SOUTH AFRICAN

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL

Chapter 14

Post-Construction

AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

AFRICAN NATIONAL ROADS AGENCY SOC LTD

Date of Issue: October 2014

Second Edition
South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 14: Post-Construction

© 2013 South African National Roads Agency SOC Ltd. All rights reserved.

First edition published 2013

Second edition published 2014

Printed in the Republic of South Africa

SET: ISBN 978-1-920611-00-2

CHAPTER: ISBN 978-1-920611-14-9

www.nra.co.za
sapem@nra.co.za
 SOUTH AFRICAN

PAVEMENT ENGINEERING MANUAL

Chapter 14

Post-Construction

AN INITIATIVE OF THE SOUTH

AFRICAN NATIONAL ROADS AGENCY SOC LTD

Date of Issue: October 2014

Second Edition
 BACKGROUND

1. Introduction

2. Pavement Composition and Behaviour

TESTING AND LABORATORY

3. Materials Testing

4. Standards

5. Laboratory Management

INVESTIGATION

6. Road Prism and Pavement Investigations

7. Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations

8. Material Sources

DESIGN

9. Materials Utilisation and Design

10. Pavement Design

DOCUMENTATION AND TENDERING

11. Documentation and Tendering

IMPLEMENTATION

12. Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines

QUALITY MANAGEMENT

13. Acceptance Control

POST CONSTRUCTION

You are
here
 14. Post-Construction
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 14: Post-Construction

SCOPE
The South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) is a reference manual for all aspects of pavement
engineering. SAPEM is a best practice guide. There are many relevant manuals and guidelines available for
pavement engineering, which SAPEM does not replace. Rather, SAPEM provides details on these references, and
where necessary, provides guidelines on their appropriate use. Where a topic is adequately covered in another
guideline, the reference is provided. SAPEM strives to provide explanations of the basic concepts and terminology
used in pavement engineering, and provides background information to the concepts and theories commonly used.
SAPEM is appropriate for use at National, Provincial and Municipal level, as well as in the Metros. SAPEM is a
valuable education and training tool, and is recommended reading for all entry level engineers, technologists and
technicians involved in the pavement engineering industry. SAPEM is also useful for practising engineers who would
like to access the latest appropriate reference guideline.

SAPEM consists of 14 chapters covering all aspects of pavement engineering. A brief description of each chapter is
given below to provide the context for this chapter, Chapter 14.

Chapter 1: Introduction discusses the application of this SAPEM manual, and the institutional responsibilities,
statutory requirements, basic principles of roads, the road design life cycle, and planning and time scheduling for
pavement engineering projects. A glossary of terms and abbreviations used in all the SAPEM chapters is included in
Appendix A. A list of the major references and guidelines for pavement engineering is given in Appendix B.

Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and Behaviour includes typical pavement structures, material
characteristics and pavement types, including both flexible and rigid pavements, and surfacings. Typical materials
and pavement behaviour are explained. The development of pavement distress, and the functional performance of
pavements are discussed. As an introduction, and background for reference with other chapters, the basic principles
of mechanics of materials and material science are outlined.

Chapter 3: Materials Testing presents the tests used for all material types used in pavement structures. The
tests are briefly described, and reference is made to the test number and where to obtain the full test method.
Where possible and applicable, interesting observations or experiences with the tests are mentioned. Chapters 3 and
4 are complementary.

Chapter 4: Standards follows the same format as Chapter 3, but discusses the standards used for the various
tests. This includes applicable limits (minimum and maximum values) for test results. Material classification systems
are given, as are guidelines on mix and materials composition.

Chapter 5: Laboratory Management covers laboratory quality management, testing personnel, test methods,
and the testing environment and equipment. Quality assurance issues, and health, safety and the environment are
also discussed.

Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement Investigation discusses all aspects of the road prism and pavement
investigations, including legal and environmental requirements, materials testing, and reporting on the investigations.
The road pavement investigations include discussions on the investigation stages, and field testing and sampling
(both intrusively and non-intrusively), and the interpretation of the pavement investigations. Chapters 6 and 7 are
complementary.

Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations covers the investigations into fills, cuts,
structures and tunnels, and includes discussion on geophysical methods, drilling and probing, and stability
assessments. Guidelines for the reporting of the investigations are provided.

Chapter 8: Material Sources provides information for sourcing materials from project quarries and borrow pits,
commercial materials sources and alternative sources. The legal and environmental requirements for sourcing
materials are given. Alternative sources of potential pavement materials are discussed, including recycled pavement
materials, construction and demolition waste, slag, fly ash and mine waste.

Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design discusses materials in the roadbed, earthworks (including cuts and
fills) and all the pavement layers, including soils and gravels, crushed stones, cementitious materials, primes, stone
precoating fluids and tack coats, bituminous binders, bitumen stabilized materials, asphalt, spray seals and micro
surfacings, concrete, proprietary and certified products and block paving. The mix designs of all materials are
discussed.

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Chapter 14: Post-Construction

Chapter 10: Pavement Design presents the philosophy of pavement design, methods of estimating design traffic
and the pavement design process. Methods of structural capacity estimation for flexible, rigid and concrete block
pavements are discussed.

Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering covers the different forms of contracts typical for road pavement
projects; the design, contract and tender documentation; the tender process; and the contract documentation from
the tender award to the close-out of the Works.

Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines presents the nature and requirements of
construction equipment and different methods of construction. The construction of trial sections is also discussed.
Chapters 12 and 13 are complementary, with Chapter 12 covering the proactive components of road construction,
i.e., the method of construction. Chapter 13 covers the reactive components, i.e., checking the construction is done
correctly.

Chapter 13: Quality Management includes acceptance control processes, and quality plans. All the pavement
layers and the road prism are discussed. The documentation involved in quality management is also discussed, and
where applicable, provided.

Chapter 14: Post-Construction incorporates the monitoring of pavements during the service life, including traffic
monitoring, the environment, and pavement condition monitoring. The development, and causes and mechanisms of
distress are illustrated and explained. A description of pavement management systems is provided. Routine and
preventative maintenance are discussed, as are rehabilitation and reconstruction.

FEEDBACK
SAPEM is a “living document”. The first edition was made available in electronic format in January 2013, and a
second edition in October 2014. Feedback from all interested parties in industry is appreciated, as this will keep
SAPEM relevant.

To provide feedback on SAPEM, please email sapem@nra.co.za.

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ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
This compilation of this manual was funded by the South African National Road Agency SOC Limited (SANRAL). The
project was coordinated on behalf of SANRAL by Kobus van der Walt and Steph Bredenhann. Professor Kim Jenkins,
the SANRAL Chair in Pavement Engineering at Stellenbosch University, was the project manager. The Cement and
Concrete Institute (C & CI) and Rubicon Solutions provided administrative support.

The following people contributed to the compilation of Chapter 14:

 Task Group Leader: Arthur Taute, SMEC South Africa
 Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions
 Dr Pieter Strauss, Specialist Consultant

This SAPEM manual was edited by Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions.

