CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION

Rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin: A

review

Zakuan Zainy Deris, PhD1, Suresh Kumar, MRCP2

1
School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, 2Hospital Sungai
Buloh, Sungai Buloh, Selangor Darul Ehsan

SUMMARY
Polymyxin B and colistin (polymyxin E) were introduced in
infections.4 The colistin dose was suggested to be loaded at 7-

clinical practice to treat Gram-negative infections in 1950s

9 MU stat and followed by 9 MU daily in two to three divided

but their parenteral use waned in 1970s due to toxicity

doses and renal adjusted dose is required. At that time, there

concerns. Resurgence of polymyxins use in Malaysia began

was no recommendation for polymyxins to be used in

approximately in 2009 due to a lack of treatment options for

treating Enterobacteriaceae or Pseudomonas. In fact,

MDR Gram negative superbugs such as Acinetobacter

recommendation on the use of parenteral polymyxin B is

baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas

limited and very much depended on individual institutions.

aeruginosa. However, limited experience and a lack of

widespread availability of up-to-date dosing guidelines
Since 2014, the use of polymyxins in the country has steadily

could potentially result in incorrect use of these last resort

increased in tandem with the rise of extreme drug resistance

antibiotics by managing doctors. The recent report of

(XDR) Acinetobacter and carbapenem-resistant

polymyxin resistant strains is also a cause of concern.

Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) cases and outbreaks (National

Herein, we discuss the importance of preserving the efficacy

Surveillance of Antibiotic Resistance, 2015). While waiting for

of polymyxins in hospitals, the similarities and differences

the next guidelines review, each institution established its

between polymyxin B and colistin, issues pertaining to

own guidelines on polymyxins use. With unregulated use of

current use of polymxyins and strategies to improve

polymyxins, this consequently may result in, excessive use of

polymyxins’ prescription. Polymyxins should only be used

these antibiotics in certain hospitals. Combined with poor

to treat significant infections, in optimum doses and if

infection control policy, the emergence and spread of the

possible, in combination with other antibiotics.

much dreaded polymyxin-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae has
been observed (National Surveillance of Antibiotic

KEY WORDS:
Resistance, 2015). In this review for Continuing Medical
Education (CME), current understanding on the use of these
polymyxin B; colistin; healthcare-associated infections; antibiotics to prolong their efficacy in clinical practice
antimicrobial drug resistance; Acinetobacter baumannii; Klebsiella against Gram-negative healthcare-associated infections will
pneumoniae; Pseudomonas aeruginosa be elaborated.

INTRODUCTION
Bad Bugs Need Drugs
Since early of the century, Acinetobacter baumannii and
Polymyxin B and colistin (polymyxin E) are the only two Klebsiella pneumoniae have become a major threat in critically
polymyxins available for clinical use. Polymyxin B which ill patients and there is a rapidly growing crises in
was discovered in 1947 is an antimicrobial peptide produced antimicrobial resistance.5,6 These two organisms were listed as
by a soil bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa,1 whereas colistin is difficult to eliminate nosocomial bacteria, the “ESKAPE”
produced by a different subspecies of Pa. colistinus.2 pathogens.7 Klebsiella spp. were the third most common
Polymyxins were first used clinically in 1950s to treat Gram- nosocomial pathogen reported to the U.S. National
negative infections but their usage had declined in 1970s due Healthcare Safety Network.8 Gradual increasing trend of
to toxicity concerns and availability of ‘safer’ alternative carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae in Malaysian hospitals
antibiotics, aminoglycosides.3 Interestingly, the clinical use of such as in Hospital USM has been observed from 2012
intravenous (IV) preparations of polymyxins have resurged onwards (Figure 1B). This concurs with the recent report from
at the end of last decade, as the last line treatment option for the US that indicated carbapenem-resistance among
multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella spp. isolated from catheter-related bacteraemia,
Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae infections.3 ventilator-associated pneumonia and urinary tract infection
were 9.1-13.1%.8 In Hospital USM, Acinetobacter spp. were
The reuse of IV polymyxins in Malaysia started among the commonest organisms isolated with a prevalence
approximately in 2009 with an increasing trend of colistin of 6.11% and an attack rate of 2.77 episodes per 1000
prescription observed over the years (Figure 1A). In National hospital admissions.9 The clinical isolation rate of
Antibiotic Guidelines 2014, the use of IV polymyxin is carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii in Hospital USM had
recommended as an alternative to cefoperazone/sulbactam reached up to 80% (Figure 1C),10 a disturbing and worrying
or ampicillin/sulbactam for treatment of MDR Acinetobacter fact which suggests that most antibiotics are ineffective

