Samatha-yāna and Vipassanā-yāna

L.S. Cousins

Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhātissa – 1984 (Dhammapala,

Gombrich, Norman – Editors)
 SAMATHA-YANA AND VIPASSANA-YANA

L. S. COUSINS

Asked about samatha (calm) and vipassana (insight) meditation, a well-

known contemporary Thai meditation teacher conimented at the end of
his reply:
"These days many people cling to the words. They call their practice
vipassanii. Samatha is looked down on. Or they call their practice samatha.
It is essential to do samatha before vipassana, they say. "1
This summarizes quite exactly a debate which is frequently encountered in
Thailand and, using a slightly different terminology, in Sri Lanka also.
It seemed therefore useful to re-examine the use of these two terms in
the earlier Pali literature, hoping to see exactly how ancient this kind of
usage is and whether there is any clear position on the matter in the classical
texts.
For the purposes of this investigation I shall treat the earliest stratum of
Pali literature as consi&ting of the Vinaya texts (excluding the Parivara),
the first four Nikayas and the Sutta-Nipilta. It is, of course, obvious that
there is some historical stratification within these works. However, I do
not accept that there are adequate criteria available for a convincing analysis
into distinct periods. Nor is sufficient historical information available to
determine the likely time-scale for such periods. 2

The earlier literature

First of all we must notice some senses of the word samatha, which do not
concern us here. In many passages it is used rather generally and must be
rendered in its ordinary meaning of peace or calm. Occasionally it is difficult
to tell whether a more technical sense is intended. Related to this general
usage is its use as a Vinaya term in the list of the seven rules for the appease-
ment of issues (adhikaral;za-samatha).3
More significant is the use of samatha as a synonym for nibbana. This
occur:. in two main contexts. Quite frequent is the 'calming of all activities'
(sabba-sankhtira-samatha).4 Twice also we find the passage:
"(himself) awakened the Lord teaches Dhamma for awakening, (self-)
mastered the Lord teaches Dhamma for (self-) mastery, (himself) at
peace the Lord teaches Dhamma for peace (samatha) . ... ,,5
Our main concern, however, is with the use of samatha as equivalent to
samiidhi and of vipassana as equivalent to parifia. Not surprisingly this
generally falls into the context of descriptions of the Buddhist path. Some-
times we find the two terms as part of a sequence outlining the stages of
the path in general. Or sometimes they occur in descriptions of the Fourth
 1. S. COUSiNS 51
Noble Truth or its expansion in the grouping of seven lists known later as
the bodhi-pakkhiya-dhammas. Before examining the main formulae I will
turn first to certain aspects of the standard accounts of the path in the
Nikiiyas. These will provide some background to the use of samatha and
vipassanii.

The structure of the path

Among the most elaborate accounts of the path found in the Pali Canon
are those found in the Silakkhandha. In fact it is perhaps more correct to
speak of a single account, repeated with slight modifications in many of
the suttas of this first third of the DIgba-nikiiya. Since the main changes
are to the way in which the path as a whole is structured, it seems to me
that this is mainly a question of 'ringing the changes' to prevent too rigid a
view of the stages of the path. For the present purpose we need not take
account of the arrangements which divide the path into two (e.g. carm;a/vijjii;
sila/pannii), nor of those which do not make any division at all. Our concern
is with those which divide into three-notably the Subha-sutta, which divides
into sila, samadhi and paiinnii and the Kassapa-slhaniida-sutta, which gives
sila-sampadii, citta-sampada and pannii-sampadii.
By the end of the Nikiiya period, if not earlier, this three-fold structuFe
had been applied to the stages of the ariya path,6 In this application, the
stream-enterer has fulfilkd the silas, the never-returner has master<:d samiidhi,
while the arahat has mastered panna. Of course this is only new as a specific
structure. The stream-enterer is frequently seen in terms of perfecting the
precepts-hence his non-rebirth in an inferior destiny such as would be
the consequence of breach of the precepts. The never-returner does not
return precisely because he has freed himself from attachment to the sense
sphere-he is reborn in the Brahma realm. In this he is paral1el to the jhiina
attainer except that his achievement is permanent. The association of arahat-
ship with superior wisdom is, of course, obvious,
This might be better expressed by saying that all ariya disciples have
mastered the precepts; the never-returner has mastered both sUa and samadhi;
while the arahat has mastered wisdom as well. This corresponds quite
closely to the structure of the Buddhist cosmos. One is reborn as a deva
through generosity and keeping the precepts, as a brahma through developing
samadhi and in the Pure Abodes by developing wisdom. Quite logically
all brahmas are also devas but not vice versa, while all those resident in
the Pure Abodes are both devas and brahmas.
This may be termed the vertical structure of the path. An alternative
view becomes very important in the Abhidhamma, The whole of the path is
seen as arising together in unity at the moment of attainment. This we will
call the horizontal structure. It is applied, for example, to the bodhi-pakkhiya-
dhammas in relation to each of the four paths (magga). On a lesser level it
is applied to the five faculties (indriya) in relation to jhiina.
 58 FESTSCHRIFT FOR HAMMALAVA SADDHATISSA