Photos for this chapter were provided by:

 Professor Kim Jenkins, Stellenbosch University
 Dr Fenella Johns, Rubicon Solutions
 Dr Fritz Jooste, Juno Services
 Dr Phil Paige-Green, Tshwane University of Technology
 Bryan Perrie, The Concrete Institute (TCI)
 Miles Roux, N3 Toll Concession
 Arthur Taute, SMEC South Africa
 Louis Walstrand, SRT
 Dr Pieter Strauss, Specialist Consultant

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Road Asset Management.................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Sustainability .......................................................................................................................... 4
3. Pavement Monitoring ......................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Traffic .................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Environment ........................................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Condition Monitoring and Visual Assessment ............................................................................. 7
3.4 Surveillance Measurements ...................................................................................................... 7
4. Distress ............................................................................................................................................... 9
4.1 Distress in Flexible Pavements ................................................................................................. 9
4.1.1 Surfacing Distress ......................................................................................................... 9
4.1.2 Pavement Structural Defects ........................................................................................ 11
4.1.3 Drainage Distress ....................................................................................................... 11
4.1.4 Functional Distress...................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Distress in Rigid Pavements ................................................................................................... 16
4.2.1 Construction Related Distress ...................................................................................... 16
4.2.2 Surfacing Distress ....................................................................................................... 17
4.2.3 Structural Failure ........................................................................................................ 17
4.2.4 Functional Distress...................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Distress Development ............................................................................................................ 19
4.4 Causes and Mechanisms of Distress ........................................................................................ 20
4.4.1 Water Ingress ............................................................................................................ 20
4.4.2 Uniform Sections ........................................................................................................ 20
4.4.3 Appearance of Deformation ......................................................................................... 20
4.4.4 Past Performance ....................................................................................................... 20
4.4.5 Structural Capacity ..................................................................................................... 20
4.4.6 Construction Defects ................................................................................................... 21
4.4.7 Testing ...................................................................................................................... 21
5. Pavement Management Systems ..................................................................................................... 22
6. Maintenance ..................................................................................................................................... 26
6.1 Maintenance Needs ............................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Routine Maintenance ............................................................................................................. 27
6.3 Preventative Maintenance ...................................................................................................... 27
7. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction .................................................................................................. 28
7.1 Rehabilitation ....................................................................................................................... 28
7.2 Reconstruction...................................................................................................................... 28
8. Communication, Investigations and Research ................................................................................ 29
References and Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 30

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Chapter References for Elements in Pavement Engineering System .................................................. 2
Table 2. Surveillance Devices ..................................................................................................................... 8
Table 3. Surfacing Distress in Flexible Pavements ...................................................................................... 10
Table 4. Traffic Associated Distress in Flexible Pavements .......................................................................... 12
Table 5. Environmentally Induced Distress in Flexible Pavements ................................................................ 13
Table 6. Drainage Distress ....................................................................................................................... 14
Table 7. Functional Distress in Flexible Pavements ..................................................................................... 15
Table 8. Construction Related Distress in Rigid Pavements ......................................................................... 16
Table 9. Structural Failure in Rigid Pavements ........................................................................................... 18
Table 10. Maintenance Activities ................................................................................................................ 26

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Pavement Engineering System ...................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2. Road Asset Management Systems (RAMS): Stages of Development ................................................. 3
Figure 3. Three Pillars of Sustainability ........................................................................................................ 4
Figure 4. Heidelberg Traffic Control Centre on the N3 ................................................................................... 5
Figure 5. Moisture Entering Pavement Layers ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 6. Waterproof Surfacing on Pavement ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 7. Moisture Accelerated Distress ........................................................................................................ 6
Figure 8. Pavement Distress Development ................................................................................................. 19
Figure 9. Asset Management Framework ................................................................................................... 22
Figure 10. Typical Road Management System Data Layout ............................................................................ 23
Figure 11. Example of Integrated PMS showing Map and Individual Data........................................................ 24
Figure 12. Example of Integrated PMS showing Statistics and Trends ............................................................. 25

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1. INTRODUCTION
When construction has been completed the pavement enters various operational stages, including:
 Initial bedding in and defects liability period, occurring soon after construction.
 Design life and normal operations with routine maintenance.
 Distress occurrence and preventative maintenance, to guard
against moisture ingress and moisture accelerated distress. Defects Liability Period
 Terminal condition and rehabilitation. The defects liability period is
normally 12 months. During this
These stages need to be carefully managed by the road authority to period, the Contractor is liable for
maximise the pavement life and its related performance. For example, it any defects that are not part of
is well known that timeous maintenance significantly extends the normal “wear and tear”.
pavement life of a well designed and constructed pavement, depending
Upon expiry of the defects liability
on the traffic loads, subgrade conditions and environment. Therefore, period, the contractor is paid any
preventative maintenance is essential for all Southern African roads, and
outstanding retention monies, and
forms an important element of most Pavement Management Systems the works are taken over by the
(PMS).
road authority.
Monitoring the performance of pavements and related PMSs, as well as
project level rehabilitation assessments, provides valuable information that must be fed back into the entire
pavement engineering system, particularly into amendments to design standards and specifications.

This chapter describes the activities and actions that need to be taken by the parties involved in managing the
pavement, to ensure its longevity and achievement of the expected performance, or better. Feedback and
communication actions that help to improve the entire Pavement Engineering System are also discussed. The
elements involved are illustrated in Figure 1.

Traffic

Maintenance Environment

Construction Subgrade
Communication
Investigations
and Research

Tender Materials

Doc-
umentation Design

Figure 1. Pavement Engineering System

Each element in the system has an influence on the ultimate performance and life of the pavement. The system
objectives generally include achieving the design life of the pavement without resorting to excessive maintenance
expenditure. This requires constant monitoring of each element, and providing feedback to industry on aspects that
do not achieve the expected results.

Section 1: Introduction
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Most of the elements of the system are discussed in detail in previous chapters of this manual, for which specific
references are given in Table 1. However, all previous chapters are aimed at providing information that is relevant to
pavement design. This chapter is aimed at introducing the systems and procedures used to monitor and manage the
pavement system, to ensure that pavements achieve their design lives or better, and to provide for continuous
improvement in performance and cost-effectiveness.

Table 1. Chapter References for Elements in Pavement Engineering System

System Chapter Section in Chapter
Element
Traffic Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 4. Accommodation for Traffic Investigations
Investigation
Chapter 10: Pavement Design 4. Design Traffic Estimation
Environment Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 3: Legal and Environmental Requirements
Investigation
Chapter 10: Pavement Design 3.7. Environmental Considerations
Subgrade Chapter 3: Materials Testing 2. Tests on Soils and Gravels
Chapter 4: Standards 2. Standards for Soils and Gravels
Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 5. Road Prism Investigation
Investigation
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations 3. Geotechnical Investigations
and Design Considerations 4. Fills
5. Cuts
Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and 2. Roadbed
Design 3. Earthworks
Chapter 10: Pavement Design 5: Pavement Investigation and Design Process
7, 8, 9: Structural Capacity Estimation
Materials Chapter 3: Materials Testing All sections
Chapter 4: Standards All sections
Chapter 5: Laboratory Management All sections
Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 8. Materials Testing for Investigation
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations 4. Fills
and Design Considerations
Chapter 8: Material Sources All sections
Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and All sections
Design
Design Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 5. Road Prism Investigations
Investigation 6. Potential Problem Areas in the Roadbed
7. Road Pavement Investigation
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations 4. Fills
and Design Considerations 5. Cuts
Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and All sections
Design
Chapter 10: Pavement Design All sections
Documentation Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement 9. Composition of Test Data and Reporting
Investigation
Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations 9. Composition of Test Data and Reporting
and Design Considerations
Chapter 11: Documentation and 3. Design Documentation
Tendering 4. Contract Documentation Preparation
7. Contract Documentation
Tender Chapter 11: Documentation and 5. Tender Documentation
Tendering 6. Tender Process
Construction Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and All sections
Method Guidelines
Chapter 13: Quality Management All sections
Maintenance Not discussed in detail in this manual, refer to Concrete Road Construction Manual (C&CI,
2008), and Routine Road Maintenance Manual (SANRAL, 2009)

Section 1: Introduction
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2. ROAD ASSET MANAGEMENT

The pavement and its formation and surfacing are components of the road asset, which are managed as part of road
asset management systems (RAMS). The concepts of road asset management are described in detail in the TRH22
Pavement Management Systems Manual, which is currently being updated. This manual expands on all the concepts
of road asset management as part of the broader topic of asset management contained in the ISO 55000 series.

