivers to the people, the Ten Commandments, and tbe other laws, and sets up the Tabernacle, and in it the ark gat tiesovenat 1546 Scamander comes from Crete into and #40 fegias the Kingdom of Troy. poe 1515 The Lealitey, alter sojourning ia the Wilder- ‘ese forty years, are lod under Josbua into the and of Canaan, where they fix.ghemselves, ing subdued the natives; pat the pe riod of the sabbatical year commences, 41503 The deluge of Devcalion. 1496 The council of Amphictyons established at Thex- ‘mopyle. 1493 Cadmus carried the Pheniciaa letters into Greece, ‘and built the citadel of Thebes. 1490 Sparta built by Lacedemon, 1485112 Before Cheat, CHRON ing taken by Cyros, who, i 536, gives an edict BE ieteake drs Senne 8 534 The fondntion af the emp ad by the Jem 526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and # pl ery ho Tounded 4520 The second edict to rebuild Jerusalem, 55 The tecnd temple at Jerotaon ned onder . ‘510 Hippias banished from Athens the Ree 509 Tarquin, the seventh and last king of 09 M aaun is expelled, and Rome ia governed by (we cones, and other repoblican iagistraten, the batile of Pharsalis, being a space of 461 408 The fist alliance between the Romans aod Car- thaginians, 507 The second census at Rome, 130,000 citizens, ‘504 Sardis taken and borat by the Athenians, which ‘gave occasion to the Persian invasion of Greece. 498 ‘The first dictator appointed at Rome. 497 ‘The Satarnalia instituted at Home, ‘The number of citizens 1 50,7 : 493 Tribuoes created at Rome ; or, in 488. 4g The bate of Marston, September 2, ‘486 ZEschylos, the Greek poet, first guine the prize 483 Questors crested at Rome. of tragedy. 481 Xerxes, king of Persia, begine his expedit inst Greece. 480 The defence of "Thermepylee by Leonidas, snd the sen-fight at Salamis, 476 The nombér of Roman citizens reduced to 0% om ‘The nomber of Roman’ citizens increased to tqutice Jew ad ike reac of gol ad aer, being seventy weeks of years, or 490 year, ‘before the crocinciee of sar Series 4456 The Lodi SecolaresGratcolebrated at Rome. 454 The Homan ett Alban fr Blo las 1 The Decemvira created at Rome, and the laws of 45" Ube twelve tables coped snd rated, 449 The Decenvirs banished, 445 Military triboves, with consular power, created 1443, Censors crented at Rome, 441 The battering ram invented by Artemones. 437 The Metonie cycle began July sth. 43 The Peloponnesian war begun, and lasted 27 ‘A plague over all the known world, Malachi the lat ofthe prophets. 405 The Athe ly defenied by Lysander, hish coma tes f the ely at ie ol poner. gor The retreat phon. ‘The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens, snd demecraic government restored, 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy among the Grecks, believes the immorality ofthe sok fa sate of remards and ponishoents ; for which 3 OLOGY. and other sablime dotnet, bois ot to death Betas ty the Athesiane, who saon ahr repent, and, © chet te his memory a eaten af beaten 399 Tho feat of Lectatoraion iaitated, Catapate iavented by Dione 1394 ‘The Corinthiaa war hege 398 Bowe ura ye Casi 38) The peace of Antalcidas between the Grecke and Persians. ‘The number of Roman citizeas amounted to 152, 384 Dioay the Ponie war. Fr eecsrl cerprscy at the Grek ats apt Eee Lrcedeme ians. Sifts Stal oy Epi at 367 Protors established in Rome. The Licinian law 363 Epamivondas killed at the battle of Mantinea. +359 The obliguity of the ecliptic observed to be 23° A ne ein explled hom Syracae, 357 Dionssins expelled from ; ‘A transit of the mooa over Mare observed. 156 The Sacred war begua in Greece, Dionytr Ii orld fon 8) 345 Disnysion IL on racote. Gondeneement of he yrncores era 338 Philip of Macedon gelar the battle of Cha rau andthe atin to the eorersigny of 435 Tisbes takea and raved by Alexander the reat 334 ‘The Persians defented at Granicus, May 4333 They are aguia defeated at Inu ia G tober. » Oc- oder takes Babylon, andthe principal cit ian empire. ippic period commences, 328 Alexander passes Mount Caucasas, and marches into India, 327 He defeats Bors, an Tadan prince, and fonds 326 The famous sedition of 324 Alexander the Great dies at Babyloo. 323 His family exterminated, and his dominions part- ed by his officers. 315 Rhodes almost destroyed by an inundation. 4311 The Appian way, aquedocts, Sc, constracted at Toone. 308 The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for 1 short time 307 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodices, and other Todd by Seon 01 Antigonos dafeated and killed at so The bret barbers came from Biciy t Home. 254 The number of eBcetive men in Rome amosats to 279,000. 293 ag ‘on-dial ereoted at Rome by Papitios 285iwc os Dizayis of Alerairia bogus eae CHRON astronomical tera oa Monday June 26. being the frst who {ound the exact solar year to consist of 365 days, § hours, and 49 minvtes, ‘The watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built, Polemy Philadelpivs, king of Egypt, employs 72 interpreters to translate the Old Testament inte the Greek language, which is called the lid. magi. 284 The tation ofthe Ackuan repel 383 The callege end library fonnded at Aleran- 382 The Tareatine war begins. es Italy. Rome. The number of citizens 280 Pyrrhus inp A cones ne, 269 The first coi 265 The number 292,224, 264 The frst Povic war ears, The chronology of the Arundel Ties composed. it of Mereory planet being in 23 at Provincial questors established at Rome. ‘The Romans first concero themselves in a fairs, and defeat the Cartha Regolaa, the Roman consul, defeated and taken ‘rivoner by tbe Carthaginians under Xantip- ATvcnsm at Rome. The number of citizeos ever the bulls horn 5 of B, and the sun in 26° 355 352 1% ‘The number of citizens’ 251,212. ‘of China destroyed. ‘of the first Ponic war. first acted at Rome. the Carthaginian, causes his son Han- bal, at nine years old, to swear eternal enmi ty to'the Romans. 236 ‘The Tartars expelled from Chin 235 Rome at pence with other nations. ‘The temple of Janos shut. 231 Corsica and Sardinia subdued by the Romans, ‘The firat divarce at Rome. 247 246 qt 40 237 thenes to be 2 224 The Gla near rodnced at Re art of surgery it ome. 218 Commencement sf the tecond Hannibal passes the Alps, and invades Tealy, 216 The Romane defeated at Cans, May 216t, 24 Syracuse besieged by Marcellus, 209 Avceases at Home, The number of 227,007. 208 Asdrubal invades Ttaly 5 but is defeated and ‘illed. 206 Gold frst coined at Rome. 202 Hannibal defeated by 201 Conclusion ofthe second gg Bparta and Hither Spain subdved. by the Ro- 192 A cents at Rome, The number of citizens 243. vou HPht + OLOGY. 191 Antiochos defeated by the Romans at Thermo- Sete pyle 190 The Brat Roman army enter Asn, and from the 7 ‘polls of Actiochedrioge the” Asiatic luxor rat to Rome. * 7 188 The Sparse obliged to seen the into tio 37g A exms af Rome. The somier of citizen 175 De eee igh priatood sold by Antochor 170 Pape vented in Chinn ‘The temple of Jerusalem plundered by Antiochus. 169 A census at Rome. ‘The number’ of citizens ata,f05. 168 Macedon reduced to the form of « Roman pro- ‘The frat library erected at Rome. 365 The temple of ‘Serotalem pared by Judas Mac- 164 A census at Rome. ‘The number of citizens 162 Hope ebos beg pparchon begea Bede. sstronomical observations 161 Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome. 150 The third Panic war commenced. 146 Corinth destroyed. Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rated to the by the Romans, 143 Hipparchos began ‘consisting of 111,035 days, 141 The Nomantioe war commenced. 135 The history of the Apocrypha ends. 133 Nomantia destreyed by Scipio. a. 124 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 392173 105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans. 40 The Teotones and Ambrones defeated by Ma- 88 Rome besieged by the chiefs of the Marian fac- tion. 82 Syllacreated perpetaal dictator at Rome. 69 A ceums at Rome, The number of citize ines conspiracy. ‘55 Tolius Cesar makes bis frst expedition into Brie tai Crasove defeated and killed by the Parthians ‘$1 Gaul reduced to x Roman province. 50 A censut at Rome. ‘The sumber of citizens 320,000. 48 The battle of Phartalia, between Cesar and Pom- which the latter is defeated. ‘The Alenandrian Hibrary, oo ‘aluable books, burnt by accident. 45 The war of Africa, ia which Cato kills himself. The lar year 44 Cesar, the after ‘of 400,000 42 Tho ropa dnpd at Phy 34 The battle of Actiom fooght, in which Mark P ‘Antooy114 Before Cheat A 50 Alexané Aner Christ. CHRONOLOGY. Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated Oct sep Jli Cea a Egypt, is taken by Octerins, opon ‘which Antooy and Cleopatra put themselves to death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman pro- 29 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 401,017. 27 Octavius, by a decree of the senate, obtains the title of Augustus Cosar, anda absolute ex cemption from the laws, and is properly the Get Toman emperor. ‘The Pantheon at Rome bel . 1g Rome at the height ofits glory. The ep of Serle 0 by Hered ‘Agrippa constructed the mageificent aquedecta at ‘Rome. 8A census at Bome, ‘The number of citizens 4,233,000. § The temple of Janos is shut by Augustus, a3 an cite of iver pence tod JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, December 25. 1 The vulgar Christian era commenced from Janu- ary 1. nee Saviour of the world being thea five 8 edu Christ diapotes with the doctors in the tem- Mathematicians and” magiciane expelled (rom ‘quake. ple. 14 A cron at Rome, 4,370,000 ciianms Rome. 17 Twelve sities in Asia destroyed by 27 Pilate rade governor of Judes, aptized in Jordan by Joha. rucified at Jerusalem, earth. 39 St Matthew writes his gospel. 9% Peatios Pate hile bina A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, 40 The name of Christians first given at Antioch to the followers of Christ. 43 Chudioe Cesar’ expedition int Britain, 144 St Mark writes hin gospel. $6 Loodea i founded by the Romane; 368, sarround- ced by ditto with a wall, some parts of which are still observable. 1 Caratacas, the Brita king, is cried in chins ‘to Rome. ‘$2 The council of the Apottis at Jerusalem, $5 St Lake writes his gospel. ‘$6 Rotterdam bul ‘$9 The emperor Nero pats his mother and brothers to death person ty introdaced into Brits a, the British quaen, defeats the Romans ; ‘bat is conquered soen after by Suetoains, gover- nor of Britain. 62 6t Pasl is seat in bonds te Romomwriten his epis- tes between st and 66. 63 The Acts of the Apottles written. A great earthquake in Asia. 64 Rome vet on fie, aad burned for six days; upon 2 which began (under Nero) the Girut persecution in te Cin, Sg Many potion wen bout Jeruaem. Se Peter and St Paul put to death. 70 While the factious Jews are destroying one ano- ther with mutoal fory, ‘Titus the Howan general takes Jerusalem, which is rased to the ground, and the plough made to pass over it. 73 The philosophers banished from Rome by Vespa- 29 The cities of Pompeii and Heroulaueum destroy cd by au eruption of Vesuvius. 80 Tue Capital and Paathaon ot Rome destroyed by 83 The philosophers expelled Rome by Domitian. 85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to protect the civilized Britons from the inewr- sof the Caledonian bude af fore between the rivers Forth and Clyde; defeats under Galgacus on the Gram- 3 and ft al ound Bri 86 Te Coptoloe grees mstnated by Dont BB The Seelr pen ecned a lowe 93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary destroyed by the Chinese. ‘The Evangelist Joho banished to 94 The, second. permection ofthe Ciitias, der onitian. 96 8t Jobo the Evangelist wrote bis Revelation—bis Gospel in 97. 103 Dacia reduced to a Rom 4105 A great earthquake in Asi 107 The thd pevecain of the Christian, under 114 Arautie eyed to Roman province ‘A great earthquake in China, 145 Asryia subdued by Trajan. ‘An Insurrection of the Jews, who murder £00,000 Greeks and Romans. A violent earthquake at Antioch. 320 Nicomedia and other cities swallowed up by an earthquake. 121 The Caledonians reconguer from the Romans ali the southera parts of Scotland ; upon which the emperor Adrian builds a wall between New- care and Calo bat ls he eign fectul, Lellive Urbicuy the Romou general about the year 134, repairs Agricola’s forts, which he joine by a wall four yards thick. 130 Jerusalem rebuilt by Adi 132 The second Jewish war commenced. 135 The second Jewish war ends, when they were all banished Judea. 239 Jota write bint aplogy fr the Chitin 341 A number 146 The woeshp of Berapi Sntrduord at Rome.” 152 The emperor Antonious Pius stops the persecution rh, An inundation and an ousthqoske sat Rhodes. 263 The, fourth perccaton af the Christians, sus Aurelius Antonina. 266 The Romane sent anbassaders to Chios, 368 Aner Cheat atee aie. CHRONOLOGY, 168 A plagoe over the whole world. 188 Te Cope ee Home desryed by lighting. —— 19t A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 203 ‘The Bftl persecution of the Christiane, under Se- 4205 An earthqoake 209 Severvs's wall in Britain 218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The course of the mat remarkable from east to west. the Boman empire. begi "The barba 225 Mathematiciam allomed to teach policy at th persecotion of the Christians under ks Fret mentioned in history. 250 Tho saventh persecution, under Decitn 252 A dreadful pestilence broke out ia Ethiopis 1253 Europe ravaged by the Seythinas and Goths, 348 The ninth perventon, vader Valerian, 260 Valerian is taken prisoner by Sapor king of Per- sin, and flayed alive, ‘The Seythians ravaged the Roman empire. ‘The temple of Diana at Ephesus barnt. 261 A great plague throoghout the Roman empire. 262 Earthquakes in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and three days of dark 273, The Romans took Palmyra. 274 Silk Grst brought from India ; *he manufactory ‘of it introduced into Europe by some monks, 5505 first worn by the clergy in Englund, n, under Galln 1534. 276 Wine fret made in Britain. 277 The Franks settled in Gruul. ‘The Dioclesian ern commenced Avgost 29th, of Beptember 17th. 287 Caransios proclaimed emperor of Britain, 289 A great comet vivible in Mesopotemia for 29 days. agit Two emperors snd’ two Caesars march to defend the for quarter ofthe emp 297 Alexandria destroyed by Dioclesinn. 1303 The tenth persecution onder Dioclesiao. $28 Constantine the Great begin his reig. 308 Cardinals frst appointed. 312 Pestileace all over tho East. Cycle of indiction began. tenth persreution onds by en. stantioe, whe feronrs the Christians, fall liberty to their religion. 314 Tree bishops, or fathers, are sent from Britax at the council of Arles. ion abolished. 3 jon of Sunday enj 4329 Tho fist general couneit there attended, again A Axianism, where was eon ‘eewe:€recch which we anribere-to them 48 Conuation removes the seat of empire from Rome te: Byzantions, which i-ereafr onli ‘Crowesatinn phe, of Cone and gives 33 wbich lasts 4o years. 333 Constantine destroyed. 334 Three hundred thousand Sarmatians revolted from their masters. 341 The gospel propagated in Ethiopia-by Fromen- ‘i 344 Neoescarea ruined by an earthquake. 358 The heathens fist called Pagans. 358 A hondred snd Gfty cities ta - ,,overtarned by an earthquake. 360 Tha first monantory founded near Poictiers in France, by Martin. 363 The Roman emperor Joliso, surnamed the Apos- tate endenvory in vain to rebild the iemple 364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eastern ‘(Constantinople the capital) and Western (of ‘which Rome continued to be the c being now under the government of and Greece anperors. 4373 The Bible treuslaied into the Gothie langoage. 518 The Gath ced i Thrace os 9 of Theopbils commenced. 2 herr 4400 Bella osented by Bishop Paclines of ‘ot Europe overrn by the Goths, ander Alarie 404: Another irropioe f the Gotke. ‘The kingdom of Caledonin, or Scotland, revives onder Fergon. 496 Third feraption ofthe Gath, ‘The Vandal, Alans, and Sacvi,eprond ite France tnd Spain, by 2 concemion of Hever, empe- 408 The Christian religion propagated in Persia, 49 Rome taken and plondered by the Goths, Ane net 24 412 The Vandals begin their kingdom io Spain. 413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alsace. 415 The kingdom of Thoslooe founded bythe Visi ted by the Goths, ot 47 The Alans alestine destroyed by an earth- 419 Many cities in 90 420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Rower Pier Paurnont 421 The Salique law promalgated. {25 The Romany Tebeced fe extrenites af home, withdraw their troops from Britain, and tever return: sdvising the Briteos to ara ia their own defence, and trost to their owe valvar. 432 The goepel preached in Ireland by St Patrick. ‘444 All Europe ravaged by the Frese, 446 Tho Beitons, now left to themselves, are goes hharassed by the Seote and Picts, apon w they once more make their complaint to the Romans (which they entitle, The Groans ofthe Britons), but reecive no aoeistance frou that ees 17 Attila (surnamed the: Scourge of Ged) with his 447 ON fone ravage the Boman erp. . Vortigers, king of the Britoos, invites the “ ad into Brien, agniane the: Seow sod tt Pa 45a lors all the heathen temples to bo—"—CHRONOLOGY. , 452 The city of Venice founded. 455 The Satoue having repuoed the Scots and Picts, Fovite over mers of their countrymen, and be: fin to establish themselven in Kent, onder Treg. 476 The western empire i Bnihed, 523 yeu the” battle of Pharalin apo the thich several ew sats arse in aly and ober ti Goth, Vandley Hoty and tatare i o> Trogethed, andthe works of the farsed sre dexroyeds ; go Agee earthquake at Constantinople, which iared go day, 493 Tealy redaced by Theodoric 38 Covi, King af France, bape ee epegios in that Kinga 06 The Jews tlmed ; $28 Prince “Arthur begs to reign over the Bri- tom 10 Pasie made the capital ofthe F $14 Contantioople besieged by Vital Het rat by specs of trae mde by rec 516 The compatog of time by the Cheats Crodaced by Dionysis the monk, 47 Five years divoght aod ene ta Palestine cern is ine 6 The manufacture ss by two Indian monks h destroyed by the Persians. 4541 Basilios the last consul elected at Rome. $42-Antioch rebuilt. ‘An earthquake ll over the world. ‘550 An earthquake in Palestine and Syria. ‘The kingdom of Poland founded. 51 An earlguate in Geese, attended with grest ‘commotion inthe sea. 553 The empire of the Goths in Italy destroyed by ‘A great earthquake at Constantinople. 857 Angther yet earthquake at Constantigple, ‘A terrible plague all over Europe, As frica, which continues near 59 ye ‘568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy. {$69 The Torks frst mentioned in history ‘The exarchate of Ravenna begins. 5515 The first monarchy founded in Bavaria, $80 Antioch deatroyed by an earthquake. $81 Latin ceased to bo spoken aboot this time in ‘A dendflpeatilence in Afric 82% Sc Pools clare in Landon founded as 605 The ute of bells introdaced inte churches. — 606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the cone ‘cesvions of Phoeas, emperor of the East, 622 Mal Princes to thie day claim Followers. compute their un fom hs rich fa Arie ead eli 628 Aw seudemy founded at Canterbury. 32 The ef esegird commenced Jane 16 37 Jerusalem in taken by the Saracens, or followers oifatonet 641 Alexandria io Egypt is taken by ditt, and the rand library there burat by order of Omar, their caliph or prince, 643 The temple of Jerusalem converted iate a Mabe- toetan mosque, 1 Sarucens now extend thei conquests on. tide, and retaliate the barbarities of the Cote And’Vandals open their posterity. They take odes, and dee the famose Cor England invaded by the Danes, 660 Organs first used in churebes. 663 Glas ineaed bys bishop, tnd brooght into Eog- Iand by a Benedictine monk. (669 Sicily invaded, and Syracuse destroyed by the Ba (685 The Britons, after brave struggle of near 150 ary, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and Trove into Walet ao Corneal 658 The Saracen take Carthage, and expel the Rex 700 Cracow boil, and first prince of Poland elect. 653 704 The fat province given te the P 383 The Saracens conquer Spaio. hq rane goveroed by Cheles Martel 518 The Kingdom of the Avtorias in Spuin foonded 719 Cheinity promlgated in German . by Pelagio. 726 The begins, and o0- cations many insurrections in the eastern ea Pires 727 Tax of Peter's pence begun by Ian king of Wes- 1732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Tours. 735 Tastitation of the office of Pope's nuncio. 746 Three years pestilence in Europe and Asia. 748 The compoting of yenrs from the birth of Christ began to be used in history. 149 The race of Aba become caliph of the Sara cens, and encourage learn ‘The empire ofthe Suracone divided into three, 752 The exarchate of Ravenos abolished by Astolpbue king of the Lombards 755 Coomencement of the Pope's temporal domi- the Tigria is made the ofthe brow of Abbas, ‘76a118 CHRONOLOGY. sppointed to be taken in Scotland by a nent held io Forfar. SF 1065 THe Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 41066 The conquest of England by William (surnamed the bastard) dake of Normandy, in the battle of Hastings, where Harold is slain, 070 Te feudal nw introduced into England, 1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope, 75 are sont the nomination f the Geman Bishops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted to the pope towards the end of January. 176 Tustin f the peace Sit sppinted in England, ‘An earthquake in England. ‘Asia Minor, having been two years under the omer of Soliman, is from this time called Torkey. 108% Doomslay-book began to be compiled by order of William, from a survey ofall theestates in England, and finished in 1086. ‘The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his English subjects; numbers of whom fly to Scotland, where they introduce the Sax0n oF English language, are protected by Malcolm, fand bave lands given them. 1086 The order of Carthusians ettablished by Bruno, 4690 The dyany of Bathineens ot Anassn begin Trak, and cootioues for 117 yearn 1091 Thr Saracens in Spain, being bard pressed by the Syaiards, cll fo ther ainance Joey ‘Moors get King of Moroceo 5 by which ¢ ferfesion flab Segern Col 1096 The first crusade to the Holy Lan der several Christian princes, to drive thei fidels from Jerusalem. 1098 The order of St Benedict instituted. 1099 Jerusalem taken by the crusaders; Godley leet- ‘ed King of it and the order of knights of St ‘John instituted. 1110 Edgar Atheling, the last of the Saxon princes, ies in England, where he hed been permitted ide a8 n subject. 3g revived at Cambridge. ‘Writing on paper made of cottoa common about 1118 The order of the Kaights Templars instituted to defend the Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and to protect Chritian strangerse Rauber ereced foto » Kingdom. 132 Tho kingdom of Portugal began, 137 The pndet of Juatintn foted in the ruin of ‘Armalphi. 114t The factioos of the Guelpbe and Gibellines pre- ‘about this time. 3143 The Koran translated into Latio, 1544 The Pes pty istic ito Ger aust Tig eton law collected by Gratian, a monk of 4 1154 ortactity introduced inte Fislend 1156 The city of Moscow in Russia founded. ‘The order of the Carmelites instituted. 1363 London bridge, consating of 19 saall arches, rst built of stone. 1164 The Testovic order of religious knights begins in Germany. 3171 The dynasty of the Fatemites ended ia Egypt s the Sovereign ofthe country honcefath cll ed Sultans. 1172 Henry UL king of England (and first of the Plantagenets), takes possession of Ireland ‘which from that period has been governed by aan English viceroy of lord-lientenant. 1176 England i divided ty Heory inte and jos ased by itinerant judges. 1179 The usiversity of Padus founded. 1180 Glats windows began tobe used in private hoases in England. 1281 The laws of England sre digested sbout thie time by Glanulle. 1182 Pope Alexander ILI. compelled tho kings of England and France to hold the stirrups of ay seh ‘saddle when be mounted kis horse. 1183 Seven thousand Albigenses massacred by the ioe habitaate of Berry. ” 1186 A conjunction of all the planets at sonrse, Sep- tener 16, The sunin 30° mi Jupiter 2 3) a5 Venus 5 Suture Receany in sc's Moby gh 8s eal of the, Dragon, 18° 23' a 1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin, 1192 The battle of Ascaloo, in Judea, in which Ri- chard, king of England, defeats Saladia’s ar- my, connisting of 300,000 combatants. 1194 Diew et mon Droit, first used as a motto by Ri- chard, on a victory over the French. 1195 Denmark and Norway Inid waste by dreadful pest. circuits, 1198 Ins of the order of the Holy Trinity. 3200 Chimacys were not knowa ia England. Surnames now began to be wed; frstamong the nobility. University of Salamanca in Spain founded. 1204 Constantinople taken by the Freach and Vene- 1208 London incorporated, and obtained their Srst charter, for electing their lord mayor aud ‘other magistrates, from King Joho. ‘Tho order of Fratres Ménorce established. ‘The pope excommunicates King Jobn. 43209 The works of Aristotle imported from Constan- tinople into Europe. ‘The alk manuacture imprted fom Greece in. to Venice, 3210 The works of Aristotle condemned to be burnt at Pav The emperor Otho excommunicated by the ysis rgenetion of th aise "tos aod te 1arg Magna Charta is ja SM rons of Englands Court of common plese established, Orders of the Domisicans and Koights Hospi- tallers founded, The deeuioe “sf tombutatiaton ited 1216 King Alexander and the whole. kiagiom of ‘Seotaod excommusleated by the pope’ tee ate. 130 as ch ss120 Aner Chr. CHRONOLOGY. 1349 The order of the Garter instituted ia England, 19 by Edward TIL. altered ia 1557, and consists oF 26 kgs. 1352 The Turks ba enter Europe, TE Auk tnd Alten deslated by incon, 1354 Th nyt See how the em Sa land, 1356 The battle of Poictiers, in which King Jobn of France snd his son are Taken peters by Eland te Black Prise. Coals first brought to London. 135 people. ‘The military order of Janizaries established a- ‘enna and Genevs founded. sn Englishman, begins te call in the dectrines of the eburch of Rome ¢, whose followers are called 1370 The office of grand visir established. 1377 Inondation of the sen in Flanders 1378 Greenland discovered by a Venets ras Baferchange fat hed in Eoginds 1384 The first act of navigation in England no to be exported or imparted by Englishmen foreign bot 7 1383 A company of linen wravers from the Nether- lands established in London. oor castle built by Edward IIT. 1387 The first lord high admiral of England tuted. 1388 The battle of Otterborn between Hotspor and the earl of Dovglas. Bombs invented at Venloo. 1391 Cards invented in France for the £ of Henry IV. renewed in 1725, consisting of 84 knights. 14oa Tamerlane defeats and takes prisoner Bajazet the Turkish solta 1405 The Canary islands discovered by Bathencourt « hall, London, built, colours invented at Bruges by ‘ohn Van-eyek. 2431 The university of St Andrew's in Scotland founded. 3412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe: 4415 ‘The batle of Agincourt gained over the French by Henry V. of England. 1420 The island of Madeira discovered by the Portu- agar The revenue of England amounted to Sg,754 1428 The siege of Orleans the ist Blow tthe Eng- 143t A great earthquake at Lisbon, 3 143 Great ioundations in Germany. “ 1427 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Ulog Ch Beg tobe 29° 39/07" = 1440 Printing invented by L Koster at Hacrlem in ‘Holland ; brooght into England by W. Cax- ton, 2 mercer of London, 1473. 1446 "The Vatican library founded at Rome. ‘The sea breaks in at Dort in Holland sod drowns 100,000 peoples 1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks, ve the eastern empire, 1123 years from ‘eation by Constantine tho Great, years from the foundation of Rome. 1454 The university of Glasgow in Scotland founded. 1457 Glass frst mroufxctured in England. 1460 Engraviog and etching on copper invented. ‘The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Por- bachios and Regiomontanus to be 23° 29. 1473 The study of the Greek language intradaced ine to France, 41477 The oniversity of Aberdeen in Scotland founded. 1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragoa and Castile. 1482 The coast of Guinea discovered by the Portu- A court of i 1485 Richard TIL Planiagenets, is defeated a battle of Bosworth, by Hem which pa ends dedi- 2206 (Todor) VII. fend to the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, after »con- test of 30 years, and the lone of 100,000 men, 1487 Henry esiablishes fifty yeomen of the guards, the fiat standing army. te charts Gt brought to England Columbo abt te England by Groceyn introduces the study of the Greck language into Englands ito a formidaie enemy tothe rd are entirely ecbdoed by Fer= Ginand, aod become wobec to that prince ou conditions, which are ill observed by the Spaniards, hows clergy uve the ingu ll iu Crteee nnd i 1609, nee? fon of the Moor were dives frm Spa te the porte coat of Alien, rom whence they ovigealy camer 1492 America frst discovered by Calambos, « Ge- ese inthe service of Spain ‘The Meors expeicd fom Grasads, which they ed posted opwands of foo year, 1495 The sereea! dene itradoced fate Eorope, 1496 The Jews and Mors bused oot of Partagas 1497 The Portoporse Bret mailto tbe East Todes by the Cape of Good Hope. South America ircovered by Americus Veepo- from woes enjoy 1489 Maps sn divides the empire of Germany ia- circles, and adds four more in 1512. discovered by the Portoguese. Florida d by John Cabot an Englishman. Painting in chiaro-obscuro discovered. ~ “Acgreat plague in England. 41505 Shillings frst coined in England, 1507CHRONOLOGY. 41507 The iland of Madagascar discovered by the Pore to stroduced into England from the , from whence vegetables were im- ein 1510 The obliquity of the ecliptic olwerved by Werne- 1513 The battle of Flowden, in mhich James IV. Kee. ‘of Scotland is killed, with the flower of sy bn tt 85 See TS a ‘The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of 5 moe by ee 5 ast of Algiers seized by Barbarosm. 1517 Marti "Ether began the reformation. HeLa hae eas roe om thrown by the Turks. « aa 1518 Discovery of New Spaio, and the Straits of Ma 1521 Henry VILL. for his writi favour of | I> * receives the ti Defender of the Fait from his He 1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks, BEGET eS se tet sian 1526 The inquisition established im Portugal. Lotheraniom established io Germany. 1527 Rome taken and plundered by ‘he Imperial 1528 Popery abolished in Sweden. 