Korean literature

Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language
and sometimes in Classical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was
written in Hanja. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this
distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, the
world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script.

Korean literature

Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean
peninsula. There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); pyolgok
("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses").
Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th
centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative
akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445–47; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle compiled in praise of
the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms
and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of
three or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.

One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (Konghu-in) by Yeo-ok during
Gojoseon.

Hyangga

Hyangga (hangul: 향가, hanja: 鄕 歌) was written in Korean using modified hanja in a system
that is called idu (hangul: 이두, hanja: 吏 讀), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety
of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a system using hanja
characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their
intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic
meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but
after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing
for Korean words.
Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk
Yusa contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks,
contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla, in
the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa appear to be based on no-
longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.

Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or
ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four,
four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks,
and Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of
the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family members.

Goryeo songs

The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely
disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul: 고 려 가 요 , literally
"Goryeo songs") became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and
many survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using hangul.

The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as pyolgok or changga (hangul: 별 곡 ). It
flourished during the middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in the
middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the
melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing
contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of
which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical
accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng. There are two distinct
forms: dallyeonche (단련체)and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a shorter form in which
the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in
which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of
clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of
common life.

Sijo and Gasa

See also: Sijo and Gasa (poetry)

Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As
hangul was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean
script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.
Sijo (literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was
established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many
of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty is common. Sijo are characterized
by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables
except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot
can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.

Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual
sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of
three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were
nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.

Prose

Main article: Chinese-language literature in Korea

Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany.
Narratives include myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal
sources of these narratives are the two great historical records compiled in Classical Chinese
during the Koryo era: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and
Samguk yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most important myths are
those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives of the
ancient kings. The legends touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The
folktales include stories about animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness
rewarded and evil punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk
yusa was a Zen master, his collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of
monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas;
and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist elements. It also includes the 14 hyangga
mentioned above. The compilations made in the Koryo period preserved the stories of
prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic
sources for such material. Later compilations made during the Yi dynasty served as a major
source of materials for later Yi dynasty fiction.

Fiction

Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is Korean fiction written in Chinese
and that written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium" works
of about 10 volumes, and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there are works of
yangban writers and those of common writers. In respect to the last classification, however,
there is also a group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the
commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives mentioned above,
the author adding incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign
definite dates or authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing
correct moral conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic is
that the narratives written by yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by
commoners are set in Korea.

The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history,
biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to
be outside of the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and
records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their
portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make
these writings an essential part of Korean prose.

The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa ( 金鰲新話 금오신화 New
stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup (김시습). It was written in Chinese. From the 17th
century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available through book
rental schemes.

Pansori-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and
early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga, Simcheongga,
Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga and Sugungga). Although based on older traditional songs, it was
composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer, and characterized by human
stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.

In the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period,
many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese
literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were
commonplace.

Kim Manjung (1637–1692) wrote The Cloud Dream of the Nine (구운몽).
Tale of Hong Gildong (홍길동전)
Chunhyangjeon is a kodae sosol (고대 소설) novel based on the pansori Chunhyangga.
Several lives of the poet Choe Chiwon have come down: In hanmun the Choegounjeon (
최고운전) Choemunhonjeon (최문헌전), in hangul the Choechungjeon (최충전, 崔忠傳), The
Story of Faithful Choe.

Oral literature

Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation
until the invention of Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and
p'ansori ("story singing") texts.

In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were
not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are
categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter
(prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The
songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national
treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.

Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written
records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by
the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of
the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.

The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and
South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and
Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk
genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju.
Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed
from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays
disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was
somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded.
The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or
time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally
to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays—through
repetition and variety—achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic
literature)

Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's
Play") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No
theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the
puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters—Pak
Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji—dance and sing,
enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry)

The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts
were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded
into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry
to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the
entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12
remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from
the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed
from one performer to another.

History

The early Joseon period Edit

Yongbi eocheonga

Yongbi eocheonga (hangul: 용 비 어 천 가 , hanja: 龍 飛 御 天 歌 ) literally means "Songs of the

This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on
Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are
several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty which are of
significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems:
linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of
the Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection
to Buddhism. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of
nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire.