The Pavement Engineer needs to recognize the need for ongoing management of the pavement to ensure that it
reaches or exceeds its expected useful life. It also needs to be understood that asset management is an ongoing
process that is set up to ensure continual improvement of the system and its ability to manage these assets, as
illustrated in Figure 2.

IV - Advanced

III - Complex
Levels

II - Detailed

I - Basic

Maturity

Figure 2. Road Asset Management Systems (RAMS): Stages of Development

The following seven concepts are outlined in the ISO 55001 standard with a view to improving asset management in
general, for the benefit of stakeholders:
 The Organization
 Leadership
 Planning
 Support
 Operation
 Performance Evaluation
 Improvement

The TRH 22 manual takes this further with respect to road asset management. Its ten parts include:
 Part A: General and Organisation
 Part B: Inventory Data
 Part C: Asset Valuation
 Part D: Usage and Condition Data
 Part E: Indices
 Part F: Situational Analysis
 Part G: Needs Determination
 Part H: Asset Management Plans
 Part I: Feedback Loop

The following sections focus specifically on pavement management and related activities.

Section 2: Road Asset Management

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2.1 Sustainability
In addition to a broad understanding of asset management, the pavement engineer also has to have a broad
understanding of sustainability. Sustainability is often described as making up three pillars: economic growth,
ecological balance and social progress, as represented in Figure 3 (Drexhage and Murphy, 2010; Heemskerk, et al).

Figure 3. Three Pillars of Sustainability

In the context of pavement engineering, the pillars have the following focus:

(i) Economic Growth

This means ensuring that the pavement design makes optimal use of local materials and resources and
maximizes the benefit/cost ratio of pavement projects. Maintenance and rehabilitation, and their affordability,
also need careful consideration. Overall, the road and its pavement should provide a smooth comfortable and
safe surface for the movement of goods and people to contribute to the economic growth of the country.

(ii) Ecological Balance

This involves trying to ensure that the pavement materials do not deplete natural resources, and do not cause
harm to the natural environment through the use of pollutants. At best, the pavement should only consume
minor amounts of new materials and assist to dispose of waste, for example, the use of ground rubber in
bitumen-rubber asphalt.

(iii) Social Progress

This pillar involves trying to ensure that designs and works are aimed at furthering social equity. The
involvement of communities in the construction and the maintenance of infrastructure is a key aspect of this.
In addition, the designs need to ensure that the road facilitates access to markets and opportunities for all
people.

These pillars in turn support sustainable development, which reflect all of the activities undertaken as part of road
asset management and are aimed at deriving maximum value from the assets over their lifetimes.

Section 2: Road Asset Management

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3. PAVEMENT MONITORING
Various elements of the pavement engineering system are monitored over time. These are discussed briefly in the
following sections.

3.1 Traffic
Overloaded Vehicles
In addition to determining the axle loads used for the pavement design, traffic Axle loads measurements have
also needs to be monitored, regulated and enforced to ensure that overloading shown that up to 25%, and
does not occur. Axle loads measurements have shown that up to 25%, and more, of truck axles can be
more, of truck axles can be overloaded when axle load enforcement is lax. overloaded when axle load
However, this can be reduced to less than 5% with good enforcement. enforcement is lax. However,
Sophisticated axle load measurement and enforcement weighbridges have this can be reduced to less
been installed along several national and provincial roads, to facilitate axle load than 5% with good
monitoring and enforcement. An example of such a weigh station is the enforcement.
Heidelberg Traffic Control Centre on the N3, shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Heidelberg Traffic Control Centre on the N3

Methods of collecting axle load data are set out in TMH3 and TMH8, while recommendations for traffic loads to be
used in pavement design are contained in TRH16. Chapter 10: 4 also discusses many aspects of traffic measurement
and inputs for design.

Findings on actual loads measured, as well as tyre pressures and axle configurations, are an essential part of the
pavement design system and need to be fed back to industry on a regular basis. This allows design procedures and
systems to be adjusted to suite the prevailing conditions.

3.2 Environment
The environment influences pavement performance in two ways:
 Moisture from the surface or subsurface enters and weakens the
pavement layers, or causes moisture related shrinkage and swelling Moisture in Pavements
of clay subgrades.
Water getting into a pavement,
 Sunlight heats and softens thick asphalt layers, while ultra-violet especially a granular base pavement,
radiation hardens bituminous binders, making them more brittle and significantly weakens the material,
prone to cracking and shrinking. and can cause premature failure.
 Freezing and thawing of moisture in the pavement and roadbed
can cause instability and a loss of support for the pavement layers. On the most important principles of
Freeze/thaw is not a major issue in South Africa, because of the pavement design is to keep water
temperate climate. out the pavement.

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The concept of moisture entering pavement layers is shown in Figure 5. To prevent moisture ingress, the pavement
is provided with a waterproof surfacing, as well as longitudinal and subsoil drainage, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5. Moisture Entering Pavement Layers

Figure 6. Waterproof Surfacing on Pavement

The waterproofness of the surfacing and effectiveness of the drainage

system are very important factors contributing to good performance in
pavements. Therefore, these elements are inspected separately during Waterproofing
visual inspections to record any problems.
The waterproofness of the
The design of surface and subsurface drainage systems is described in surfacing and effectiveness of the
detail in the SANRAL Drainage Manual 5th edition (2006), available for drainage system are very important
download or hard copy purchase on www.nra.co.za. factors contributing to good
performance in pavements.
When moisture has entered the pavement and weakened the pavement
layer, traffic loads can cause deformation that inevitably results in decompaction and further weakening of the
pavement. An example of moisture accelerated distress is shown in Figure 7. Once this has occurred, resealing of
this portion of the pavement is no longer a viable option.

Figure 7. Moisture Accelerated Distress

Section 3: Pavement Monitoring

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3.3 Condition Monitoring and Visual Assessment

The condition of the pavement and its surfacing and drainage systems should be monitored regularly to identify and
repair defects, as well as any changes in the rate of deterioration. The manifestations of distress are discussed in
more detail in Section 4.

Visual assessments are used to observe and record distress that is visually apparent in an objective a way as
possible. To do this, relatively rigid guidelines have been established for assessors to ensure reproducibility and
repeatability. Over the years, various guidelines have been available. However, a revised TMH9 will be available in
2014, which will supersede the older manuals, such as TRH6, TRH19, TMH12 and M3-1. The revised TMH9,
“Standard Visual Assessment Manual” includes sections for
surfaced roads, block pavements, concrete pavements and
gravel roads. It describes how to rate distress in terms of
Crack Monitoring
degree (severity) and extent (prevalence) of the type of
Monitoring the ability of the surfacings in South
distress.
Africa to retain their ability to prevent moisture
ingress is very important, as most pavements
Monitoring the ability of the surfacings in South Africa to
have water-susceptible bases. It is important to
retain their ability to prevent moisture ingress is very
realise that it is sometimes very difficult to
important, as most pavements have water-susceptible bases.
locate and identify cracking in thin surfacings.
It is important to realise that it is sometimes very difficult to
Automated systems to detect cracks used in
locate and identify cracking in thin surfacings. Automated
many parts of the world are typically only
systems to detect cracks used in many parts of the world are
suitable for detecting wide cracks in pavements
typically only suitable for detecting wide cracks in pavements
with thick asphalt surfacings, and are, therefore,
with thick asphalt surfacings, and are, therefore, not
not generally suitable for use in South Africa.
generally suitable for use in South Africa.