Finally we must note that some of these canonical sequences function

as if they were sliding scales. In the present case Buddhaghosa, 'following
other canonical models, applies the series sila>samtidhi>pafifiti not to
the path from its beginning up to arahatsmp, but instead to the path up to
stream-entry. Indeed both the horizontal and the vertical structures can
be utilized in this way. So, for the commentarial tradition, the stage of
powerful insight prior to stream-entry is as much the level of the ordinary
(lokiya) bodhi-pakkhiya-dhammas as of insight in the prior stage (pubba-
bhiiga). In other words, on the larger (i.e. ariya) scaJe the vertical structure
of the path extending over a period of time tends to culminate in the path
moment with the horizontal structure. On the fmaller scaJe it equally tends
to culminate in strong insight with a similar horizontal structure.
Obviously these three approaches involve a measure of surface incompati-
bility. Any attempt to reconcile them would require a fairly sophisticated
system. No doubt one could be devised. Perhaps more to the point is the
type of function wmch is fulfilled by ,his sort of 'over-determination'. It
gives a sense of multiple dimensions to the Dhamma and a feeling of its
intricate and harmonious balance. This after all is the teacmng which is
'beautiful in its beginning, beautiful in its middle, beautiful in its ending'.

Samatha and vipassanii

The main uses of the two terms samatha and vipassana in the Nikiiya literature
are precisely witmn these path structures. We find them. for example, in
sequences setting out the vertical structure of the path. Some examples may
make this clear. One passage runs:
" .... he should be one who performs fully in respect of precepts (silas),
devoted to peace (samatha) of mind within, not havingrejectedjhiina,
endowed with insight (vipassanii), one who increases empty houses". 7
Here the succession is: sila>samatha>vipassana with jhiina apparently
identified with samatha and 'empty houses' following vipassana, perhaps
seen as related to sufifiata.
Another passage refers to right view as resulting in liberation of heart
(ceto-vimutti) and having the advantage of resulting in liberation of heart,
resulting in liberation of understanding (pai'ifiii-vimutti) and having the
advantage of resulting in liberation of understanding, when accompanied
by five factors.3 The five are in the sequence: sila>learning (suta) > discussion
>samatha>vipassanii. Elsewhere we find the series: faithful>possessing sila
>one who obtains peace of mind within>one who obtains insight into
Dhamma through mgher wisdom. 9
In numerous passages samatha and vipassanii are clearly identified either
with the eightfold path or with the fourth noble truth. Sometimes tms is
explicit. Sometimes it is intended by the use of some form of the causative
of bhavati i.e. 'bringing into being' (bhavanii)-the function of the fourth
noble truth.l0 No doubt such a use is intended also in most of those cases
 1,. S. COUSINS 59

in which the two occur with little explanation or context. l l In a few

passages there is some connection with either the ariya disciple or the trans-
cendent (lokuttara) mindY Presumably this is because the stream-enterer
has already mastered the precepts; so he has only to develop samadhi and
panni'i; 12
Identification of the two terms with samadhi and panna in the context
of the horizontal structure of the path is less frequent in the Nikayas.
In one verse passage the five indriyas are given as: faith, mindfulness, strength,
samatha and vipassanaY Of course such an identification is standard in the
Abhidhamma texts where samatha is included in the register for samCidhi
and vipassana is given in that for paiinaY