This article was accepted: 12 June 2018

Corresponding Author: Zakuan Zainy Deris
Email: zakuan@usm.my

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Continuing Medical Education

Fig. 1: (A) The prescription of IV polymyxin B (■) and colistin (●) Fig. 2: Chemical structure of polymyxin B and colistin. The
in Malaysia. (B) The trend of imipenem-resistance among different between polymyxin B and colistin is at R6 which
Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from clinical specimens in is D-phenylalanine in polymyxin B and D-leucine in
the US (●) and Hospital USM (■). (C) The trend of colistin. In colistin methanesulphonate, there is addition
imipenem-resistance among Acinetobacter baumannii of a sulphomethyl group to the primary amines of colistin
isolates from clinical specimens in the US (●) and Hospital leading to a change in the electrostatic charges. Thr:
USM (■). (D) New antibiotics approved by the U.S. Food threonine; Leu: leucine; Phe: phenylalanine; Dab: a,g-
and Drug Administrations, 1983–2012. diaminobutyric acid. CMS: colistin methanesulphonate.
Adapted/reproduced from Malaysian National Antibiotic Reproduced from Deris et al. 2014.
Guidelines 2014, Deris 2015 and Infectious Diseases
Society of America 2011.

Table I: New European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved for European colistin methanesulphonate product in 2015. Adapted from
European Medicines Agency, 2015.
Patient’s condition Creatinine Clearance Daily Dose Approximate colistin base
(mL/min) Approved activity (CBA) equivalent
Not on Renal Replacement Therapy ≥50 9 MIU 300 mg
30 to <50 5.5-7.5 MIU 183-250 mg
10 to <30 4.5-5.5 MIU 150-183 mg
<10 3.5 MIU 117 mg

Haemodialysis (HD) No-HD days 2.25 MIU 75 mg

(Twice daily dosing is recommended) (2.2-2.3 MIU)
HD days 3 MIU/day on HD days, to be given 100 mg
after the HD session.

CVVHF/ CVVHDF As in patients with normal renal

(Three times daily dosing is function.
recommended) (9 MIU/day)

Children ≤40kg 75.000-150.000 IU/kg/day divided

into 3 doses.
>40 kg Use of the dosing recommendation
for adults

against this microorganism in local hospitals. With the On the other side, there is a steady decline in the antibiotic
plasmid-mediated carbapenemase genes in the circulation, development pipelines as well as the approval of new
therapeutic options are indeed limited as the microorganisms antibiotics for clinical use.11 After a long hiatus, in 2014-15
are often resistant to almost all available antibiotics except US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved two new
polymyxins. second-generation cephalosporin/β-lactamase inhibitor
combinations (ceftolozane/tazobactam and

352 Med J Malaysia Vol 73 No 5 October 2018

 Rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin: A review

ceftazidime/avibactam), that could be used to treat Although polymyxin B and colistin are minimally excreted
multidrug resistant gram negative bacteria. Of these two, in urine, urinary concentrations of colistin can be relatively
only ceftazidime/avibactam is active against some high due to conversion of CMS within the urinary tract,
carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae strains. However, knowing CMS is extensively excreted by renal system.13
ceftazidime/avibactam is not effective against metallo-β-
lactamases such as New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases which is The mean t1/2 and total body clearance of polymyxin B was
the most common type of carbapenemase seen in Malaysia. shown to be 13.6 h and 2.4 L/h, respectively. In critically ill
Hence, proper and diligent use of current antibiotics is patients, the mean protein binding of polymyxin B has been
paramount to prevent emergence and spread of resistance found to be >90%.19 With 0.5-1.5mg/kg dose polymyxin B,
and eventually to preserve the efficacy of these antibiotics. the maximum concentration (Cmax) has been demonstrated
to be between 2.38 to 13.9μg/mL with less than 1% is
Polymyxin B and colistin recovered in urine.20 The body clearance of polymyxin B has
Polymyxins are cationic lipopeptide antibiotics. Polymyxin B very low inter-individual variability and is not influenced by
and colistin share a common primary sequence with the only creatinine clearance.21
difference being at position 6 which is D-phenylalanine in