1529 The aume of Protetant takes it ive from the feformers. protesting great the chorch. of ome at ct of Seg in Cray 1530 Union of the Brotenans a Sanllealde, Becem- ter 22. Sconctary of State's fice eatablihed in England age A pres earthquake at Lisoo, 1§ga The Court of Seon innttted in Selina, 1493 Ievervecton ofthe Aonbaptit in Werth 15}4 The rlormmtion takes place in England, under Hrenry VII. Barteroata seized on the Kingdom of Tunis 155 The reformation itrodaced ito Treland ‘The accety of Jenne formed, 1539 The fret English edition ofthe Bible authorised the present tracslaton feed in 61%. boat this time cannon began to be osed ia ty ofthe ecliptic os to be 23° 28" 8 ety of Jemuitseatablished, September 27. 1543 Silk stockings Brat worn by’ the French King 5 fiat worn in England by Queen Eliz. 1561 5 the steel franie for weaviog iovented by the Rev, Mr Lee, of St Joha's College, Cam- 2 Pine 5k el in Em ‘the ladies osed skewers. Tron cannon and mortars made in Engla Vou. VI. Part I. + 2, before which time 1544 Good lands le 121 ia England at ove billing per scre. ater 1545 The famous council of Treat begine, and conti- Chat 3 “—_ 1547 First law in England establishing the interest of woney at 10 per cent. 1548 The Reformation guied ground in Poland. +549 Lords lieutenants of oonteninnttted in Eng. 1550 Horse guards instituted in Eoy ‘Tho bank of Venice etablis 1552 Books of ‘England, as bei ‘The book ef Common Prayer established in Eog- Tand by act of par 1554 The kingdom 1555 The Russian company established in England. TSE Queen Elseth begs ber regan 1560 The Reformation 156 Livonia ceded to Poland. 1563 Knives first mado 1565 Revolt of the Low Malta attacked by the +566 The 39 article of the church of England ete. 1568 Queen Mary impeisoved in England. Liberty of| the reformed religion grant- one tay Chain x exchange fret built. ist Bes od of Cyr akc by the Tas ate defeated at Lepanto. 1572 The great manaacre of Protestants at Pati. A-new star ia Cassiopeia observed by Corn Gemma. It appeared in November, and dis- 76 Th Pein a te inate x ion of the Protestant religion anthori= 16 hn ere igi ts: 1578 ‘The first treat the States land. ‘about this time, of alliance betwixt England and peral, Janvary 7. 1579 The Datch shake of the Bpesth yoke, and the ue) republic of Holland begi “ Englab East Todia company incorporated —esta- ibed 600. 7 ‘Turkey company incorporated. 1580 Sir Francis Drake retorns from his vayage rood the world, being the fist English circamzari- gator. Parochial reginter fr appointed in England. The kingdom of Portugal seized by Philip of Spain. 1581 Copper fist used in France. 1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style ia Italy 5 the sth of October being counted the x sth. 1583 Tobacco frst brought from Virginia inte Eng- land. ul props of eating lyin Are 1587 Mary Queen of Boots is bebeaded by order of a elzabey after 18 years improoment 1588 The Spanish Armad ped by Drake and 500 et Eogl aden Heory IV. passes the edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants, 3588122 1588 Doelliog with small swords introdoced into Curie, England. 1 1589 Coaches first introduced into Engl ‘et 1693 increased to 1000 in 1770. 1599 Band of pensioners instituted in England. ‘Telescopes invented by Jansen, a spectacte-maker Dalia, fomaed. a Londo. expelled from France. ‘The obliquity ofthe eliptic ctnerved by Began tobe 33°30 1595 The same observed by Tycho Brake to be 23° a 35% 1590 A great earthgoake at Jape 13py Watcher Brat brooght fate + hackney gland from Ger- t of Nantes by Henry IV. of France. 1598 The e 1821 Devioa arthmetieinfentel at Begs 1603 Queen Elizabeth (the last of the Tadors) dies, od omit Jane VL of Gotod ter successor ; which unites both kingdoms under the name of Great Brita 1605 The Gunpowder plot discovered at Westminster beiog poet to blow op the King and eth houses of parliament. 1606 Oaths of allegiance frst administered in Britain, 13608 Colonies sent from Britain to Virginia. 1609 The independency of the United States acknow- edged by Spain. 3610 Galileo, of Floreoce, first discovers the satellites ‘about the planet Jupiter, by the telescope, late- ly invented in German; Henry IV. is mordered at Paris, by Ravaillac, « priest, ‘Thermometers inveoted by Drebel, » Dutchman, 1611 Baronets first created in Britain by James I. May 22. ‘An earthquake in Constantinople 200,000 per- soos died there ofthe plagu 1612 The north-west passage to China attempted in vaia by the British. 1614 Napier of Marchestoo, in Scotland, inveats the sie Hugh Midleton og the N ir Hugh Middleton brio few river to ee eee 1616 The frst permanent settlement in Virgiais 1619 W. Harvey, an Englishman, confirms the doc- rine of the circalation of the blood, which nad been frst broached by Servetus, 2 French ysician, in 1553. 1620 108 "pond Sotto from oom al, Sa troduced into England. Barbadoes discovered by Sir William Courteen. ‘Navarre united to France, Gonpermoney first introduced ia England. 1621 New England planted by the Puritans: ‘The two peti of Whigs and Tories formed in Brit 3622 The Palatioate reduced by the Imperialist, 3623 Tho Kaights of Nova Scotia instituted. 3624 Manacre of the English at Amboyna. 1635 King Janes die, and is acceded by bis wn, CHRONOLOGY. 1625 The island of Barbadoes, the Grat British sttle- the West Indies, is planted. ‘of Mercury over the 1 ‘observed by Gansend ‘A great eruption of V 1632 The battle of Latzen, in hich Gustavas Adol- phos, king of Sweden, and bead of the Pro- festants in Germany, i killed. 1633 Galileo condemned by the inguistion at Rome, Lovisiana discovered by the French. 1635 Province of Marylaad planted by Lord Balti- Regular posts established from London to Seot- 636 A trast of Mercary 1636 A. transi of ‘over the oun’s disk obser ved by Cassin “= 1639 A transit of Venus over the sun's dink first obwer- ved by Me Horvox; November 24,0: 8, 3), iP. 1640 King Charles disobliges his Scottish subject 5 on ‘wbich their army, Under General Letey, ex. ters England, and takes Newcastle, being ex- aerated bythe malecotets a Englands ‘massacre in Treland, when 40,000 English Protestants were kill ‘The independency of Portugal recovered by Jeba can kg bean 1642 King Charles impeaches five refractory member ‘hich begins the civil wars in England 3643 Excise on ber, ale, 8c. fret imposed by pari ‘ment. Barometers invented by Torri 26,8 A pw war observed ia the al ofthe Whale by 3649 Charles I Uebeaded by Crommell st Whitehall, January 30. aged 49- Peodolums first spplied to clocks by Huygens. 1651 The sect called Quakers appeared in England. 1652 The Datch colony at the Cape of Good Hope ‘established. 1653 Crommrell assumes the protectorship. ‘The ar-pmpis invented by Oto Gocticke of fagdeburg. 1655 The English wader Admiral Penn, take Jamaica Ope af Sunsets cred by Hk Saturn's satellites observed by mt. 3658 Crane it and is in he protec 1660 King’ Charles II. is restored by Monk, com ‘ander of the army, after an exile of twelve in France and Holland, 2661 The sliguty of the elie oberved by Heve- ius to be 23° 29! 7 1662 The royal society established st London Chari I ” 1663 Carolina planted: 1728, divided into two se- rate governments, Prussia declared independent of Poland. 1664 The New Netherlands in North America con- pered from the Swedes and Dutch by the alah. 1665 atCHRON 1665 Tho plague rages in Loadov, and carries of (68,000 persons. ‘The magic lantern invented by Kircher. 1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2. and Continued three days, in which were destroyed 13,000 houses and 400 streets. ‘Tea frst used in England. 1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the En lish the New Netherlands, now known by the ames of ‘Pennsylva York, and New Sersey. ditto, Aix-la-Chapelle, St James's Park planted and made = thoroogh- fare for public use by Charles 11. 1669 The island of Candia taken by the Tarks. 1670 The English Hodsoa's Bay company incorpo- ate ‘The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Men- ‘oli to be 23° 28° a4", 3672 Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland, ‘when the Dutch open their aluices, being de- termined to drowa theie country, and retire to ir settlements in the East In ‘African company established. ‘The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Richer’ to be 23° 28" 54% X The wire jvented by Kiser 1678 The peace of Nimeguen. ‘Toe habeas corpus act pasted. A soangedarkner at nooday, J 1680 A. great comet appearei ‘S oor earth slarmed the Treen. tinved visible from Nov. 3. to March 9. ‘William Peon, « Quaker, receives a charter for anting Pebacylania 1683 Toda tock sl rom 360 0 S00 percent, 3685 Charles II, di 55) aad is succee 5 ie brother Jammes TL 7 ‘The duke of Monmouth, natural son to Charles IL. raises a rebellion, bot is defeated at the baitle of Sedgmore, and beheaded, ‘The edict of Nantes is revoked by Lovie XIV. ‘and the Protestants are greatly distressed. 1686 The Newtonian philosophy published. 3687 The palace of Veruilles, near Paris, fnished by Louis XIV. £688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5. ‘King James abdicates, and retires to France, December 234 King Wiliam and Queen Mary, son-in-law to James, are procia Aker vest, as 1668 to prove the prince of Wales sparioos, was voted by the Commons to be a notorious cheat, impostor, and false necos Several bishops cathe to William, Aeprived for not taking the OLOGY. 1689 Epis abolished ia Scotland. Tope The bale af the Boyne guacd by William ci Tonen ip Leta by the surrender of ecliptic observed by Flam- 3° 28" 32". ‘and Dutch fleets, commanded by the French fleet of La ‘Tho massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Joo. O.8 Earthquakes ia England and Jamaica, Septem vere Hanover made an electorate of the empire. 1693 Bayoosta a the end of loaded soskets fret oted ihe Erte age the cuenta he ite of Tarn, Bank of England established by King Willi ‘The ft pulicltery wax dra year 3694 Qoees Mary ie at the age of 33) and Wi veigts aloes ‘Stamp-duties fnstitated in England. 1697 The peace of Ryswick. ae 1699 The Scots settled u colony at the isthmus of Da- rien in Ameri and called it Caledonia, 4700 Charles XU, of Sweden begins his reign, 1701 King James IL dies at St Germains, in the 68th ear of bis age Prowsis erected into a kingdom. Society for the propagation of the gospel in fo reigt parts ouablaned, 1702 King William dies, aged’ so, and is succeeded b Gocen Anee, daughter to James II. who, wil the emperor and slates geacrl, raews the ‘war aguiast France and 5; ‘The French sent colonies to the Mississippi. 1703 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Bian- tchini to be 23° 28 25", 1704 Gp es tom the Spuinds by Adaiat coke The battle of Bleabeim won by the dake of ‘Mariboroogh and allies against ta Freveb- ‘The Court of Exchequer insitated in Eogland, 1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Beot- land, sigoed Joly The ule of Kaien won by Mastorogh 1707 The frst British parliarent. ‘The allies defeated at Aleaaea, 1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniaede by General ‘Stanbope. Tie tale of Odearde won by Masteregh od the lie. 1709 Peter the Great, czar of Moscovy, defeats Charles ‘XIL at Boltowa, who fie to Torkey. ‘The baitle of Malpaquet won by Mariboroogh tod the alice 1710 Queen Anne changes the Whig ministry for others me vorable to the interest of her arch of St Paul, Loodoa, rebuilt ‘Christopher Wren in 37 years, at 000 on coal, maCHRONOLOGY. 1712 Doke of Hamilton sod Lord Mohan killed in doel in Hyde-pe 1 1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, Nova Seotiz, New Brita ‘and Hudson's bay in North Ameri sd to Great Bri- tains Gibraltar and Minerea in Europe wore also confirmed tothe said crown by this treaty. 1714 Queen Anve dies at the age of 50, and is ane- ceeded by George I. Interest reduced to Bive per cent. 1715 Louis XIV. dies, and it succeeded by his great- ‘grandson Louis XV. ‘The rebellion is, Scotland begins in September, ‘under the earl of Mar, in favoor of the pre- tender. ‘The action of Sheriftmoir, and the surrender of Preston, both io November, bem the rebels disperse, ‘The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Lou- eto be 23° 28" 24", 1716 The Pretender married the princess of Sobieska, geanddangher of Joho Sobieski, lat king of olan. paveed for septeanial parliaments. 1718 Sardinia erected inte a kingdom, end given to the duke of Savoy. 1719 The Mississippi scheme at its height im France, Lomb's silk-thvowing machine, containing 26,586. wheels, erceted at Derby: taken up coe-eighth of a mile; one water-mbeel move iene fone ra ee 318,504,960 yards of organaine silk thread. 1720 The Soath-sea scheme in Engleed begun April A ight at the end of June, aod vi Beptember 29. A goeat earthquake ia Chi 724 An cartiqake in Denmark 1727 King George dics, in the 68th year of bis age TAT NGL in seconded by bs coly bom, Georgy He Inoculation frst tried en criminals with success. ‘Bowia, formerly a dakedom, i now established ne of the fixed stars discovered and secounted for by De Bradley. 1932 Kouli Khan svrpe the Persian throne, conquers the Moped cap, aedreterat wt we ba dred an Thirty one mili sterling Several public-apirited gentlemen begin the set- tlement of Georgia in North Ameries. 1733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay 1738 Captnin Potaone having ordered pon the poulae atthe excetion of smuggler, is himeelf banged by the mob at Eaton wad A transit of Mercory observed by Cassini. 3797 A dreadful hirricave at the mouth of the Gao- ges, October 10, 2738 Westminster bridge, consiating of 15 arches, be- eas aiid i a750 ot th epeoce of 000). de ‘perliament. yy dle af Se oan etblabed at Naples 3739 Letters of marque iewved owt in Britain againit ‘Spain, July 21. and war declared, Oct. 25. ‘The empire of Indosien roined by Kouli Khan. he bi of Deigta ow by the E ¥ ingen woe ngtioh and 743 Oe in favour of the queen of langary. 1744 A dreadful plague in Sicily. 1744 War declared again France —Commodore ton returns from his veyace roa 1745 The allies lose the battle of Fonteney. ‘The rebelion breaks oot in Scotland, and the Preteuder's army defented by the. doke of Carberland at Calloden, April 16. 1746. 1146 Batis Linen Company erected, ion destroyed by an earthquake. 1747 Keali Khan mordered. 4748 The peace of Aiz-la-Chapelle by which a rests tation ofall places taken doring the war wae to be made on al sides. 3749 The interest on the British finds reduced ta e per cent British herring-ishery incorporated. ‘The ealony of Nova Scotia foun 4750 Earthquake in England. 1751 Frederic prince of Wales, father to hie present aime did i .tiquerian Society at London incerporated. 1752 The now wile iaitoduecd into Grett Britains the 3d of September being coonted the 14th. 1753 The British Meveom erected at Montague-hoose. Society of arts, manofactores, and commerce, ted in London. 1754 A dreadfal eruption of Moont Etna. A. great earthquake at Constantinople, Cairo, Se Bept.2. 1755 Quito in era destroyed by an crthgoke, pril 28. Lishon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1. 1956146 Engen or conto the Bie Hale at Calcutta in the East Indies by order of the Nabob, and 123 found dead next morning. Marine society established at London. ‘The king of Brussia commenced hostilities i the mooth of August ia Saxony. Defeats the Au- strians at Lo. 1757 Damica attempted to xsmaseinate the French The king of invades Bohemia. Defe the Austrians at Reicbenberg, April 21. and at Prague, May 6. Repolsed by Cont Daun at Kolin, Jane 18, ‘The allies defeated by the French at Hatem beck, Jaly 26. Convention of Closter-Seven, Sept. 8. The king of Pramia defeats the French and Ac- strians at Rosbach, Nov. 5. ‘The Prineians de- Seated dear Breslaw, Nov 22. The Austrians a seitinttd pt Lise, Bee 1758 Senegal_taken by the British, May 1. Th Te take Liaboorg, Joly 37. 7 ‘The king of Prosis dcfents the Russians at Zorn- dorf, Aug. 25. Is defeated by Count Daun at Hoch-kircben, Oct. 14. Goree taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 29. Attempt to assassinate the king of Portogat, Dec. 3. 1759 General Wolfe kitled inthe battle of Quebec, ‘which is gained by the Britic ‘The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at Bergen, April 13. the British, May 1. King of Prussia defeated by the Russians at Co- neredorf, Aug. 13, 1159CHRON ane 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke, Ga Nor, 20. Bales and Trio detroyed by an enrtguake, crecded by hs late ane ety al September 176ty mat- ed the princesy Charlotte of Meckle Strelite ige, consisting of 9 arches, begun 5 finished 1770, at the expence of 12,8401. to be discharged by a tol 1761 A transit of Venue Earthquakes in Syria, Oct. 13. of Pron ‘defeats the Anstiane at Forgas, Nox. 3. Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Joa. 15. Belleisle surrendered to the British, Feb, 1764 War declared against Spain. Peter LIT. emperor of Koss George Avgustos Frederic, prince of Wales, born ‘Angost 12, ‘Martinico surrendered to the British, Feb. 4. ‘Havannah surrendered to ditto, Ang. 12. ‘Manilla taken by ditto, Oct. 6. | 1763 The definitive treaty of peace between ‘Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portogal, con- cluded st Paris, February roth; which con- firms to Great Britaio the extensive province of Canada, East and West Florida, and partof ia North America j also the ilande of Grenada, 8t Vincent, Dominica, and Toba- in the West Indies. The Seas expled from France. 3764 The parliament granted 10,000|. to Mr Har- 74 ison for his discovery of the longitude by bis time-piece. Famine and pestilence ia Italy. ‘An earthquake at Lisbon. 1965 His majesty’s royal charter passed for incorpo- rating the society of artists. ‘An act passed annexing the sovereiguty of the inland of Man to the crown of Great Britain. 1766 April 21st, a spot or macula of the son, more than thrice the biguess of oar earth, passed the sun's centre. ‘The American stamp-act repesled, March 18, A great earthgaake at Comtantinople. ‘The Jesuits expelted from Bohemia and Den- mark, 2767 The Jersits expelled from Spain, Venice, and Genoa, April 24. Martinico almost destroyed by an earthquake. on en Prvenets let ia Bobo, Novo 1768 Academy of painting established in London. ‘The Turks imprison the Hessian xmbateaor, and declare war aguimt that empire. Tho Jesuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and Pane. 2763,Phali fed from Corsica, Jase 13. The island ‘then reduced by the French. . Oct. 25. in the 77th year * OLOGY. 1770 An earthquake at St Doming 1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, the Endeavour, Lieut. yoyage round the world, having made several important discoveries ia the Sooth Seas. An emigration af 500,000 Tourgouths from the anne of the Carian en to the frontiers of i ing of Smeden changes the constitation from arntaerny to «liited monarchy. Prince of German ‘The Pretender marr ‘grand-daughter of Thomas late eatl of Ayles- fory. ‘The emperor of Germany, empress of Ro the Kiog of Browsing tip the kin Pipe i went to explore the Nort oe ing made 8 degrees, is in danger of locked mp by the ice, and bis attempt ‘a passage in that quarter proves Tho English East India company having, by conguest or treaty, acquired the extensive pro- tines of Bengal Orns, and Babar, cootin- Files re commited by thelr servants abr ‘upon which government interferes, and sends ‘out jadges, &ce. for the better administrati of justice. The war between the Rossians and the Tutks 8 diagraceful to the latter, who lose the fblands in the Archipelago, and by sea are ‘The society of Jesuits soppresed by the pope's Peece'is clined between the Rowins and 3774 Pence’is proclai a ans an 74 he Toke ‘The British parliament baving passed an act lay- ing a doty of 34. per pound upon all teas_im- ted indo Atmeric, he colonise, conider= - yvance, deny the right of the British parliament to tax them. ‘The American colonies send depaties to. Phi deiphia, who assume the ttle of The Congress of the Thirtcn United Provincer, and the powers of government. 1775 The American war commences. Action at Bonker's Hill, Jone 7. The Spaniards land near Algiers, and are de- feated, July 8. « 1776 Tha congrem declare the United States of A- merica independent of the crown and parlia- ere we Americans receive a dreadfol defeat at Long Island, Avg. 27. 1777 Philadelphia taken by the Britis Oct. 3. General Bargeyoe with bis army srrenery to 178 A mont extraordinary eroption-of Veruvius, Au- ‘The siege of Gibraltur begun by the Spaniards, ‘hays, pgen by the Spani 3780126 CHRONOLOGY. ‘Auer 1780 Jan. 14th, 6b A. M. the thermometer suspend- 1783 Defi Corie, ced in the open air at Glasgow, stood at 46° Spain and America, concluded. — below 0. ‘The Enat India house rotbed, The Spanish feet defeated by Admiral Rodsey, ‘Thanks to General Elliot voted by the house of San. 16th commons. Charlestown surrendered tothe British, May 12th. A dreadful insurrection in London, and riots in ny other places of the kingdom. A great, number of British sips taken by the ‘combined fleets of France and Spain, Lord Coravallis defeats the Americans at Cam- deo. A dreadful borricane in the Leeward islands, Oct. 9. ‘An extraordinary storm of wind in England, ‘War declared against the Doteb, Dec. 20. 1781 A terrible engagement between the Datch » British fleets nenr the Dogger bank, Avgust sth. ‘Lord Corawalis with his army surrenders to the ‘united forecs of France and America, Octy 181 1782 Minorca sorrendered to the Spaniards, Febroary athe “The French feet onder De Grasse defeated and almost destroyed by Admiral Rodaey, April rath. ‘The Spanish floating batteries before Gibraltar entirely destroyed, Sept. 12. 1783 Preliminaries of « general peace signed. Ame- tien declared independent, Tan. 20th A drendfol earthquake, attended with man extraordinary eizeomslances, in Italy aod Si- cily. Tie, oben by « kind of fog doing the A ‘oleanie eruption in Teeland surpassing any ing recorded ia history. ‘The lava spouted up thee places tom rent bight in the airy ed Rowing for two mont it covered a tract of gr great extent, and in some places more than To0 feet deep. ‘A large meteor appears to the northward of southward, locity little inferior to. that of the ‘earth ia its annual course round the su. Its track observed for more than 1000 miles. Algiers bombarded by the Spaniards. ‘A great tamolt at Philadelphia between the in- habitants and French soldiery. An extraordinary aurora borealis seen at London. Bednore taken by the English. ‘Magazine at Bencoolen blown up. Bailes made ofthe leva of voleavoe. Byrne, the Irish giant, eight feet four inches, dies by intemperance. Famine in the Carnat of hie ‘children with the thigh b worse, after an the happiness of those who die y Se Eyre Cone defeats Hyder Aly. Gremtitz in Hungary destroyed by light Dartmouth East Tadhons Tat, ene Embargo o0 salt in Ireland taken off A forest in Poland suddenly disappears. sland of Formosa destroyed by an earthquake, Gold and silver lace prohibited in Denmat A conpiracyapunst the Grand Siguor ‘isco Grosvenor Indiaman lost. Mangalore sorzender othe Brith, peta or fireball sen at diferent paces gles Serious mutinies at Portsmouth, Jersey, Goern- 7 Dablin, 8c. A plague breaks oot Sonera Powder mills at Ewell Avtao in Moscow bas 6 children l 87 by three wives, Queen Charlot delivered of m princess. 1984 General Cornwalis made constable. of the ers Sluices at Lillo opened by the Dutch. Great earthquakes in Teeland, Grenoble, 8c. Fort Frederic at Grenada blown op. ted by the king and St Augustine in Florida declared a free port. ang of desperate robbers apprebended at lasgow. A volcano di 1785 Melancholy fate of two adronauts. A singolar calamity at Barbadoee, by the sink- ing of the surface in diferent places. ‘A new comet discovered. ‘The queen of France is delivered of a son, A remarkable accident happens at the coort of ing’s beach. A deal inondtion happens at Vienon i many. 3786 The Halsewell Esst Indiaman struck on the rocks of Porbeck, and about 200 of the crew perished, Jan. 6th, Joiner’s works performed by a blind mao insuch 1 msteriy nner 9 astonish the able lonel Vantroscke, a deserving officer. April. The west tower of Hereford church, 125 feet the rath centary, fell down om tatloen 96 wiles in minotes. Writes « letter in the air, Seed Ap 18th, to the editors of the Paris 3786“CHRONOLOGY. 1786 To the number of 6398 boys and girls clothed, ‘educated, and supported by voluntary cont ations, tuembe wader the dame of St Bea's Sell prayer. d by Queen Eli A small prayer-book composed by Queen Eli= taketh, and in her own hand-writiog, sold in Londen for 100 guineas, June 7b. ‘The prince of Wales orders his whole stod to be posed of by ign te his debis. 1787 The king of Prosia establ tar for the purpose of suppressing doelling. A meeting of notables convened by the of France for reforming abuses relating to the subject of finance, January 10th. ‘Two thips miled from Gravesend with black eopl on bard fora nem tlement at Sir- 74 Leone, January oth. ‘The king of Poland bas an interview with bee Imperial majesty at Kiow, March 7th. NR TL Bel te convicts, 21st. ‘A. Tmotion ia parliament for repealing the test and co acts, 28. 1M. de Calonne is diamiased from office, April rt. ‘Mr Hastings impeached at the bar ef the house of lords, May roth. — — prtions to be admitted to bail, 223. The sum of 161,000). voted for the liquidation of the prince of Wales's debts, 24th. ‘The Hartwell East Indiaman lost off the island of Bona Vista, 24th. ‘Two satellites belonging to Georgium Sides die. Tvered by Dr Herel, Jane 7. ‘The Rossian ambassador at Constantinople ime prisoned, August 16th. ‘The Prussian troops under the duke of Brom jek take pometsion of Utrecht, Sept. 17th. three ail of the Tine pot into commis- ‘admirals appointed, Sept. agi ‘The Prominns gain postesion of Amsterdam, October 17th, ‘A most remarkable aurora boreal Lord George Gordon spprebended and’ com- mitted to Newgate, December 7th. 1988 Died at Bryngwyn ia Radnorshive six pertoos darag the ant of Sanaa, owe nied ages made up 644 years. ‘Avnew copper coinage of balfpence begins to circalate in Britain, July 19th. illiam Brodie and George Smith tried for break- ing into the General excise office for Scotland, tentenced to be executed, September ret. A drendfol burricane at Murtinico lid many shes waste, and deprived moltitodes of their ce, August 14tbe ‘The king of France abolished the tortore, and ordained that every accused persca aball have counsel immediately sssigued him, October 18th. He ordered alto, that a majority of one may acquit the accused, while three are re- ABE condoms 2 iron barge built. by John Wilkison, Esq. 1 Wily Shar Steevebery, wae, indache pears, 13th. ly eight inches water, and moving 0 that clement, ‘Hia Britannte majesty is seized wi disposi nf date 1057 were found beneath the fondation fhe ld market Sous at Faroe am. Another satellite discovered by Dr Herschel be- longing to Earthquake at Comrie, November 3d. Foundation stone of that magnificent structare aii tee i ae ae Tc ee ieee rte er re ct Ne eo) aged fey Revolution of France i begun nd gradaly on eee Tato the city of Philadlpbity where samp. toons entertaioment i provided for bien by tbeeyil izes Apia excelent and cheap dye invented in Germany. Ds Withers sentenced to 12 monte impriooss tment, to pey fee of gl, aod to find secu. rity for five years, hintelf in. sool. and two tthers in 250k each for defaming the ‘charac. ter of Mrs Fitaherbert, November aie, ‘The wm of 2611. , voted to Brook Watton, ‘Enq. to defray te expences of & new davent- cd ‘method of cultivating bemp, ‘December athe 1990 Exile ofthe dake de Orleans. Bed of josie instituted in France, alaaitoos sate of afairein that country. Tig areihp of Tatlowe dined fom of ‘A convention signed at the Escorial between bis Britannic majesty and the king of Sprin, Oc- tober ithe A memorial of the coort of Spain delivered to Me Fitaherbert, Jone 13th. M. Montmorio's Iete tothe national assembly ‘of France, esis EVI. ative » sesh to the atin ‘A blackbiri's nest with four egge foond Deven ter asth, near Nuneham in Oxferdshire. 1791 Berioou its at Pat The Tey Beat como themselves «sain tseably. Paris is surrounded by the military at the desire eon se pen by the aby and reat none sot open by the mob, and » great famine io Paris, whether real ot artical is fvelved i beet 1M. Necker is dirmiaed from ofce, and the Ba ‘le demolished, inted commander in chief ional guard. M, Necker ia recalled with every demomstration of joy. 379°128 Ane Cui, CHRONOLOGY. 