The two contrasted

In a few places the two are differentiated mote specifically. At A I 61 we

find that development of samatha leads to developing citta, which leads
to the abandoning of desire (raga) by means of liberation of heart. Develop-
ment of vipassanii by contrast leads to developing wisdom and then to the
abandoning of ignorance and liberation of understanding. The two are
referred to as dhammas connected with knowledge (vijjiihhiigiya). At A 11
140 we learn that there is a time for hearing Dhamma, a time for Dhamma
discussion, a time for samatha and a time for vipassanii. If each of these is
practised from time to time, arahatship will surely be reached-just as rain
which falls on the mountains goes stage by stage to the ocean. We may note
also that at A 111 449 development of samatha is seen as overcoming ex-
citement (uddhacca).
Several passages contrast the one who obtains peace of mind with the
one who obtains insight into Dhamma through higher wisdomY' Interes-
tingly both are required. Whichever ofthe two is lacking should be developed.
The individual who already obtains both should make effort (yoga) to obtain
arahatship. This last suggests that the Puggalapaiiiiatti is correct in inter-
preting inner peace of mind as jhiina and Dhamma insight through higher
wisdom as the transcendent paths and fruits.
Perhaps more significant for later interpretation is the declaration of
Ananda (A II 157). This must be given in full:
, 'Sirs, whatever bhikkhu or bhikkhUl;ll declarer, in my presence the
attainment of arahatship, does so in four ways or by one of the four.
By which four?
(a) Here, sirs, a bhikkhu brings into being (bhCiveti) insight preceded by
peace. As he is bringing Into being insight preceded by peace, the path
(magga) is born to him. He practises, brings into being and makes much
of that path. When he practises, brings into being and makes much of
that path, his fetters are abandoned, his latent tendencies (anusaya)
are destroyed.
60 FESTSCHRiFT FOR HAMMALAVA sAbDiIATISSA

(b) Again, sirs, a bhikkhu brings into being peace preceded by insight.
As he is bringing into being peace preceded by insight, the path is born
to him. He practises, brings into being and makes much of that path.
When he practises, brings into being and makes much of that path,
his fetters are abandoned, his latent tendencies are destroyed.
(c) Again, sirs, a bhikkhu brings into being peace and insight yoked as a
pair. As he is bringing into being peace and insight yoked as a pair,
the path is born to him. He practises, brings into being and makes much
of that path. When he practises, brings into being and makes much of
that,path, his fetters are abandoned, his latent tendencies are destroyed.
(d) Again, sirs, the mind of a bhikkhu is gripped by Dhamma excitement.
On the occasion, sirs, when the mind stabilizes within, settles down,
becomes one-pointed and enters concentration (samiidhiyati), the pith
is born to him. He practises, brings into being and makes much of
that path. When he practises, brings into being and makes much of
that path, his fetters are abandoned, his latent tendencies are destroyed.
Sirs, whatever, bhikkhu or bhikkhUl;li declares in my presence the
attainment of arahatship, does so in these four ways or by one of them. "