primary amines of the α,γ-diaminobutyric acid (Dab) are

polymyxin B and D-leucine in colistin (Figure 2).12-14 The On the other hand, after 150-225mg every 8h dose of CMS
(~5.1-7.6 MIU/day), the Cmax of formed colistin was only 1.15
important residues that make the net-charge of polymyxin to 5.14μg/mL.22 The mean apparent t1/2 and total body
molecules to become positive (Figure 2).13 These positive clearance of formed colistin were 7.4h and 13.6L/h,
charges will interact with phosphate moieties of bacterial respectively.22 The concentrations of formed colistin were
lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which are anionic in nature, to suboptimum in lung tissue and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).23,24
displace divalent cations (Ca2+ or Mg2+) leading to instability In a large PK study, Garonzik et al. (2011) found creatinine
of the LPS outer membrane’s monolayer and subsequently clearance is an important covariate for the total clearance of
killing the bacteria.15 CMS. Both CMS and formed colistin were efficiently cleared
by renal replacement therapy. With the daily CMS dose of
IV formulation of polymyxin B is in sulphate salt, which is an ~2.3-12.3MIU/day, the average concentration at steady state
antimicrobial active form. In contrast to polymyxin B, (Css,avg) of formed colistin in all patients ranged from 0.48 to
colistin parenteral preparation is in the form of colistin 9.38μg/mL, and alarmingly, substantial number of subjects
methanesulphonate (CMS, also known as colistimethate) have <2μg/mL (Figure 4).25 Looking to unbound colistin
which may lead to rapid renal clearance and less tissue ranged from 26 to 41% only,26 it is clear that the dose of
binding that consequently reduces the toxicity.16-17 However, colistin monotherapy up to 12.3MIU/day is still inadequate
the addition of a sulphomethyl group to the primary amines to treat Gram-negative infection with minimal inhibitory
of colistin (Figure 2)18 leads to reduced positive charges of concentrations (MICs) >1μg/mL in significant proportion of
CMS. Being anionic in nature, CMS is unable to interact with patients.
the negatively charged bacterial LPS. CMS is an inactive pro-
drug and needs to undergo conversion to form an active Dose controversy
entity of colistin.12 Prior to 2015, there is a disagreement in the recommended
dosage of the US and European products of intravenous

ISSUES WITH CURRENT USE OF POLYMXYINS

formulation of colistin. The recommended upper limit dosage
for adults using CMS from the US is approximately
Pharmacokinetics (PK) 800mg/day (~9 million units/day, 300 mg/day CBA),
As stated above, the major difference of the two parenteral whereas the CMS from Europe has a recommendation of 480
polymyxins available in clinical practice is that polymyxin B mg/day for adults (5.4 million units/day, ~ 180mg/day
is administered as its active sulphate salt whereas colistin is colistin based activity (CBA).27 The recommended dose for
administered in the form of inactive prodrug, CMS.12-13 Figure European product is very low and may potentially lead to
3A shows a relatively straightforward PK profiles of treatment failure. In contrast, when the US recommendation
polymyxin B. After administration in active form, polymyxin is wrongly calculated as 800 mg/day CBA, a fatal drug
B is subjected to renal glomerulus filtration and extensive overdose could occur (>2000 mg/day of CMS).27 With either
tubular reabsorption. Finally, it is eliminated mainly by dose, the formed colistin takes 2–3 days before reaching its
nonrenal system. However, the PK profiles of IV formulation steady state.28 At present. it is recommended that a loading
of colistin is rather complicated (Figure 3B). After dose for IV CMS is used according to body weight followed by
administration, CMS is predominantly excreted by kidney. a maintenance dose based on the patient’s renal
Only approximately 20-25% of CMS are converted to colistin. conditions.10,25 Both U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Therefore, to attain sufficient plasma concentration of active (FDA)29 and European Medicines Agency (EMA)30 have
antibacterial entity, about 5 times the amount of CMS needs approved the new prescription recommendation in 2015.
to be administered to patients.13 In addition to that, the rate Unfortunately, confusion may still arise as both countries do
and extent of in vivo conversion of CMS to colistin also vary not use similar dosing units, with international units (IU)
due to a relatively greater inter-individual variability and a used for European products and CBA for the US products.
batch-to-batch variability of the CMS complex composition. Since the IV colistin formulation available in Malaysia is
The slow conversion of CMS leads to a delay in killing of mainly procured from Europe, Table I shows the new
bacteria by the active form of colistin. After the conversion, recommended dose according to European product guides.
the fate of the formed colistin is similar to polymyxin B.13