1791 A most horrid insurrection takes place on the sth of October. The royal family comes from Verwilles to Paris. ‘he ablton of orders decred by the asenbly. ‘The island of Corsica united to France. ‘he unpopular and oppremive tx oo tlt abo- M. Necker again resigos, aboot which tine breaks out at Paris, and a serious matioy salt harbour of Brest ‘oreig powers combine against France. ‘The King of France fet is appecbeoded, and return ‘The city of Paris put under martial law. ‘The Netherlands revolt from Germany. Peace is concluded between Avstria and Prussia, ‘and between Prussia and Swedes. The grand vizier and dies A pace nlaedNtwven Hai od Cone tinople. A convention is entered into with Spain relative to Nootke Sound. War carrie Tadia with Tippoo Saib. The Brith parliament is dinolved, and the new liameat is soon alter opened by a speech fom the throae, A Lill ie presented in the British parliament for the reltef of Protestant Catholics. The French constitotion settled by the assem- ‘ys aad provented to the king, September 3 Accepted of by th King, rth, 1792 Washiogton's speech to both houses of congress, 190 cer ast A treaty between Britain and Prussia relative to the marriage of the duke of York with Fre- derica Charlotte. Gostavus IIT. of Sweden is assassinated by Ane Karatrom. Geveral Dillon is inhumaoly murdered by bis ‘wa toldiers. M. Rochambeau resigns the command of the reach army in the north, and is succeeded bby M. Lackner. Horrible outrages are committed in Paris on the 20th June. ‘The French erm are vctorons ia the Nether- A petition in presented to the assembly, prayin the deparitien of Louis XVI. ‘The palace is abandoned by the royal family of France, and attacked by the federates, at which time the Swiss lepoted, and he and his soned. War proclaimed by the assembly of Fran against the king of Hungary and Boheni April 20th. ‘The king of the letter to the French writes a confidential of Great Britsin. ‘The French national assembly proceeds to the trial of the king. He is condemned and exe- 3 cated, Jan, 21..after which M. Chaevelin is Alismitsed from Loudon. . ‘Anes christ, Damourier arrests the commissioners sent to —— Dring him to the bar of the convention, and fends them as prisoners to the Avstrians.” He finally abandons tbe cause of France as bope- Tess and desperate. He ia succeeded by Ge- eral Darpicr. ‘The Briotne party i denoanced bythe people Marat is committed to the abbey, but soon re- leased, and assassinated at lst by a female from, a Nermandy. a expedition is undertaken agaiost Duskick, itd rendered thrive, General Custine, the queen, the depoties of the nde, Manuel, Houchard, Bailly, Ber- wre, Rabat, the doke of Orleans and Ma- dame Roland, are condemned and executed. Earl Moira makes an unsuccessfal descent oa the coast of France. Toulon surrenders to the British, but is retaken Mr Adam + to amend of Scntlandy which debates, ‘Tire frst reading of a bil for suspending the Ha- Dens Corpus Se ia potted agents May 23. Prost gcse the vet of thanks to Lord june 17. ‘The king of Promia withdraws from the coali- to interesting A bill is brooght into parliament for the aboli- tion of the slave-rade, and rejected by the General Fitzpatrick moves for an inquiry into- the reasoos of M. la Fayette’s imprisonment, ‘A motion for peaca with France is nde by: the +" duke of Bedford and Mr Fox. "Thanks are voted by both houses to Lord Home, Six Charles Grey, and Sir Jobn Jervis. ‘That valoable instrument the telegraph is invent ed by the Freach. The bold eloquence of Talli the ced and execoted (28th June}, with about 20 of bis diabolical coadjators. General Clairfait a defeated, and Louvain and powers oblige Britain demeiy them for tei ones, 1795 La Pique of 38 guns captared by Vice-ndmiral Caldwell, Jan. 4. Mecim af by and the Comer of 74 at wire of 80, sven of 74 goat, March 16. = ‘Warren Hastings acquitted of the serious char- «Res prterred again hy by «majority of house of peers, April 25. ‘The Boyne of 98 guas is blown up at SpiCHRONOLOGY. the prince of Wirtemberg Stotgard and Char After -bot not so mach damage done to adjacent ves. nels ns there wa reason to dread all ber guns , May 4. emi Captus Aathony Stars Pye Molloy donned ‘fom tie comorad of the’ Cesar of 94 gum, for neglect of duty. Some skip of war belonging to the French taken ty the Beet onder the command of Adi idporty 29d June. Leopold brotber to the emperor of Germany “led Aogust 10. a Minerve of 42 guns eaptored by Captain "Tory, Jove 2% ‘The beat ehorch of St Pauls, Covent-gar- den, totaly contomed by fire, Sept 19 A hock of ta earthquake fl throogh most of the town of Biraingbam, Nov. 33, 1796 A tooo was thrown at bis Brltantic majeay'e Carriage ov bis way from Pallmall to Bock Ingato, ich eake a wind, and fresly alarmed Lady Herrington, Feb 7+ rover of roock as aera for the ap” ieceon fth ei bt win te Admiral Cornwallis is tried on torrd the Orion, Ter acting contrary to order eetved from teitralty, and acgted, Apel 17. Sie Sidaoy Sith taken by the French at Hare, ‘april PU ni, « French frigate of 38 gums taken by Captsin Cole, and La Virginie of 44 by Se Edvard Pellow, April 13. nd 20. ‘Cros for attempting to aeusiat it maje- wy, sa trad and acuited, May 20. ‘Tre howe fell down Clarematiety in the Taine af which 17 persons were soforanately eee ee ' e Avion, fgets of 32 guns blown op at iymocthy when aboot 60 liver were, Sept 23. ‘The pres Calbsine I, of Romi died ate lace of a0 apoplectic Bt New. 17. sayy Bato Foch het cae fo anc in Bastey tay, having on bonrd am army af 35,000 mea, teder the sommand of Gencral Hecke} bot AMierwards weighed and slood ou oct, Jae beary 2 ‘The etceple of « church near Norwich fell down hile the bell was ringing for pubic worship, ‘The city of Savannah nearly consumed to ashes by fire. Sir John Jervis, with a fet of 15 sail, engages “a Spanish fect of 27 sal ofthe line, which be defeats, takiog the Salvador del Mundo and San Josef of 112 guns-each, the San Nicolas of 89 and San Ysidro of 74. guns, Febromry ‘The lland of Trinidad surrenders tothe British forces under the command of Sir Ralph Aber- ceatie ial ceremeies are sclennized between art L 1799 A deel sock of je majesty George LU rd Malmsbory appointed mit Anny from the court of Be inting a treaty of peace, July 1. Aton 30 French war vearele ot dere dimes. sions taken or destroyed by t Sir. B. Warreo, betmeee 370 18, of September A desperate ment off Camperdown be- teen Admirals Duncan and De Winter, whee the later is totally defeated by the former, with, ‘the loss of 15 ships. 1798 A powder-mill belonging to Mr is blown ‘up, which demolishes several adjacent boild- ings, and killa three of the workmen, April ae L+Herevle French ship of 74 goos,coptored by the Mary, April at Rebels in the Carragh of Kildare, Ireland, lay dowa their army, May 29. Wenfurd rebels defeated with great loss and Propet othe I robes rejected by Gonerat roponale of the Irish rebels rejected by Take, June 22. meee ‘The Princess Atcin East Indiaman accidentally barat on the ceutt of Malabar, and 40 of bet crew perished, Apel s. ‘An engagement at'Castchar between General Tae ad pay of reochlanded oT, ‘oyun 27. ‘A areadfol cogegement between the Britah fet tnder the command of Sir Horatio. Nelo, snd the French feet commanded by Admiral Braye, off the moth of the Niley when tine sail a the lio belonging tothe French were taen, hee rst oon and far naps, og ‘The yellow-fever, which caried of 3000 people in New-York, in few oth happy cued te rape, Now 15. earthquake was felt at Guernsey oa the night of the 6th. A desperate battle between the Arche doke Charles and General Jourdan at Steckasb, March 25. Three frigates eaptored by the:Centaur, J. Wood commander, June 19. ‘Mantoa surrenders to the Austrians, Jane 30. Tho British forces destived to invade Holland begin to disembark, a7th Anguet. Seven ships of war, aad 13 Indiamen and trans. BES hey ihe Nieoe Diep by Adil itchell, Avgest 27. Seringapatam surrenders to the British forces, when Tippoo Soltaa is slain, 4th May. Bonian foren cblged to eracota jovember, 300 A convention between the ambassadors of the Ottoman Porte and General Deasix, signed at El Arisch, agth January, by which the Freack ‘troops were permitted to return to their own oy 7 B His 129 igusta Matilda, eldest daughter of his Chri. os130 tee Hig Brana maja. shot in the tha aie. 16th, by a mani soe of Had- Sra The Queen Charlotte of 100 guns ie barat off Leghero, and the gallant crow perish, 17th ‘The French ship of war Guillaume Tell of 86 fons and 1000 men sarrenders to the Lion, Foadroyaat, March rein ye ahip Marlborough o uot, was completely wrecked. off Bel ith November. s8or An embargo laid on all Rossian, Danish Swedish veseels in the ports of Great Br Tand met forthe fst time, Jancary 23. The Invincible af 74 gone tae ground oo the Coast of Norfolk and war totaly lat, when Seagal ed Mah cogegewent. of Copenhagen, tween the Daath line and the Britah’ Beet ader Admiral Peskers in mich 943 of the Brith were Kiled snd wounded, Apel 2 Abeer norenders to the Brita tder the come Inand of Sir Ralph Abererombiey whe eer fain mortal woued on the 210 March, of Ivhch that great officer did onthe 26th, In'un eogegemnt between « French ad British saponin the ayo Algeiwy the Haan a fertoatly Tell int the Gunde of the taemy by taking the road. The Brith Squadron rendered waslesn two of 84, one of Th gens, and large Ligate, uly, Tesinicn of armm by tu tod fad. between ‘Bein and oFoah pb, reali rom the eignig of preliminaries of pence by Lon Hawkcebiry, and M. Otte, Oceber 1. Alexandria srrendere t9 General Hotchiaton cathe 34 Gopomber. ‘The Smisre captared by Adina Gantesome, Toho treed the ee ith the utewet boa Ty and tenderoees 163 Mr Moore arrived ith the deGniive tenty of at Amico on the 27th March, TEfour inthe afernor. A Gceadfal Bre brokp ont (Mey 1.) inte town of Bedford, which deavoyed 72 bovwer, and deprived abort 700 perons of tei le Aare ng, Uootallers to push no eoks without the ano of the printer at the tepiotog end end of them, wat raed, 20th Obober. seg A eyeliner in Chin, se forte hogy» daring Heat the hed of $0,000 men- 1804 Active mearues taken ia'Dublia to secure the county eguinet iovesin. Doke D'Enghien and other emigrants seized, sent to France, and executed, March 15. Mr Addington’s administration dieolved, pew minty epeinte, with Mr Pitt at ita bead. Coronation of Bonaparte as emperor of France. 2 CHRONOLOGY. 1805 Impeachment of Lord Melville, Jo Bonaparte crowned king of I Capitulation of General Mack, Acetrinns and Russians defeat December 2. ‘The combined French and Spanish fleets defeat. Sb the Brith eet under Lord Neon at rafalgar, Oct. 21. 1806 Death ae Pi, Acqeittal of Lord Melvil ‘The Prussians defeated by the French at Jena, October 14. ‘The Cape of Good Hope taken from the Dutch by the British, January Boenos Ayres taken by Sir Home Popham, ayth Sune. Death of Mr Fox, September 7. 1807 Dinsltin of the Wig miiery, dake of Pert Id arpned Bt vd fh teary 25 Battle of Eylaa between the Rowans and the Freveh, Fe Siege of Copen Tet, September Portogoes court sil for the Brazil, and the French oocupy Pertogel, November 29, Loral win enblobed in Britny Ay 3et Fegan ge fc recat crown at Bayonte, May 5. og Freeh infested wt Viger Avgaa a, Colonel Warde brings charges ef mansanagig the army ageinnt the doke of York, Jansary 27 Freoch defeated at Talavera, Joly 27. ‘Avetrin declares war against France, April 6. Battle of Aspera between the Avstrians and French, May 21. ‘Avstrinas defeated at Wagram, Joly 6. Peace signed between France and Austrie, Ovto- ber 15. King of Sweden deposed, March 13. ‘The Walcherea expedition sails, July 28. ‘Mr Maddison succeeds Mr Jeferoon as president ‘of the United States, March. ‘Doel between Lord Castlereagh and Mr Cannis September 22. Marriage of Bonaparte with the srchdochees ‘Marin Louisa, March 11. In the course ofthis year revalotionary movements began in the Caraccas, and in the other Spa- inh American colonies. George the Third allected by a mental disease, ‘November 1 1811 French defeated by tho British at Barress, ‘Mareh 5. Batavia taken by the British, Angust 26, 1812 United Sater delare war sguoet Britis, Jone French defeated at Salamanca, Jaly 23. Fssiane defeated by the French at Snolensk, ‘Aogust 16. Rnsane defeated again at Moskwa, Sept. 7. Neplem guitel Masson Oster 19" 41813 French defeated at Vitteria, Jane 20, —— tefeted ot Leipie, Oneber 36, 3814,cHR { 132 ] CHR Chrome. wood, in the upper side of mbich there is a groove, sly emooth and glosy > bot some few of thee have Chey Tilowed along Yom the cud that stands out fo thai a few'haires some tre alo a beiry asthe caterpilary == Chepal which sized inthe ruler, and neat each end of i hole is made: through thete holes a pendulum cord is ‘dcawa, which runs in the groove : at that end of the ‘cord which comes through the bole farthest from th roler, the ball is hung and at the other end there ‘small wooden pin, which can be put in any of the holes ofthe reler: when the pin isin the uppermost hole at 72, then the pendulum from the top to the centro ‘of the ball must be exactly 72 inches 5 and therefore, whatever hole of the ruler itis put in, the pendulum will be just, t0 many inches as that Sigore at the hole denotes. The manoer of using the machine is this: ‘The composer lengthens or shortens hie pendolom, ill cone vibration be equal to the designed length bar, and then the pin stands at certain. divs which marks the length of omber Ueing set with the clif tbe, beg the song, is a direction for others how chronometer, in memaring.the tine soc ‘composer's desiga for with the namber Bote crtchely or minim, ‘whote valoe he would bave the vibration to be which in brisk duple time is best, ‘a minim or balf bars or eveo a whole bar, whea that is but a minim; and in slow time a crotchet. In tiple time, it woald do well to be the third part, or Balf, or foorth part of » bar 5 and in the simple that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And very time that i» allegro, the vibration is applied to whole or balf bar, practice will teach us to sibdi- it jastly and equally. Observe, that, to make this machine of universal use, some canonical measure of the 18 must be agreed upon, that the figure ima give» crtsin direction forthe length of the pea CHROSTASIMA, ia Natural History, n genus of pellucid gems, comprebending all those which appear of ove simple and permanent calour ia all lights 5 such iamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyst, sapphire, beryl, emerald, abd the’ topaz. "See D1a~ ™CTUIYSA: in doen of in Ancient Geography, a town of Mysis cn he sus Adramytenny chet ho Eda temple of Apello Sotathean, (Homer, Strabo). ‘he country of the fair Chet who gave trie to c quarrel between Agamemnon and Achille, ‘CHRYSALIS, or Aurezta, in Natural Hist sate of et and sceming invest, hich buterie, mothe, and several others kinds of insects, must Through, before they arrive at thie winged or mort perfect state, "In thieatate, no creatures afford so beaotiful a va- buttery kinds, and they all pase through ‘withoot ove exception. ‘The figure hes to that thi Bee alts lege sor wisgh torte have ay power ot making, Te com indeed’ to bave hardly so ach at Hi Taner nuit in itt organs for taking any i iP tae seems anit ccbrysals is cartilaginous, and considerably large, and is from which they are produced ; and others are rou td ait wer, sbagrecned al over ie Tn all these there may be distinguished two sides 5 the one of which is the back, the other the belly, of the animal. On the anterior part of the later, there may always be distinguished certain little elevations running io ridges, and resembling the fillets wound about mummies: the part whence these bave their ori ‘esteemed the head of the diference is drawn the frst general die tinction of these bodies. ‘They are by this divided in to two classes ; the round avd the angolarkiads. The first are, by the French natoraliat, called feves; from the common custom of calling the chryealis of the worm, which is round, by this name. ‘There is something more regular in this distinction inn might at inte conceived; forthe division continued from the fly-state : the rounded chrysalises ‘being almost all produced by, the phalena or moths 5 and the angolar ones by the popilir, or day-fice. There are several. sobordi inctions of these kinds ; bat, in general, they are leas diferent from one fnother than the caterpillars from whence they are produced. ead of those of the first clas opvally termi- ‘nates itself by two angular parts, which stand separate. ‘one from the other, and resemble a pair of horns. On. the back, eminences and marks are discovered, which imagination may form into eyes, nose, chio, and other parts of the homan face. ‘There is a great variety and a great deal of be in the Bgu ty land arrangement of the eminences and ‘other pasts of the body ofthe ehrysalsos of Te ia a general observation that these hrysalses which are terminated by a tingle horn, af ford day-batterfies of the Kind of those which bave buttoned anteane, and whore wings, in a state of rest, cover the under part of their body, and which ove ali ther six Teg in walking, those of many other Kinds using only four of them. Those cryealises which are j,® terminated by two angular bodies, and which are co- vered with a great number of spines, and have the fe gore of « buman face on their back in the greatest perfection, afford botterfies of the day kind; and of ‘that class the characters of which are, their walking con four legs, and using the other two, that is, the an terior part, io the manner of arms or The cchrysalises' which have two angohar bodies on their heads, but shorter than those of the preceding, and owe back shows but afin etch ofthe hance, ‘which have femer spines, and these less sharp,, slags tar to that towe af bute, the opper wings of which are divided into segments, ove of which i s0 loog as to represent a tail, and whose under win, are folded ovtr the upper part of the back. A care 1g cbrervation wl esl any more rales of he indy ibich are not so perfect asta be free from all excep” nus yet a of reat oe, a they tac ain genecHR C 134 J cHR Chepalis. the body of the eaterpillar in a weak state, with limbs the batching of the creatore from the egg. The Cheysa! TA anal to perform thelr ofces, whereas it comes from pert of the buttery, however, are not dspired ex: oe the chryzals perfect. actly in the same manver while in the body of the ex Hit. of me M. Reaumur bas given os many curios observa- terpillar, a» when let naked in the form of the cbry- ‘cia, roLtstions on the structure and uses of the several cover- sulis: for the wings are proportioaally longer and 4-28 ings that attend the varieties of the caterpillar kind in narrower, being wound up. into the form of & cord ; this state. and the eatenne are rolled up on the head ; the trunk eral remain wbolly in alo twisted up and laid upon the bead ; but this in ‘ccem to bare oo basinea init bor a patient attendance on the tine when they ate to become batierfiens and this ie a chaoge tht can happen to them, etly a their pats, before extremely tokand weak, are capable of hardesing and becoming of that sbuodant oni ‘wich bare Reeth waft‘ thi proved by an experiment of ML Resomer, who, iacl- i eon chryeliaes in late tabe, found, aftr some ime, aeoall quantity of mater at the bottom of it} tbich could bave come there no other way, bat from the body of the ioclned snioal. ‘This tran depends greatly on the temperature of the ai increased by boat, and diminished by cold; but it loo ite peculiartca jn regard tothe several species of battery to which the ebryalia belongs. "According to these observations, daration ofthe animal in the chrysali state matt specie try dite end tee ‘i the extremes, that tome ion rein only eight days id thie sate, and others ight montbe. "SWe know that the caterpillar changes ite akia four or five times daring its living in that states and that BN thas sia awa it prodoced with i from 5, Iying closely over oe another. Tt parte wit, hm af the nb sy we tory, tubich inthe real auimaly all this time. withing grow! trore and. more perfect in the several Brat changes. ‘Wea it throws of one, it appears in snother skin ex- actly of the same form 5 bot at ite Boal change from appearance, that in, when it throws off the Tast thin, ts the creatare within iv now arrived at anch a depres of perfection as to need no farer taking of peutibment, there foto farther need of teeth, or any lth atber parts of «caterpillar. ‘The crestrey it a lat change, proceeds inthe very azine manoet a I the formery the skin opening at the back, and a making ape lary when bout to throw off this Tas. akin, be throwa into ney and eft there for «few dayer the membranee ‘within will harden, and the rotore may bo afeewards eareilly opened, and the chrysulia taken oot, in which the form of the tender battery omy be teaced in all ite lineaments, and its tyes, gs, Bees evidently seen. Tt iv not-necannry, Eawcvers to esizn open’ this exact time for proving fence of the coryeln or buterl in the eaters iar: for if one of theve aniwals be thrown into 4 cf wine, or into vinegar, some daye before that time, and left there for the Beth to harden, it omy teva be dine and al the Hewett fhe traced out nits the wings, lege, antenn deat bere ad wa large, as the ch ‘ery plain from this, that the cbange of the caterpillar no chryalis je not the work af a moment, fe i carrying for a loog tie Before, even from 1 very different manner from what itis in the perfect animal, and very difereat from tbat in which it lies within the chrysalis5 #o that the frst formation of the butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro- per change of the disposition of its parts, in order to S chrsalia The very eget, hereafter tobe deposited by the battery, are also to be found, not ‘aly in the chrysalis, bot in the caterpillar tse ranged in thei deed iar natural, regular order. They are in ate very wall and transparent) but ter the change into the ebryalis, they have their pro per ealoor “As toon as the suveral parts of the batterly, there- fore, are arrived at a atste proper for being exposed to the more open air, they tre thrown out fu the body of the caterpillar surrounded only with their membranes} and as soon as they are arid after thie at a proper degree of strength and solidity, Inbur tore thtogh tne tineer covering; at to appear in their proper and natural form.” The ime of their duration in this state of chrysalis is uncertain, some remainiog in it only a few days others several months, and some almost a year in ap- pearance. Bat there is fallacy in chs that many are ‘ot aware of. It is natoral to think, that as soon as the ereatore has inclosed itself i its’ shell, be that of it will, it ondergoes its change inte the chryralis state. "And this is the case with the gene- rality: yet there are some which are eight or nine ‘hell before they become chrysalises, 0 their durction in the real chrysalis state is moch shorter than it natorally appears to be. M. Resumar carefully watched the auriculated caterpillar of the ‘oak jin its soveral changes, and particolarly from ite cchrysalis, which ie of this last kind, into the fy j and has given an account of the method of this, as an ine stance of the general course of nature in these opera ‘The membranes which envelope the crestere in thie chrysalis state are at Gist tough and frm, and diately touch the several parts of the inclosed ani- ial bot by degrees, us these parte harden, they be- ame covered, some with nis and ater with seals. ese, as they continue to grow, by degreoe fall off the steal peer membinots Sik oer ibe parts on which they are placed, to a greater dirtance, and by degrees loosen them from tbe limbs. ‘This is ne eston why thowe membranes dry and become brittle, ‘The middle of the opper part of the consxtrr is usually marked with 2 live which runs ia a longit nal directions and this part i always more elevate than the rett, even ia the conic kinds, whieh are ne otherwise angular. This live is in some very bold and plain}, as not to be distingaish- Able withoot glastes bot itis always in the midet of that Tine that the sbell begins to open.” ‘The motion of the headcHU L Me red oat inthe eonseeration thereof, Eeaare , Zaaeers T have outdone ther, Soloman. Ths dome, which ie taid to bave been the rt that was bul, iv 390 feet dinwe- ter "The fint charch publicly built by the Christians, tome authors maintain to te that of Bt Saviour. at Hlome founded by Constantine 5 ether contend, that several chorches sbroad,caled bythe name of St Peter Vious, were builtin hooour of that apse daring his lifetives Gioscu, with regard to architecture, Daviler de- fines large eblongcdifcn, in form ef. shiny with rey chat, nslen, chapel, belly, See.” See each part ts proper bead tency Sil hat which ba only a navoand a ‘Carznca with Aisle that which has a row cet in farm of wanted galleries, with chapel iretmferenee. ‘Girozcn in a Greck cree, that where che length of the traverse part iv equal to tint ofthe nave; ao ealed becanve owt of the Greek chorches ace builtin this form. ‘Circa in a Latin eres that whove nave is longer the eras party ab in met of the Gothia churches. ‘Carcncir in Rotundo,cbat bos pan isn perfect cir- cley i imitation ofthe Pantheon, ‘For the form of the ancient Creek churches, when thy ad lh pry rasa flan wa ot portion, aled the eount-navey mgm} this ‘Tus adorned with colomas en the outtide, Sed en the Inside narrounded with a wall; in the middle whereof tras a dor, throogh which they passed ito’ a second portce, The fet of there porticocs was destined for Ther encrgumeni, and pevitente ithe frat tage of theit repentance 5 tbe second was moch longer, deti- ned for penitentsof the second clas, and the catec iment, and hence called sep, forua, becanse those Paced in it began fo bo acer fo the disciple of the Shurch. ‘These. two. portioes took up aboot coe third of the spece of the church.” From the second ertice they pased ino the nave, nu, which took 0 eat another third of the chorch. "In the middle, ft ove side of the anvey wan the amnbo, where the dear ‘com and priesta rend the gorpel 4.” The fave wat destined forthe reception ef the people, who here ants at payers ‘Neue the entrance of thin wan the bapistery ot font, Beyond the nave was tho choir, gages set with seat, tnd'roond: the Bint teat on the righty next the enneto= try, being forthe cbanter, or choragua. Tiree the choir they wacended. by steps tothe sxnc- tary, which was entered at thes doors. ‘The sune- tary bad three epeden in ita length 5 = great abe fa the middle, under which war the altar, crowned ‘with a baldachin, supported by four columns, Under each of the small opeides, wad kind of table or eopboerd, fo manner of ben ‘Though, ofthe Greck churches now remaining, few have all the parts above described, most of them teving been reduced to ruie or converted jto meagoes. “Hon Church was a denomination origiaaly given to thoveothermibe called Nonfurrs, who fefeed fo we- rs th 138 J] Chiarches, stantine, ‘and consecrated under Jugtinian. It was at iat time so mageidcent, that Joan cHU le of William IIL. to the crown of chorche inder a notion that James Il. though Church IL their rightfal sovereign. ‘Thi ape —>— pellation’ was given them, because they entertained high notions of the dignity and power of the church, fd the extent of its prerogatives und jarisdiction. And those, om the cootrary, were ealled Jaw-church-men, who disapproved of the succession and obstinacy of the nonjurors, distinguishing themselves by their moderation towards dissenters, and were less ardent in exten the limita of church authority. ‘The denomination Aigh-church-men is now mote generally applied to all ‘who form pompous and ambitious conerptions of the authority and jurisdiction of the church, and who ‘would raise it to an absolute independence on all bux man power. Cuvnca-Ale Cuvace Reeves, the same with Cvnca-Wardens. Canen Scot, or Churchesset, x payment ot conti botion, by the Latin writers frequently ealled prinitioe ‘at frst, certain measare of wheat, on St Martin's day, as the First This was enjoined, by the laws of King Malcolm IV, and Casote, c 10, Bot after thisy Church scot came to signify a reverse of cara-rent paid to the secular priests, or to the religious ; and some- Grest Britaio, excluded, was ah ecclesiastical polity, are. the guard of the church, and representatives of the body of parish. They are sometimes appointed by the mini ‘er, sometimes by the parish, sometimes by both toge- ther, a8 custom directs, They are taken, ia favour of the chureb, to be, for some purposes, a kind of corpo- ration at the common law that isp they are enabled, by that name, to bave a property nd chats tela and to bring actin for them, profits of the parish. Yet they may not waste the ccharch goods, bat may be removed by the parish, and then called t0 account by actions at commot law : bot there ia no method of calling them to account but by first removing them; for nove can legally do it but those who are put in their place. As to lands, or other real property, as the church, churchyard, de. the Ihave bo sort of interest therein but if any damage done thereto, the parson only or vicar shall have the ‘action. Their office also is to repair the church, and make rates and levies for that porpose : but these are recoverable only in the ecclesiastical courts, ‘The so joined with the overseers in the care maintenance of the poor. They are to levy a shilling forfeiture on all such as do not repair to church on Sundays and holidays ; aod are empowered to keep all persons orderly while there; to which end it has Deen held that x church-warden may jostify the pol- Jing off a man's bat, without being guilty of cither an sow oe tena, There are ao « mlitude of ‘other petty parochial powers committed to their cha by divers 4a of parliament ee CHURCHILL, Six Winsrow, the father of the ‘of Marlborough, was ‘descended from an in Dorsetshire. He in that county in 1610 5 a Fr z i = ‘was born at Wotton GlanviCHU C i, and educated at St John's college rt Oxford. He en ‘Bec aged in the cuuse of hi wnfortenate sovereign ChE, vite vleed sever ne tne rd faving mere wile youngy Elatbeth, the daoghter of Sir Joba Drake of Ashe in Devonshire, vhe was for- fel to eek reg in bet fathers honey wien ME ‘Gorchite misfortenes et him none that be could ell frown} and tare most of his children were bore. {ter the Restoration, he was elected a burgess to se of Knighthood, ‘The next year he was made one of tho commisioners of claims in Ireland; and ‘ypon his return from thence, was constituted one of the clerks comptrollers of the green cloth: bot writ- 1d of political essay upon the History of England, which gave great offence to the parliament, the ras, in 1678, dismissed from his post. He was, ‘Dowerer, soon restored to it again and lived to see bis eldest surviving on raised to the peerage, and the rest of his children in a fair way to promotion, died in 1688. ‘Cuorcuirt, John, doke of Marlborovgb, snd prince of the holy Homan empite, x most renowned ral and stateaman, was bora at Ashe in Devon hire in. 1650. He was eldest son of Sir Winston Churchill who carried him to court while very young, and where be was particularly favoured by James dake of York, afterwards King James II. when only twelve years of age. In 1666, he was roade an ens of the guards doring the first Dutch war; and afier- ards improved himself greatly in the military art at Tangier. In 1672, Mr Chorehill attended the doke ‘of Monmouth, who commanded u body of auxiliaries in ehe French service, and was soon after made a cap- tain in the duke's own regiment. At the siege of Ni- meguea, which happened ia that eampaiga, be di goithed himself ao much that he was taken notic bby the celebrated Marshal Torenne, who bestowed on bim the name of the handsome Englishman—In 1673, be was at the siege of Macstrict, where be gained sich applanse, that the king of France’ made him a public acknowledgement of his wervice ; and the dake ‘Of Monmouth, who had the direction of the attack, told King Charles IT. that be owed his life to Mr Charchill's bravery. In 168t, he ter and coceires @rith her si ‘Tyreonnel) of Richard Jennings, Esq. of Sandrieh, in ferfordshire. ‘The duke of York recommended him in a very particular manner to the i 1682, created him baron of Eyemoath of Berwick, in Scatland, and made cession, be the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general ‘of bis majesty's army in the west; where, when the duke of Monmouth came to surprise the King's army ‘bile the earl of Feversbam and the majority of the officers were in their beds, he kept the enemy it play, till the king's forces had formed themselves, and hereby saved the whole army. When James showed ation of establishing the Catholic religion in Britain, Lord Churchill, notwithstanding the great ob- Tigations he owed him, thoogbt it bis duty to wband the royal cause but even then did ot leave hi 139 J of Cc HU ‘without acquaint histo doing. by the prince of Orange ; and was by hia employed Sha to neurmble te trop of ques at, Loos and afterwards to reduce some lately raised regiments, and to new-model the army for which purpose be ‘was invested with the rank und title Bera, Tn 16, he wat sworn one of te privy cata cil, and one of the gentlemen of the king's bed-cham- bers and on the oth of April following, was raised 10 the dignity of earl of