The later canonical texts

The Patisambhidamagga quotes this sutta in full and comment& upon it. '6
Significantly it is included in the Yuganandha-vagga-the section concerned
with transcendent dhammas 'yoked as a pair'. The Patisambhidamagga is
an ekiibhisamaya work, which lays great stress on the unity, harmony and
balance of the path at every level. Naturally thi~ emphasis affects its interpre-
tation of this sutta, particularly in regard to the third alternative.
In the first of the four ways samatha is explained as one-pointedness of
mind, non-distraction, concentration due to freedom from sensuality
(nekkhamma). Vipassana is seen as contemplating as impermanent, suffering
and without self the dhammas arisen in that peaceful state. In the second
way vipassana is contemplating as impermanent, suffering and without
self, while samatha is one-pointedness of mind, non-distraction, concentra-
tion based upon the relinquishing of the dhammas arisen in that contempla-
tion. More. exactly, a state which has as its object or support (arammalJa)
such a relinquishing leads to concentration i,e. peace. The commentary
interprets this as referring to nibbedha-bhiigiya-samiidhi, the concentration
associated with powerful insight leading to the path. The Aliguttara Com-
mentary sees it as the case of one who naturally obtains insigbtY
With the third alternative the Patisambhidamagga goes its own way.
As the commentary points out, it concentrates upon the actual path moment
itself as exemplifying the perfect unity of samatha and vipassanii. Of course
the sutta itself was really more concerned with the process by which that
moment is reached. So the Aliguttara Commentary rightly interprets tIle
 L. S. COUSINS 61

third way as the case in which someone attains· successive levels of samatha
(i.e. jhcnia), applying insight to each one before developing the next.
The Patisambhidiiniagga explanation is crucial in the fourth case. Without
it the passage would not really be explicable. It explains that while paying
attention to the aggregates, elements, bases and so on as manifesting
impermanence, etc., there arises om: of ten dhammas. These are then listed.
This is the earliest occurrence of the list so important in later tradition,
of the ten defilements of insight. (Here the order differs slightly from later
versions.) In fact the list is formed from the usual materials descriptive of
the path. Indeed, of the seven bojjhangas only samiidhi is absent. This is
not perhaps surprising, since samiidhiis the opposite of excitement (uddhacca),
even so, it is replaced by two terms of closely related usage: happiness (sukha)
and commitment (adhimokkha). The two remaining terms are radiance
(obhiisa) and nikanti (attachment to the prior state), first and last in the
list respectively.
The point of the Patisambhidamagga explanation is clear. States similar
to tbose of bodhi itself are reached, but become the cause of excitement.
This obstructs the clarity and onward development of insight. The
commentary interprets this fourth way as that of the pure insight follower
(sukkha-vipassaka)Y This seems very plausible in view of the emphasis
on tbe mind settling down and becoming concentraied which follows.
Passing over some otber references in the Patisambhidiimagga, in the
Abhidhamma-pitaka and in the Mahaniddesa,19 it seems worthwhile to take
note of one particular passage in the last of these. Commenting on the lines:
"There are no bonds for one detached from conceiving. There are no
delusions for one freed by wisdom. " (Sn 847)
the Mahaniddesa explains the first line as referring to one who develops the
ariya path preceded by samatha; from tbe very beginning his bonds (gantha)
are suppressed. The second line is taken to refer to one who develops the
ariya path preceded by vipassanii; from the very beginning his delusions are
suppressed. 20

The semi-canonical works

The inclusion of samatha and vipassana in the sllttantika couplets of the
Dhammasa:6.gal)I perhaps indicates that they were already considered an
important part of suttanta teaching. Yet it is only in the semicanonical works-
the older Pe~akopadesa and the influential Nettipakaral)a that we find them
playing a really major 1'01t:.
In these works the path is considered from the standpoint of various
methods (naya). The first of these, the nandiyavatta method, views the way
as composed of samatha and vipassanii, overcoming craving and ignorance
re&pectively.21 This is then the basis for an intricate set of relationships,
pot~ntially involving. almost everything in Buddhist teaching which can be
62 FESTSCHRIFI' FOR HAMMALAVA SADDHATISSA