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Fig. 3: Pharmacokinetic pathways following intravenous administration of polymyxin B (A) and colistin methanesulphonate (B). The
thickness of the arrows indicates the relative magnitude of the respective clearance pathways when kidney function is normal.
Adapted from Nation et al. 2014.

Fig. 4: Steady-state plasma concentration-time profiles of Fig. 5: Time-kill curves of colistin indicated regrowth of K.
polymyxin B in 24 patient (A) and steady-state plasma pneumoniae ATCC 13883 (A) and A. baumannii ATCC
concentration-time profiles of the formed-colistin after 19606 (B) after 2-4 h exposure to colistin. The limit of
CMS dose in 105 critically ill patients (B). A dash detection is 20 CFU/mL (approximately 1.3 on log10 scale)
horizontal line indicates plasma concentration of 2μg/mL and the limit of quantification is 400 CFU/mL
which is a cut-off MIC of susceptible. With the fact that (approximately 2.6 on log10 scale). Adapted from
>90% of polymyxin B and ~70% of colistin are bound to Poudyal et al. 2008 and Li et al. 2006.
plasma protein, there are significant proportion of
patients with unbound polymyxin concentration
<1µg/mL. Adapted from Sandri et al. 2013 and Garonzik
et al. 2011.

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 Rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin: A review

Pharmacodynamics (PD) STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVED POLYMYXIN PRESCRIPTION