3.4 Surveillance Measurements

In addition to the visual observation and evaluation of distress, several mechanical and electronic devices are used to
detect problems in a more objective manner. These devices, and their application, are shown in Table 2. Surveys
that utilise these devices are often done on a network level on a regular basis. SANRAL for example, surveys their
network every two years. Some of the toll concessions survey their network annually. A network survey generally
collects less data at wider intervals than a project level survey.

Section 3: Pavement Monitoring

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Table 2. Surveillance Devices

Laser Profilometer Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
This equipment has a beam mounted with several The falling weight deflectometer operates by dropping
lasers to measure the transverse profile and ruts, and a weight onto the road via a thick rubber pad. The
an inertial profilometer to measure the longitudinal transient pressure pulse caused as the weight strikes
profile of each wheel path. Vehicles also typically the road simulates a tyre passing over the road at
include a laser with a larger beam to measure the mean highway speeds. The resulting deflection bowl is
profile depth at regular intervals. The vehicle typically measured using accelerometers that are mounted on a
operates at highway speeds, and collects extensive beam and spaced around 300 mm apart. The
data quickly and efficiently. accelerations produced are integrated twice
electronically to output the deflection at each
accelerometer. See Chapter 6: 7.3.4 and Chapter 10:
3.5.1 and 7.6.

Brake Force Trailer (Griptester) La Croix Deflectograph

The brake force trailer measures the force required to The La Croix deflectograph is an automated Benkelman
tow the trailer when the third wheel is braked. The beam mounted on a slow moving truck. As the truck
instrument includes an ABS system to prevent sliding. moves forward, the beam is moved forward on a sliding
arm and lowered to the surface of the road. The
moving wheels of the truck then move towards the end
of the deflection beam and the deflection is measured
as the difference between its original position when
placed on the road and its final position between the
rear wheels.

On behalf of COTO, guidelines have been developed for network level surveillance, and include:
 Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Road Roughness (2007)
 Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Skid Resistance and Texture (2008)
 Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Pavement Deflection (2009)
 Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Rutting (2010a)
 Guidelines for Network Level Imaging and GPS Technologies (2010b)

These guidelines provide valuable information on the use of the devices, calibration, planning surveys and how to
interpret the data. These guidelines will be published as TMH13. Chapter 6: 7.3 also discusses the use of these
devices for pavement investigations.

Section 3: Pavement Monitoring

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4. DISTRESS
As the pavement carries traffic during service conditions, several types of defects cause distress to occur with time.
Although most distress represents symptoms of underlying problems and is only visible on the surface of the
pavement, the location, form and nature of the distress relates to its underlying cause and possible defects. The
distress is categorised depending on the part of the pavement to which it relates.

4.1 Distress in Flexible Pavements

The various manifestations of distress in flexible pavements are grouped depending on their origin, location and
consequences, such as:
 Surfacing distress: Distress of the surfacing that could result in loss of integrity and water ingress into the
base.
 Pavement structural distress: Distress of the pavement structure itself, caused by either:
- Traffic loads overstressing the pavement layers, or
- Environmental, subgrade and construction stresses causing cracking of the layers.
 Drainage distress: Areas where drainage is not effective, causing moisture ingress.
 Functional distress: Areas where the distress results in functional deterioration of the pavement and causes
road user discomfort or reduced safety.

4.1.1 Surfacing Distress

Surfacing distress is distress of the road surfacing and is relatively obvious to observe and rate. The types of
surfacing distress for flexible pavements are shown in Table 3.

Block Pavements
Block pavements are not discussed
in this chapter, as they are not in
widespread use in South Africa, and
are not used on national or
provincial roads.

Section 4: Distress
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Table 3. Surfacing Distress in Flexible Pavements

Surface Cracking Surface Texture
Surface cracking generally occurs throughout the Surface texture is an important issue for safety.
pavement and not just in the wheel paths. It is Smooth pavements have low skid resistance.
normally caused by shrinkage of the binder due to
ageing, and loss of its less durable components.

Binder Condition Permeability

Aged binders become brittle and result in surface Permeability is an issue as when water can enter the
cracking and aggregate loss. pavement the base is compromised.

Aggregate Loss/Ravelling Surface Failure

Aggregates become loose in the mix and detach under Surface failures involve loosening of the surfacing and
the action of traffic. detachment from the underlying base.

Bleeding (Asphalt Surfacing) Bleeding (Seals)

Bleeding is caused by the binder migrating to the Bleeding seal caused in this case by a binder rising up
surface of the pavement, and typically occurs when a through a porous seal in a situation with a high
mix has a high binder content, known as a “rich” or temperature. Seals also bleed for other reasons
“fatty” mix. (TRH3).

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Note the following regarding detecting and rating of some surfacing distresses:
 Binder condition is difficult to rate as it is involves picking out some of the binder with a screwdriver and is
dependent on the temperature at which the rating is made. Normally the binder can be rolled into a ball between
the fingers to bring it to around 25 C. The fresher and more lively the binder, the more it colours and sticks to
the hands. Dry old binder will not stick and results in very little discolouration. When the binder gets very old
and brittle, aggregate loss occurs, which is easy to rate and depends on the amount of visible aggregate loss.
 Bleeding is easy to detect and rate.
 Permeability is difficult to rate during routine inspections as it is only
really visible after a rainstorm. Darker wet areas take some time to dry out
due to the quantity of water absorbed by the surfacing. Obviously drier Rating Permeability
areas adjacent to fine cracks where water has entered the underlying Permeability is difficult to rate
pavement, are also normally clearly visible. TMH9, therefore, does not during routine inspections as it
include a rating for permeability, only for voids that are apparent within the is only really visible after a
surfacing itself during routine inspections. rainstorm.

In addition to the above surfacing distress, some visual assessments also

include observations of the surface texture and its variability across the width of the road. This has relevance for
skid resistance, as well as the type of treatment to be applied.

4.1.2 Pavement Structural Defects

Pavement structural defects related to deeper problems within the pavement must be recognised. These defects are
divided into those that are caused by traffic and are normally confined to the wheel paths, and, those caused by
other stresses in the pavement such as drying shrinkage, thermal stresses and deep-seated underlying movements.
These defects are either traffic associated or environmentally induced. Traffic associated distresses in flexible
pavements are shown in Table 4 and environmentally induced distresses in Table 5.

4.1.3 Drainage Distress

In addition to these manifestations of weaknesses or problems, the drainage condition and related defects are
relatively easy to rate in wet weather due to standing water on the road, which leads to pavement distress and is
also hazardous for traffic. In dry conditions, it takes some experience to rate the drainage conditions. Indicators
such as rutting, vegetation and gravel that trap water on the road, or luxuriant growth of plants alongside the road
are normally indicative of poor surface and subsurface drainage, respectively. These are illustrated in Table 6.