expressed in pairs. Indeed by this method almost anything in Buddhist

teaching could be expressed as a pair! Some examples may be of interest.
Samatha is explained as the medicine for craving, bringing freedom from
sickness by liberation of heart, while vipassana is the medicine for the sickness
of ignorance, bringing freedom from sickness in liberation of understanding. 22
One developing samatha (fourth noble truth), comprehends matter (first
truth), abandons craving (second truth) and realizes liberation of heart
(third truth). One developing vipassanii (fourth truth), comprehends the
immaterial (first truth), abandons ignorance (second truth) and realizes
liberation of understanding (third truth).
Or, those whose character-type is prone to views (ditthicarita), due to
the hindrance of ignorance, may incline to the extreme of practising self-
mortification or tend to the annihilationist view. One whose character-type
is prone to craving may incline to the extreme of practising sensual enjoy-
ment or tend to the eternalist view. 23 The former will practise samatha
preceded by vipassana abandon ignorance and attain liberation of under-
standing. The latter will practise vipassana preceded by samatha, abandon
craving and attain liberation of heart.24
Many other such classifications and groupings are offered in these two
works. The five hindrances,25 the five faculties,26 the eightfold path,27
conditioned origination,27a factors of samadhi,28 the kasil)ayatanas,28. etc.-
all are similarly analysed. Indeed such divisions are precisely the nandiyavatta
method.
Moreover, since the different methods are intricately connected, others
may also involve samatha and vipassanii. Let us take the case of the triple
lotus method: threefold analysis of the path. Here we find training in higher
morality recommended for one who l"arns only by detailed explanation;
he will develop peace and insight yoked as a pair. Training in higher con-
sciousness (adhicitta) is for one: who needs guiding; he will develop peace
preceded by insight. Training in higher wisdom is for one who can learn
from a brief explanation; he will develop insight preceded by peace. 29

.The commentaria! literature

The terms samatha and vipassana occur quite frequently in the atthakathii
literature. A detailed study of all the references which are found would be
beyond the scope of this article. 30 We will confine ourselves here to usages
closely related to descriptions of the stages ofthe path.
Before looking generally at the works attributed to Buddhaghosa, it
seems worthwhile to translate one important passage from the Commentary
to the Majjhima-nikaya. 31 This is introduced in a way which suggests it
has been taken as a whole from earlier sources, almost certainly the old
commentaries of the Mahavihara. No doubt this is true of the bulk of
Buddhaghosa's writings, but it is only in such cases as this that we can be
fairly sure that we are dealing with an earlier stratum unmixed with later
 L. S. COUSINS 63

material. The subject of this passage is given as 'the method of bringing

into being (bhiivanii-naya)':
, •Some bring into being insight preceded by peace. Others bring into
being peace preceded by insight. How?
In regard to this someone first arouses access concentration or absorption
concentration.32 This is peace. He brings into being insight into that and
into its conjoined states, which sees them as impermanent and so on. This
is insight. So peace is first, afterwards insight. Therefore it is referred to as
bringing into being insight preceded by peace. As he is bringing into being
insight preceded by peace, the path (magga) is born to him. He practises,
brings into being and makes much of that path. When he practises, brings
into being and makes much of that path, his fetters are abandoned, bis
latent tendencies are destroyed-in this way he brings into being insight
preceded by peace.
But in this regard someone, even without having aroused peace in the
way mentioned, brings into being insight into the five aggregates of clinging
as impermanent, etc. This is insight. Through the fulfilling of insight, one-
pointedness of mind arises, based upon the relinquishing of the dhammas
arisen in that contemplation. This is peace. So insight is first, afterwards
peace. Therefore it is referred to as bringing into being peace preceded by
insight. As he is bringing into being peace preceded by insight, the path is
born to him. He practises, brings into being and makes much of that path.
When he practises, brings into being and makes much of that path, his fetters
are abandoned, bis latent tendencies are destroyed-in this way he brings
into being peace preceded by insight.
But both for one who brings into being insight preceded by peace and for
one who brings into being peace preceded by insight, at the moment of the
transcendent path peace and insight are yoked as a pair .... "