The late Joseon period

Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon Dynasty's fall. This
first period of modern Korean literature is often called the "enlightenment". This period was to
a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools
and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo, gasa, or even serial novels and led
to the emergence of professional writers. Sinchesi (hangul: 신체시, literally "new poetry") was
established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called
Jayusi (hangul: 자 유 시 ). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor found in classical Korean
poetry, influenced by the French vers libre.

Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character
was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness.[1]

Modern literature

Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts
based on trade and economic development.[2] The first printed work of fiction in Korean was
John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (in Korean: 천 로 역 정 Cheonno-yeokjeong), translated by
James Scarth Gale (1893).

Christian religion found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible
in Korean published in 1910. However, it was mostly Western aesthetic schools that influenced
Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok,
were increasingly perceived as old-fashioned and out of date.

Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped increase
working class literacy rates. Hangul reached its peak of popularity in the second half of the 19th
century, resulting in a major renaissance. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.

Korean Literature during Japanese rule

During the period of Japanese imperial rule (1910–1945), Japanese literature had deep
connections with the establishment of modern literature in Korea due to some of the founders
of modern literature in Korea having come from Korean students who had studied in Japan
during the Meiji period. Their representatives are Choe Nam-seon and Yi Kwang-su. Many
expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were
no longer possible. Ernest Bethell's Taehan Maeil Shinbo (大韓每日申報) provided for Korean
writers a brief opportunity of artistic expression free from censorship, from July 1904 till May
1909, but after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General uncensored Korean
publishing became impossible.[citation needed] With the Samil Movement in 1919 came a new
form of Korean literature. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with
the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on
concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.

In 1919 Kim Tong-in and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo ( 창 조 Creation)
marking the starting point of contemporary Korean literature. The magazine was followed in
1920 by Kaebyok (개벽), and Pyeho (폐허 廢墟 The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop);
in 1921 Changmichon (장미촌); in 1922 Paekcho (백조 White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-
gon); and in 1923 Kumsong ( 금성 Gold Star, of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary
magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future
development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to
discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of
their aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s
was to work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with the
reality of colonial rule in Korea.

Many novels of the 1920s centered on themes of the suffering of intellectuals. The lives of
farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological
coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time
experimented with new literary styles and techniques.

Kang Kyeong-ae (강경애, 姜敬愛; 1907–1944): In'gan munje (인간문제 From Wonso Pond)
Kim Tong-in (1900–1951): Pulgun San (붉은 산 Red Mountain)
Shim Hun (1901–1936): Sangnoksu (상록수 Evergreen Tree, 1943 posthumously)
Ri Ki-yong (리기영,[3] 李箕永; 1895–1984): Kohyang (The Home Village, 1932), later a North
Korean author
Hong Myong-hui (1880—1968): Im Kkok-chong (Story of the bandit Im Kkok-chong)
Choi Seo-hae (최서해, 崔曙海; 1901–1932): Hongyom (홍염)
Yom Sang-seop (염상섭, 廉想涉; 1897–1963): Sam dae (Three Generations, 1932) Mansejon
(만세전)
Chae Man-shik (1902–1950): Thaepyong Chunha ( 태 평 천 하 Peaceful Spring on Earth, 1937)
and Tagryu (Muddy Stream, 1941)
Poets included: Han Yong-un, Buddhist reformer and poet: Nimui chimmuk (The Silence of My
Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong, Chu Yo-han, Hwang Sok-woo (황석우), Kim Myeong-sun, Kim
Sowol, Kim Yeong-nang, Pak Tu-jin, Yi Sang, Yi Sang-hwa ( 이상화, 李相和), Yu Chi-hwan, Yun
Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-sa (이육사, 李陸史; 1904–1944) tortured to death by the Japanese military
police.

National division

After 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South. The Korean War led to the
development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war and tragedy.

North Korea (DPRK)

South Korea (ROK)

Main article: South Korean literature

Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and
their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another
common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going
back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an
experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.

In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental
escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many
others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political
reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of
political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the
influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-
establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of
farmers.

At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more
popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common
theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly
appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.

Korean literature abroad

Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of
works translated has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations has
improved.*[4] Flowers of Fire (1974)[5] was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature
published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works
translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish, French and
Polish. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market
literature, particularly in Japan and China.