Marlboroogh in the ceuaty of ‘Wilts, “He amisted atthe coronation oftheir majesties 5 and was soon after made commander in chief of the English forces sent over to Holland, nnd here be first Jai the foundation of that fame which was afterwards ‘spread over all Europe. fn 1 was made ge- neral of the forces sent to Ireland; where be made the atroog garrisons of Cork sd prisoners of war. The year following, King William showed the good opinion be had of his conduct, by seadiog him 7 i to draw cious report, the Marlborongh was soon restored to fa governor to the earl of Shoes iis extraordir ‘compliment from King, Will T My lord, make hi but what you are, ead ny net beri ba wish Yo Sela" se day ‘ras agnin emorn ene of the privy couneily aed i Joly following was declared one of the lords jeatice of England, forthe sdrinistration of the goveroment, ix He reat ati wa rete eter oe King's abence. In 1701 he was appeiated general of the fect, commander fa chit of the Englite, forces tnd ambateador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at the Hague. Upen the accctalen of Queen Anse to the oe wate at the ode of the Ca ter, declared captain geberal af ll ber wajety's forces, tnd oent ambecnador extraordinary aod plenipatenti toiled, "After sever! entencesthogt sway be put himself atthe head of the army, where all the cher generals bad orders to-obey his. Hin expla inthe Geld ave been taken aotice of ‘under the’ at cle Barrarm, No 344-3707, we shall therefore enly take notice in this pace of the rewards and hovourt conferred apea him for these explitn. After hiv Eat camrigs be av cated margin of Bland ad dake of Maclborooghy with x peosion of s0col. oot pos tlle te erie, foFeer pentane cat Joyiog ike tile ‘of doke of Maribor By met Charles IIE ate emperer, go Prof baring forced th Gnemys inn at So Tom, the enemy's ine at Scheie iZedaved letter of tha from the enperer Eee i, write with hia own hand an bonoor seldom oe to any bat sovereign princen Aer the baile af Blenheim, he received. congratlatery lettre from tmoat ofthe poteotates in Eorope, particulary from the icegencrth and rm thr emperor, bo. denied im tonccept of the dignity of a prinos of the empire, sk ils qe re werd wpb 2 by letter with the reason of charei, ‘Lord Churchill was graciously received —y—horchitl a cHuU t by the title of Prince of Mildenkeimain the province a'r te camprgn war coded, We rtel the court of Prunny where be led soch schemes a8 suspended the disputes with the Datch about King ‘Willinm’s estate; which wise conduct caused the whole confederacy to acknowledge that he bad done. the srettest service posible to the common cause. Upon his return to England, the queen, to perpetuate is memory, granted the interest of the crown ia the honoor ‘and manor of Woodstock and hondred of ‘Watton to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705 hhe made a tour to Vienna, opon the invitation of the ‘emperor Joseph ; who highly caremed him, and made Kim a grant of the lordship of Mildenbeim. After the campsign of 1708, the speaker of the house of commons was sent to Brossele on purpose to compli ‘ment him and on bis retura to England be was 3 ‘complimented in the house of lords by Lord Chancellor Cowper. Al his services, however, and all the bo- rours conferred upon him, were not sufficient to pre serve him from being disgraced. Afier the change of the minitry in 170, hie interest daily destined j and in 1712, on the first day of the new year, he was re- ia placer. Finding all arts ive country, he visited 1» and several towns in Germany} afier mbich be retorsed to Eng arrived there on the day of the qacea’s death. “After being welcomed by the nobility and foreign he attended on Kiog George I. in hiv public ent ‘throogh Londoo, who appointed him captain-general, Calonl ofthe Bret regiment of fot ards one of the ‘Chelsea hospi Some years in death, be retired from public business. He 5 leaving bo- ied to the smoved from all im obnoxioos ia bi comin forth gprersent ted master general of the ordaaoce fore fh Bs 20-4 person who had desceved 00 highly of his eonatry, in Weatmiaateratbey. ‘The noble ple near Wool! Stock, hich bears the mame of Blenbeim-house, may te jay ayled his monomeat; bot without pretending te the gift of propbecy, one may venture to foretel that bit glory il lng the fist of nations, su during the age in which be lived he was deservedly eateemed the first of mea, If be bad foibles, an these are inseparable from human nature, they were so hidden by the glare of his virtues ns to be scarcely perceived, ot were willingly forgotten. A. in parasite, who thought to. please Lord Boliog- iculing the avarice of the doke, was stopt i lordship; ‘who said, He was 20 very ‘great a man, that [ forgot he had that vice.”” ‘Out of a variety of auccdlotes and testimonies con. ‘cerning this illustrious personage, collected in the new ta Britannica, the following se- edition of the Bisgrophia Inction may serve to illostcate more particularly his dis- 140 J cHU important battle, the duke was beard to chide vant for baying been so extravagant as to light four ‘candles in his tent mhen Prince Eugene came to confer with him, Mr ‘Tyers, on the other a tioned a circamstance, which, ounds to his grace’s generosity though in x Wier cent respect it is much to his discredit: It is, that daring the rebellion ia 1715, he sent 10,000). to the carl of Mar. We consider tbe story only as tradi- tional report, which has not in itself any great degree ‘of probability; and therefore we are by no meas con- vince of _The late Me Richrdbon jn, the painter, bath recorded pleasing instance of the dake’ calomess of disposition} for which, indeed, Be Iways remarkable, The duke of Marlborough the weiter), riding out once with Commisary [arrat, near the’ commiteary's house in the couatsy, it began to ruin, and. the dake called for bis cloak ‘Marriot having bis pot on by his servant immediately. The dakers sean oat bringing the leaky he eed for it again but the man was alll puzzling about the straps and buckles. At last, it rainiog now very bard, the doke ealled agro, and aaked bimy "what be wat about that he did not bring Lis cloak?” * You must stay (grumbles the fellow), if it rains oats and do till Lean get at it? The doke only turned to Marriot and said, * Twould not be of that fellow's temper ‘The duke of Marlborough (adds Mr Richardson) did by nature and constitution, what Seneca judged by philosophy ought to be done. ” Quid ext guare ego serut inai hilarius reaponsum, et contumaciorem vultam, fla~ ellis ct compedibus expiem? ‘Dr Swift, in one of his letters to Stella, relates the following particalare conceroing the duke of Marl borougb. I was early this morning with Secretary ‘St Jobo, and gave him a memorial to get the queen's letter for the frst-fruts, who bas promised to a very few days. He told me ‘he bad been duke of Marlborough, who was lamentiog ‘wrong steps in joining with the Whigs, and said be Ws worm oot nth age Ttigoe, and sivfortanen® I smear it pitied me; and I really thiok they will sl in too uch, mortlying tat mas, atbog deed is own fe icovetous as hell, and mmbitious as the prince of it: he would fain bave been general for life, and has broken all endeavours for ence, to keep his greatness and get money. He told the ‘the was neither covetous nor ambitious.” if she could couveviently have turned about. ho would have laughed, and could bardly Tarver iia is face.’ He fell in with all the abominable measures of the late ministry, because they gratibed bia for their own designs, Yet he has been a successful gene- T hope he will continue his command.” us characters have been drawn of the dake of hy most of which we shall omit, aa either Marlb already suficiently knows, or as oot meriting partion ‘That which is given of bia by Dr Swi iatory of the four last years of the queen,’ ty and meanness of lar notice.cHU’ C ishments were problematical, and that he was destitute of personal courage. Mr Macphersoa’s character of his grace is very eluborate- ly composed, and displays no small degree of a ‘and penetration; though ly free from prejudice. The ab a fact, that Lord Chorchll, at the time of the Fevelotiony bad. a design of plecing kis enfoton aster King James Il pritoner inthe hand of his ral the prise of Orange, But this story wort be pedal Sealy every of end eine wo risen aad. informations so groundlest ed aren rifcloun, that it cannot deserve formal Flat.” On the ether tad Me Macpieran {ave jatce tothe doke of Marioroogs prove Sf the warin Flanders and hath sown thet be co acted it op the principles of sond witdom and good ‘There aro two testimonies to the honoar of tbe duke's memory, by two celebrated noble writers, which canaot be passed over. One is by Lord Bolingbroke, in his letters on the Stody and Use of His Speaking of the consteraation raised among the allies of the grand confederacy by the death of King Wil Tiam, and of the joy which that event gare to the Freach, his lordship observes, that “a short time thowed how vain the fears of some and the hopes of others were, By his deatb, the duke of Marlborough was raised (o the bead of the army, and indeed of the eafederacy: where be nem, m private man, saby ject, acquired, by merit and by management, » more Ucciinginfloence than high bith cosfrmed thor nd even the crowa of Great Brita i ag William. Not ooly all the parts of that vast the grand alliance, were kept more compact fand enti, but a more rapid snd vigorous motion was ven to the whole: sod instead of langu i npaigns, we saw every scene of the war full of action. All those wherein he appeared, and sany of those whereia be was not thea an actor, bot abettor however ir action, were crowaed ‘with the most tinmpbant succes, T tke, with please, this opportanity of doing justice to that great tose facie I kaew, whose irises Tadoied whose memory, a1 the yreatest general, and (greatest minitter, that our couotry, or perhaps auy ther, bas produced, I honour.” ‘The other testimoay to the doke's accomplishments by the earl of Chesterfield, in his Letters to his Soo, M all the meu (says his lordship) that ever I knew in my life (and I know bio extremely well), the late dake of Mariboroogh posted te grace inthe high- cat degree, not to say enj them: and indeed he fet the most by thems for 1 will venture (contrary 1B the castom of profound historians, who always us. sign deep causes for yreat eveots) to uscribe the better ball of the duke of Maslboroo ightness, nothing sbeaing ia his genius, He had ad, most undoubtedly, an excellent good plain under- ith vound judgment. But these alone would ly havo raised hina but something higher thao ‘und him, which was page to King James Its 14t J queen. There the gracce protected and promoted Charchil, of the guards, the —— cHU him: for while hee wes at en duchess of Cleveland, then favoorite Charles Tle struck by thote ve stress to King races, gave him Sop oi nc he tmonditely rg mn oe soo, of my grandather Halifry which was the foundation of in His figare was beni 5 bat tw the varic ad js of Wart connect the vations sod jarring powers of the rand aliaace, and toenrty them. on tot Fietof the war, aotwithstaadiog thee arate views jeslovic, and wrenghes ‘What ‘ever court he went to (and he was oftea obliged to Bimvelf to som tety and refractory ones) he as come suantly prevailed, aad rough them ite he menses, ens ary’ Heiasios, a venerable old minster, brsiness, and who had governed the re Provinoes for mare than 40 years, goreraed by the duke of Martorough, lato this day. Ho was always cool ‘was absolutely ‘as that repablie ‘and nobody ever observed the least variation iu hie countenance he could refoso more gracefully than ci grat} a thn he nen’ omay the most dissatisfied as to the substance of business, were yet personally tnd in some degre confried by is gentleness and gracefulness, 00 wes re contiou of his tation, nor maintained hs dige nity better.” ‘A perusal of the, above passage will convince us of the frivolous torn of the earl of Chesterfield's mind. His lordship, in hie zeal to exalt the duke of Marl- borough's external accomplishments, either forgett oF Aepreciates the far greater talents of which be was possessed. ‘There isan observation upoa the sobject in the Bets Biography, wih which me ently concn, “ That the duke of Marlborough (eays the writer) was eminently distinguished for the gracefuloess of bi ‘manners, cannot be questioned ; but the earl of Ches- terficld appears to bave attributed too much to their influence, when be ascriber—the better half of the duke of Mariborough's greatness and riches to those graces. ‘That the uncommon gracefuloees of his mane Bere facilitated bis advancement, and contributed to the success of bis negotiations, may readily be admit- ted; but surely it must bare been to mach higher ‘qualities that he owed the esteem of King William and of Prince Eugene, bis repotation throogbout all’ Eve rope, and bis many victories and congoests, It was not by a polite exterior that he obtained bis laurels at Schellenberg, at Ondenardy at amills, and st How och the duke of Marborough bas been ce- lebeated by our poets, is. well known by Addison's Cam sand by PI leinbeim.” Mr Ad- soa, 10 his Rosamond, hes properly assumed another tnd volustary occasion of paying a ne compliment to his grace’s suilitary exploits, and the glory by mhich they would be followed. Upon. the dukes removal from his places, a ode was inscribed to him by Mr So- tmerville asinated with all the seal of whigga entbu- sinsm, and containing some passages that are. tril postion, Another ode, not ‘much iolerier iu spirit,cHU T ipa. he duke of Marlborough's Seats tile of Baron Eyemouth, being to heirs male, died with’bimself; but his English ttle going to bis daoghters and their heirs- male, went into the Spencer family, who retaio their ‘own surname of Spencer. rit, the ton Sobn's, West school and received some applanse for bis tutors in that famous semi however, was greater than bis appl tcquired the character of = boy that could, do. good if e'would, As the slightest accounts of person 40 oted are agreeable it emay not be that beving ove day got an exercise to ma ftom idleness or attention having failed to bring it A the time appointed, bis master thooght proper to Chats him wih tome severity, and even reproached bis stopidity» what the fear of stripes could pet elec, the fear of shame soon produced, and be brought is texerene the nextday, fished in sach s manner, that Fe reecived the ple chanks of all the masters. St Fowever, his progress in the Tearned languages ms but slow nor iit to be wondered at, if me cons how dificalt it was for a strong iangioation, such a Tre'wan possessed ef to conform and walk tamely fre ward iat the trammels of a school education, minds Tike his are ever starting aside after new trout of embracing a moltipliity of am tiger to come at en end, withont the painfal iavestic Galion of the means In short, fer want of proper SEil'in these langeages, he was rejected from Oxford, rer his father bed sent him and probably this have. given occasion to the freqaent invective ‘reba in hs works against tht most respectable voi- se a pean hasten from thence; Ee agua ape Hed Wo his stodies in Westminster school, mbere, at 17 Wears of age, he contracted an intimacy with a lady, Bo"vhom he was married, and their moteal regard fer ‘ach otter coninaed fer several years, At Ue ge of going into order, Mr Churc UF the late’ bishop of London, and obtaine Cdracy in Wales of gol a-yenr. Thither be carried is wifes they took's small hoot; and be passed thghtedanofhi ein wih iy and Cheerlaless, Happy bad it been for him had be contin tere ej the tf pity, ce Sod simplicity of wanser. He as beloved and ‘Meemed by hie parthioners} and thoagh hin sermone ‘Sire ratheg above the level of hiv audience, they were Commended and fellowed, But endesvouting to ad- Straw bis fortune, by keeping a eyder caller it Tule Kim in dificultien which obliged him tole Wales and eome to Landoo. His fatber Mier be stepped into th eboreh fa which elated; antin order to improve bi teareely prodaced. Yoo. dies to rend and write Engl apt by Mis Denti, where he bebaved with that de cetey tal decorum ceca he poe,” Hs rtiad of living, bowever, bearing no proportion to, Tistacome, he contracted several debts in the IMlich being unable to pay, » jal tha terror of in ad of ‘income, which 142 Chace, was addressed to bis grace, on occasion of his embark A ing for Ostend in the ye J] cH U gent gens, seemed ready to complete hi mafrtuders cho bot fom this stat of wreichednces be was relieved So the benevolence of Mr Lloyd, father to the poet OF chat same, Meanwhile, Mi Lloyd the on, wrote 4 poetical epistle called the Actor, which being read and approved by the public, gave the aethor a distin- guished place among the’ writers of his age. This induced Mr Churchill to write the Roseiad. “It Bret mame but the justaess ity of the satire, soon nor were Messrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Colman, left ‘unnamed upon this occasion. ‘This misplaced praise teon induced Mr Churchill t row ff the mask, and the second edition appeared with his name at fall Tength. As the Rosciad was the first of this poct's performances, #0 many are of opinion that it te the best. Init we find a very close and minote diseomion of the particular merit of each performers their de- fects pointed out with eandour, and their merits praised withoot adulation. Thi his judgment we find, in the Inter hose me rit was incontestable, and others praised that were at that time in no degree of esteem with the judici His next performance was bis Apology to the Critical Reviewers, ‘This work is not merit; and as it was written 9 tien whom’ the world was willing enough to blame, the public read it with their osoal indalgence. In’ this performance he showed s particular bappiness of throwing his thoughts, if we may so exprem it, into poetical paragraphs; so that the sentence swells to the break or-conclasion, as we fin Bat while his writ bead coh ra ad reigeng his gow spl functzes, eodmenced s couplets wen ofthe toon, got drunk, frequented tems 20d, Bi Sih ale pa, thought hs talents aint Sent a ‘ulen. In some mensore to palite the. absurdities of bis condact, he now nnderook = poem called Night, written opon a general sobject in Used, bat upon fale priscipless axmely, that wbat- ever oor follica are, we should never attempt to cons tert them. ‘This, snd Mir Chorchil's ser, poeme, being shown to Dr Jobnson, and bis opinion being ask- ed, he alloned them but litle, merits hich being {cid to the author, he reveled to neque this priate ‘opinion with a peblic one. In bis next poem, there- fore, of the Ghoet, he bas drawn this yentleman under the’ character of Pompoeos, and those who, died ‘Dr Jobnson allowed it to bave merit, Dr Johnson's ‘only reply to Charehill abuse was, “that he thought Hin «stall Gllow in the boginsing, and coold tay Dothing worse of ion atl,” "The poste of Night ted th Git td wt the raid sl the vthr ex ieds hat it Prophecy of Fomine soon wae ple Tecode forthe Ie pacopem fa he rene “En is jpiece, written in the spirit of the famous Nerth Bri. tm,c1msB C 144] cic CHYTRIUM, in Ancient Ge 1 place in Of thie genos we have the fallowing species; 2. A ce Tenia, ormerly stood Clazomene ; the Cla grayish white one, with » roogh surlace, 2. A whi- ‘ile ‘ndelo- zomenians, through fear of the Pe brown one: both these are friable. 3. A hard," f Ducin’ from the contiaeat to an adjacent Pale brown kind, which isthe osteocola of the shop, ‘Alexander reduced the isa to. peninsula. CHYTRUS, in Ancient Geography, a0 inland town of Cyprus, to the north of Citiom 5 farvous for its ex- cellent honey. , by a mole or causeway, ‘CIANUS stxos, ia Ancisat Gi a bay of Bite auped fram the tows and pet ior CIBALA:, or Crnatas, in Ancient Geogrophyy Inferior, on an eminence, near the ake Hiolka, to the north-west of Sirmium; the coun- se was brought up for the sure ny dra matic writer, and poet iaureat tothe king, was born at London in 1671. His father Caios Gabriel Cibber, ‘war a native of Holstein, and a skifol statoary, tho execated the basso relievo'on the pedestal of the Mo- ‘wo admired figores of lon ‘gate to Bethlehem Hosp elds. Colley, who de the saraame of bit mo in Moor- ived his Christian name from t's family, was intended for stag, fer mich imself to time before be acqered an competent alary. His at en comedy of Love's Last Shif, x ‘cia in 165 Shick met swith rocceses a0 did his own performance ef the cha ee oft op io iF tat Gry abe sae well, “ My mace and my epoore were vo eqoaly ” thatthe one was seldom the mother of « child, Eat in the same year the other made me the father of T think’ we bad a dozen of each sort between oth ‘hich kinds some died in thir tod near an eqeal somber {ited the theatre.” The Careless Husband, acted in oq, met with great applause aod in reckoned bis ‘Bee lay: but none was of tore importance to than the Nonjuror acted in 1707, and leveled the Tacobiter, TUis laid the fouedation of the mivon- eretanding between him and Me Pope, rated him to te the bere ofthe Dunciad, and inde im pot ied he egy exept Foo er cational. performances neither succeeded bis odes were not thooght to partake of the enive or it be showed in his comedies. "His son Theophilus, also a comic actor after him, was ‘born during a great storm and after passing a life of extravagance, perplexity, pe- Fished in another storm the peseage. be H Gneea Dublio and England. ihcophile marred the trav IBDELOPLACTA, an old term in Natural His- tory s applied to spars debased by a very large admix- tare of earth: they are opaque, formed of tha er ‘covering vegetables and other bodies, by way of “erustations. 4 The whitish, with x smooth surface this is the onicorau fowl and ceratites of anthorn 5. The ‘mbitish brown coralloid kind. CIBDELOSTRACIA, an old term in Noterol History, incloding earth rency, formed i ries of them to great extent, and of Blhin or botryeid surface (OF these there are usually reckoned seven inde the first the bard, brownisb-white cibdelostraci 1d in Germany: the second is the hard, whit lostraciom, with thio eruste, and a smoother sar- face, found also in the Harts-forest in Germany: the third is the bard, pale-browa cibdelostraciom, with ‘nomerovs very thio crasts, found in subterranean ca- verns in many parts of England as well ae Germany : the fourth is the t, nod friable cibdelosira- Uh, fable, crastaceous cibdelostraciomy ent in Germany and England seventh inthe brownish rable idee cium, with a dusky surface, found in several parts of Fivland'ss well as Germany. CIBORIA, in aig. 7 the large hasks of Exyp- to have been so large as to ir pe: mbeace they hed ir nome CUBOAIUM is coctantenl where te coe for the altar. ‘This cover by four hi calumos, and forme» Kind ef tet for the euchacist, an the Ronis charches.| Some autor cll it aris tater and others pyre; bat the pysis i properly tbe lion tet te pa ‘CIBUS FExtatis, io antiguity, an eatertainmest iar to a funeral for which purpose, beans, pare cy, lettoce, bread, eggs, lentils, and salt, were im use. "CICADA, the Faog-norrix wr Fera-tocusr; & ‘of insects belonging to the order of bem Sic'Exrowotooy Inder. CICATRICULA, among natural historians, de- notes a small whitish speck in the yolk of an egg, sup- posed to be the frst rudiments of the future chick. CICATRIX, in Surgery y a little seam or elevation of callous flesh rising on the skin, and rema after the healing of a wound or olcer. It called sar CICATRIZANTS, in Pi fs toedicines whicke asi natare to form a cicatrc, Sock are Armenia bole, powder of tatty, Bc. Cicatrizants are otherwise calledescharoics,cpulotics, ‘ncarnatee,aglatinans, CICCA, in Botany, a genus of the tetrandrin order, belonging to the moucein class of plants. ‘The male calyx is tetraphylloos 5 there is no corolla: the female ays four stiles ; the eapaule ‘quadr CICELY, ia Botany, the English name of a species ofere [ 146 J Gicera“ by the votes of particular citizens, but the common doing.” ‘The purchase of — aalrage of the citys nor declared by the voi crier, but of the whole Roman people,” Cicero had no sooner entered upon he had oceasion to exert hinsell Ruling, ove of the uew tribanes, w ing the senate with the promulgat law 5 the purpose of which was to ct sate, oF ten commissioners, with absolute power for five years over all the reveaves of the republic, to dis- shat them at plesure to the cizeny See. These laws used to be greedily received by the popolace, and. were. proposed therefore by acto as oft as they had any point to carry tude against the public good 5 a0 that Ci ineas was to quiet the apprehensions of the city, and to baffle if possible, the intrigoes of the tribune. | Ac- cordingly, in an artful and elegant speech from the rostra, be gave such a turn to the inclination of the peopl, that they rejected this law with ness as they had ever received one. Mair ofall, which con ship, and hs posterity, Zh 2 pains he took, in suppressing that horrid conspiracy h was formed by Catiline and his accomplices for the subversion of the commonwealth. For this grest service he was honoured with the glotioos title of pater patria, * the father of bie country,” which he retain- (4 for « long time after. Cicero's administration was now st an end; but he tuted the glory of hie consul- transmitted his name with nach lstre to Inad ne sooner quitted his office, than be began to fel the weight of that envy which ie the certain frait of lustrious merit. He was nom, therefore, the com spleen never left him from this moment till they bad driven him out of that city which he had so lately pre- served, Cicero, opon the expiration of his con shin took care to ond» partiular wecmot.o whale tion to Pompey, who was fini eee, tenet re fag ‘wroog impressions there from the calumnies of ‘is ‘enemies, and to draw from bim some public declara- tion io praise of what he had been doing. But Pom- pring inforied by Metis and Casarf the ill humour that was risiog agaiast Cicero in Rome, an- swered bim with great coldness, and iostead of ‘pay- him soy compliment, took no. notice at all of what bad passed in the alair of Catiline, upon which Cicero expostulates with him in a letter which is still extant. ‘Aboot this time Cicero booght « house of M. Crassus ‘on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which be had is father, and which he a now sop- brother Quiotios, The near 30,0001. and. seems to have ‘been one of the noblest in Rome. It was built about 40 years before by the famous tribone M. Livius Dru- ‘us on which occasion we are told, that when tbe ar- it for him in soch « manner hours should overlook him 5 « But if you have any skill (replied Drusus), contrive it rather so, that all the world may see what I am 3 some censure on his vanity and especially as it was —y= rade with borrowed moncy. This circumstance he himself does not dissemble, but says merrily upon it, that “he was now planged’so decply ia debt, as to be ready for a plot, only that the cons trost him.” ‘The most remarkable event that happaned ich was the 4sth of Cicero's life, was the i celeritete es ius, which, by an unhappy train of consequences, invelved Cicero 1d onexpected calamity. Cledivs bad 20 intrigue with Cesar’s wile Poor who, according to annual custom, was now co- Tebrating in ber house those awful sacrifices of the goddess, to which no male creuture ever was adaitted, And where every thing masculine was so seropulously excluded, that even pictures of that sort were covered during the ceremony. It fiattered Clodius's tion greatly to gain access to ais mi of her oly ministry ; and wit himself ina woman's habit, that by the benefit of hie smooth face, and the introduction of one of the maida, he might pass without discovery bat by some tmiatake between him and his guide, he lost bis way when he came within the hoove, and fell unluckily among the other female servants. Here be was detect ed by his voice, and the servants alarmed the whole company by their shrieks, to the great amazement of the matrons, who threw a veil over their sacred mye ile Cletus foued meane to escape. ‘The ‘story mas presently spread abrond, and raised 1 geoera teaodal and borer throughoot the ily. "Thu whole defence which Clodias made when, by order of the se- tate, be was brought to traly wat to. prove himell absent at the time of the fact, for which purpose be produced two men to swear that he was thea. at Inter- ‘or three days journey from the city. ing called opon to give his testimony, de- posed, that Clodius had been with bim that very mara~ Ing at his house in Rome. Irritated by this, Clodine formed a scheme of revenge. ‘This was to get himself chosen tsibuse, and in that office to drive Cicero out of the city, by the publ of m law, which, by some stratagem or other, be hoped to obtrode apon the people. "Bot asall pairicians were incapable of the tribonate, by its original institution, 20 ‘wus (o make himself plebeian, by the pretenc 10 a plebeian house, which could without the suffrage of the people. The triomvirate wat now formed, mhich was nothing else ia raitorous conspiracy of three of the most itiaeas of Rome, to extort from their coua~ try by violence what they could not obtain by law. Pompey’s chief motive was to get bis acts confirmed ‘by Cesar ia hia consulship, which was now coming on 5 Cesar, by giving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance ra 5 and Crass t gain that atcendence bythe tuthorty of Pompey and Cs, mbich be cold not ‘sostaia alone. Cicero might have made what terms be pleased with the te, and been admitted even 2 partner.of their power, and s foorth ia their league 5 ‘but he woold net enter inte any engagements with the three, whose union he and all bis friends of the repa abhorred. Cloding, in the mean time, bad been pos ingcre C Cicero, employed all their common fr jim wit Se ietn’on that abject all which wae Jove ut in to be gone to Pompey. a Evers s vant oe tote ad edit wich cero flourished at sce the ebiefs on both sides eo soicitous to gain a man to their party, who had no pecoliar skill io arms or talents for war. 1 however, the result of all his deliberations, he ‘embarked at length to. fllow Pompey, who bad been obliged to quit Italy some time before, and was thea at Dycrbachiom ; and ar- rived safely in his camp with bis aon, his brother, and his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole family to the iesue of that cause. After the battle of Pharsalia, io which Pompey was defeated, turned into Italy, and was afterwards received great favour by Casar, who was now declared dict tor the second time, and Mark Antony his master of horse. We may easily imagine, what we find indeed from his letters, that be was not a little discoucerts the thoughts of an interview with Caesar, and the indigaity of ofering himself to» conqueror against ‘whom he had been in arms; for