4.1.4 Functional Distress

Functional distresses affect the ability of the pavement to carry traffic comfortably and safely. Functional problems
occur as a secondary manifestation of the drainage problems. For example, a pothole that causes tyres to burst, and
standing water that causes vehicles to run off the road. In these situations, the pavement becomes less fit for its
intended purpose of carrying traffic comfortably and safely. In addition to the above direct functional consequences
of pavement distress, there are other manifestations that also cause functional problems, as shown in Table 7.

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Table 4. Traffic Associated Distress in Flexible Pavements

Crocodile Cracking Rutting
Crocodile cracking is the typical cracking that occurs in Rutting typically occurs over long sections where the
the wheel path when axle loads cause excessive flexure axle loads cause consolidation or shear failure of one or
and cracking of the surfacing. They are normally barely more of the pavement layers. The narrower the
visible to the naked eye and then, as water ingresses rutting, the higher in the pavement the deformation has
through the cracks and softens the base, the sizes of normally occurred.
the cracks increase and become easily visible. At this
stage they are normally associated with deformation.

Deformation Pumping
Deformation is normally confined to short sections with Pumping occurs when fine material from the underlying
poor drainage where moisture has weakened the layer is pumped through surface cracks by traffic loads.
pavement and caused local deformation. It quickly It is often the first indicator of pavement failure. It is
becomes associated with crocodile cracking and further detectable by fines, looking like white powder, lying at
accelerated distress. the edges of the crack.

Potholes Patching
Potholes occur when the cracked area of surface lifts Patching is the end result of one of the above forms of
off the base and the traffic causes the base to erode. distress when maintenance is performed. Care should
be taken to distinguish between surface patching where
surface failures are patched and structural patching,
which is not confined to the surfacing. Good quality
patching that addresses the cause of distress may
result in a long term repair of the defect. However,
poor quality patching is normally of a very temporary
nature, and generally rapidly deteriorates to form
potholes again.

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Table 5. Environmentally Induced Distress in Flexible Pavements

Block Cracking Longitudinal Cracking
Block cracking occurs when stabilized layers shrink and Longitudinal cracking is normally due to deep-seated
crack. In most cases this is due to a stabilized base, movement under the pavement such as slip failure or
but in some cases block cracking from a stabilized shrinkage of clayey subgrades.
subbase reflect through the surfacing.

Transverse Cracking Undulations

Transverse cracking is normally caused by rapid cooling Undulations occur due to moisture related shrinkage
and thermal shrinkage of an asphalt layer. This does and swelling of an underlying clayey subgrade. This is
not occur often in South Africa and when transverse normally caused by seasonal moisture changes or
cracking occurs it is normally the early manifestation of uneven drying due to trees and bushes extracting
block cracking. moisture from the subgrade.

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Table 6. Drainage Distress

Ponding Vegetation
Surface drainage defects occur wherever water can Luxuriant vegetation alongside the road is normally
pond on the surface of the pavement and cause spray, indicative of standing water alongside the road that can
aquaplaning and moisture ingress. ingress into the pavement layers.

Edge Build Up Side Slope

Vegetation along the edge of the road often results in Where a gravel shoulder is not maintained for extensive
sand build up and entrapment of water on the road. periods, it may end up sloping toward the pavement
causing moisture ingress.

Rutting
When a pavement has rutted excessively, water is trapped in the wheel path and can cause aquaplaning.

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Table 7. Functional Distress in Flexible Pavements

Riding Quality Edge Drop
Loss of riding quality causes a rough and unpleasant Excessive edge drop can be very dangerous if a vehicle
ride, and loss of safe travelling speed. runs off the road.

Edge Break Reserve Encroachment

Edge breaks can encroach into the wheel path causing When traders encroach into the road reserve, unsafe
vehicles to have to swerve dangerously. situations related to pedestrians and stopping vehicles
can easily occur.

Skid Resistance Dangerous Potholes

Loss of skid resistance can be particularly dangerous in Potholes can either cause blowouts, with catastrophic
wet weather. results, or dangerous swerving.

Bush Encroachment
Bush encroachment results in loss of sight distance, or extremely dangerous situations when veld fires occur.

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4.2 Distress in Rigid Pavements

Distress in rigid pavements manifests as:
 Construction related distress
 Structural failure
 Functional distress

4.2.1 Construction Related Distress

Construction related distress occurs from poor construction practices. These are described in Table 8. For more
information on construction and quality control of concrete pavements, see Chapter 12: 3.12 and Chapter 13: 8.

Table 8. Construction Related Distress in Rigid Pavements

Curling
Curling results from more shrinkage at the top of the slab compared to the bottom. This generally results from a
high water content in the concrete, or from poor curing.

Surface Shrinkage Cracking

Surface shrinkage cracks are due to a high water content and poor curing. This results in prominent secondary
transverse or longitudinal cracking as a result of the high stress state. The high stress state can be due to
loading, curling or temperature.

Late Sawing or Misalignment of Dowels

Late sawing or misalignment of dowels during construction results in cracking close to a joint. Shrinkage surface
cracking adds to the development of distress in the form of spalling in the crack.

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4.2.2 Surfacing Distress

Surfacing distress related to rigid pavements primarily relates to the competency of the concrete’s surface, and is
very rare in well-constructed pavements.

4.2.3 Structural Failure

Structural distress in rigid pavements is almost always due to a combination of traffic and environmental stresses. It
depends on the type of concrete pavement and includes:
 Spalling of the edges of joints
 Corner breaks, D cracking, or transverse and longitudinal cracking across a slab
 Faulting across joints or cracks in the slabs
 Punch-outs in continuously reinforced concrete paving
 Defects in joint sealants resulting in moisture ingress and, possibly, pumping

These defects are illustrated, and briefly explained in Table 9.

4.2.4 Functional Distress

Functional distress in rigid pavements is a loss in riding quality due to faulting in jointed pavements, or, shattered
slabs of all other types of rigid pavements.

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Table 9. Structural Failure in Rigid Pavements

Corner Cracking Cracking Close to a Joint
Corner cracking occurs from curling of the slab and Cracking close to a transverse joint as a result of a void
loading under traffic. between the slab and subbase.

Lack of Load Transfer Faulting

A lack of load transfer at transverse joints or cracks leads to relative vertical movements at cracks and joints,
pumping of the subbase material, and the development of voids and faulting.

Closely Spaced Cracks Punch-outs

Closely spaced cracks lead to a loss of stiffness of the Punch-outs occur from closely spaced cracks.
concrete slab, movement at the cracks under loading,
spalling of the cracks and, eventually, to punch-outs
and shattered slabs.

Shattered Slabs
Shattered slabs as a result of cracking of all forms.

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4.3 Distress Development

Distress manifests in the pavement at various stages during its operational life, as illustrated in Figure 8. The
occurrence of distress prior to the expiry of the design life of the road is indicative of a failure in the pavement
engineering system. This is representative of system reliability, and should be investigated in detail to determine the
causes and mechanisms of distress. If the causes and mechanisms of distress are not catered for in the conventional
pavement engineering systems, these details should be fed back into the system to ensure continuous improvement.