The works of Buddhaghosa

One sutta in the Atiguttara-nikaya (II 155-6) distinguishes the person who
reaches the final goal with effort (sa-sankhiiraparinibbiiyi) from one who
does so with ease (asankhiira). Only the latter attains to the four }hiinas.
Buddhaghosa's commentary explains that the first individual is one who
develops just insight (sukkha-vipassaka).33 The person who reaches the goal
with ease is explained as one whose vehicle is peace (samatha-yiinika).34
The term yana-'vehic1e' or 'carriage'-refers in a number of contexts
to the eightfold path.35 This is further developed in the Vibhatiga Com-
mentary.36 The vehicle of insight (vipassanii-yiina) is equated with knowledge
(vijja) and the first two items of the eightfold path. The vehicle of peace is
identified with conduct (caralJa) and the remaining six factors of the path.
The source must be another sutta from the Silakkhandha: the Ambattha-
sutta, which gives a description of the path in terms of the well-known phrase
'~ndowed with knowledge and conduct', According to Buddhagbosa, the
64 FESTSCHRIFI' FOR HAMMALAVA SADDHATISSA

vehicle of peace overcomes the extreme of practising self-mortification,

while the vehicle of insight overcomes the extreme of practising sensual
enjoyment. This must be derived from the Nettipakara1}.a.
The precise position of Buddhaghosa is made clear in the Visuddhimagga,
when the way to initiate the development of insight is described. One whose
vehicle is peace begins by examining the contents of his mind after emerging
from jhii.na, especially the jhii.na factors themselves. Having established
that they are nama (explained as 'that which bends the mind towards an
object'), he seeks the underlying support ofmima-its 'lair'. He finds it in
the heart rupa. This he discovers to be supported by the four elements and
the rupas derived from them. He establishes that they are in fact TUpa (defintd
as 'that which is afflcted' i.e. capable of being damaged by contact with
other rupa).
Once the precise nature of ntima and rupa is established, he is able to
establish that there is no entity or person or deity apart from ntima and
rupa. In other words he understands the no self teaching and thereby becomes
established in right view which sees things as they are. He then avoids the
two extremes of affirming a soul not subject to destruction and affirming
one subject to destruction, so falling either into eternalism or into annihila-
tionism. This point is reached in a different way by one whose vehicle is
purdy insight (suddha-vipassana). He must commence with rupa. This is
also possible as an alternative option for one whose vehicle is peace. 37
In the Comment!).ry to the Dhammasa1}.ga1}.i we learn that the first path
(magga) is of the first jhana in three cases: one who develops just insight
(sukkha-vipassaka), one who has (jhii.na) attainments but does not use
them as the basis for insight and one who arouses the path using the first
jhtina as basis. 38 This corresponds almost exactly to the Visuddhimagga
account.
Two other passages from Buddhaghosa's commentaries seem worth
mentioning. Discussing the situation of someone with the delusion that
he has reached some attainment, it is suggested that one who has purely
obtained peace or purely obtained insight would believe that he was a stream-
enterer, once-returner or never-returner. One who had obtained both peace
and insight would believe he was an arahat. 39 Another passage discusses
the difference between painful progress and pleasant progress (in suppressing
the hindrances) as concerned with the degree of craving and whether the
necessary work has been done for samatha. The subsequent difference
between slow and rapid acquiring of direct knowledge is concerned with the
strength of ignorance and whether the necessary work has been done for
vipassana. 40

Conclusion
Returning to the question with which this article began, one thing is clear.
Important and con,tinuing traditions it! the ancient literature SaW the path
 L. S. COUSINS 65.

as varying significantly in its mode of access. The kind of picture which

emerges is best expressed graphically:

100 % arahatsl\ip
----------------------------------------------r------- --------------------------------------r---------------<-------------.---..-----*

1! 'I!

i !
! !
i
Ii,
,I:,

I
I
1
I !'
....................~~:~~....Ii............................. *
jhiina
never-return·· .... · .... ·l
I
I I
! !
I I
I
I
I
!
II !
I
< !
~.....~:~.. . . J
I