thoogh upon many accounts be had reason to expect a kind reception from Cesar, yet be hardly thought his life, be worth begging, since what was given bya master sight always be taken sway again at pleasure. But at their meting he had no occasion to say or do any thing that was below his dignity 5 for Caesar no sooner saw him than be alighted, ran to embrace Iked with him alone, conversing very fami jow in his 6rst ye to part with his wife Terentia, whose bumour and conduct had been long unensy to him. She was a oman of an inperto aod tucblent_ spirit, and thoogh he bad borne her perverseness in the vigour of health, and floorishiog state of his fortunes yet, it declining life, soured by a continual succession of mor- Aifications from abroad, the want of ease and quiet at home was no longer tolerable to him, But he was immediately oppressed by a new and most cruel af fiction, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia, who died in childsbed soon after her divoree from her Dolabella. ‘She was about nd, by the few pears to have been ‘She was. mast aflectionstely and piously observant of ber father, and, to the osual graces of her sex, having aded the more solid accomplishments of knowledge und polite Tetters, was qualified to be the companion and deli of bis age; and was josly esteemed not only as fof the best, but the most learned of the Roman lad His afliction for the death of thie danghter war co great, tbat to shun all company as much ax be could, fre removed to Atticus's house, where he lived chiefly in his libeury, taraing over ev-ry book he could meet ‘on the subject of moderating grief. But finding da greater resort (0 than he could bear, he retired to Asturia, one of js seats near Antiom} a little island on the Latian shoce, at the mouth of a river of the same nanie, cover- crc cut into shady walk a Cicere. scene of all others tbe fittest to indulge melancholy, nad —y— ‘here be could give a free course to his grief, «© Here (cays be to Atticus) I live without the speech of maa 5 Fy moraing early 1 hide ayself in the thickest of ‘wood, and never come out till the evening. Next to yourself, nothiug is so dear to me as this solitude 5 my whole conversation is with my books.” Ine deed td bole time waa employed in litle elo than ling aod writing doting Casar’s administration, th he could never cheerially submit to and it was in thin period that he drew up one of the gravest of those philosophical pieces which are still extant ia his works. Upou the death of Caesis, Octavive his nephew and beir coming into Italy, was presented to Cicero by Hicie and Pano mth the strongest profersione the part of the young man that he would be governed entirely by his direction. Indeed Cicero thooght it necessary (o cherish and encourage Octavius, if for no- thing else, yet to keep bim ata distance from Antoay 5 tet gel fog te rnd coe ely fae bis affairs. “Ho suspected his youth and want of ence} and that be had not crength enough to deal ‘Antony; and, above all that be had no ition towards the conspirators. He thoogl possible he should ever be m friend to them} and was persuaded rather, that if ever be got the upper band, This uncle's acis would be more violently eoforced, and bis doath more cruelly revenged, than by Antony hime self. And when ‘a last consent 10 unite elf to Osta’ interenty it was with no eter ‘view but to arm him with a power suficient to oppress Antony yet #0 checked and limited, that he should ‘ot be uble to oppress the repobli besides some philosophical pieces, now finished hi of offices, ofthe duties of man, for the use of is soa: ‘A work admired by all succeeding ages asthe most ect system of Heathen morality, ad the noblest fort And specimen of what reason coold do in guiding mew through life with ianoceace and happiness. How. ever, be paid a constant attention to public alain 5 philippe i ‘Antony, 28 well as from other monuments of antiquity. Bot all’ was ia vain for thoogh Aotony’s army was cxvily Ae 8g of Medi ich, eda many people that the war was at au end, and the hberay of Rome established yet the death of the consuls Pansa and Hirtiue in that action gave the fatal ow to all Cicero's schemes, and was the immediate cause of the ruin of the repabi ‘Octavius having subdued the senate to his mind, marched towards Gaul to meet Antosy and Lepi dass who bad already passed the Alps, and brooght their armies inte Ttaly, in order to bave a personal. interview with him; which had been privately con certed. for settling the. terms of a triple Teague, an: dividing the poner and provinces of Italy amon; themtelvetsCicero Gietts, from that loc from that I cre [ an important public object rooted bis mind, and de- imunded indignation aed force, be departs considerally and declaratory manner to. which be atother times is addicted, and becomes very forcible tnd vehement. ‘This great orater, boweser, 04 oct ik deci nor of i ert thee thuch ar, even eared to-a degree of etetatin. teers often desirous of ebteinig adaniaton rather than oF operating conv iowy rather than solid, and diffuse where be ought to arc been orgent. Hliseentenees ae always oot and sen ‘Tey cama acu of pertny, they porte vai at from too fondatee for magnificence, he ison some occasions def cient in strength. Though the services which he bad pevformed to is coontey were very considerable, yet he oo moch bie own panegyrist. Ancient. manners ‘hich imposed fewer restratits onthe side of decoram, tay in some degree excuse, but canoe entirely joey, ‘CICHORTUM, Succonr. See Borax Indes. CICINDELA, the Sranizzn, in Zoology, a genus of insets belonging to the order of cxleplera-” Bes Evrowotocy Inde. {CICISBEO, a Kaan term, which iit trl tigalesw ebliperer ja ters testomed in Taly fn lovers, and. thou who, to outward appearance net ech, mating on toarsied Inder with tx toch at- jon and retpect av if they were theit vers. This ian easton han been spoken of very reproscfaly by tome writers: Mr Barett has taken gret pias (0 vindicate i. alnatry, dee Tived from the agen of chivalry, and amch beighteoed tnd refined by the revival ofthe Platonic philosophy Teal, aboot the thirteenth century 5 and by the vertes of Petrarch in compliment to the beantiful Laura, aud ‘CICLUT, or ‘Dalmatia, eianted on the Fiver Nareath, in E. Lon 38,22, N. Lat, 43. 29. It ie sorroanded with w nile f the ancient manner, nad was tke by the tine rm the Tork a 1694 CICONES, » people of Thrace near the Hebron. Uiyunen at bin atern from Troy conquered them, ad i icf city Tomarvs., ‘They tore to pcece epheus for bis obrcene indulgences. CICUTA, properly siguifes a bollow intercepted between two Knots ofthe stalks or reeds of which the ancieot shepherds uted to ma Wis now, however, generally used to signify the watershem- Tock, and alto the common sorts bot Linnweus bas de- tered the latter under the eld ‘mame of Conti, Bee that article. "There are three apeces of water-hemocks the viros the bubifera, and the mactlata, OF these the fra the only one remarkable, and that for the poiton fuelites of ita roots, which have been ften Kno Aektoy children who ate them for pereips. CrcuTA is ao used, chiefly wmong the ancients, for the juice of liquor expreted from the abore plant ting the comown poison wherewith the state er nals at Athens were-pot to dexth: Though rome bave Sopgeved, thatthe poisonour draoght to. wh ‘Aialans doomed their eriminale was tn 150] jsie compounded ofthe juin of eeu and some ober tia Sorrsie kerb , a cre Socrates draak the cicwta.—Plato, in on the immortality of the soul, observes, that ‘xccstoer‘dvsedSecrten mi to tal, fa fet of causing the cizula to operate too slowly.” M. in bia Obsereationer Miselone, remarks, advice was not give by the executioner oot Imanity, but to save the cicuta ; for be was ooly allow cd 10 moch poison per ann. whieh, if he exceeded, he ‘vas to fornish at his own ex} ‘This con by a passage in Plutarch : the executioner tered the cicwta to Phocion, not baving enough, Phocion gave him mosey to buy more; ob- serving by the way, © that it mas odd enough, that Athen stan wut py for everything, ven for bis ‘own death.” CLD, Ropenico Dras x4, a Castilian officer, whe ‘was very successful against the Moors, under Ferdi« and UL. king of Castile; bot whose name would hard ly bave been remembered, if Corneille bad vot made his passion for Chimene the sobject of an admired tra- iy, founded on « simple but afiect is desperately in love with of the count de hi mene, dangbter fomes but he is at variance with challenged by him, kills ins del’ ‘Phe confit between ove and honor in we breast of Chimene, who at leagth pardons and tric the Ci, forme beauty of hat pcee ie died in 1098. CLDARLIS, in antiguity, the mitre used by the Jew- ish high-priests. ‘The Rabbios say, that the boonet sed by priests in general was made of « piece of line cloth 16 yards loog, which covered their beads like a helmet of turban; and they allow no other difference between the bigh-pricat’s bonet and that of other ests, than that the one is flater, and more in the rm of a torbany.mberear thet worn by: ordinary Priests rose something more CIGNANT, Canto, aa Italian Bologna in 1628 : and was the disciple of Albani. He Tim pros of actdony of Eelog, to ledel ex im prince of the acedemy lagea, ed him with favors. Cignani died st Forli ia 1719. The ‘cupola of la Mudona del Fuoco at Forli, in which be represented Paradise, is an admirable work. His prin. cipal pictores are at Rome, Bologus, and Forli. ‘CIGOLL, or Crvoxs, the painter. See Civors. CILIA, the Evt-tasirs. Bee Axatowy Inder, CILIATED Lear, among botanical writers, one surrounded wich paraliel filaments somewhat like the sof the eyeline CILICTA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, lying be tween the 36th and goth degree of north latitude: bounded on the east by Syria, or rather by Moont Amanvs, which separates it from that Kingdom ; by ‘Pamphylin on the west 5 by Imoria, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor, on the north ; and’ by the Mediter- Yanean sea oo the soutb. Tt is so wurrounded by steep fand craggy mountains, chiefly Taurut and Amano, that it may be defended by 1 bandfal of resolute men against a numerous army, there being but three nar- ow passes leading into it, commonly called Pyle Ci. cia, or the gates of Cilicia; one on the side af Cap- padociny inter, was born atCimteunder the consol Papi + the Roman army, th On the approach of made proposals of peace, ‘The consol pretended to accept of it; but having throwa them into a ccherously attacked their camp. His perfidy was reward- fed nit deserved ; the Cimbri ran oly repolsed the Romans, but, attacking them in their tora, utterly defeated them, and obliged the shattered remains of their forces to conceal themselves in the neighbouring forests. After this victory the Cimbri entered Transalpine Grol, which they quickly filled with slaughter and desolation. Here they continved five or six years, when another Roman army ander the conta Silanos marched against them. ‘This general tet with no better success than Carbo hed done. Hi consequence of ‘Narbonne Gaul was exposed at once to the ravages of these barbai ‘About 105 years before Christ, the Cimbri begaa to threaten the Roman empire itself with destruct ‘The Gauls marched from all parts with a design tojoin them, and to invade Italy. ‘The Roman army was com- manded by the proconsal Cxpio, and the consol Mal- ius 5 bat as these two commanders could not agree, they were advised to separate, and divide their forces. ‘This advice proved the ruin of the whole army. The Cimbri immediately fell upon a strong detachment of the consular army commanded by M. Aurelius Seaurus, srhich they eot af to a man, and made Seno self prisoner. Mallius being greatly intimidated by this defeat, desired « reconciliation with Coepioy but refused, He moved nearer the consol, that the enemy might not_be his bang a abare in the ation, ‘The Cimbri, by this movement, imagining the commanders swith proposals of peace. "As they could not help go- ing through Capio's camp, he ordered them to be ‘Wrought before ut finding they were empower ced to treat only with Mallius, he could scarce be re- strained from putting them to death. His troops, how- ‘ever, forced him to confer with Mallius about the pro= pposals sent by the barbarians: bat as Carpio went to the consuls tent 9 is will, 60 he opposed hie in sd with great obstinacy, and the growest manner. The deputics on ir return acquainted their countrymen that the mis jaderstanding between the Roman commanders sill ited ; upon which the Cimbri attacked the camp sa ‘and the Romane aslanghtered without merey. tl aller of Home, wits on that fatal da forced, Eighty thousand citizens and_ 40,000 servants and sutlers, pei In short, of the two Roman armies only 10 men, the two generals, escaped to carry the newsof so dread~ fal adefeat, ‘The conquerors destroyed ull the avant to.a vow they had made before the battle. "The * gold and silver they threw into the Rhone, drowned the horves they had taken, and pat to death all the pri= ‘The Romans were thrown into the utmost conster- nation on the news of so terrible an overthrow. The} aa thenselves threatened with » deloge of Cimb ‘and Gauls, numerous enough to overrun the whole country. ‘They did not, however, despair. A new 1 { 152 J c IM army was raised with, incredible expedition 5 no citi- zen whatever who was Bt to bear arms being exemple y— ed. On this occasion also, fencing-masters were first troduced into the Roman camp 5 by which the soldiers wete soon rendered ina manner invincible. ‘Marios, that time in high repatation on account of his victories in Africa, was chosen com- ander, and waited for the Cimbri in Trancalpine Gaul: bat they had resolved to enter Italy by two diferent ways the Cimbri over the eastern, and the ‘Teatones and other allie over the western. Aips. The oman general, therefore, marched to oppote the lat- tery and defeated the Ambrones and. Teutones with great slaughter®. The Cimbri, in the mean timeye see 4x eotered Italy, and struck the whole country with ter- drone an yor. Catullus and Sylla attempted to oppose them 5 Briones Dat their soldiers were dated by the fleroe ing could prevent their fiying before The city of Rome was vow totally defence Teas; and, had the Cimbri only marched briskly fore wards they:had undoubtedly become masters of it but they waited in expectation of being joined by theit allies the Ambrones and Teutones, not having’ beard of their defeat by Marius, till the tenate bad time to im to the defence of his country. By their or my to that of Catuilus and Sylla tnd opon that union was declared commander in chief, ‘The Roman army consisted of 52,300 men. The cx valry of the Gimbri were no more than 15,000, but heir foot seemed innomeaie fer being dra in a square, they are suid to have covered 30 furlongs. inbri atcked the Romane with the. otmeet bout, being uasccustomed to bear the heats of they soon began to lose their strength, and were overcome, Bot they had put it out of their they might keep their ranks tied them selves together with cords fastened to their belts, 90 that the Romans made a most terrible havoc. of them. The battle was therefore soon over, and the whole day employed only in the most terrible butchery. An hundred and twenty thousand were killed oa the Geld of battle, and 60,000 takeo prisoners. The victorious Romans thea marched to the enemy's camp, where they had a new battle to fight with the women, whom they found more fierce than even their husbands had been.” From the 1d waggons, which formed 1d of fortieation, they discharged show tnd srrovs on fiends and foe without They first suffocated their children io their arms, tnd then put an end to their own lives, The greatest part of them hanged themselves on trees. One was found hanging at x cart with two of her children at her heels. Many of the men, for want of trees and stakes, tied strings in running knots about their necks, tnd fastened them to the tails of thei borses, and the horns and feet of their oxen, in order to strangle them- selves that way 5 and thus the whole multitude was de- stroyed. ‘country of the Cimbs fry 5 Italy, easily power to flys for, th the better, they ld, Tike true barbavi ich, after thi rile catastrophe, was left a mere desert, was ‘peopled by the Scythians ; who being driven by Pom= 7 out ofthat vast space between the Euxine and the spian sea, marched towards the north and west of Eorope,cIM C 1s: inte’ Eorope, subdoing all the nations they met with in their 4, way. They conquered Rusia, Saxony, Westpbaliay SPOS and other countries as far as Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Itis pretended that Wodin their leader, tra- "resco many counties, and endeavoored to wd them, ooly with x view to excite the people against the fand that the spirit of animosity which he bad excited operated so powerfully afier his death, that the northern uations combined to attack it, and never ceased their incorsions ill it was totally sub- verted. CIMEX, or Buc, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging t0 the order of bemiptera. See Extowo- ore tats of expeling ome bi ie ‘methods of expelling bouse bugs are various, as cil of turpentine, the smoke of corn-mint, of narrow Teaved wild cress, of herb-robert, of the reddish agaric, ‘of moxtard, Goines pepper, peats, or turf, Sic, See ‘alo Buc and Crwnciroca. CIMICIFUGA. See Boranr Index. The cimicifuga fertida bas obtained the name of giniefice, or bugbae, bath in Siberia nod Tartary, from its of driving away those insects 5 an the botanists of tone parts of Europe which are fst- ced with them bave long desired to nataralise it in their several countries. Gmelin mentions that in Siberia the natives also ose it as an evacaant in dropey, and that its effects are violently emetic and drastic. CIMMERU, ancient a ‘pople ear the Pale Meats ed Asin Min 1284 year be- fore Christ, and seized upon the Kiogdom of Cyaza- res. After they bad been masters of the country for 28 years, they were driven back by Alyates king of Lydia. The name also of another m cern coast of Italy. ‘The couatry which they inhabit- ced was supposed to be #0 gloomy, that to express « at obscurity, the expression of Cimmerian darkness as proverbially been used; and Homer, according to Plutarch, drew his images of bell and Pluto from the gloomy and dismal country where they dwelt. CIMMERIUM, in Ancient Geography, 1 town at the mouth of the Palas Mszotis Yrom wbich the Bos- i ‘pamed; that strait which joins the cand the Palas Meotis. Cimmerti was the nam of the people (Homer): and here stood the Promon- ymeriam (Ptolemy); and heace probably the modern appellation Crim. CimurniuM, in Ancient Geography, 2 place near Baie, in Campania, where formerly stood the eave of the ple were called Cimmerii, whe liv- ing ions, from which they is- AEsIp Ge ugh te commit wtlerer snd aller acs islency sever sm the light of the wun (Homer). To give a natural account of this fable, Festos says, ‘waa a valley surroanded with a pretty high ridge, ‘which precloded the morning and evening sus. CIMOLIA reat, in Netural History, x name ap- led by the ancients to aovearth, at ove time much Employed in medicioe ; but which later ages bave sup- posed to be no other than our tobacco-pipe clay and fallera earth. 3) c IM flammations, and the like, catsplatm 19 They ‘used, 28 we do, the Sth ye cal cml, o fle cat, for ibe cenesing Ome Of clothe. ‘Ths enith of the ancient thongh volo Saregared, and by many supposed tbe Toy i yet Tete Angin (he soi. Spbaatoy and snny of thove ident Te ie marl alice thd cromily textore, std «pore Wight i Colour very soft to the touch. Te adbern Henly to the tongue, and, if thrown into water, raises a Kittle Busing and eboliton, and moadcre to's Boe powder Kermaker' considerable eervercence wiih net und safes no change of esoar inthe Bre. There are the Characters of wat the ancients ealed simply tara tmalias bo besides thin, they bed from the sin place search ch hey ced by the se gee ame, but dttinginbd by the epithet porple, 7 devcrbed tobe fats, old tothe ied Forge caour, and veary as bard 4, tenet been ll re oapreck, commen in Comal, aod od of Argenter, or Cinalar, Cowocr4 dba, the oficeal came of the earth of which we tom make tobacco pipe. Ts dtinguisting characters ar, that it iva dense, compact, heavy of a dull white colour, and very close texture it will not easily break between the fingers, and slightly staine the akin in banding. It adberes firmly to the tongue melts very slowly in the mouth, and is not readily dif fusible in water. It is foond ia many places. ‘That of the fale of Wight it Great plenty of it and near Wedensbor Crarousa Nigra, is of « dark lead cslour, bard, dry, ‘and beavy: of smooth compact texture, and not vis Cid: it does not coloar the bande ; crumbles when heres to the tongues difuses slowly in. water is not acted upon Te borns perfectly white, ‘and acquires a coosiderable hardness. ‘The cref pit for thie clay are near Northampton, where it is used the manufacture of tobacco-pipes. It is alto mixed th the eritche clay of Derbyshire, in the proportion of one part to three, in the manufactore of the hard reddish brown ware. CIMOLUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy- laden now ealied Argenticre. ©” * CIMON, an Athenian, 00 of il jsipyle, He was famoos to years of discretion. He behaved with great coo- rage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himself po- polar by his munifcenco and valour. He defeated the Persian flet, took 200 ships, and totally rovted their land army, the very same day, A. U. C. 283. ‘The money that ho bad obtained by hie victories ws lied for his owa private ose, but with it be fortied td embellished the ci. Hl sometime after lst al is popularity, and was banished by the Athenians, who declared war squat the Lacedsmooians called from his exile, and at bis retorn he made s re- 1d bis countrymen, d to carry on the war Egypt and Cyprus, with a Beet of 200 and on the coast of Asia he gave battle to the enemys and totally sued cei et, applied by way of cinotidied as te i the taiwt OF Cit i Maa aenenfed he hat of ne ‘afd ‘blioesy defeated Ue af Hie was such an iaveherité end ir, that bE Foried a fl id in bie wads be rel, oF t6 approndl rete eae exttemély pict jue by a Humber i eaichdbs of clear Water lbal fll doa f lies én the edstémn coast of the Bat So sn toloded ta tbe provin of Soni CINARA, the AnircHoke. See Crvata, Bo- ceakdiig fe some, the Periviane learned the any Tide MEINCHOWA. Bie Borat Tits. of the bark, af this trée by observing, ceitiin, = ‘atecied eribitents ipatinehively Yea fo it while cies halt Perna ania, a cred by happeniag to ak of @ pool Which, froth soiiie Woes hei ie ‘to it, tated af ein nite bie ggres He bate Trem Ta coi a ty of ch hais therefore bee called Corte whitinna Chachonis, Chinach- ina tr Chiichia, Kinakina ot Kinktha, Qoinogi janet ‘ terest Wh ie the : ade ese Tabs tok i dat eet Becee Hea Cones or Banos Cabana Looe St Ba nt inguina; aod trom eed A tent 0 aki, hts topo: it poy na it diferent pee ocliated& tnogerssn rely Gahacite, ih proce of tidy Yechme tery ate ernlly estatiabed, "Bota numb ‘of yeas, the bark abich filled ptt dhoit thick gal hea da br innariion cbloiir in the inside, wat sound, Bad an aromatic ingent Caste, with a degree of aromatic warmth, was estecied the Best} ‘tough some i the large pies av'of equal ginduese, Dur- ing the ie 3 een nthe gear 7p, he aay Trigate to sb ship, logded principally with Berean bay which ‘an inch tiger Hicker, and of'a deeper eddish ‘colour ‘Thai non ise, Soan'after it Was brought tried in Bt Bartholomew's hospiti ittioners upon exa- ining into the history of thie batk,'on try i sents with i and of makin neces oF ‘ects with those of the. bar tients Taboprig ‘onder intefiniteat complaints, To uly 1782, Ds Willism Sadnders published sh account ot this red ba ty he anys that the small quil bark used is eiher "the bark’ af young, trees, or of the tiga or branches of the ld ones and thatthe large bark, called the ‘red'bark om the eep-eolcr, in tte bak of tHe GUBK the Ta tees 5 2 cmNn find Ke inehtions a Mr Amot, wito Kinnelf pather ‘bark frob the trees it ews ‘atid Mots. Cond , ho gives ai necoaat of the tree id the A at the Aeadeniy of Sciences At Part IN {eat 14385 tho bath siy, that lakltg the ark fhe Fea bad emtevatly With its but Chat mt of ¢ Young tres which aré barked Meo, al eatin and Uhat for thése reddohd the Spaititeds nc Une younger trées for forelga markets, tho; ported inte Spin soine of the bark of t 1. which they esteemed to be mach mott ¢f ‘aciois thai What. fad got frdth the yothg. Fic thee aetounte Dr Shondere concludes, that the Mr red bark brought to London in the year 1979 ¥in ‘the sina Kind a0 that used by Sydenham and Motte Gk anbivess To the désciiption of the bark used wed by Dale aad eiber tite ‘oi the materia thedicn, Who Were theif e6ntedtporkrit ‘De Saunders saye, that it wooly atfohget ‘more resinous, bat likelwise mare efficacious and verta Ta TH effedt, Thais the coinsids bark, and Bad ctr heather bad faite. ia had lsd beth treaverel Wanda, particotarty in Shalt, Tt Yy Dr Wright, under the 2 i poblished mt pe svcd Bec, and gre Tram 29 f 40 feat hig ie white, Turrowed, thick outer bark Tt ihot use. ‘ithe dark brown inoer bark fiat the cothibon Bavor rrith-a mixed Kind of & taste Mt rt of Boecadl id iger, becoming at Tas bitter and astringent. ‘teems to give out more extra’ ‘matter than Yhe ci hota officinalis, Soine of it was iinported fom ‘Lucia, in conseqoence of fs having been uted With ¥ the army nd navy dating the lat wat 5a ny been treated of at eonsidefable length, sh, under the ttle of St Lacie Barks T Fresh. eet eae to. be sooner emeti¢ and « thartic, whic erties it is said te lose of drying. Tie a Ree Ae Stee eta Bee The ie onl Se pes of Sir either fat or uiled, aid the ponder i rather. of cb ghee ela ‘han that of cnnaman: The red erally ia much Targen thicker, Haltnh picees; | tometer also ia'the Yorm of quile, and its powder reddinh like that of Armesian bd. AS alrendy + ferve i ‘and pometcs the w ‘lie qualities f te cacooa fo mach higher Boge the other sorte; snd tbe more neatly the ol vce de retary he ee they af lei. The red bark in beayy, Br, econ, "Finble betwen the telh Sete nok separate fibres; and breaks, not shiver, bot shorty covey « ‘ymiooth. Tt line three layers; the obter is thin, eas of areddit brova Golor, but f 4 ith inbesy matters ‘compact, darker coloured, very resinous, brittle, + fs Batt te ees Ge sou ie ore woe ibrous, ‘and of a brighter red. ‘The’ Peruvian bark yields ite virtues both to & ane ‘water; but the decoction Git its taste tore sexy, and forme Shatpheate ie weddealy ‘This isto,ern 4: Seisitagae tinct: this it best made Cichone, ‘5 The depaction this preparation, yo cIN C 155 ] Cinchane. tractive matter, Se ee aa herp’ ‘—Y— ealoar, on standing some time with thy chalybante, bee comes’ dasker, while that of tbe desastion ‘more faint, When they are of « certain age, the ade Aina of obalyboate Zepdecs them green and when this is the case, they acp favad to be ia a state of fer- sentation, and effcie. Mild or caustic alkaber, or Time, poecipitate the extzactive mater, which io’ che ‘nce of the caustic alkali is redissolved by 9 farthar ad: Ghinn ofthe alkali Lime-water precipita os frogs toe infinien then from a Eel Aecoctian 5 te of shia last same axild earth is perceptible. Bis Sian Soy age etaced tothe same ate ab Ae fresh decoction, and then they doposite nearly a0 ‘eqeal quantify of mild earth and extractive waiter} #0 tat lime-water, as well ax a chalybeate, may he oaed ts. teat of tho eclatize atzangth, and perishable nabare Gf the diferent pocmcation, aod of diferent sks, Acconjingly cold infusions are found by experimanis tobe leas Jo than decostions ; infusions and jle- Sectigns of the red task shan those: of the pale ; those ‘ofthe red bark, however, are found hy length of time toaepacnte more mild earth with the lime-wotey, snd spermine matin, Lieve, reciting eee matter, appeass a0 equally jmpeaper lisagroeable meostravm. ‘Water is fonnd to sonpegd the resin by means of amoch dass gum than has bean J. Aleabal ‘extracts 2 hiteamess, bot vo axtringasoy, Sram ase Sidon of 00 fsa fal males ‘sstzingency, bat no bitterness, érom qany aliutions of sleobol. Sry may igen caine mae se ree eee ele he Marseinc Society ‘of Edisburgh far 298g, abe (povar of diferent manstrua, a8 acting upoa Se sn cetsiond with grader acuriy thane Mocorigen done s and it appears, ahat mith aspect 40 ‘cempesative power, the Aside after mantioaod ast in ‘he acder in hich they are placed. Daleifed spirit of vitriol. “Th antec pore af vinegar and bark aig ee eee fee shanty Siar Sa eee corti >The .nfficinal pre; of thin th ean Abe most sesinoas, peeerrered fant a be meme aera anaeee Sos sete Tar sh ant eles gatos at tends there: te tte Sekar ae Axined sapacate-drom the gummy .past, vor-mavld it be sapdinthe icles x Treaty sealed is yet im many respect iafonoc even ton vinpls vary lluson a ‘The best form is that of powder, in which the Sestitnent pgrts az in the moat ropartion. ‘Tae cold ialpio, wich can oy made tp 5 Py tl bend by nga he iin daca, a the act, are likewate proper in this reapest- Ear co- erie te tte, diferat eit require giflerent ve- ‘aide, post-wigey amall are fopgpently em 5 1 te whe fe ain of ees sel, vary in their aceanots to which the preference is dae a aye gon Gr of etary Wi cs rent ‘Jelly, or with beapds tether ave diced ma smode of operation of the Sruran iF cttn oti top inlays Bat while the strongest sod ost permanent stimali have by no means the same ‘ould make vse of it. Ai onder the gorernmeat of laws extablibed by com CETY, according to Cowd, is a town corporate mon const, The rights which many cts arg which bath a bishop and cathedral chorch; and is call- by bold or fortonate usurpations, ethers purchased from cd civitas,eppidumm, and urbe: civites, in regard it is the emperors, who deemed themelver guiners when wrerned ‘by justice aud. order of magistracy 5 oppi- they received large sums for immunities which they fom, becasve it containt a grest nouber of ohabie were io longer able to witbbold; and some citice ot tant employment induced some ofCrown Givit Law, Liev. one civ t ‘other crows, though composed of no better tree chan onk beagle, “Platecy foe Le oF C. M. Coriolanus, accounts as follows for using on this occasion the branches ofthis tree before all thers : becuase, says he, the oaken wreath being sucred to Tupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thooght it the most proper oroament for him who had pre- served the life of 1 citizen. Pliny®, speaking of the hhonour and privileges conferred on those who had merited this erown, says, “ They who had once ob- tained it, ‘always.”” When they appeared at the public spectacles, the senate and people rose to do them hooour, and they took their seats on these ‘occasions among the senators, ‘They were not only personally excosed from all troublesome offices, bat rocured the same immunity for their father and grand ther by the father’s side, CIVIDAD Dr 1as Paracas, the capital town of the island of Canary, with a bishop's sec, and a good harbour. The houses are well built, two stories bigh, and fiat roofed. ‘The cathedral is © very handsome structure and the inhabitants are gay and rich. ‘The air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and cold. It is defended by a small castle seated on 2 bill. W. Long. 14. 