Accelerated distress
leading to terminal
condition

Terminal Condition
Distress

Ongoing distress due to inherent

variability not detected during design or
construction

Design Life Extended life due to

effective maintenance

Early distress due to Time

system or construction
faults - reliability

Figure 8. Pavement Distress Development

If the defects occur during the defects liability period and are due to
construction defects (patent defects) that were not detected by the QA
processes, but are now readily apparent, it must be repaired by the
Contractor. One of the major problems is deciding whether the obvious Patent and Latent Defects
patent defects are the only construction defects that exist, or whether Patent defects are defects that
other defects are present but have not yet manifest (latent defects). are patently obvious and require
immediate repair.
Other defects that occur in the early stages of the design life are normally Latent defects are defects that are
representative of variability that was not detected through the pavement not immediately apparent, but will
engineering system. It is generally not cost-effective to cater for all probably result in the pavement not
possible variability in the design and construction processes, as the achieving its design life.
investigative costs and related quality assurance processes would be
prohibitively expensive. Nevertheless, efforts should be made to limit this
to below 0.5% of the length of a wheel path. In other words, while every effort is made to identify and
accommodate all potential problems during the course of design and construction, isolated distress may occur early
in the life of the pavement due to causes that are not identified and remedied in the normal course of design and
construction. These defects should be repaired by addressing the underlying causes. From that point onwards, no
further pavement distress should occur until the pavement starts to approach the end of its design life.

When the pavement life approaches its design life, the development of distress accelerates, normally due to traffic
loads and moisture ingress. Preventative maintenance should be applied to limit such moisture ingress and extend
the life of the pavement for as long as possible.

When the pavement distress starts to approach between 5% and 10% of the length of the wheel path, as defined in
TRH4, it is approaching a terminal condition, depending on the functional class of the road, and will require
rehabilitation.

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4.4 Causes and Mechanisms of Distress

It is important for the pavement engineer to recognize the various forms of distress, and to identify their causes and
mechanisms with confidence. There are many techniques that can be applied to do this, the most important of
which is to carry out careful observations and apply common sense. In the context of typical South African
pavements, which benefit greatly from being kept dry, the following topics provide some basic concepts to determine
the causes and mechanisms of distress.

4.4.1 Water Ingress

The first basic step is to determine whether the distress development is
accelerated due to water ingress. While it is a given that water ingress
accelerates almost all forms of distress, it is important to assess whether Drainage
the distress has progressed to the point where it is no longer worth Drainage is an extremely important
spending money on trying to prevent further water ingress. This is consideration for pavements! Water is
normally a function of the degree of deformation that has occurred. the primary cause of premature
Such a situation may occur because: failure, accelerated distress and
 Weakening of a layer has already occurred to the degree that reduced structural capacity.
rapid deformation will continue, or, that it cannot provide adequate
support to the layer above or to the traffic loading. All aspects of drainage are
comprehensively covered in SANRAL’s
 Crack movements that cannot be accommodated, even with a Drainage Manual and not repeated in
bitumen-rubber seal. SAPEM. Download the Drainage
Manual from www.nra.co.za.
If water is a contributing factor, and its influence can be arrested, it
needs to be recognised and considered in all further evaluation. The
SANRAL Draining Manual is a good reference for all drainage issues.

4.4.2 Uniform Sections

Distress seldom occurs uniformly over the entire pavement area. Areas of some uniformity need to be identified to
group the causes and mechanisms of distress. Once a uniform section is allocated, treatments are kept the same for
the section. Determining uniform sections is an important component of rehabilitation analyses, and is discussed in
Chapter 10: 5 and in TRH12.

4.4.3 Appearance of Deformation

The appearance of deformation is indicative of how deep-seated the cause is. For example, wide ruts are indicative
of deep weakness. This may also be indicative of rutting due to compaction and related settlement, rather than
shear failure. It is important to try to identify these differences, as rutting due to compaction results in
strengthening of the layers while shear failure weakens the layers. This can be tested using a DCP or deflections, for
example.

Deformation that is isolated or variable is inevitably caused by subgrade variation or drainage problems. In
particular, deformation in cut and not in fill shows underlying weaknesses or water ingress in the cut relative to the
fill. This sometimes occurs at the transition from cut to fill, due to weaker materials in these areas, rather than
deeper into the cut where the materials may be less weathered and harder.

Chapter 10: 5.3.2 discusses types of distress and appropriate rehabilitation options for flexible and rigid pavements.

4.4.4 Past Performance

If historic measurements are available, it is useful to try and assess whether the distress has accelerated. Rapid
acceleration may be due to moisture ingress, or severe weakening of pavement layers due to fatigue.

4.4.5 Structural Capacity

It is important to assess the structural capacity of the pavement in broad terms, relative to the traffic it has carried.
This provides an indication of whether the pavement is approaching the end of its design life, or if it still has
significant capacity.

If the pavement has carried little traffic relative to its designed structural capacity, and distress is relatively general,
then the cause of the reduced life must be sought. If the distress is only isolated, then this could primarily be due to
defects in these isolated places.

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Alternatively, if it is fairly old and has carried significant traffic loads without undue deformation, or serious structural
distress, then it may continue to carry similar loads for some time in the future, provided it is kept dry and
circumstances do not change. If the pavement includes substantial bound layers subject to fatigue-based
deterioration, then the present status of such fatigue damage, and some estimate of remaining fatigue life, should be
made.

Methods for determining the structural capacity and remaining life are detailed in Chapter 10: 7, 8 and 9.

4.4.6 Construction Defects

Early or isolated distress is often due to construction defects that need to be identified through test pits or other
investigations, as described in Chapter 6: Section 5 and 7. It is important for a pavement engineer to be present at
every test pit that is dug in the pavement to carefully evaluate every layer and discontinuity, and to try to identify
any strengths and weaknesses. Thin biscuit layers, or the presence of water, need to be carefully assessed. Test
pits in existing pavement layers are expensive, and their number should be limited. At the same time, the value
obtained from each individual test pit should be maximised through careful inspection and evaluation. Test pits
should be dug in both good and poorly performing areas to try to identify the differences and possible causes of
distress in the poor areas.

4.4.7 Testing
Testing needs to be carefully directed to increase the degree of confidence associated with the investigation results,
to arrive at final conclusions, as directed in guidelines, such as TRH12.

Finally, when all the investigations are complete and the results set out in a comprehensive format (See
Chapter 10: 5 and TRH12), the causes and mechanisms of distress need to be identified with confidence to ensure
that pavement maintenance, repairs or rehabilitation are directed at the causes, and not only the symptoms of
distress.

Trial Pits
Test pits in existing pavement layers
are expensive and their number should
be limited. At the same time, the value
obtained from each individual test pit
should be maximised through careful
inspection and evaluation. Test pits
should be dug in both good and poorly
performing areas to try to identify the
differences and possible causes of
distress in the poor areas.

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5. PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Pavement Management Systems (PMS) are used to manage the storage and use of current and historic pavement
data and network level condition assessments, to programme and prioritise preventative maintenance and
rehabilitation. These systems involve regular monitoring of distress, as well as surveillance measurements, and are
described in some detail in:
 TRH22: Road Asset Management System
 TMH9: Standard Visual Assessment Manual

Pavement management systems represent a range of technical tools that are used to meet the strategic, tactical and
maintenance scheduling needs of the road authority. They form an important element of the greater asset
management framework shown in Figure 9.