Considering that only one amino acid difference exists Significant infections
between polymyxin B and colistin, it is very likely that Among the three Gram-negative superbugs that need
polymyxin B and colistin have similar PD behaviour.13 Two polymyxin therapy, the significance of Acinetobacter
important observations have been reported from polymyxins acquisition may be the most questionable one. In the era of
PD studies. The first observation is, after a rapid antibiotic-resistant superbugs, whenever possible, the use of
concentration-dependent killing, bacteria regrowth occurred antibiotics should be limited to significant infections only.
as early as 2h in time-kill experiments at concentration up to However, it is difficult to differentiate between colonisation
64×MIC (Figure 5).31-33 and infection in many instances. Most of the time, the
decision to treat on the basis of a positive culture result is in
Similar observation has been reported in studies using in the hands of the physician in-charge.48 In general, polymyxin
vitro one compartment PK/PD model,34-36 hollow-fibre therapy should be initiated if the culture material from sterile
infection model (HFIM) system37 and animal model.38,39 These body site is positive and the patient has symptoms or signs of
regrowth of K. pneumoniae, A. baumannii and P. aeruginosa sepsis. On the other hand, non-sterile body site specimens
were later on found to be due to heteroresistant need to be carefully interpreted to avoid inappropriate use of
subpopulations (in a virtually susceptible isolates). The these chemotherapeutic agents. The CDC definition of
population analysis profiles (PAPs) were performed by health-care associated infections surveillance can be used as
subculturing of serial dilutions of bacterial suspension on a guide to differentiate between colonization and infection.
colistin/polymyxin B containing Mueller–Hinton agar, thus Colonization is the presence of microorganisms on skin, on
the number of resistant subpopulations in the suspension can mucous membranes, in open wounds, or in excretions or
be counted. The PAPs revealed the proportion of resistant secretions but are not causing adverse clinical signs or
bacterial cell was up to 1 in 1.29×105 susceptible bacterial symptoms.49 Sepsis markers e.g. procalcitonin are very helpful
colony-forming units (CFU).33 These pre-existing polymyxin- in decision making to treat the infections.50 In addition to
resistant bacterial cells will grow when the susceptible cells that, the significant mild local infections can be treated with
die due to bactericidal effect of polymyxins. local antiseptic dressing. This should further reduce
unnecessary administration of parenteral polymyxins.
The second important PD observation is, the attenuation of
polymyxin bactericidal activity against high bacterial Adequate doses
density inoculum.40 At lower bacterial concentration (~106 There is no doubt adequate early attainment of polymyxin
CFU/mL), colistin at 1×MICs was able to reduce the bacterial concentration in the serum is critical for bactericidal
viable count by 4-log10CFU/mL but at high inoculum (~109 activity.51 In view of slow conversion of CMS to active form of
CFU/mL) the reduction was <1-log10CFU/mL. The extent of colistin, Garonzik et al. suggested a loading dose should be
killing of P. aeruginosa isolates by colistin were also markedly given to all patients. The maintenance doses are
inhibited at high initial inoculum compared to low initial recommended in according to renal function and renal
inoculum.40 To some extent, the in vitro PK/PD model has replacement therapy.25 The EMA recommends the loading
demonstrated similar findings when comparing 106 and 108 - dose of 9 MIU (~300 mg CBA) for critically ill patient.30 In fact,
CFU/mL inoculum of K. pneumoniae.35 This literally means latest guidelines by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards
that polymyxins are likely to be ineffective for the treatment Institute (CLSI) indicate that CMS should be given with a
of infective endocarditis or deep seated abscess without loading dose and at maximum recommended dose for the
adequate source reduction. treatment of Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Acinetobacter.52
Plasmid-mediated polymyxin resistance gene, mcr-1
Recently in November 2015, Liu et al., described the presence With the latest FDA and EMA recommended dose, Nation et
of a plasmid-mediated polymyxin-resistance gene, mcr-1, in al.53 found that the colistin Css,avg was relatively low in
Enterobacteriaceae from food animals and patients in patients with creatinine clearance ≥80mL/min. They also
China.41 In fact, the mcr-1 gene emerged in Malaysia earlier observed a very wide inter-patient variability (up to
in 2013 when Yu et al. (2016) retrospectively screen more approximately 12-fold) in the plasma colistin Css,avg across all
than 900 isolates in their stock culture which have been four renal function groups.53 Their team in Monash
archived since 2009. They found the polymyxin-resistant University have developed an Apple app on recommended
gene in E. coli isolated from poultry, pigs’ food, environment individual colistin dosing that are freely available at
and human urine.42 An expression of mcr-1 resulted in the https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/colistindose/id1336806844?
addition of a phosphoethanolamine moiety to the outer Kdo mt=8&ign-mpt=uo%3D4. Looking at the narrow therapeutic
residue of LPS in E. coli.41 This is the first known polymyxin- range of colistin, a therapeutic drug monitoring practice
resistance mechanism that is capable of a horizontal transfer, needs to be considered for optimum CMS dosage regimen in
thus increases the likelihood of global spread. After that, the individual patients.
mcr-1 gene has been reported from almost all continents
except from Oceania and Antartica.43-47 The spread of this The pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of IV polymyxin B
gene need to be controlled by, among others, by rational use indicates a low inter-individual variability of serum
of polymyxins. concentrations after scaling to body weight. The polymyxin B
serum concentration is not influenced by renal functions.21
Therefore, the renal dose adjustment as advised by the
manufacturer is not recommended.13 In fact, we found the
polymyxin B dose of <15000units/kg/day is associated with