35... . Crrman Real, « towa of Spain, in New Castile, nd ‘The inhabitants are noted for Aressing leather extremely well for gloves. W. Loog. 47 15.N. Tat. 39. 2. Crrioan Roderigo, a strong and considerable town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a bishop's see. Te was take by Lord Wellington ia January 1812. ‘W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 3 Corman di Friali, x small bt ancient town of Italy, Friuli, and in the territory of Venice ; seated on the na. E, Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46.15. » ina general seose, somethiog that regards i, or peace, of the citizens o ‘which sense we say, civil go “m ian el gh rl a IV, in a popular seus, ia applied to a complai- sant and humane behaviour in the ordiaary intercourse oflife. See Crvsurry. Civ, in a legal sense, is also applied to the ordi- nary procedure in an action, relating to some pecnnia satter or interest; in which sense it is opposed to cri- minal. Corn, Death, any thing that cots off a roan from ivi 1s a condemnation to the galleys, perpe- rondemnation to death, outlawry, and Cir. Lau in properly the pecal iy? bot what wre anually mean by Ul n body of laws composed out of civil law, Roman aod Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of ‘ature and nations 5 and, for the most part, received and observed, throughout all the Roman dominions for Above 1209 years. See Law Indes. Te was first brooght over into England by Theobald 1 Norman ail, who as lected to te te of ferbury in 1138 and be appointed w profesor, vize Hoge lntuned Prat be sivendy of Ofer, to teach it to the people of this coontry. Never= theless, it gained ground very slowly. King Ste- phea issued’ proclamation, preh 2 172 J civ it, And thongh the clergy were atlached to it, the laity rather wished to preserve the old constitution. However, the zeal and influence of the clergy pre- Stephen to the reiga of Ki both inclarve, "Many tramcrpt ol te are to be found in the writings of ‘our ancient authors, particularly of Bractor and Judge Blackstone observes, that the ‘would have been lost ciples of natural equity ; and that nothing can be bet- ter calculated to form good sease and sound jedgment. Hence, thoogh in several countries it has ne other ao: thority’but that of reason and it is everywhere referred to for authority. It is not received at this day in any vation without some alterations ; und some- times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and particular customs; and often ordisances and sta ‘ct off a great part of it. hey the Basile ae ely red Ta Tey, the canon law and castoma bave excluded a tits Venice, custom ba almet nn est go vernment. In the Milanese, the feudal Jaw and par ticolar customs bear sway. In Naples and Sicily, the tions and lawe of the Lombards are said eval) In Germany and Holland, the eateemed to be the municipal law ; bot yet many parts OF ae there growa obsolete and others are sired, either by the canon law or « different uage. Io Friesland, it is observed with more strictoess ; bot in the vorthera parts of Germaay, the jas Saxonicum, Labecense, of Culmeue, is preferred before it. In Denmark and Sweden, it hath scarce any authority at all,” In France, only a part of it is received, and that ‘tome places as ecustomary law; and ja those arett to Italy itis received a0 a municipal cy lam Tn eriminl case, the ev amie mare ded in France ; bot the manner of trial is regola- by ordinances and edicts, Tn Spain and Portogal, I aw is connected with the jus regiom and co- stom. In Scotland, the statutes of the sederant, part of the regiam majestatem, and their customs, contreut the ‘In England, itis used in the coclosiastical courts, in the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry, in the two universities, and in the courts of equity 3 yet in all thee it is restrained and directed by the com , in the British polity, one of the gene ral divisions ofthe Las, compreveodiog all orders of men, from the highest nobleman to the meanest peasant, that’ are not included under the Mazrrary or Mas ‘TIME states 5 though it may sometimes include i duals of these as well ns of the CLERGY 5 sinee a noble- man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peasant, may become either a divine, a soldier, or a seaman. ’The division of thie state is into Nosizzy and Coumoxairn. Bee these articles, ‘Crrm, War, a wat between people of the same state, or the citizens of the eame city. Cra. Law coatver eoCLA C vita manners: some indeed are plain; but others, particu Torl lary thre, are chy adored, having.» dele row truscan inscriptions roani the upper part Caines f the wale, aod ender them a Lied of fieve of AL gores in painting ; some : sa eae oder te ret, which stom t-eopply the place of aa. afchi- toe! The: petinge set vob he resco nai eral resamble those which are, oveally seen upon ‘hough some’ of them ave perhaps ying a et ce f the Eten at ing."In general dhey ne light, bot well con- eds sed pro tt the ania eee of pe docing things more sted and better faitoed 5 though, in euch a eubterraneous station the delicacy of ished ‘work woold in a. grest’ measure have. been thrown away.” It ix probable, however, thet among. tie immer mr of tee apartments hat yt tain be opened; many paintings aod ieceptivnn -amay be found, aficioat 10 form a very wefal and ear ining work. At preveot this grest scene of antic almout entirely eaknows, even in Rowe. "Mr ident at Rome, was the Grot Englishmen ed it Correa Vecoia, x sexpert town of Italy in the pte trimony of 81 Peer, wilt good harbour and an ore Te contains ‘aboot 9060, inhabitant and. wae tade a free port in 1741.) The air ia very onwbole- tome," Ey Leog. 12.310 N, Lat 45. CIVOLA, oF Croats, Lew, an fanily name was Cardi, was born atthe castle per Barochio and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better han. thove ssconed by them Hi exec in ee signing, and was employed by tho popes and princes EERE He died at Home fa 1003 feat CIUS, in Ancient Geography, a'town and river of Bithynia, which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. "The town was afterwards called Prusia, Cius having been destroyed by Philip father of Perseus, and rebuilt by Prusias king of Bithynia, In the river, Hylas, the fax vourite boy of Hercules, was drowned ; (Apollonive Rhodies). . CLAC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to cut off the sheep's mark, which makes the weight less, sand yields lees castom to the king. be of a soll shire ia th and five the south by the frith of Forth; on the north and west by Perthahire ; and on the east by Fife. ‘The country ia plain and fertile towards the frith, prodocing corn and pastare in abuo- dance. It likewise yields great abundance of excel. Tent conl, considerable quaati to supply Edinborgh with fuel. It is watered rivers Forth and Devon, and joins the shire’of Kinross in sending a member alteraataly to parliament, jon of the diferent Pariahes in this County a Population of the diferent Parse in his Cootyo two Periads, Maryse tla r790—175%. Alla, = $816 4802 ‘Clackmannan, 3913 2528 mJ A lege - sy ‘$10 - 47 99 9°93, 8749 Population in 1811, 12,010 ®. See CLACKMANANSHIRE, SUPPLEMENT. CiackMaxxax, 2 small town of Scotland, and ca- pital of the county of that name, is situated on the northern shore of the Forth, in’ W. Long. 3. 40. NN. Eat 56 15, Tt stands on abl, ont top of ich is the castle, commanding a noble prospects It was long the seat ofthe eief ef the Brose, who was berer ditary sheriff of the county before the jurisdictions were abtliahed, The large square tower is called after Rebert Bruce, whone gre preserved here. at sword and casgue are alll ‘The hill with the tower, forme a pice Clackwannan had 3605 inhabitants still the seat of the Bruces of Kennet. CLAGENFURT, « strong town of Germany, and sprite of Caviothin stunted in Es Longe 33. $6. Ne mt. 46. 500 CLAGE, Wats, an eminent and learned di- vine, born in’1646. He was preacher to the society of Gray’s Inn, which employment be exercised sot be died in 1688, beiog then also one of chaplains, Archlishop Sharp gives character; and Bishop Buract bas raaked bim amo those worthy men whose lives and labours contribu to rescue the churel from the reproaches which the follies of others had drawn upon it. De Claget po lished several things ; but his principal work ie his “ Discourse concerning the Operations of the Holy Spirit; nor mast it be forgotten that be was ove of Uhove excellent divines who made a noble stand agaiaat the devigos of James IL. to introduce popery. Fear volumes of his sermons were published after his death by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdescon of Sud- ary, father of Nicholas Claget, afterwards bishop of Exeter. of interest ia any CLAIRAULT, ‘Acrxis, of the French acade- iy of scence was ove ofthe mot illustrious, mathe- maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in 3726, when le was not 13 years old, “A Memoir ‘pon Four new Geometrical Carves a i tion 5 and supported the character he thos Inid foandation for by various pablications from time to time. He published Elémens de Gometric, 1741, in Bro 5 Elemens d? Aigebre, 1746, in 8x05 Theorie de a Figure dela Teree, 1743; tuo 3 Tables de fs Lore, 1754, ia Bvo. He was concerned also in the Journal des Savona, which he foraished with many excelleat cts. He died in 1765. He was one of the acade- 12 mho were sent into the north to determine the of the earth. ‘CLAM, in Zoology, « shellfish. See Viwus. CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another. Cane is likewise the term for a pile of uaburat bricksCacia la —_— cLA C tly narrowed the total exemption they claimed rom secular jurisdict Geography, 2 town of Vindelicin, at the confluence of the leyeus and Danobe. Now Rain, «town of Bavaria, on tbe youth fie of the Desube,'at te cooftence of the Lech E-Loogef1,0, Ns Lat 8 52 CEATENZA, the epi sf a duchy of the same san in the Motta ie I ate port ton, stated on the Mediterranean, Es Long. 31 49. Ne Lat 97. 40, ‘CLARET, a name given by the French to teckel thei red wien to tre aot of u deep oF high cour See Wines CLARICHORD, or MawicHorp, » musical in- stroet inform of & piel Te bas 49 or 0 stope, sod 70 strings, which bear on five Wridger ie Get hereol the ght the rest leiathioglin propartion Bare of te invention thie hunter bving greater thant stops. There are several litle mortizes for pat the jacks, armed with brast-hooks, whieh st the chords instead of the feather used in virginal spinets ; but what distinguishes it most that the chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render the ound eter, nod enden itso tat it eanoat be heard ne say eoubcrable Tistances whroge It comes tobe parcuany ia ee among the ouns; bo lean to iy, aod are eoviling to aicarh the sence of the Saritory. CLARIFICATION, the act of cleaning or Sing one aa bergen at or he subetanece eoully emplayed fo clei ‘quer, sre wiles of egg tlods and ingle, tre frat are ated for rots lgoors ws are tolling, hot. the let for the which in thvcld, ach at mines, Ser” The whites of cage fre beaten up int «frothy and mixed withthe lige, pon which Hey vnite with and entangle the impore faters that fant Ta ity and presently gromiog bard iy the heat, carry them op to the surface fn the fara.of 1 toon, 0 longer dasaitle ia tbe liga Blood operates in partying the brine from which alt made. Guuathigg of iningles are coomumed for cz. For this porpove some throw an eat peee, hoot quarter of "an ounce, inte ey by det the gle dntlves, and Yoram skin upon the Sor- Rice; which at length tubsiding, earvies down with it the fcolent matter which dost inthe miner Others iculydivolve the singles and having buled i ny comiateney mix it withthe lgaon, toll he cank strongly about aad then wer it to stand {o eetle Neuman quettios the, wholeromenst of tracy thot porfedy and ateores ce that be hime Tier drinking ony & few oomeee of sack toe clarifed, tat pot sete quite ne, war eized with sicknes ad allowed by uch «vertigo, that le could not tor a minute together. "The giddivese the same manner, and is chiefly used ‘Great 176 J cla for the injuries done the Roman state, These heralds taking the gods to wileess that their demands were just, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded restitu. tion within commonly 33 days, which being expired without retatin made, then the pater tratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded to the ene- ‘ries romirs, and declared wat. CLARIL Arorzinis Eaxow (Strabo, Pliny), 2 temple and grove of Apollo, situated between Color phon and Lebedor, in Tonia} ealled Caras (Thuyd les, Ovid). The name also of a town and mount there (Nicander); and of a fountain (Clemens Alex- aandrinos), the waters of which inspired with pro fury. " Clarius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo). CLARION, a kind of trompet, whore tube rower and its fone acuter and sbriller than th common trumpet. T among the Moors, and Portuguese who borrowed it from the Moors, served anciently for a treble to several trompets, which sounded teaor and bass, CLARISSES, an order of nuns so called from their founder St Clara or St Clare, (See St Cane.) She was in the towa of Assisa in Italy and bavi nounced the world to dedicate herself to birth to this order in the year 12125 which compre bends not only those non» that fallow the tle of Se Francis, according to the strict letter, and without ‘any mitigation, but those likewise who follow the same role softened and mitigated by teveral popes. It is at seat one of the roost flourishing orders of nuns in rope. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexico for the king of Spain, Isabella of Portogal, wife of the emperor Charles V. sent thither some neat of the order of St Clara, who made several settlements their monasteries were founded comma- young women, to be instrocted by the ion, and such works as were witable to persons of their sex. ‘These communities are so con- siderable tat they oul cont of for o,f hun CLARKE, Dr Sanve, « preacher and writer of considerable tote ia the reign of Charles II. was, doring the interregnom, and. at the time of the ejec tion, minister of St Dennet Fiok in London. In No- vember 1660, be, in the name of the Presbyterian mi- tery, presented an address of thanks to the king for declaration of liberty of conscience. He was one of the commissioners of the Savoy, and bebared on that oceasion with great prudence and moderation. He mes attended the cburch as x bearer and com fd nay much exeemed by all tht knew at probity and industry, "The most va~ ‘oomerous works e sito be bie Lives ines and other persons of note, 23 ‘of which are printed in his Martyrology the rest are Li hi eminent Perso in thi ter ‘Age, fli farrow of Ecclesiatical History, inti a He died in 1680. ve the former, was fellow in Cambridge 5 but was ejected:from for refusing to take the engagements, a he wus alo afterwards from bis rectory of Grendon in Buckinghamsbire. He applied himelf early to. the ttoly of the Scriptures, and his Annotations on th Bible, printed together with the sacred text, is highly commended (Ctasigni as‘ciarte. toners, for one that goes right, ten lose themselves SS mi cLA - o— or ramble after visions; which deprive them of all sight of their ead, and mislead them in the choice of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not have denied this and the poot perhape would have spared his better reasoners and not have joined them th such company, had he collected eur author's Apology for sing the argument 3 prin The argo fBent 9 poster (supe be) ia indeed by far the most (generally useful argument, most exsy to be understood, fand in some degree avited to all capacities; and there- fore it ought always to be insisted upon: But for as vmuch as atheisticnl writers hav opposed the icing tod attiboter of God. by toch metaphysical rex foningr, as can no otherwise be obviated than by ar- suing S price therefore this maoner of arguing’ a A ceful and ueceerary in Ste proper place.” To i tay be added the anewer he nade to Mr Whisto vp tor iy gcraton, a2 narrated hy tbe ater in his Hi tsa Mei When Caste sug me book, L war in my garden aguist St Peters college in Cambridge, where L thea lived. Now T perceived that in thee vermoos fe ad dealt great dealin abe tirsctand metaphysical reasoning. {therefore asked kim how be ventored into such sutletien, which I ver duret meddle with; and showing him a neti, Tome contemptible. weed in my garden, I told bim that weed covtained beter arguient for he being and Attribotes of God than all hie metapbysicn. Clarke Confeeed it to be 405 but alleged for Manecl, that since toch philosophers as Hobbes and Spinors bed made vse of the Kind of ebtletiesaguinet, be thought proper to show thet the like way of reatoning might be made beter "of religiony which reabon or exeone ee ed asthe prtent eliter of the Biographia Britannica ferven, the grand, the propa, the. decisive proof of : oon, and providence ofthe Deity, orks. On this poof, as bee Tog equally etiafuctary to the profoundest philosopher Bei Re Cenneat peasant, thecauve of religion will if there be auch a that this argument for the beiog and attributes of God stand the teat of the severest scrutiny ; apd there- fore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to set i flight to others. As to the merit, deed, of the whole work under consideration, incl the evideoces of natural and revealed religion, it doubtedly of the first order. Dificulties may be raised particular points, and the ablest and most candid ingairers may sometimes see cxute to hesitate with re~ ‘gard to the validity of the reasoning; but still in ge- Feral, tbe book reece honour on the age a8 well the author that prodoced ity and wl descend tinguished repatativn, to ate peteriy. "The dex fences in prtctlan, of the sacred xiginn! and auho- fieyof Chiat conduc’. Ya 1706 be poblished * A leter to Mr Dedwel whereia all the’ angoments in hit epinalry diecourve Zysint the immortality of the soo! sre parcalalyan- tered, and the judgoent af the. Faber to whom Mr Dodwel ‘had! appealed concerning hat mater, 178° J truly repretented. Bishop Hondly obeerve, that in che, thie letter be anewered Mr Dodwell in eo excelleat-a Sve CLA manner, both with regard to the philosophical part, and to the opinions of some of the primitive writers, ‘upon whom these doctrines were fixed, that it gave universal satisfaction. ot this controversy did not stop here j for the celebrated Collis, coming in us a se~ cond to Dodwell, ment moch farther into the philoso. ilced seemed to produce all materiality of tions. Tia phy of the dispute, and that could possibly be anid agninat the the soul, as well asthe liberty of homan ‘enlarged the scene of the dispute, into w thor entered, and wrote with such nest and. demonstration, an at once iy eperionto ha adver in eta deal Haowledge, and made every joie, that suth'an Incident had bappened to provehs ‘and extort from him that plenty of strong reasoning ‘and perdpicuity of expression, which were very much wanted upon this intricate and obscure aubject, “© And 1 am persuaded (coatioues the good sense on that ‘question, on which be spent so many of his thooghts, Brvapon’ one” of hie foctite points. Clarke's letter Dodwell was soon followed by four defences of it, four several letters to the author of A letter to the learned Mr Henry Dodvell, containing some Re- marks on a pretended Demonstration of the Immate- Fiality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr Clarke's Answer to his late Epistolary Discourse, 80.” ‘They were afterwards sll printed togetbers and the Aoewer to Toland’s Amyotor” added to them. In the oiidst of all these labours, he found time to ‘show his regard to mathematical and physical stodies, ‘and ozact Knowledge and skill ia them. And bis na ‘tural aflection and capacity for these studies were not 2 lle improved bythe fendship of Bir leans ‘ton, at whose request he translated his * Optic to Latin in 1706. With this erin ir Tau wa ly pleased, that he presented him with tbe sum of {go0k or 1001, for each child, Clarke baving then five children. ‘Thia year also, Bishop Moore, who had long fora ed design of fixing him more conspicuously, proour- the rectory of St Bennet's, Paul's Wharf, in London and soon after carried him to coort, and recommended hi to the favour of Qoeen Anne.” She James's, Westminster, when it became vacant in 1709. Upon this advancement to this station, be took the degree of D.D. when the public exercise which he performed for it at Cambridge wae prodigiously admi- red, The questions which be maintained were thete 2,4 Nullom Bdei Cl in sacriCLA [ 18 J Clarke, _ Books and pamphlets, however, were not all whith versien a the ie seiae weerice of the Trinity” occasioned ment entirely new, and annotet it made its anthor obnoxions to tbe por tnd his book to be complained of by the Lover of convention. ‘The doctor drew ep preface, and af- erwards gave in several explanations, which seemed to isfy the Upper House ; at least the affair was not Drought to any issue, the members appearing desirous to prevent dissensions and divisions. In 1715 and 1716, he bad a dispote with the cele- brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natutal philosophy and religion and a collection: of the pa pers hich pated between them was publish This performance of the doctor's late Majety Queen Caroline, then princess of Wales, who was pleased to have the controversy pase through her bands, It related chiefly to the important and dif- ficult subjects of liberty and neces Tn i718, Dr Clarke made an alteration inthe forms of doxology in the ringivg pealme, which produced no small noise and distarbasce, and oGcasioned some pam- phlets to be written. ‘The alteration was thi To God, through Christ, his only Son, nmertal glory bey Se. To God, through Chris, his Seo, our Lord, ‘Alglry eee, es A-considerable nomber of these select paalms and hyamns baving been dispersed by the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, beforo the alteration of the doxolagies was taken notice of, he was charged with a design of impouing upon the society ; whereas, jn troth, the edition of them had. been. prepared by a forthe use of his own pavish nly, before the so- ety bad thooghts of purchasing any’ of the coy tnd asthe usual forme of doxatogy are not established by any legal authority, ecclesiastical or civil, ia this he Rid ave ofendd. ‘About this time be was presented rere, the chancellor of the duchy of rmastership of Wigete the lord Leche St James's, upon the erecting a charity-school for the edacation of women servants. In 1727, upon the ‘was offered by the court the place of master of the mint, worth communilus an nis 1200 oF 1500]. a-year. Bat tothis secular prefer- tment be could not reconcile himself, and therefore ab- solately refused it, Whiston seeme to wonder, that Clarke's eulogists should lay so little stress upon this re~ all oF at least very negli- ceatly ; while * he takes it,” the most glorious actions of deniable canton, tat be, may in Jigion.” In 1728, was. published, A Letter from Br Clarke to Mr Benjasin Hoedly, F. 1.8. tioned by the controversy, relating to the Proport of Velocity and Force ed ia the Phil In men’s Tliad.” Uedicated to the duke of Cumberland. a ‘Phin edition wan printed in ate, ond The Latin added 40 the batiom of the pages, Homer, ‘Hoadly tela us, was Clarke's admired aatbor, ev degree of something like enthusiasms, hardly natural to to allow the favourite pect ever to nol that be bos taken remarkable paios to Bnd out, and give a re son for every passage, word, and title, bat coold create any suspicion. “The translation, (adde the Bishop), with his corrections, may now be styled ace curate, and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a treasury of grammatical aod critical Knowledge. Ho was called {0 his task by royal command j and be bas performed it in such 2 manner, as to be worthy of the Yoong prince, for whom it The fits publication was the Trough not robust, be bad ‘on Sunday May 13. 1729, going out in the mornin arta op eee there seized with a pain in his side, which’ made it impossible for bin to. perform the office he was called Se doen tcm vik Gas be re ged to be carricd home. He weat to bed, " Dimself so moch better ia the afternoon, that he would not suffer himelf to be bled; against whioh reme- dy,_ it is remarkable that be had entertaived stroog prejudices. Bat the pain retorning violently about two the next morning, made bleediog absolately cessury be appeared to be ont of danger, and conti rnued to think himeelf 20, till the Saturday, morn following ; when, to the iaexpressible surprise of bout im, the’ pain removed from to hia head and aera very sort eomlunty took aay Nis sents to tha they never retorned any ore, continued breathing til within seven and eight ofthe ie evening of that day, which was May 17. 1729 5 and Ih were pablished, from his erigi- then died, in his s4th Boon afer hia deal war nal manuscripts, by his brother Dr Joba Clarke, dean of Sarum, An Exposition of the Cherch Catechism,” and ten volumes of sermons, in Bro. His “ Expesi- ion” ia made up of those lectores be read every ‘Thursday morning for some months in the year, at St men’s church, In the latter part of his time be re- ised them with great care, and Jef them completely prepared for the pross. A to the sermons, few dis- Coorees in the English language are more judieioos, and fewer still are equally instroctive. ‘The reasoning and the practical parts are excellent, and the explana ions of Scripture are uncommesly valaable. ‘Though Dr Clarke had not the torn of mind which qualifed for moving the passions, and iodeed did not make is object, his sentiments, nevertbelee, are frequent ly expressed with ouch a clearness of couception, 2nd auch a force of language, as to prodece in well dispo- sed readers all tho effect of the pathetic. Several ve- Tomes of scroons have. been published since his time, which are far superior in point of elegance if'wa were called upon to recommend discourses, which abound with the most solid instrection, and promis the most lasting improvement, we sbould nover forgetI Saxo CLA C covery mae by Matin Folks, Eag. of th ld pound. It was dedicated to the duke of New- cemtle, whose beneficent disposition in celebrated for having conferred obligations upon the author, which were not the eects of importunity. Mr Clarke's per- Formance was -peresed in manuscript by Arthur On- stow, Eng. speaker of the house of commons, who ho- rnoured him with some osefal hints and observations 5 ut he was chiefly indebted to Mr Bowyer, who took upon bim all the care of the pablication, drew up se- cveral of the notes, wrote part of the oman sstere, and frmed an admimbl index tothe ‘whole, By this work our author acquired a great tnd jost repoation, Todeed, it reflects heveoe pon the country by which it was produced; for there are few performances that are more replete with profound ‘nnd curious learning, Mr Clarke's last promotions were the chaneloshipof the church of Chichester, and the vicarage of Amport, which were bestowed upon him in 1770 These preferments he didnot long lve to en- Hemming hi i'n he aa of Octo, he lowing year. resigned in 1768, the recto of Busted to his son Edwards to Mr Nichls's Ance- dotes of Bowyer, there are several letters and ex- Tracts of letters written to that learoed printer by Mr Clarke, which display him to great advantage as a man rsa ea ads ile rope Ketch of is character in the Biggraphia Bri- pr farished hy Bt Eleyey, who wat his int imate acquaintance, be is represented as not only x man of extensive erudition, bot as possessed of the pleasing talent of communicating bis various Knowledge in far miliar conversation, without any appearance of pedan- try oF presumption. Antiquities were the favoorite study of Mr Clarke, as his publications sufficieotly show 5 but be was a secret, and by no meat ve ary of the muses. He wrote English verse legance, and spirit. Perhaps there are few Better epigrams in oor the following, hich he composed on seeing the words Domus ultima inscribed on the vault heloogiog to the duke of Rich- tmond in the cathedral of Chichester. Did he, who thos inscribed the wall, Not read, or not believe, St Paul, ‘Who anys there is, where'er it stand ‘Another house wot made with bands? ‘Or, may we gather from thece words, ‘That house isnot a house of lords ? ‘Among the happier little pieces of his sportive poetry, there were some animated stanzas, describing Tecdercerof the nels Engh pot, whos pot traits, engraved by Vertue, were the favourite orna- parlour: but be set so modest and bumble 1 value on his poetical compositions, that they were sel- dom committed to paper, and are’therefore very im perfectly preserved ia the memory of those to whom Herometimes recited theo. His. tate and judgment in poetry appear indeed very striking in many: parts of his learned and elaborate Connexion of Coins. His illusteation of Nestor’s cop, im particular, may be ‘esteemed as one of the happiest-examples of that light i nd spirit of an elegant antiqusrian may throw on a cloudy and mistaken pssage of an ancient poet. da strict attention to all 3 the 182 J) ‘CLA gh be regarded at's medal tothe jongh his income was never was hs eontom to devote iling in every guites that he received to the service of the poor. ster, as a husband, and a father, his conduct was ami- le and endearing 5 and to clove this imperfect sketch ‘of him with his most striking features, be was « man of nine unaffected piety. CLARO-onscono, or Crarr-onscure, in pint- ing, the art of distriboting to advantage the lights and shades of a piece, both with respect to the ensing of the ‘eye and the effect of the whole piece. See Paixr- Ho. C.4no-Obscuro, or Chiaro-scuro,inslso used to sigai- fy a design consisting only of two colours, most useally ck and white, bat sometimes black and yellow 5 of rathed only with oe ealoor, the sbadome of a dosky browo, and the lights heightened up Ftmone for tnarals of Apel, mae toy daughter of Tiresias, who fled from ‘Thebes after it had been destroyed by the Epigoni She was so afficted with her misforiunes, that 2 lake was formed with her tears, where she first founded ‘oracle. Apollo was from thence wurnamed Clerius, ‘Alto