~ jhiina i Stroam-'n"y..... ................................ ,i/

strong!
* .! I:
insight! !
access I i
*
concentration youn!!.![i Ii.
*
OJ

Ii
insightl
o 100%
VIPASSANA
Such a graph is, of course, intended only as a visual metaphor. Obviously
the ancient Buddhist thinkers did not conceive of the relationships involved
in geometric terms. Nevertheless it does clarify some aspects. The goal is
seen as a dynamic balance of qualities-in this case peact. and insight, but
others are also important. The route to that goal may involve the develop-
ment of some of those qualities before others, but in the longer term none
can be neglected. All are essential. Only the order of development is variable.
There could be no question of a 'short cut', neglecting some aspects.
To this extent the Thai meditation master who was cited initially in this
article is not out of tune with the i\nqi~nt literature, Of course, th(') works
66 FESTSCHRIFT FOR HAMMALAVA SADDHATISSA

which we have examined intend more than this. They also envisage a real
difference in approach between the individual who works from the side of
samatha and one who adopts pure insight as his vehicle. This seems to be
partly a matter of what is helpful or natural to an individual of a particular
temperament or character type and partly a matter of personal predilection.
Each alternative would have advantages and disadvantages. Of course it
is to be expected that adherents of a particular approach will tend to stress
its a.dvantages and perhaps minimize the disadvantages.
 L. S. COUSINS 67
NOTES

1. J. Kornfield Living Buddhist Masters, Unity Press, Santa Cruz 1977, pp. 41-2.
2. I am, of course, aware that a number of attempts at such historico-critical analysis
have been made, some of them involving impressive and detailed scholorship. I
remain, as yet, unconvinced. It seems to me that all these attempts suffer from serious
flaws. Firstly and most importantly, they do not take sufficient account of the nature
of oral literature. See my article on Pali Oral Literature (in P. Denwood and A.
Piatigorsky Buddhist Studies, Curzon Press, London 1983). Secondly they seem to
me to be guilty of an error in method.
In order to construct a chronological analysis of the literature, a series of decisions
have to be taken on such matters as the likely dating of particular texts or discourses
their analysis into earlier or later components, the probable stage at which particula;
formulae came into use, the length of time which it would take for miraculous
elements to develop, etc. etc. Unfortunately these elements are often dependent upon
one another in complex ways. As a result a series of assumptions have to be made.
The consequence is that later decisions are made upon the basis of earlier ones.
which were themselves based upon even earlier decisions. In the present state of
our knowledge conclusions reached in this way can have little probability.
A mathematical analogy may make my point clear. A series of choices may be made
each having a 70% probability of being correct, bilt each dependent upon th~
correctness of previous choices. The likelihood of an accura te end choice is of course
not 70 %, but far less. Indeed, after only three stages a correct choice is unlikely.
A third objection is that such analyses tend to depend at important points upon
the detection of inconsistencies and contradictions in the literature. It seems to me
that too much can be made of this. In spiritual traditions the world over, instructors
have frequently employed apparent contradiction as part of their teaching method-
perhaps to induce greater awareness in the pupil or to bring about a deeper and
wider view of the subject in hand. The Pali Canon contains many explicit examples
of such methods. (Indeed much of the Kathiivatthu makes better sense in these terms
than as sectarian controversy.) There are, undoubtedly. many cases where a different
or apparently contradictory statement is simply a more implicit use of them. Any
attempt to analyse all such 'contradictions' as representing different historical or
textual strata is puerile. Such features must have been present from the beginning.
For fear of misunderstanding. let me add that I by no means wish to wholly deny
the value of text-critical approaches to the literature. It is rather a question of caution
in the application of techniques derived from the study of the development of written
manuscript literatures to the somewhat different situation of an oral literature and
in the absence of a secure external historical context. May I also add that I certainly
consider the attempts which have been made to be productive of useful insights
(especially in the case of the work of Erich FrauwaIIner).
3. cf PTC sv adhikaralJ.a; e.g. Vin IV 207, etc.; D III 254; 1'.1 II 247; A I 99; A IV 144.
4. cf PTC sv nirodho (twenty two passages listed as virago -0 nibbiinarrz); Sn 732c;
Sill 133.
5. D III 54; M I 235.
6. A 1231-5; IV 380 foll.; Pug 37; cf. A II 136.
7. M I 33-6, 213-16; A v 131; It 39; Nd. 1 375. 500; Nd. 295.
8. M I 294; A III 21.
9. A IV 360; cf note 14 below.
10. e.g. M III 289, 297; S IV 360, 362; V 52; A I 100; II 247; cf S IV 195; Pads 128.
11. e.g. D III 213, 273; A I 95.
12. e.g. M I 494 foIl.; A III 116-18;,cf also M 1323.
13. A III 373.
14. e.g. Dhs 10-11, etc.; Vbh 107, etc; 250; Pug 25; Patis I 119, 191; Nd. 145, 77, 334,
365,456,501; Nd. 2 190, 268.
15. A IT 92-5; IV 360; V 99-104; Pug 7, 8, 61.
16. Patis II 92-103.
17. Patis A 586; AA III 143.
18. Patis A 584.
19. e.g'. Patis 128,64,70,94 foll., 97 if, 168 if 174,; II 168, 172; Dhs 8; 10, 11, etc., 232;
Nd. I 360, 508; cf also Pet 122; Nelti 54, 76.
20. Nd. 1207. I take the Niddesa to be definitely later than the earlier Abhidhamma works,
since Nd. 1445-7 shows clear acquaintance with the Buddha's visit to the TiivatiIp.sa
heaven, intimately bound up with the preaching of the Abhidhamma.
21. Pet 4, 122, 254 foIl.; Netti2-4, 113; 127; cfalso Pep 7, 86,114,123-4; Netti 42, 48, 110.
68 FESTSCHRIFT FOR HAMMALAVA SADDHATISSA