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treatment failures in critically ill patients.54 The current methods.62 Zusman et al., recently published a meta-analysis
recommended doses of polymyxin B (up to 2.5mg/kg/day, to compare between polymyxin monotherapy and
25000units/kg/day) are appropriate for a pathogen with MIC combination against carbapenem-resistant bacteria. They
≤1μg/mL or less severe infections with superbugs with MICs of demonstrated that polymyxin monotherapy was associated
≤2μg/mL.21 with higher mortality rate at odd ratio (OR) 1.58 (95%CI :
1.03 to 2.42) compared with polymyxin/carbapenem
Combination therapy combination therapy. They also found that mortality was
It has been stated above that the current recommended dose significantly higher with polymyxin monotherapy compared
of polymyxins (particularly CMS) is associated with sub with combination therapy with tigecycline, aminoglycosides
therapeutic concentrations in a large number of the patients. or fosfomycin with OR of 1.57 (95%CI : 1.06 to 2.32) for
On top of that, a paradoxical effect has been observed overall carbapenem-resistant bacteria and OR of 2.09 (95%CI
whereby higher polymyxin B concentrations are associated : 1.21 to 3.6) for specific Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteraemia.
with dramatically increased resistant subpopulations in Polymyxin combination with rifampicin for treatment of A.
Acinetobacter baumannii.55 This highlights the need to baumannii infections has shown no difference in mortality
combine other antibiotics with polymyxins to treat Gram compared with colistin monotherapy.63
negative superbugs. The Clinical and Laboratory Standards

CONCLUSION
Institute (CLSI) has also advised the use of colistin in
combination with other antibiotics in the latest Performance
Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing.52 Maintaining the efficacy of polymyxins in the era of resistant
superbugs is critical to prolong their therapeutic utility.
A meta-analysis of in vitro polymyxin-carbapenem Currently these antibiotics are the last resort for most of the
combination demonstrated synergy rates of 77% for A. A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa infections.
baumannii, 44% for K. pneumoniae and 50% for P. aeruginosa.56 Understanding the mechanism of bactericidal activities,
The antagonistic interaction between polymyxin and mechanism of resistance, pharmacokinetics and
carbapenem were identified between 2-24% of the tested pharmacodynamics is very important to optimum use the
strains.56 Specifically against carbapenem-resistant (and polymyxins. In general, polymyxin B has better
polymyxin-susceptible) strains, the synergy rate of pharmacokinetics profiles because of its IV formulation as an
polymyxin-carbapenem combination were 71%, 55% and active drug. However polymyxin B concentration in urine is
59% for A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa very minimal due to its non-renal clearance. Colistin is
respectively.56 Polymyxin-carbapenem combinations may administered in prodrug form, CMS, which later transforms
not be a suitable combination regimen against carbapenem- into active antibiotic in vivo. Loading dose of CMS is indicated
resistant, polymyxin-resistant K. pneumoniae as the synergy because of the delay attainment of therapeutic concentration
rate had been observed in only 22% cases.56 Besides of formed colistin. Both polymyxins have similar
carbapenem, other antibiotics that have been tested in pharmacodynamics profiles and need to be used in
combination with polymyxins against gram-negative combination with other antibiotics to avoid treatment failure
superbugs include cefoperazone/sulbactam (synergy rate and prevent the emergence of resistant.
4%), piperacillin/tazobactam (2%), tigecycline (12-29%),

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
rifampicin (42%), quinolones (90% against P. aeruginosa),
chloramphenicol (89% against K. pneumoniae), vancomycin
(67%) and daptomycin (53%).57 We would like to thank Dr Rafidah Hanim Shueb from the
School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia for the
In thigh and lung infection models, Lee et al., demonstrated time she spent in editing this manuscript.
that for colistin-susceptible, -heteroresistant and -resistant K.

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http://www.pharmacy.gov.my/v2/en/documents/national-antibiotic-
gram-negative outer membranes, thus enhancing guideline-nag-2nd-edition.html, 2014.
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Klebsiella pneumoniae antimicrobial drug resistance, United States, 1998-
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The clinical studies on polymyxin combination therapy are Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010; 31(2): 196-7.
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information, usually involve small number of patients and
have heterogeneity in case definitions and susceptibility test

356 Med J Malaysia Vol 73 No 5 October 2018

 Rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin: A review

Take-home messages on the rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin in clinical practice for
treatment of MDR Gram-negative superbugs
Subjects Take-home messages
Indication Intravenous (IV) polymyxin B and colistin should be strictly used for significant infections by polymyxin-
susceptible stain of Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Enterobacteriaceae.