an inland ofthe AEgean see between Tenedos and CLARY. See Satvra, Borax Index. Crany-Water, is composed of brandy, sugar, clary- and cinnamon, with a little ambergris dissolved doit, Teele dig cardiac. This water i =r porgalive or emetic, by adding resin span sommes ar ee stalram Some clary-water of brandy, juice of cherries, stran= Serre, and gouchrsey spar cove, mite pepper anu coriander seeds infoaed,sogeed, and strand CLASMIUM, an old term io Natural History, ap- ‘lied to tome fostil, of the class of gypeumss the cha acters of which are, that they are of a soft texture, and of a dull opayue look, being composed, as all the other gypsusi, of irregularly arranged fist particles, ‘The word is derived from the Greek marys, fragrant or small particle 5 from the flaky small. par cles of which these bodies are composed. OF this ge ‘nas there is only one known species: this is of rably regular and even structure though very coarse sand harsh to the touch. Tt is of a very lively and beautiful red colours and is found in thick rou ish masses, which, when broken, are to be seen co posed of irregolar arrangements of fat particles. emulate a striated textore. It will neither give fire with steel nor ferment with acids; but calcines very freely aad easly, and affords a very valuable plaster of Pari do al the purer gypsum. Te Tualy, and i There eg ‘CLASPERS, or Texpxits, See Crauos, CLASS, an appellation given to the most general subdivisions of any thing thus, animal i in the most active and anwea> Clarke a ac La: C783 7 cLA into the classes quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c. which the evening compelled him te withdraw himself from cleade. Tare again subdivided into serieses or orders; and these his contemplations. Tt was his custom to sketch what- y= Stade, Jast into genera. See Boraxy. thought beautiful or striking ; and every cu- 7 “Crass, is also uted in schools, de of bjects, he mark lar colar 5 fom which fone with form, for s number of boys all learning the same thing. CLASSIC, or Crassicat, an epithet school chiefly ap- lied to authors read in the classes Tes lem stone So one i 2 srios, who, in order to make an estimate of every per son's estate, divided the Roman people into six bands, which be called classce. ‘The estate of the first class was not to be under 2001. and these by way of rence were called clasriti, “classics :” hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, all the rest Deing said to be énfra elassem : thus Aristotle 4c author in philotophy; Aquinas in school di &e. CL.ASSICUM was the, alarm for battle, given by the Roman generals, and sounded by trumpets anc other martial matic throughout the army. CLATHRI, io antiquity, bars of wood or iron, used ia securing doors and windows. There was 1 goddess called Clathra, that presided over the clatbri. CLAVARIA, Cros-ror. Bee Borany Index, CLAVARIUM, in antiquity, un allowance the Ro- man soldiers, bad for furnishing axils to secore thei thoes with. ‘They raised frequent mu i of the emperors under thi CLAVATA vesrimenra, in antiquity, dorned with porple clavi, which were either broad or narrow. See CLAVUS. CLAUBERG, Joux, » learned professor of sophy and divinity at Diusborgh, was born at 8 in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and England, aod ach county the learned. The elector of Brandenburgh gave him blic testimonies of his esteem. He died in 16655. ‘works were printed at Amsterdam, in 2 vols ato. ‘The mont celebrated of these is his treatise, entitled Logie et etn, LAUDE Lr Lonratw, or CLavpe Grtes, a cele- ‘ented landscape painter, and a striking example of the ‘efficacy of indostry to supply, or at least to call forth use ‘Claude was bora in the diocese:of Toul in Lor- {6003 and, being dull and heavy at school, was an apprentice to a pastry-cook ; he afterws Tate Rome to sek a Lelboods buy be ‘l-bred, and unacquainted cared to employ him, Chance threw hi the way of grind ig very the language, nobody Ein in some of the rules of Bye Claude at thaw principle of art, ot being eocouraged, and not i came at length to understand them ‘Thee his mind began to expand, and be cole He exerted irated the art with wonderful eagerness ig by an incemant examina 1 aooree of excellence 5 for which por the open Beldss here feqoently ‘contiaued from sunrise till the dusk of ndscapes with auch x look of real ‘ature, and gave them such an appearance of truth, = proved superior to any artist that had ever painted in that style. The beauties of bi ings are derived from ua tare herself, which he examined with uncommon ax- iy 5 and Sandrart relates, that Claude osed to ex- isn to, bim, at they waled through the fs, the causes of the different appearances of the same prospect. A difereat hours of the day, toa the reectont ot retmetiony af light from dew or vapours in te vere ing or morning, with all the precision of a philosopher. ‘He worked on bis pictores with great eare, endeavour- ing to bring them to perfection, by touching them free een over auinj aed any pertrmane id nt a Sirer is idee, i as curacy to deface, and repaint it several tcrerpended. withthe Bat wonter mature abroad, it was so strongly impressed on his me~ mory, that on his return to his work, he never failed to make the bappiest use of it. ‘His skies are warm and fall of lostre, and every ob- ject is properly illamined. His distances are admira- Ble, and in every part a del not only excite out appl invention is pleasing, tints have euch aa agres as have been but imperfect! sequent artists, bat were never equalled. He frequent- ly gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees by glazings and io bis large compositions wl printed in fresco, he was so exact that the cies of every free might readily be is figures, when be painted them himself, they are very ferent} but he was 80 conscioos of his deficiency respect, that be usually engaged other artists who were eminent to paint them for him of which nomber were Courteis and Philippo Laors. His pic- tares are now very rare, especially sueh a8 are unda- maged ; and those are at ths time so valued, that no Price, however great, is thought to be superior to their merit, In order to avoid a repetition oF the same sub- ject, and also to- detect such copies of his works as ight be injarious to his fame, by being told for ori- ils, it was his oustom to draw (in x paper book pre- 08 of all those pictures eat coontries; and on ings, be wrote the name of the person who bad been the parchaser. ‘That book, hich he titled Libro di Verita, is now in the posses: tion of the duke of Devonshire. CeaupE, John, a Protestant divine, born in the province of Angenois in 1619. Mess, de Port Royal ing their utmost endeavours to convert M. de Ta renne to the Catholic faith, presented him with & picos calenlated to that end, mbich bis Indy engaged Me Clavde to answer ; and. bis performance gave rte to. the most famous controversy that was ever-carried ‘on in Franco betweeo the Roman Catholics aad Prote- stants, is colovring delicate, and bi sweetness and variety,laude cLa t stants, On the revocation of the edict of Nanta, he ree tired fo Holland, where he met with a kind reception, anus and was honoured with a considerable pension by the prince of Orange. He died in 1687 5 and left a son, Tease Claude, whom be lived to see minister of the Walloon church at the Hague, and who published veral excellent works of bis deceased father. . CLAUDIA, « vestal virgin at Rome, who bein ‘suspected of unchastity, to have been cleare from that impu following manuer: the f Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to ‘Rome in a barge, and it happening to stick so fast in the river Tiber that it could nut be moved, she tying lier girdle, the badge of chastity, to the barge, drew it along to the city, which athousend men were uoable todo. Cravor4 Aqua (Frontinus), water conveyed to Rome by a caval or aqueduct of eleven miles in length, the contrivance of Appius Claudius the Censor, and the first structure of the kind, in tbe year of Home q4t. led also Aqua Appi. ‘Ccavor4 Cop, (Luscriptions), a name of Lugdunum, or Loos in France, the birthplace of the emperor Clediue: » Rowan olen ced Clea, rom i be refactor the emperor ; and Copia from its plenty of al necessaries, especially comm, See Lucbuxum. Coaupta, or Cladia Via (Ovid,) was that road which, beginning at the Pons Milvivs, joined the Fla- minia, passing throogh Etruria on the south side of the Lacus Sabatinus, and striking off from the Cassia, and eading to Luea (Antonine) : large remains of it are to be seen above Bracciano (Holstenius). Cravota Lex, de Comitis, was enacted by M. Cl ‘Marcellus in the year of Rome 702. It ordained, that at public elections of magistrates no notice should be Taken of the votes of such as were de Usura, which forbade people to lend money to mi iors on condition of payment, after the decease of thei paret «Another, de Negotiations, by Q. Claudius the me, $35- It forbade any senator or father of w senator io ave any vessel containing above 300 am horse, for fear oftheir engaging themselves in com Fhercal schemes, ‘The same inw alse forbade the tame thing to the seribes and the attendants of the questors, ‘was naturally supposed. that people who had any coonexions could not be faidhful to theit trust, nor promote the interest of the state. Another, 16, to permit the allies to return to their respective Cities, after their names were inrdlled. Liv. gt. c. 8 ‘Another, to take away the freedom of the city of Rome from the colonists which Cxsar bad carried to Novie CLAUDIANUS, Cravpiws, Latin poet, flov- ished in the 4th century, under the emperor Theo- dss, und under bis eons Areadius and Honocius. ft not agreed of what country he was a ative 5 but Iie came to Rome in the year of Christ 395, when ho was about 20 years old; and there insinuated himself into. Stilicho's favour ; who, being a person of great abilities both for civil. and military alfirs, thou Gab by bith, was vo considerable «person vader Ho norins, that he may be said for many years to have governed the western empire. Btilicho afterwards fell {nto disgrace, and was put to death ; and it is more than probable that the poet was involved in the mise 184 J “CLA fortun person and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, ‘tho was eaptain of the guards’ to Honorius, and suc: Clavvion ceeded Stilicho, There is reasoo, however, to that he rose afterwards to great favour, and obtained several honours both civil and military. he princess Serna bed reat stern for Chadian, end recom mended avd ea ton Indy of great quali tnd forcune in Libya, ‘There are few Title poens ‘on sacred subjects, which through ascribed by some critics to Claudian ; an hhim be thought a Christian, But St Aust cotemporary” with him, expressly.» Heathen. The time of Claudian’s death is uncertain, tnor do we know any farther particulars of his life thaw hint are to be collected from his works, and which we have already related above. He is thought to have ‘more of Virgil in his style than all the other imitators of him. Crauprus I. Roman emperor, A.D. gt. The bee gioning of bis reign was very promising} but it was Soon discovered that little better than an idiot filled the throne, who might easily be made a tyrant: ace cordingly he became a very cruel one, throogh the Infsenee of his empres, the ofamons Mewalin after her death, he married his niece Agrippina, who caosed him to be’ poisoned to make room for Nero, A. D. 54. See (History of) Rouz. Cuavpits IL, Aurelius, surnamed Gothicus, sigoa- lined bimself by his courage and prodence under the reigns of Valerian and Julian; and on the death ofthe latter was declared emperor in 268. He pat to death ‘Aureolus, the murderer of Gallienus ; defeated the Germans and in 269 marched against the Goth who ravaged the empire with an army of 300,000 men, which he at frst harassed, and next rear entirely de. fented 5 but a contagious disease, which had_ spread through that vast arms, was eaught by the Romans and the emperor himself’ died of it a short time after, teed 561, Pellio sayy that thin prince bad the mode: ‘loco Aogonton, the virus of Tnje, ead the pty of Antoninos CLAVES rsuce, a term used in the Isle of Man, here all weighty and ambiguous causes are referred to a jury of twelve, who are called claves insule, the Keys of the island, CLAVICHORD, and Cravicrriearum, two mu- ical instruments used in the 16th ceatury. They were ure of the spinet, but of an oblong ‘figure. is ill und by the mane in convents and that the practitioners may not disturb the sisters in Ue dormitory, the strings are muffled with small bite of fine woollen cloth. CLAVICLE. See Anatomy Index. CLAVICYMBALUM, ‘in antiquity, a musical instroment of 30 strings. "Modern weitere apply the name to our harpischords. CLAVI vestium, were Gowers or stode of purple, interwoven with or sewed upon the garments of knights fo senators ; only, for distinction, the former used then, narrow, the latter broad. CLAVIS. properl KEY; and is some- times used in English to denote an explanation of some fbucure passages of any book in writ CLAVIUS, CunistorHen, a ‘German Sesst, ters f hin patron, and severely persecuted in his ClandienwCLE [ ‘Cason by on it. eave hewn in th rock, and afording water Cleevers salted room with a chimney at one end, and a ho- ‘roc two de wih since pled, are site present structares ; and these are chiefly frequented by Gsher- men and by persons employed to watch and to dri may birds when. the grain ripens. Referring to this confived situation of Clazomenr, a famous sopbist, when importoned to adora bis native city by residing in it rather than at Semyraa, replied, The mightingale refuses (o sing ina cage. CLEANTHES, 2 Stoic philosopher, di Zeno, figurished 240 years before Christ, | He ined himself in the day by working in the night: ing questioned by the magistrates how be subsisted, he brooght a woman for whom be kneaded bread, ‘and a gardener for whom he drew water; and refosed ‘present from them. He composed several works, ‘which there are now only n few fragments remain- ‘CLEAR, 9 1 naval term, sly applied to the weather, the sea-coaste, cordage, navigation, &cc. The winter it aid tobe’ clear when itis fit and ‘open, as opposed to clondy or foggy. ‘The sea const is Called clear when the navigation not interropedy ot Fendered dangerous by rocks, sands, or breakers, &c. Tt is expressed of cordage, cables, &cc. when they are tunembarrassed or diseotangled, so as to be ready for immediate service. “Its asaly opposed to fu! nal these senses. CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heracles in Pootas, ‘who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato's po: Bis daring the celsbaton ofthe fatal of Bacchus fe had enjoyed the sovereign power during 12 years. A Lacednmonian sent to quiet the Byzantioes. Elo ‘was recalled, bat refused to obey, and fled to Cyrus the younger, who made hin captain of 13,000 Greek soldiers. He obtained over Artaxerzes, who rst caraged atthe defeat, hat when Clenches fell nto his hands by the treachery of Tistapberues, be pot him immediately to death CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood baving fone or two’ projecting ends whereby to fasten the ropes: some of them are fastened to the shrouds below for this purpose, and others mailed to diferent places of the ship's deck or sides. CLECHE, in Heraldry, x kind of cross, cha sith antes Gt oho Re ger, bot fhe colar ofthe ld CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper stra tom of fllers earths vee CLEDONISM, Ctrpowrsmvs, « kind of divina- tion, in use among the ancients. ‘The word is formed from xis2un, which significs two things, rumor, report,” and avis, “ abird."” In the first a uld denote a kind of divination Th Serena ged Gat aren, hat tbe Fytingoreans made sbsermation not uly of the words the gods, bat of thote of men ; and accordingly be- lieved the pronouncing of certain words, ¢. g. incen= ddim, xt a meal, very vahappy. Thos, instead of pri- ron, they used the word domicilivm ; and to avoid erin= ary, faries, said cumenides, In the second sense cledo- iniom should seem a di draren from birds; the tame with ornithonantia, “CLEEVERS, Sce Chivers. 186 J CLE CLEF, or Grsrr, in Music deived fom the Las cut tin word clan “a ey 3” became by it expend the fandamental sound fo the asic Dale whieh ree aquitve a determined sovorwion of toes. Siete snjor oe iver, poce Trhvoce weft coty and revuhing from is potion The seat Hlencey at it opens = way to tie aoen: tion, and dncovet it, the technieal term ey wed sit ret pny. | Bat cles ree pit et the: postion of diferent mica pare inte gooeral taut tod the reins which they bee eno tat cher 1c ty Romani chante ini nerd at the beginiog of «rave to detersie the Slevation ecopted by that Have in the general cesyttem, and ‘cut the nemero i he oles thick sc conais fa the line ofthat ee "Ancien the ters by which the tees of the gue soot mere soiled were eled cls. The the leer ‘Ara the eet of the note do, Cth clef of ay the Ff, See. In proportion asthe aysems was x fended, the embarrasment and soperdoiy of this ol tiade of clefe ere fle ‘Gui d'Arersoy who had invested them, marked a eter or cle atthe beginning of ech Hine fa the steve for as yet be bad placed no notes i the space, Ta rer ine hes oid nov hn to of he en clef at the beginning ef oo ofthe lines oo od thin was suficicet to fe the Fest, according tether nateral order a st of then even lines o eles they elected four, which were call lave rgnata, ov sieriminating cli, benure they fed theanelves with markiog one of them vpex tne ofthe line, fom which the peers ofall the otbere te recogoined, "Presently afterwards they rea, Ripcoched eet of theve Toor, vit, the umety of sich hyde te oa the bln at Se Thy, the bypoprolasbasome added to the system tie’ Greeks| ” In reality Kircher amerts, that if we understood the characters in which ancient masic wat written, and examined mioately the forms of our clef, we should find ehat exch of them represents the tered in its form, by which the note was origially named. ‘Thus the clef of sof was originally w G, the clef of wt a G, and the clef of fa an F. ‘We have then three clef, ove © Bfth above the rate other: the clef of F, or fa, is the lowest ;XLIV. the clef of ut or C, ‘whit isthe fifth above the for MF. mer and the clef of sol, or G, which is a fifth above YY ct, Theve clef, both ee marked by fori art. 170 of Music ope ky that by a rem always placed vpon a Tine, and never in a Te deserves netice, that the Hef of fain marked in tree diferent miners? one in mosie which i printed suritten or engraved 5 and a thi of the chorus, By afding four lines above the clef of sol, and three lines’ beneath the elef of fa, which gives both above ‘and below the greatest extent of permanent or estar hed lifes, it appears, that the whole scale of notes which can be placed opon the gradations relative to thee cleft amounts to 245 tht to ey thee ortaresCLE [ 188 J CLE CLEMENCY, denotes much the same with mercy, who retained a love of liberty, quitted a place reduced clemency. Clemency. —1— and implies a remission of severity towards offenders, to 40 hard and shameful a slavery, and sought elsewhere ——y— Zia. ihr th The term is most generally used in speaking of the forgiveness exercised by princes or persons of high authority. Te is the result, indeed, of m disposition hich ought to be cultivated by all ranks, though its effects cannot be equally conspicuous oF extensive, In praise of clemency joined with power, it is observed, that it is not only the privilege, the bonour, and the sty of «pricey bat i thaa all bis ga ‘himself and bio: dom tan asylum and retreat where they eight live io anfety. At the head of these was Thrasybulus, a person of ex: traordinary merit, who beheld with the moat lively a fiiction the miseries of his country. * ‘The Lacedemonians bad the ishomanity to endes ‘Your to deprive those unhappy fugitives of this lust source. They published an edict to probibit the cities of Greece from giving them refuge, decreed tbat they should be delivered ap to the thirty tyrante, and con deraned all such as should contravene the execation of truly royal, who masters himself looks upon all in- this edict to pay a fine of five taleats. Only two ci- arin ns below him and governs by equity and rea tie rejected ith dsdin ao unjnt an ordnance, Me- 00, not ‘or eaprice. In illustration of this gara and Thebes; the latter of which made a decree pect, the following examples are selected out of man recorded in his eas 7 . Two patricians having conspired against Titus oman emperor, were discoveed, conviled, and sentenced to death by the senate; but the good. tured prince sent for them, and in private admonished ‘them, that in vain they aspired to the empire, which ven by destiny; exhorting them to be satisfied the raok io which by Providence they had been placed, and offering them any thing else which was in hie power to grant, At the same time he dispatched messenger to the mother of one of them, who was then at a great distance, aad under deep coocern about the fate of ber son, to assure ber, that her on was not aly alive, bat forgiven. 2. Licinios having raised a numerous army, Zori- 178 130,000 men, endeavoured to est the go- ‘eroment ou of the bands of hi brother int Cov. the emperor. But bis army being defeated, od with int forcre be cod rally to Nico media, whither Constantine pursued him, and inme- diately invested the place; bot on the second day of the siege, the emperor's sister intresting him, with a food of tears, by tho tenderness he had ever Showa for ber, to forgive hor husband, and grant bim at least bis i to comply with her re- iam, finding no means ‘of making his escape, presented himself befare the wr sod throwing bimelf at his fet yeded porple and the other ensigns of rovereigaty. ine received him ia a very fendly manne, entertained bim at bis table, and aRerwards sent bim to Thessalonica, assoring him, that he should live une molested so long as he raited o new disturbances. 3 The council of thirty, established at Athens by Lyrander, committed the most exeerable eruelticn Upon pretence of restraining the multitode withia their daty, and to prevent seditions, they had caused geards to be assigned them, had armed. 3000 of the Citizens for that nd at the same time dis fred all the res Po their onsen, ala heath and the ‘anfseation ‘of late}, hich the thy tyrnte di vided amongst themselvez, They pot more people to a ight months of pence, r thirty years, All the citizens of any consideration in Athen and {o punish all persons whatsoever that should see an A thenian attacked by his enemice without doing bis ut- most to asisthim. » Lysian, an orator of Syracose had been banished by the thirty, raised 00 soldiers at his own expence, and sent them to the sid of the com- mon covatry of Eloquence. Thrasybolus lost ne time. “AR having laten Phyl a taal fart in Ate tica, be marched to the Pirsus, of which be made cif master, ‘The thirty flew thither with their troope, and a battle ensoed. The tyrants were over- ‘throwa. Critias, the most savage of them all, was Killed 00 the spot: and as the army was taking to ight, Thrasybalus eried out, * Wherefore do you fly from me as from a victor, rather than assist me as the avenger of yoor liberty? We are not enemies, bat fe low-citizens, nor have we declared war agai city, but against the thirty tyrants.” He continued to remind them, that they bad the same origi country, laws, nnd religion: he exhorted them to compassionate their exiled brethren, to restore the ‘country to them, and resume their own liberty. Thi discourse had the desired effect. ‘The army, upon their return to Athens, expelled the thirty, and substitoted ten persons to govera ia their room, whose condact proved no better than theirs; but King Pavsanias, moved with compassion for the deplorable ceodition to ‘hich «city, once to loriahing, was reduced, had the ronity 10 favour the Atheaians in secret, and at the awordy and eft Atheas inthe full Tiberty. All the exiles were recalled. Thrasybalus time proposed the celebrated amnesty, by which the citizens engaged upon oath, that all past traneac- tions should be buried in ol ‘The goveroment t footing, the laws ‘Vigour, and magiatrates po were restored to their pristi lected with the usual form. (Gays Rollin) is one of the finest even history, worthy the Athenian clemeocy lence, and bas served as a model to succeeding ages in all good goveramente. Never had tyranny been more feruel and bloody than that which the Athenians bed lately thrown off. Every howe was io mooroing. every family bevailed the lose of some relation : it had been a series of public robbery and rapine, in which license and impanity bad authorized all manner of crimes. ‘The people seemed to have a right to demand ‘the blood of all accomplices. in such notorious malver- sations,CLE C Cement the operators, Tt availed bat litle that the operators Gleome, the surgeons and phys showed themselves ive and in good health, and that nn proved th fasebood of cevery part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to have been a man of a virtooos character, and powsessed of considerable abilities. He died much regretted by bia nobjects. CLEMENTINE, a term uted among the Avgi- tins, who apply it to a person who, after having been ‘years a superior, ceases to be 20, and becomes « private monk, under the command of superior. The ‘word has its rise hence, that Pope Clement, by a bull, prohibited any superior among the Aoguttine from con tinuing above nine yours in his office. CuEMextiNs, in the canon law, are the coostitu- Wea bora at Dist ater har Louvain travelled ite Fraee, ing to his Travels, which are very eurioas land scarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, has been revised and corrected by many grammarians; and other works. He died at Grenoble in 1542. CLEOBIS and Brrox, two youths, sons of Cy- dippe the priestess of Juno at Argos. When oxen ‘could not be procared to draw their mother's chariot to the temple of Juno, they pot themselves under the yoke, and drew it 45 stadia to the temple, amid the acclamations of the moltitode, who congratulated the mother on account of the piety of her sons. Cydippe intrented the goddess to reward the picty of her sons with the best gift that could be granted to « mortal ‘They went to rest and awoke no more ; and b goddess showed that death i that can happen to man, statues at Delp CLEOBULUS, son of Evagoras, and one of the Grecian sages; he wae valiant, a lover of learning, ‘nod an enemy fo vice. Flourished about 60 years be- fore Christ. CLEOMBROTUS, « king of Sparta, son of An- axandrides, He was ‘deterred from building «wall ‘acrom the isthmus of Corioth against the approach of the Persians, by an eclipse of the sun. He died in the 7th Olympiad, and was succeeded by Plistarchus, son cof Leonidas, « minor Ciromakorus IL ‘The Argives raised them of Paveanias king of Sparta, after bis brother Agesipolis L. He made war against the Beeotians, and est he should be suspected of treach- ‘erous esimmuniestions with Epaminondas, he gave that general battle at Levctea, in a very disadvantageous lace, He was killed in the engagement, and his army destroyed, in the year of Rome 382. Crrommrores IIL. « son-in-law of Leonidas king of Sparta, who for a while usurped the kingdom after the expulsion of his father-innw. When Leonidas ‘was recalled, Cleombrotus was banisbed, and his wife Chelonis, who bad accompanied ber father, now acconi- panied her hosband in bis exile. LEOME, in Botary, a geaus of the order, Velonging to the tetradynamin class of plants; in the natural method ranking under the. 25th or der, Putamince. ‘There are three neclariferous glane ¥ 190 J cLE ules, one at exch sinos of tbe calyx except the lowetty Cleome the petals all H8 soilocalar and valved, all of them, except Cleopatra bivalved all of them, except ‘They are herbaceous tre sdoroe two, ‘of Sparta, conguered Acgives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pi. sistratides, By bribing the oracle, be pronounced De- maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be. cause be refused to ponish the people of /Egins, who had deserted the Greeks. He killed biawelf in » fit of madness, ‘CixoMnwes IT. soccoeded bis brother Agesipolis IL. ‘He reigned 34 years in the greatest tranquillity, and ‘was father te Acrotatos and Cleooymos, Hi ceeded by Areus I. son of Aérotates Ceromexes IIL socoreded his father Leooidas, ‘He was of an enterprisiog spirit, and resolved to restore the ancient discipline of Lycargus in its fall force. He killed the Ephori, and removed by poison hie royal col- league Enrydamides, and made bis own brother Evcli- das king, aguinet the lnwe of the state, which forbade more than one of the same family to ston the throne. ‘He made war agaiost the Acheans, and attempted to destroy the Aclitan league, Aratos the general of the ‘Achwans, who suppoted himself inferior to bis e tance } and Cl when he had fought the vaforionate battle of Sellasia, retired the court of Ptolemy Evergetes, where children bad gove before him. Piolemy received him with great cordiality; but his successor, weak and suspicious, soon expressed bi lousy of” this noble stranger; and imprisoned bis leomenes killed howe and hie bedy man Aayed ‘exposed on a cross, 140 Olymp. CLEON, the name of several noted men of anti- ity. 3. OF am Athenian, who, though erigioally {anner, beeame general of the armies of the state by hie igues and eloquence. He took Thorea in Thrace, tod was killed at Amphi ‘battle with Brasidas the Spartan general, Olymp. Both. 2. A general of Meneni, wh dnpated with Aritodemo fer the tore reignty. "3. A. statuary, poet, who wrote a form 20 the Argonasts 5. Ln ertor‘of Hallarn fos who composed an oration for Lysander, he intimated the prepity of anking the kingdom of 5. A. Mageesian wire wrote some com~ mentaries, peaks of portentoos events, &e. CLEON AE, in Ancient Geography, x town of Ar- golis, above Mycens, on the road which leads from Argos to Corinth 5 standing on an eminence, on every bby houses. In the forest near this town in by Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicos, Se- neca). Cleonaus the epithet. Cleoneum Sidus, the lign.——Another Cleon’ on Mount Athos in Chal- ‘CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt, was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. “By her extracr= dinary benoty, she subdoed the two renowoed Roman ls Julivs Cesar and Mark Antony; the latter of ‘thooght, lost the empire of Rome by his ‘attachment,cLE C and in his colouring he resembled his master. He died in 1633. CLERC, Scbostian le, engraver, and designer in or- inary to the Freach king, was born at Metz in 1637. 