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 A

LATIN GRAMMAR

BY

WILLIAM GARDNER HALE

Professor of Latin in the University of Chicago
AND

CARL DARLING BUCK

Professor of Comparative Philology in the
University of Chicago

Boston, U.S.A., and London

GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
©be at&eiuettm |Jrec«
1903
 Z70, s

///7

^3 '

Entered at Stationers' Hall

Copyright, 1903, by
William Gardner Hale and Carl Darling buck
all rights reserved
 PREFACE

This grammar aims to be a working text-book, primarily adapted to the

needs of high school students.
The part which deals with Sounds, Inflection, and Word-Formation was
written by the junior author, who is also mainly responsible for matters of
orthography, hidden quantity, etc., throughout the book ; the part which deals
with Syntax, Word-Order, Versification, the Calendar, etc., and the sugges
tions with regard to Pronunciation in 35-40, were written by the senior author;
but both parts have been worked over carefully and in detail by both authors.
In the Phonology, Inflection, and Word-Formation, the authors have been>
conservative in the introduction of matters of comparative grammar. In gen- *
eral they have aimed to give only such historical explanations as are certain
and reasonably simple, and deal with the relations between existing Latin
forms, not with the relations between a Latin form and one of another
language. For example, the statement that original final i became e (44, 3)
would not be made, if it were useful only in understanding the relation
between Latin ante and Greek Ami, but is introduced because, aside from
the existence of the original form in anti-cipo, it explains why the Nominative-
Accusative Singular Neuter of an i-stem (e.g. mare) ends in e.
While, then, only a limited amount of historical grammar has been included,
pains have been taken to frame whatever statements are made as to the
relations of forms in the light of our knowledge of the actual historical
development, so that, while not always expressed or arranged in the way one
would adopt in a strictly historical grammar, they may serve as a sound
foundation for possible further study, instead of fostering wrong conceptions
which must be overcome later.
Questions of pronunciation, hidden quantity, orthography, etc., have
received careful and independent study, though space does not permit the
presentation of the arguments in favor of the views adopted. Departures
from the usual practice in such matters may cause some temporary difficulty
to the teacher; but this cannot justify the authors in perpetuating what they
believe to be errors.
No attempt is made to treat early Latin fully, but some of its most striking
peculiarities are mentioned.
In the Syntax, the probable relationships of the constructions treated are
indicated by the arrangement. Where this is not of itself sufficient, and the
origin of the construction is easy to understand, a brief explanation is added,
as of the Subjunctive in Generalizing Clauses in the Second Person Singular

16ll31
iv Preface

Indefinite (504, 2, a). Where the explanation is more difficult, or would

demand too much space (as of the origin of the Subjunctive of Actuality, or
of the Historical Infinitive), nothing is said. This last statement applies in
general to the constructions of composite origin (illustrated in 815, 3).
In the treatment of the verb, subordinate clauses have been put with the
independent constructions to which they stand related; for their essential
nature is thus best understood, while the demand made upon the memory is
reduced. Where contrasting constructions with another mood exist, cross-
references are given.
The constructions dealt with have been treated in as brief and simple a
manner as is consistent with the actual facts of usage ; but it has not beer
thought that mere omission necessarily makes the student's work easier.
Indeed, the addition of categories will at a number of points be found to make
for simplicity. Thus the new category Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety
(512) at once illumines such an example as quid te invitem, why should I urge
you ? Cic. Cat. 1, 9, 24, which formerly had to be forced under the Subjunctive
of Deliberation, though there is no shade of deliberation in it. In the same way,
the clear recognition (571) of a use of the Present Indicative with powers cor
responding to those of a number of constructions in other moods or tenses
will lighten the difficulties of any thoughtful teacher or student. Thus the
Present Indicative after antequam, which Cicero uses in the Orations more
than twice as frequently as the Subjunctive, the Present Indicative in a clearly
future condition with si, as in Cic. Cat. 2, 5, 11, and the Present Indicative ir
questions like quid ago, Aen. 4, 534, now become intelligible ; and the student
will not have to warp his grammatical conscience with the old explanation
that, in all these cases, the act is practically " now going on."
The field covered is the syntax actually found in high school Latin, with
the addition of a comparatively small number of constructions, which were
necessary for the general skeleton of the treatment. Our Latin grammars,
even the shorter ones, have included much that does not occur at all in high
school Latin, and much (as, e.g., the id genus idiom) that is either rare or
non-occurrent in the Latin ordinarily read in colleges. On the other hand,
much in the way of special idiom that does occur in the ordinary college Latin
has been omitted from our grammars. It has seemed best to the present
authors to reserve all such constructions for a Supplement,1 to follow this
book. This Supplement will be at the service of the teacher, whether teach
ing in school or in college. The college teacher may choose to put it into
the hands of his students, or may merely use it as a book of reference. In
any case, however, students who are familiar with the constructions and
1 The Supplement will also contain explanations of the origin of all constructions
which need special explanation, discussions of the more difficult distinctions, and of
certain constructions which present peculiar difficulty in the high school Latin, together
with fuller illust1ations, both from this Latin and from that which is read in colleges.
In addition, it will contain further notes on pronunciation, word-order, and versification.
 Preface v