Intravenous formulation Polymyxin B is formulated in active antimicrobial form, polymyxin B sulphate, whereas colistin is
formulated in pro-drug formulation, colistin methanesulphonate (CMS).

Dose The maximum daily dose of polymyxin B is 25000 units/kg/day (2.5 mg/kg/day). The polymyxin B dose needs
to be scaled to body weight. Current pharmacokinetics evidences indicate that the polymyxin B dose is
not to be adjusted according to creatinine clearance.
The maximum daily dose of CMS is 9 MIU (300 mg colistin base activity) and needs renal dose adjustment
for creatinine clearance < 50 mL/min. Loading dose of CMS needs to be considered because of the delay
attainment of therapeutic concentration of formed colistin. The Apple app on recommended colistin
dosing can be used to tailor the colistin dosage in individual patient and freely available at
https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/colistindose/id1336806844?mt=8&ign-mpt=uo%3D4.

Pharmacodynamics/ Generally IV polymyxin B has superior PK profiles because it is formulated in active antimicrobial form.
pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) However the concentration in urine is lower due to non-renal clearance of active form of polymyxins.
Polymyxin B has longer half-life and more protein bound compared to colistin.
Polymyxin B and colistin have similar PD profiles.

Problem with current use 1. Sub-therapeutic concentrations in significant number of patients.

of polymyxins 2. Heteroresistant subpopulation. Up to 1: 105 CFU/mL of the bacterial population is resistant to
polymyxins in virtually susceptible strains.
3. Paradoxical effect of polymyxin B in which high drug exposure amplifies resistance of Gram negative
bacteria. This has been observed in Acinetobacter baumannii.

Strategies to maintain the 1. Strictly follow the antibiotic stewardship guidelines.

activity of polymyxins in 2. Use polymyxins in combination with other antibiotics. Most of the evidences indicate carbapenems are
the clinical settings the best second antibiotics, including infection caused by carbapenem resistant strains.
3. Polymyxin dose should be the maximum allowable dose.
4. Strictly follow infection control measures when plasmid-transferable polymyxin-resistance gene,
mcr-1 is detected.

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358 Med J Malaysia Vol 73 No 5 October 2018

 Rational use of intravenous polymyxin B and colistin: A review

Questions

1. Regarding polymyxins
A. They are lipopeptide antibiotics
B. Three polymyxins are available for clinical use at the moment
C. The reduction of parenteral polymyxins use in 1970s was due to availability of alternative ‘safer’ antibiotic
D. They are active against Burkholderia pseudomallei
E. The positive charge of their amines group is critical for initial bactericidal activity

2. The strategies to improve polymyxin prescriptions include

A. adjusting polymyxin B dose according to body weight
B. adjusting polymyxin B dose according to creatinine clearance
C. administering loading dose of CMS to get early high concentration of formed-colistin
D. monitoring serum formed-colistin concentration
E. using polymyxins-carbapenem combination to treat carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative K. pneumoniae

3. Resistance to polymyxins among Gram-negative superbugs is predicted due to

A. emergence and spread of mcr-1 gene
B. use of polymyxin combination therapy
C. presence of heteroresistant subpopulation in virtually susceptible strains
D. inappropriately use of polymyxins to clear colonizer
E. low formed-colistin attainment with current recommended dose of CMS

4. Maintaining the efficacy of polymyxins against Gram-negative superbugs is critical due to

A. polymyxin has minimal adverse effects
B. increase cases of Gram-positive infections
C. polymyxins is the last resort antibiotics
D. lack of new antibiotics targeted carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative superbugs in the development pipeline
E. increase cases of extreme drug resistance Gram-negative infections

5. The difference of polymyxin B and colistin is/are

A. IV polymyxin B is formulated in active form whereas colistin in prodrug
B. polymyxin B is more active against A. baumannii than colistin
C. polymyxin B has limited concentration in urine whereas colistin has significant concentration in urine after their
IV dose
D. polymyxin B has low inter-individual variability whereas colistin has greater inter-individual variability
E. polymyxin B has net positive charge whereas formed-colistin has net negative charge

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