Technical Tools Owner and

• IT, PMS Customer Needs
• Accounting Systems • Owners Objectives
• Performance • User Requirements
Measurements • Customer
Satisfaction

Business
Arrangements Administrative
• Consultants Arrangements
Appointments • Organizational
• Specifications Reform
• Risk Sharing - PPGS • Competition
• Lifetime Costing • Privatization
• New Types of • Outsourcing
Funding • HR Development
• PPP

Figure 9. Asset Management Framework

Figure 9 shows how the technical tools form one of four major overlapping elements, with issues from each element
influencing the other. For example:
 Administrative arrangements influence the degree to which the Road Authority’s PMS contains extensive
details of the road network, or whether detailed pavement maintenance and rehabilitation decisions are
outsourced.
 Owner and customer needs influence the trigger conditions used for various classes of roads, to initiate
improvements.
 Business arrangements with consulting engineers include coming up with recommendations on whether to
reseal or rehabilitate the road on a project level. The decisions may require detailed condition data.
Alternatively, if the PMS has adequate data to make the decision on whether to reseal or rehabilitate, then this
information need not be collected again at a project level. Only the information required to quantify the work
may be required at a project level.

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Pavement management systems take on a variety of forms, with varying complexity. An essential element of a
modern PMS is a well-integrated database that forms part of a larger Road Asset Management System (RAMS) and
stores the road definitions and related data. The road definition dataset sets out how the road network is structured,
and normally consists of road numbers, road types, and start and end kilometres of the road sections and links. It
forms the basis for storing all other data normally collected by kilometre distance along the road section. A typical
integrated road management data system includes the elements shown in Figure 10. An example of an integrated
PMS system where all available data can be viewed graphically, analysed in a spreadsheet, and analysed statistically
is shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12.

Figure 10. Typical Road Management System Data Layout

An element of PMS systems involves optimisation of preventative maintenance and rehabilitation options to minimise
costs, while maximising an objective function such as pavement condition, riding quality, user benefits or some
combination thereof.

The PMS systems provide valuable information at a network level, which is used to feed back into the pavement
engineering system to improve overall system cost-effectiveness and efficiency.

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Figure 11. Example of Integrated PMS showing Map and Individual Data

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Figure 12. Example of Integrated PMS showing Statistics and Trends

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6. MAINTENANCE
6.1 Maintenance Needs
Road managers need to understand their maintenance needs in order to budget and allocate funds to the various
maintenance activities. These needs encompass a wide variety of activities and are listed in Table 10, extracted from
TMH22.

Table 10. Maintenance Activities

Need Category Description
Routine Maintenance: All routine cyclical activities that are carried out on a daily basis, including:
Cyclical (3 months to 3  Blading of unpaved roads and shoulders
years)
 Drainage maintenance including bridge drainage
 Road reserve and vegetation maintenance
 Maintenance of ancillary components
 Line-marking maintenance
Routine Maintenance: All condition or event driven repair activities that are carried out at short notice,
Condition including:
 Drainage repair and reinstatement
 Waterway repair and reinstatement
 Repair of ancillary components
 Crack sealing and patching
 Repair of cut and fill slopes
 Reinstatement of line-marking
 Minor repair of structures
 Spot regravelling
 Reshaping of unpaved roads
Periodic Maintenance Longer term cyclical activities, such as:
(5-7 years)  Surfacing rejuvenation and thin slurries
 Replacement of road sign faces
Resurfacing Includes the following activities, initiated by condition:
 Regravelling
 Resealing of the pavement surface using a chip and spray or thin overlay
Special Maintenance  Resurfacing preceded by extensive patching and repair
 Bridge joints and bearing replacement
 Major repair of damage to roads, ancillary assets and structures
Rehabilitation Repairs to the pavement to restore condition and functionality, including:
 Light rehabilitation (overlays and/or reworking of base layer)
 Heavy rehabilitation (reworking of deeper layers or the addition of new base
layer)
Reconstruction Reconstruction/replacement of the assets
Betterment This involves upgrades to certain elements of the asset, such as:
 Specific alignment and drainage improvements
 Intersection improvements
 Accident black spot eliminations
 Bridge strengthening
Expansion Expansion of the road in terms of the number of lanes (including structures)
Upgrading Upgrading of a road from one type to another
New Roads Construction of entirely new greenfields roads
Ancillary Assets The construction of facilities, such as weighbridges that are used to prevent
damage to the road, or any other major ancillary asset or component.

In the following sections, some of these activities related to pavements are expanded upon.

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6.2 Routine Maintenance

Routine maintenance allows any defects that could severely affect pavement performance to be detected at an early
stage, through regular maintenance inspections. Typical repairs undertaken as part of routine maintenance, as
described in the SANRAL Routine Road Maintenance Manual (RRM), include:
 Patching
 Crack sealing
 Edge repairs

These maintenance activities should preferably be carried out before the distress has extended to the stage that it
requires major patching or rehabilitation. These are generally condition–based activities. This means that the
condition of pavements needs to be inspected regularly to identify the need for this maintenance. Because PMS
network level inspection activities are only carried out on an annual basis at most, custodians of roads must inspect
the pavements on a daily, weekly and monthly basis, depending on the level of traffic and importance of the road, to
identify any defects and initiate repairs.

6.3 Preventative Maintenance

Preventative maintenance is aimed at arresting the rate of distress development, and reducing the requirements for
more substantial maintenance. It typically involves repair of the pavement structure where required. For flexible
pavements, resealing to prevent further moisture ingress in accordance with TRH3: Design and Construction of
Surfacing Seals is typically done. Such resealing may involve relatively low cost crack or joint sealing, or the
application of diluted emulsions, through to more expensive bitumen-rubber chip seals. On concrete pavements, the
replacement of individual concrete slabs is also required.

Preventative maintenance may also involve some drainage improvements, to prevent water from accumulating on
the pavement surface or in side drains, or reducing the subgrade moisture by means of subsoil drains. The SANRAL
Drainage Manual is a good reference for drainage improvements.

All well-managed pavement systems involve a substantial amount of preventative maintenance, applied routinely to
retard distress development. These activities are normally initiated through RAMS systems on the basis of the age
and brittleness of its surfacing.

Potholes References for Seals

Potholes are an extreme case of flexible  TRH3: Design and Construction of
pavement distress. Routine preventative Surfacing Seals. 2007. Available for download
maintenance such as the periodic application of on www.nra.co.za.
fog sprays, timeous resealing and the sealing of  For seals using modified binders: TG1: The Use
cracks should prevent the occurrence of potholes. of Modified Bituminous Binders in Road
Construction. Second edition. 2007. Published
The CSIR has a guideline for potholes repairs: by the Asphalt Academy. Available for download
“POTHOLES: Technical Guide to Their on www.asphaltacademy.co.za.
Causes, Identification and Repair”, 2010.
Available for download on
 Further useful information is available on the
Australian website:
www.csir.co.za/pothole_guides.
www.arrb.org.au/sealing/index. This site was
established to assist in the dissemination of
good, as well as innovative, international practice
in the field of spray seals.
 For slurry seals, SABITA Manual 28: A Guide on
the Design and Use of Slurry Surfacings
(2011). Available for download at
www.sabita.co.za.

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7. REHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION

7.1 Rehabilitation
When the pavement has deformed to the point where maintenance or the application of a seal can no longer
improve the pavement performance, or where its riding quality is unacceptable, then more substantial rehabilitation
is required. The rehabilitation design process is set out in detail in TRH12: Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation
Investigation and Design and Chapter 7: Section 5 and Chapter 10: 5 of this guideline. Although TRH12 is aimed at
flexible pavements, the principles also apply to rigid pavements.

In the case of concrete pavements, rehabilitation may involve substantial slab replacement, joint resealing, crack
sealing and overlaying. Various other specialist treatments are also applied, depending on the circumstances.