1g learat. designing, he applied himself to imerif to designing and engraving that M. Colbert gave him a pension of 600 crowns. Tn 1672 he was admitted into the royal academy of painting and sculpture 1680 was made pro- Feasor of geometry and perspective in the same scade- He published, besides a great number of designs he could draw up 20,009 men with ‘No artist except Callot and Dell touch’ a small Gyure with 60 much spi esteemed prints are: i. The pass 36 seaall plates, lengthwise, from ‘The beat impressions are without the borders, tren compeitions 7 The ‘ (n the first impressions, wbich are ‘appears in the back-ground; in tart of te fiding ohne, ling fle, ete Te d piace of which subsite in the commen ‘ones. 3. The elevation ofthe large stones used in build~ fag theron ofthe Locos a ge pote, ing, ‘The frst impressions are without the date 1677, which was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the sciences, a middling-sized plate, lengthwise. The frst impres- sions are before the skeleton of the stag and tortoise ‘were added. ‘The second impressions are before the shadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right- hand side of the print. Both these impressions are very scarce. The first is rarely met with. ‘This print ‘was copied for Chambers’s Dictionary. s. The Mey of the Gobi, «middlesined plate, lengtvine.| The eat impress fore the woman was introduced, whe rrr he whee he ome Tie for ‘quests, large plates, lengthwise, representing theta Of Tournay, the taking of Douay, the defeat of compte de Marvin and the Switzerland alliance. 7. The battles of Alezander, from Le Bran, six small long lates, inclading the title, which represents the pictare gallery at the Gobelins. “The first impressions of the tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this set, juinbed by the shoulder of the woman, who seated in the front, bei out the shadow, which called the prints with the naked shoulder. 8. The extry of Alesonder into Babylon, 2 widile-sized plate, length- ie. To the frat impressions, the face of Alexander ieeen in profile; in the second, it is a three qu ter face, and therefore called the print with the hea “Ctnnc, George te. See Bi Lene, George te. See BUrFox. CLERGY, 1 geveral name gi ‘ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in contradistine- tion fo the laity, See Larry. 8 into clergy and Isity wai derived from the Jewish church, and adopted into the Christian by the apostles themselves: wheuever 192 Jj CLE ‘any number of converts was made, a8 soon as size cape of beng foruedts'scoopepean ce oo, sharch, shop or prnbyter, wit «deacon, were or ined’ to miiser to them, OF the bishops priests, and deacons the clergy orginally coosatedj bat iw the third century, ney Inferior erdere mere appointed, a2 subserrient to the office of deacon, such as AcoLu- tuists, Reapeas, &c. ‘This venerable body of men being separated and cet Bleck. ‘apart from the rest of the people, ia order to attend. the more elonly tothe terres of Almighty Gods ba therefore Ine’ privilege slloned. them by out i lawa and bad Tarmerly much greater, which wie aged a he tne oft foray osc unt ofthe ill ase which the Popsh clergy had endea- roared take of then, Fors the laws boviag c= empted them from almost every personal daty, th Attempted a tlal exemption [tear every ereular G2, Buti is observed by Sit Edward Cooke, that a3 the overflowing of watere doth many tines take the te ‘ver to lose its proper channel, #0, in times past, eecle- Tiaical persone seeking to extend theieHperticn be. yond their due bounds, either lost, or enjoyed not, those which of right belonged to them. The personal txemptions do indeed forthe wort part conte’ m Clergyaan eanect be compelled te serve on jury, nor to appear at a cosrtlew, ar view of fns'pledge, EP elment every other persons ‘a layman is summoned on 1 jus before the. takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear and y temporal iif, reeve, constable, or the like; in re- tn concl ssdone'n the ered ‘Daring ie stendmnce on dvs wee be ged tar arena a Clo doce aa of felony, a clerk in orders shall have the benefit of his clergy, without being branded in the hand ; and may Fite nee oats than cen th eh Pek ticulars he is distinguished from a laymen. But, as abilities, om account of their spiritual avocatioas. Cler- wha nepal af tee foe howe af cone roa tp tana He, Oat, Oe Soe er etl aed to take toy nade ot esemese o type pt cp ety abil ree ain sone’ atts keep tay hhouse or brew-house ; nor engage in any manner of trade, nor sell_any merchandi under forfeiture of tweble oe ‘Which probibition is consonant to the "Seng of Ceenor is an ancient privilege, where one i Sri cited ta be Sinead tou eon purge Capel eel St end co ion * of a criminal, the judg- See the follows, unless suspendedaricie ar he principal is Benefit of clergy: rl a ake ed cectraag hy therfore ae improper to enguire, 1. Ir igi tnd the various motatioas which this privilege of the clergy bas sustained, 2. To what persons it is to be slowed at thi day. 3m what cas” g. The conse. pences of allowing it. TE Clenay, the privtegiom cleicle, or (in common Brack. apecch, the benefit of clergy) bad its erigioal from the Comment. ious ‘and ConteA sitvation the clerk 00 cLE -eonvioted clerk, abaque purgatione foccendo 5 im mbich cal net make pagal Dat was to contioue ia prisen during life, and was-in- sapnle af ecguitng any patoal proper or resi ing the profits of bis lands, unless the please to.pardon him. Both these courves wore in’ some degree exceptionable 5 the Intter perkaps’being tao 7 Bid, 8 the former was productive of the most abando ed perjury. As therefore thete meck trials took their ise from factious and popish tenets, tending to exempt ‘one part of the nation from the general manicipal law, it became high time, when the sefernation :was the roughly established, to abolish ao vain end impious « ccereman: ‘Accordingly the statute 18 Eliz. . 7. euacts, thet, for thevavoiding sueh perjuries and abuses, after the ‘offender bas:been allowed his clergy, he sball not be delivered to the ordinary as formerly’; but, upon such allowance, and burning of the hand, be sball forthwith be enlarged and delivered out the Iam coninaed onalteed for shove » entory ; exoept only, that the statute 21 Jac. I. Slowed, that women convicted of simple lrcei under the value of 10s. should (not property bave‘the ‘eae of clergy, fo they ware not called upon read bat) be burned.in the band, shipped, or stack prisoned for any time inet exeeeding a ‘And a similar indulgence by the statutes 3 and 4 ad Mary, orgs and and § Wit aod Many er 34 was extended: to women guilty of any'clergyable felon Matover; who were slowed once to clam the beat ft of th sane, in like manner as men might claim the Denefit of clergy, and to be discharged upon being Durned in the hand, and imprioned for any time not cexcecdingia yoar. " tick and taxes, Cinna of the Pipe, an officer ofthe exchequer, who baving the acenont ofall dette Tog sc rn great ral folded op like & warrants to sherife, to levy the said debte on the goods Ind ebttels ofthe eblors; nnd if they have no soodn, then be draws them dowa to the trensores remem brnncer Co write extents gaint their Inde, Crane of the Pleas, an oficer of the exchequer, ia whose office all the officers of the cour, having special privilege, eoght to sve or to be sued i any actloer In Ts ofc alte ations a law maybe provecoted by other pereos, but the pain cogh to be Leona o debtor {othe king, or some way escountae te bi Ader clerk are attroeyy inal ei ‘Cusars of the Privy-ceal, the Tord pry teal, for wring aed taking’ ost things tbat fe ent by wareaat from the o ry Ga and tobe peed the grst seal aad hike, to make oat privy araly upon opecal canons of Tin ajntys a ‘Cisex of the Rolls, an officer of the whose ‘bosiness is to make searches after, and copies af deeds, officers, 8c, Cin of the Signe, an ffcerconinally attending ‘Sujesty'epeitclpal secretary, wo fan the eos the privy sigoet, as well for sealing the king's race eters ot thos’ grant which pecs the hinge Eand by bill tigoed. There are Tour of these officers whee thei it at the erty abe ix Cuznxs, officers in et next im degree be- lo he eco mary, howto lem tusoos, pardons pateats, warrants, Ser which the grent tele They wero ancienlly cliched ore {eited thie places if they married, "hewe are alto at- torneys for partiea ia tuts epeadiog inthe curt of Cuanx of the Treasury, an officer belonging to the coort of commen pleas, who has the charge of Keepi the records of the court, makes out all records of mist ‘pris, and likewise all exempliScations of records being ‘in the treasury. He has the fees due forall searches ad bas under bim an under keeper, who always keeps ‘one key of the trensury-door. Cixex of the Warrants, an officer of the common pldas, whoee business is to enter all warrants of at- torney for plaintiffs and defendaats in sit ; and to a rol deeds of bargain aod sale, that are acknowledged in court, oF before a judge, His office is likewise to estreat Clerk mscur {$009 inhabitants, Calvinists, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics, ar all tolerated in’ this city, E. Long. §- §0,N. Lat. 51, 45. ‘CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who pot avelf under the protection of some grent mun, who respect of that relation was called patron. ‘Thispatron assisted bis client with his protectio terest, and goods; and the client gave his vote for patron, when he sought any office for himself or jends. Clients owed respect to their patrons, as these ‘owed them their protection. ‘The right of patronage was ay to unite the rich and poor together, a that one might live without. contempt. other without envy s but the condition of 1 client, ia course of time, became little else than a moderate sla- Ke Giz io 2 hastarped over or wlan CLIFFORTIA, See Botany Index, CLIMACTERIG, among. physciam, (rom cli macter, a ladder"), a critical year ia a person's Me dit th th “hccoriing to vom, seventh years bot eters all’ oly thou years prevoced by walt yiog 4 by te odd nusber 9, fr75 and gy too elimacert LY “These genre aya), tring wil them ee femashable change with rivet to belly lier or fore tune! the grand elloacterie ie the 63 Jeary. bet tome, making two, ld this'the Srat: tbe ber remarkable eimecterica are the 7thy 2tet, 35th, 4g, ‘and s6th. CLIMATE, or Cri, in Geography, « prt of the srlace af the earthy’ Bounded by two ‘een parallel to the equator, snd of such a brendth, as Tit the Toogeot day i the prale nenes tbe plo exceeds the loge day in that next the quiet by tome ceria. wcen, ca: half an hour, fie werd comes from the Greek «Ama, inclinamentum, “ an in- used for party in a law-suit, who canse into the bands of a counsellor of tho climate is a parallel circle wherein tho day is the shortest. ‘The end of the eli rate, io that wherein the day is the longest. The climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to wherein the word or expression which ends the frit member of period begins the second, and s0 on 5 that every member will make datinct sentence, ta- king its rive from the next foregoing, tll the argument and period be beautifully Gnished; a» in the following L 198°] the pole; and are so many bands, of rones, termi clisute, cLt nated by lines parallel to the equators though, i strictness, there are several climates in the breadth of —¥—~ fone zone, Each climate only difers from its coati- sgeous ones, in that the longest day in summer is looger fr shorter by half an hour in the one place then in the ther. As the climates commence from the equate the first climate at its beginning bas its longest ly 12 hours long 5 at its end, 12 hours and a the second, which begins whore the fret ends, t twelve bours and a balf, ends at 13 hours ; and reat, as far as the polar circles, where, what the geographerscall Aour-climates terminate, and monthe climes commence. An hout climate is & rpace com. prised between two parallels of the equator, in the fret of which the longest day exceeds that in the latter by half an hour so the month-climate is a space ter- (ed between two circles paralel to tbe polar ‘les, whose longest day is longer or shorter than that of its contiguous one by & month or 30 days. ‘The Sneinatn who coobsed ike ‘cliates to what they imagined the babitable parts of the earth, only allowed of seven. ‘The first they made to pass throogh ‘Meroé, the second through Sienna, the third th in, the fourth. through Rhodes, the Bite throogh Rome, the sixth through Pontus, and the seventh through the mouth of the Borystheves. The moderns, who have eiled rer toward the pol 30 climates on each sides and, in regard the hliguly of the sphere makes «litle diference i the length of the longest day; instead of balf an hour, some only make the difference of climates « quarter. Valgaiy the term climate is tetowed on ay coun try or region differing from another either in respect oF the seasons, the ‘" ‘manners of author, dstiogoisbes the fint kiod of climates by t term real climates, and the latter by that of climotes, - Vareniua gives us a table of 30 tut thet any regard tothe refrctin, niches a more accurate one, wherein the refractions. subject fully treated in the article Ctimate in the BorrLemmrr. ‘Afier we have practised they become easy ; and when {Bey ao euy, we begin to take plesor fe tem 5 and when they please us we do them frequently ; and by frequency of acta, a thing grows into n habits and con- firmed babit is a kind of second nature : and so far ax any‘Chive * city was suspended in air, and that t cLo honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of foarah of the empire} and wan rewarded by the new toubah with a grant of land ora jaghiy protacing geal. In 1760, be relaraed Yo England, Teteived the tnasimoot thanks of the com bury, ised to.an Tri of Lord Clive, Baron of Paste. ‘turbances taking plice ia Bengal, Lord Clive was et teamed teeny man qualied tattle them, und yas i appointed to that. presidency 5 ing honoured with the order of the Bath, 2 the rank of major-general. When he ar he exceeded the most, sangui Fog tranquility to the province, Blow, and Gxed the bighett Hens of inthe minds of th 27875, im 37; into the conduct Dimself in a, masterly speech sions. He ded suddenly towards the close of the ear 3774, CLOACA, in antigaty, the common sewers of Rome, to carry off the dict aad soil of the city into the Tiber 5 justly reckoned amoog the grand works the Romans, ‘The frst common sewer, called Cloaca Hasina, was built by Tarqai i others Soperbus, of huge blocks o ther without aay cement, in th fices of thote early times, consisting arches .one above another, which at leogth conjoi and unite together ; messuriog in the clear 18 palms jn beight, and as many in width. Under these arches, they rowed in oats wbich made Pliny sy that the ey riled be- eth the hones. Under thes archer ali mere ways throogh which carts loaded with bay could pass with ‘ease. It began in the Forum Romanum 5 measured 300 paces in length ; and emptied itself between the temple of Vesta and the Poae Seoatorins. ‘There were ‘t8 many principal sewers as there were bills. Pliny ‘onclades their iremvess and strength from their stand- ing for v0 may ager the shocks of earthgaakes, the fall of Bowes, and the vast londe und weights moved over them CLOACINA, the goddew of jekes and common sewers, among the Romane. ‘CLOCK, s machine contracted in such a manner, and regulstzd vo by th cnifora motion of» peadulam (A), ante mensae time, and all ite subdivisions, with ‘aactnee eat, archdeacon of Veron who lived inthe tine ofr no ni te Bera he oe it of an epitaph quoted by Ughell, and borrow Bin fom Partial “They sro fit elod moe turnal dels, to distinguish them from sun-dials, which homed the hour by the sun's shadow. Others ascribe to Boathian, aboot the year sto., Mer Derbas makes clock-work of a mach older tanding [ 200 ] their wot with wheels or pulleys, or some wrork principle, But be ths'as ie wll i the art of makiog clocks, such a8 are ne either Grst invented, or at least retrieved, in Germany, about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepay- 14 sun-dialsy have both much better claim to ‘The French annals mention one of the ind sent by Aaroo, king of Persia, to Charle- magae, aboot the year 807, which seemed to bear tome resemblance to the modern clocks: it was of brass, and showed the hours by twelve litle balls of, the same metal, which fell at the end of each bour, and in falling struck 1 bell and made it sound. There ‘were also Sgores of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of ach hour came forth at certala apertares of win dows in the side of the clock, and shut them agus they hud ‘and the descrip: » de Nova Tem= is dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, contends for Ga- fice ‘aed relate, though ne second-and, the bel history of the invention 5 adding, that one Tresler, at that time clock-maker to the father of the Grand Duke of Toscany, made the frst pendalam-clock at Florence, by direction of Galileo Galilel; pattern of which was brought ioto Holland. ‘The A i ‘eta sy expel, iat th aplicaen of tbe per dm othe movement of x clock mar Et propoted by Galileo, and first put in practice by bis son Vincenzo in 1649. Bo the inveotor who be will, it is certain the invention never Soarished till it came into Hlogen's nnd, mo inate o ity that if eer Galieo thought of such a thing, he never brought it to any de- ° ‘The el made ‘Among the modern clocks, thove of Btrasbarg and Lyons are very eminent for the richness of their far- niture, and the variety of their motions and Bgures. Ta the frat, a cock claps bis wings, and proclaim the hour} the angel opens a door and salotes the vis and the Holy Spirit descends on her, &c. In the se- cond, two horsemen encounter, and beat the hour on ‘each’ other; a door opens, and there appears on the jo, ith Seas Christin ber ares the with their retinue, marching ia order, and pre- ag their gifts; two trampeters sounding all the Xo proclaim the procession. These, however, are called by two lately made by Engl intended asa ‘rom the East India Compeny to tho emperor of Chine. ‘The clocks wo speak of ave in the frm ofchsiots, in which re placed, in foe tude, (A) A balance oot ualike the fy of kitchen-jack was formerly ued in place of the pendalum,Siof the chariot, under which Pate Ci fe cLo attitude, a lady, leaning ber right band upon x part Yast wiles «ck of eotus werk saci Tie Irpr eas bling, tat, srk nd repeats, and 3 da her finger site a rd ely ic ad wl nih aianond and bios, with its wings expanded in a fying posture, an actually Gatters for a caosiderable time on touching & diamond button below it the body of the ‘contains part of the wheels that in a manner gi (o it) is not the bigness of the 16th part of an inch. The lady bolas thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is round box, to which a circular ornament set with ‘monds not larger than a sixpence is fixed, which sound near three hours in a constant regular aol ‘Over the lady's head, supported by « small fated pil- lar no bigger than a quil, is a double umbrella, onde the largest of which a bell is fixed at a considerable di rom the clock, and seems to bave no connection ‘with its bot from which « communication ie secretly conveyed to a hammer, that regularly strikes the and repeats the same at pleasure, by touching » mond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of the lady is a gold dog 5 before which from the point of the chariot are two birds fixed oa spiral springs 5 the ‘wings and feathers of which are set with stones of vie out colours, and appear as if fying aril, hich from anoter secret mot ht, circular, oF any other direc= ‘boy ald of the chariot behind, seems toto pubit forward. Above tieunbrela sre i ormuments of pecans stoner and it terminates ‘with a Bying dragon set in the sme manoer. ‘The Thole is of gol sont carioulyexecated, and embel- Tished with rubies and pearls. a of ia gener Mechanions of Ceoeey and ow thy The first Sigure of Plate CXLVI. is her left hand gold tube not much rs mall profile of a clock’; P is a weight that is suspended by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C, ‘which is fixed upon the axis a a; the pivots 6 b go: holes made in the plates TS, ' freely. ‘These plates are made connected by mean offer pillar 22 jth wae together ia called the "The weight By if aot restrsined, would necetarily turn the barrel C with aa uniformly accelerated mation, in the same manner as if the weight was falling freely is furnished with a rat ci Bed ih were on reproveated ia. fg. 2.40 that the action communicated to the wbee! DD, the teathof which act pon the teeth of the emall wheal d, which tarns upon the ‘The communication eter eed te che teeth form a good the ad se iia we to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are steiousfaall stachinery bere tec and plnions are tmployed. The teeth sad pinion leaves should be of Deeper shape, and: perfectly equal among themselvess fing ie size also of the pinion should be of just proportion to tho wheel actin tet aed pce at to fone cb [ 201 J cLO ‘The wheel EE is fixed opon te ax ofthe pinion cine dj and the mation eoomunicted to the wheel DD Soy iy the weight is traauted to the pica dy conse- cay the mice E fy at Hkewie tothe pe fon ¢and whee! FE, which moves the pinion fy a Shes atch te Grown a bce viel CHT cds Tie pivots ofthe pinion f phy in oles of piss EM, wich seed iondndiy ote pes I a'mord, the tation tegon by the weigh i= tennemited Tots the wieel GH to the palettes IK, ty by. mane. of the fork OX siveted"on, the par Tete, commonicates motion to the. pendslum AB, ‘hick is eospended upon the hook ‘A. "The pendelun Ai sacri it, we oe ce Alternately ging, and rettraiog. "If then i stp ation ty a ph fe a, the i wilmake it return upoq to go alleraately backward tnd forward il the resitance of the air upon the pew lot ie to at the ptt of egemin why toy thecrignalyimpresed force. Botan a every vibration of the peodulam, the teeth of the’ balance. tice GH, act co upon tbe paleter IK (he pivot “poo the axis of thee plete play i two bole f the petence #1) that after one tooth HI has communicated Tootion tothe palette K, that tooth escapes then, the orpeite teat net upon the palette fy ad exces inthe same tanver j and thor ench tooth of the thee eteape the palettes IK, after having comme: Ticated thelr motion to the palettes io sich'a mnaper thatthe peodlon iastead of being eopt, contioes to "Tie wheel EE revolves i an hours the pivot ¢ of the mel paser through the platy tnd i contioued tory upen the pivots wheel NN with a ong tocket fastened ie the centre} upon the extremity of thie tocket r the minutehand bw fixed. Tbe wheel NN fie upon the wheel Oy the psion of which p acta pen the wheel gg fixed spon a socket hich aran sling withthe whet! Ne This wheel gg makes ite ree sition i. ber apo the nck of which the it of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point cut the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of the peedslom. ‘When the cord from which the weight thoogh mere slowly, than the canel coal. The quai: tity of earth it contains does not exceed one-twentieth part of its weight ; but this kind of coal is frequently ‘mixed with pyriter, It is fouad in the county of Kile . kenny, the British legislature, that their amallest pieces uai more dost of this kind, are almost equally valuable fase or unite in the Bercest fire ; s0 that the ceaking coal 5 if not, coal (says M. Magellan) are very nomerom stances with which it is mixed ; bot in regard to their economical uses, only t calm and caking coals, The caking coal, in ba mon grate, witboot interposing any other fuel between its whet culm: Or by potting some of these small fragments of coal oa sccording to the diferent anb- kinds are taken notice of by show an incipient fution, 10 in the fire into one mass; by which ‘means the smallest pieces, and even the the largest. al coal, being uo8i for domestic purposes, ices. ‘The other sor, called culm, doesnot only be used in by trying ley nw ignited iron shovel ccolm from small eaking eon, either if it if they melt and ron together, they belong to the caking Kinds ; if not, they are culm. But it seeme that coal merebints are now in the custom of calling culm the powdery parts of pit-conl, of whatsoever kind they may to be. The reason of this ia, that there is a difference in the doty payable by culm and by caking coals, ‘There never was any dificulty, however, on the subject; ner woald there be any dificalty the tax, sere it not for the iasulferabe igoorance sndlove of despotic appresion wick, generally pervades the der ling officers of the revenue.”cOA coat, Small Cost, 1 sort of charcoal prepared from the ‘Coalety spray and brothwood, stripped off from the branches of ‘coppice wood, sometimes bound ia bares for that pur- pote, and sometimes charred without binding, in which 1 case it in called “ coming togetber.”” Hineryot ~ COALERY, Coatirry, or Couuitnys a coal- lk work, oF place here Coats are dog. Tes general ‘that our canoel coal ® is th lapis ampolites of the Romaos, though it seems to hhave beea used by them only for making toys, brace- lets, &c, Bat of that common fuel which we deoomi- nate coals, the native Romans were eatirely ignorant. # See Ame polite Ie they are not, as some bave imagined, the lapis obsidianue of Pliay, about which there have tie mari been great disputes +: nor’ the Gacatzs or Jzt, SES, whieh there again, have taken forthe laps oui cuits rus: though the lightness and texture show plainly eee not either stone or coal Tn fat there are the compass of Italy. ‘The great line ems to sweep away rouiad the globe, from it ort-east to south-west ; not ranging ata distance even. 2" from the southeasterly parts of ou island, an is ge- erally imagined, ly visiting Brabast. and France, and yet avoiding Italy. ‘Bot the primeval Britons appear to have used it. ‘And in the precincts of Manchester particalarly, which are furnished with an inexhaustible abundance of it, they could not have remained unapprised of the agree Irataers able conbusible around them. Re corre thee Hidory of Frequently bring down fragments of coal from the Mend” mottuing: and io the lng and wing coors af fr them through the parish, the Britoos would sooo mark the shiniog stones ia the channels; und by tho aid of accident, or the farce of reflection, find out the utility of them.” But we can advance stil nearer to a cer- tainty. Several pieces of coal wero discovered some years ago in the sand under the Roman way to Ri Ghester, when both were dug up at the construction of abou in Quay-tret, The numberof pices, eve; ral of them as large as eggs, was not less than 49 5 ‘© quantity of slack was dug up with them. ‘These cir- cumstances show the coals to have been lodged upon the spot before the road of the Romans covered it. That 4 4c. the ground being in the neighbourhood of Manceniont, the pice of" Britons had there reposted a quantity of coals, proba fais” AB bly forthe ute of the gar 1d many of the salle selet Be ragmeaiey and some ofthe slack were busied in tba Ahesto ot sand upon which they were laid. And that the Britons which was in general wore acquainted with this fuel, is the premot from its appellation amongst us at present, which is lent SPREE" not Saxon, but British ; and subsists Trish these (0 gual, and among the Corsi ‘alan, day. ‘The extensive beds of fuel therefore, with which the kingdom of England, and the precincts of Manchester, are so happily stored, were first noticed by the skill, and first opened by the labour of the Britons and some time before the arrival of the Romans among os, ‘And the nearer quarries in the confines of Bi Newton, and Manchester, would aaturally attract tbo notice, and invite the inquiries of the Britons, before any others. ‘The ourreat of the Medlock,” which ‘washes the sides of them, would bring down specimens Uf the fiches withiy ledge many of them about the [ 222 J] COA Castel, and allure the Britons succemively toa col- Coatary. lection of the one, and a search afer the other, Syme But, even for agen afer the discovery, wood continn- ed to compote the general fol of the sation, To 852, f grant wee made of vome lands by the abbey of Peitee borough, onder the reservation of certain booos and payocals in kind to the monatery am ope night's Entertaiament; 10 vessels of Welshy and'two of come thon tle 60 carloads of ‘mood, abd 12 of pitcoals tmbere we see the qoantity of eon! was oaly ove carte Toad to Bve of wood. ‘The later natorally cootioved nial etl of a lat lng the free Lets presented themealve 0 ready tothe bands fed such it Coated toe very Tate period, The frst public notice of the former is mentioned by Mr Hit taba en i the in of Hoary iT hy i the gar 237%, grand x care the og af Ne carte giviog the inhabitants a icense te dig coale thd Ge‘Grot tatute relating to thie article wae the gl Henry V. c. to. ordaining all els inthe. port of Newcusll to be’ measured’ by comminionery before carriage of coal, on pin of fort Tere ust ought into common ea snd wer then wl for aboot 276.» carn, Taste compte rer. Jears ales the Restoratin, there were about 200,000 Uisldroos burnt in London in 1670, about 270,000 chuldrasy atthe Revolatioo upwarde of $00,000 cha drous and st present, fll 600,000 are nnntally cou- sumed there. There i, bide an immense costar tion in otber parts of Britain, and in Ireland. In Seat- land, they sopply their own consomption, and al ex- port) To Lreland thogh they have cul, yet they take Ennvally tothe value of go,ool from Hagland, and ‘pooh fom Sade - ie tnt remarkable conler, or con-work, that we ver bad ia thi romstousoeat, oder found to contiove under the bed of the va in ths pace, td the callers had the courage to work the vein nent inf way over, there being a ote ball «ele fom the theres bere dhere wat anventry that weat down, ito the coal-pt, under the sca. hie war made into a lf rund gua or ety they al to keep eut the sen, which flowed there twelve eet, Here the coals were lnidy and ship of that draught of water could ley her de to the mote, nad take‘in the ceal—This Tamove conlery beleaged to the atl of Kincardin's family. The sh water which epreog from the batons and aides of the coahpit was alwaye drawa out upon the aboce by an eogine moved by wae te tat dre fry fathoms. "The cont co tinoed to be wrooght many yen to the grt prot of the owners, aod the wondct ofall that sam itj"boty at last, an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at nce the Taboarers bad not me to escape, bot pesiah- ‘There are several other countries in Europe which potsess considerable coul-mines 5 as Erance, Liege, Germany, and Sweden. Also on the other side of the at center in bret cu icon, nd ‘wrooght : in Newfoundls ston, Canads, ind some ofthe New England provinces. But ia allEasdience ‘these couatries, the coal is of a quality much inferior ofthe Bi to the British, and entirely onfit to be used in many smanufectores5