22. Pet 123-4; cf MA I 164-5; ItA II 74; DA-pt. I 265; MA-pt. (cited Nett trs\. p. 324);
SA-pt (Be 1961) I 59.
23. Netti 109-1I.
24. Netti 7.
25. Pet 138.
26. e.g. Netti 65-6.
27. e.g. Netti 81.
28. Netti 88-9, 91.
29. Pet 249; cf NeW 101, 125.
30. See for example: VinA 412 foll.; ~IA II 345; SA I 172 (and AA II 201); SA II 53,
235; III 157 (and VbhA 277; Vism 130); AA II 162; III 219; DhsA 144 (and PatisA
522); UdA 153, 196; ItA 104, 170, etc.; II 13, 74; CpA 279,305-6; PatisA 125, 519,
696.
31. MA I 108-9.
32. On these terms see L. S. Cousins "Buddhist JM.na", Religion III, Part 2, 1973.
33. Later tradition sometinles erroneously interprets the word sukkha as meaning 'dry'.
No doubt this is, however, eXperientially appropriate-compare PatisA 281, which
contrasts the roughness and lack of feeling of vipassanti with the smoothness and
pleasingness of samatha.
34. Elsewhere in the Nikayas the individual who reaches the goal with effort and the
one who does so with ease are two kinds of never returner. cf also ItA 51-2.
35. Sn 139 (deva-ytina) cf SnA 184; S V 5 (dhamma-ytina; brahma-ytina); Th II 389
(mag/Jattafigika-ytina) cf ThA 257 (ariya-yiina); cf also D I 215, 220.
36. VbhA 122.
37. Vism 557-8.
38. DhsA 228.
39. VinA 488.
40. DhsA 183-4; cf 215-16; Vism 87; cf AA III 138-9.
PTS editions mentioned in this article and not listed in the GENERAL ABBREVIA-
TIONS are as follows:
CpA Commentary to Cariyapitaka
Dhs Dhammasangal),i
It Itivuttaka
ItA Commentary to It
Nd.2 Cullaniddesa
Patis Patisambhidamagga
PatisA Commentary to Patis
Pet Petakopadesa
PTC Pali Tipi\akaql Concordance
Pug Puggalapafifiatti
SnA Commentary to Sn
Th Theragatha
ThA Commentary to Th
UdA Commentary to Udaua
Vibh Vidhanga
VibhA Commentary to Vibh