7.2 Reconstruction
When a pavement has reached the end of its design life and is no longer suitable for the traffic being carried,
reconstruction is required. Such a pavement will have several factors that indicate it has reached a terminal
condition, such as excessive maintenance requirements, poor riding quality and high accident rates. This
reconstruction is often accompanied by widening and other geometric improvements.

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8. COMMUNICATION, INVESTIGATIONS AND RESEARCH

The road authority in charge of the pavement is the primary conduit for investigating and researching problems, and
communicating results and details of good and poor pavement performance back to industry. Some examples of
past successes in this regard are:
 The investigations and development of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) pavement investigation and
design method (De Beer et al, 1988; Kleyn et al, 1989; De Beer 1991).
 The development and operation of the Heavy Vehicle Simulators (HVS) and resulting pavement design
methods for, particularly, G1 crushed stone base pavements (Jooste et al, 2005 and 2008)

The communication of problems and results of investigations and research involves informal communication to
industry, as well as formal communication through conferences, seminars and industry groups, such as the Road
Pavements Forum.

Well designed and well-constructed pavements provide good performance and value for money. However, pavement
engineering is not complete when the road is built, and continues to form part of a larger pavement engineering
system geared to ensure optimal cost effectiveness and good service to road users and the country’s economy.

Section 8: Communication, Investigations and Research

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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

C & CI. Perrie, B. and Rossmann, D. 2009. Concrete Road Construction. Cement & Concrete Institute. ISBN
978-0-9584779-2-5.

COLTO. 1998. Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities. Committee
for Land and Transport Officials. Pretoria.

COTO. 2007. Committee of Transport Officials. Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Road
Roughness. COTO Road Network Management Systems (RNMS) Committee. 2007. Available on
www.nra.co.za. Likely to be renamed THM13.

COTO. 2008. Committee of Transport Officials. Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Skid
Resistance and Texture. COTO Road Network Management Systems (RNMS) Committee. (Currently under
review, likely to be available at www.nra.co.za and renamed TMH13)

COTO. 2009. Committee of Transport Officials. Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Pavement
Deflection. COTO Road Network Management Systems (RNMS) Committee. 2009 (Currently under review,
likely to be available at www.nra.co.za, and renamed TMH13)

COTO. 2010a. Committee of Transport Officials. Guidelines for Network Level Measurement of Rutting. COTO
Road Network Management Systems (RNMS) Committee. (Currently under review, likely to be available at
www.nra.co.za and renamed TMH13)

COTO. 2010b. Committee of Transport Officials. Guidelines for Network Level Imaging and GPS
Technologies. COTO Road Network Management Systems (RNMS) Committee. (Currently under review,
likely to be available at www.nra.co.za and renamed TMH13)

CSIR. 2010. POTHOLES: Technical Guide to Their Causes, Identification and Repair. Available for
download on www.csir.co.za/pothole_guides.

DE BEER, M., Kleyn, E., and Savage, P. 1988. Towards a Classification System for the Strength-Balance of Thin
Surfaced Flexible Pavements. Proceedings of 1988 Annual Transportation Convention, S. 443, Vol. 3D,
Paper 3D-4, Pretoria.

DE BEER, M. 1991. Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) in the Design of Road Structures. Paper prepared
for the Tenth African Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.

DREXHAGE, J. and MURPHY, D. 2010. Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012.
Background Paper prepared for consideration by the High Level Panel on Global Sustainability at its first
meeting, 19 September 2010. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).

HEEMSKERK, B., Pistorio, P., Scicluna, M., Sustainable Development Reporting: Striking the balance. World
Business Council for Sustainable Development

JOOSTE, F.J. and Sampson, L. 2005. The Economic Benefits of HVS Development Work on G1 Base
Pavements. Directorate Design, Department of Public Transport Roads and Works (Gautrans), Pretoria.

JOOSTE, F.J., Sadzik E., Sampson L. 2008. Evaluation of Benefits Arising from Pavement Associated Technology
Development Work. 3rd International Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Madrid Spain.

KLEYN, E., De Wet, L., and Savage, P. 1989. The Development of an Equation for the Strength Balance of Road
Pavement Structures. The Civil Engineer in South Africa. Civ. Engr. S. A. Vol. 31, No. 2, 1989.

M3-1. 1998. Visual Assessment Manual for Concrete Pavements. Available on www.nra.co.za. This manual
will be superseded by the revised TMH9.

SANRAL. 2006. Drainage Manual. 5th Edition fully Revised. South African National Roads Agency Limited. ISBN
1-86844-328-0.

SANRAL. 2009. Routine Road Maintenance Manual. Second Edition. South African National Roads Agency
Limited. ISBN 0-620-2568-7.

References and Bibliography

Page 30
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual
Chapter 14: Post-Construction

TMH3. 1988. Traffic Loading Load Surveys for Pavement Design. Technical Methods for Highways.
Committee of State Road Authorities, Pretoria. Available for download www.nra.co.za.

TMH8. 1987. Verkeerstelling Prosedures vir Buitestedelike Paaie. Technical Methods for Highways.
Committee of State Road Authorities, Pretoria. Available for download www.nra.co.za.

TMH9. 1992. Pavement Management Systems: Standard Visual Assessment Manual for Flexible
Pavements. Technical Methods for Highways. Committee of State Road Authorities, Pretoria. This guideline
is currently being updated, and should be published in 2014 and then available for download on
www.nra.co.za. The new version will incorporate the following manuals: M3-1, TRH6, TRH19 and TMH12.
All pavement types.

TMH12. 2000. Pavement Management Systems: Standard Visual Assessment Manual for Unsealed
Roads. Technical Methods for Highways. DRAFT. Issued by CSIR, Pretoria. Available for download
www.nra.co.za.

TMH13. See COTO 2007 to 2010b.

TRH3. 2007. Design and Construction of Surfacing Seals. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 0
7988 2272 4. CSRA. Pretoria. Available for download www.nra.co.za.

TRH4. 1996. Structural Design of Flexible Pavements for Interurban and Rural Roads. Technical
Recommendations for Highways. DRAFT. Pretoria. Available for download www.nra.co.za.

TRH6. 1985. Nomenclature and Methods for Describing the Condition of Flexible Pavements. Technical
Recommendations for Highways. CSRA. ISBN 0 7988 3310 6. Pretoria (available for download
www.nra.co.za) This manual will be superseded by the revised TMH9.

TRH12. 1997. Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and Design. Technical Recommendations for
Highways. DRAFT. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za)

TRH15. 1994. Subsurface Drainage for Roads. DRAFT. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 1
86844 155 5. CSRA. Pretoria

TRH16. 1991. Traffic Loading for Pavement and Rehabilitation Design. DRAFT. Technical Recommendations
for Highways. ISBN 1 86844 46 1. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za)

TRH19. 1989. Standard Methods and Nomenclature for Describing the Condition of JCP Pavements.
DRAFT. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 0 908381 80 8. CSRA. Pretoria (available for
download www.nra.co.za). This manual will be superseded by the revised TMH9.

TRH22. 1994. Pavement Management Systems. DRAFT. Technical Recommendations for Highways. ISBN 1
86844 095 8. CSRA. Pretoria (available for download www.nra.co.za). This guideline is currently under
revision.

TRH Revisions
Many of the TRH
guideline documents are
in the process of being
updated. See the
SANRAL website,
www.nra.co.za for the
latest versions.

References and Bibliography

Page 31