principles explained in the present book will have no difficulty in making

their way through college Latin.
Citations are given for all the examples taken from actual Latin, and no
change is made in any of them except the occasional omission of parts not
bearing upon the construction under treatment. The subject is often omitted
where it has nothing to do with the construction to be illustrated. Wherever
the Latin read in the high school affords a short and satisfactory example, that
example has been used ; and the proportion of such examples will be found
to be unprecedentedly large. Other examples have here and there been
chosen as simpler, or as affording parallels in a series (e.g., in 362), or as
matching better in the exposition of allied or contrasting constructions (as in
355, 356, 582, 3). But' the works thus necessarily drawn upon outside of the
high school Latin are in many instances represented by only a single example
each.
Latin usage was of course a matter of constant growth and change. The
ordinary division into early, Augustan, and post-Augustan usage is unservice
able. After Cicero, the most rapid changes take place in Sallust (who forms
an especial turning-point), Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy, — all belonging to
the Augustan period. The division here made is into early Latin, Ciceronian
Latin,1 and later Latin (see Table of Authors Cited, p. xi); but it must be
remembered that Lucretius and Catullus, who belong to the Ciceronian age,
are occasional innovators. — Where the phrase "poetic Latin" or the word
" poetry " is used, it is intended to cover Plautus and Terence as well as the
later poets.
The authors have allowed themselves the use of certain comparatively
new forms of grammatical terminology, classification, or statement, which
they believe to be helpful, as well as scientifically sound. Among these are
the following : the subdivisions Volitive Subjunctive, Anticipatory Subjunctive,
Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety, Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty; the
solution of the Subjunctive with dum, donec, quoad, antequam, and priusquam
as Anticipatory ; the distinctions and phrases Act Anticipated and Prepared
for, Anticipated and Forestalled, Anticipated and Deprecated; the phrases
Determinative Clause, Volitive Substantive Clause, Optative Substantive
Clause, etc., cum-Clause of Situation, Concession for the Sake of Argument,
etc. ; the statement that each tense of the Subjunctive has the force of the
Indicative tense of the same name, and, in addition, each has a future force,
etc. Many of these appear in the earlier publications of the senior author.
Others were devised for purposes of his class-room. All of them have found
acceptance in one or another of various grammars, grammatical writings, and
text-editions of authors, in various countries. That they have been taken up
1 The statements with regard to Ciceronian Latin are based upon the orations and
the philosophical works, for which alone complete lexicons exist. Occasional exceptions
or additions will doubtless require to be made when the rhetorical works and the letters
are taken into account.
vi Preface

so readily into usage is a matter of much satisfaction, since it seems to show

that other workers also have found them to be both intelligible and needful.
It is hoped that the arrangement and form of exposition found in the book,
together with the division of case-uses and mood-uses into families, and the
accompanying synopses, will lead the student to conceive of Latin syntax as a
living and organic whole, not as a series of mechanical pigeon-holes.
The views upon the relation of ictus to accent advocated in 645, 2 have
been tested by the senior editor in many years of teaching at Harvard, Cornell,
and Chicago, and have been found to render the reading of Latin verse both
easier and more interesting.
To specify all the obligations of the authors to the literature upon the
subjects treated would be impossible. Needless to say, they have availed
themselves fully of Brugmann and Delbriick's Comparative Grammar, of the
Latin Grammars of Lindsay, Sommer, Stolz and Schmalz, of Neue's Formen-
lehre with its unrivalled statistical information, of the treatises of Madvig,
Holtze, Draeger, Kuhner, Roby, Antoine, Riemann, Riemann and Goelzer,
of the Schmalz-Landgraf revision of the Syntax of Reisig, of articles in the
various journals, etc., as well as of the school-grammars most widely used in
this country and elsewhere.
For proof-reading and suggestions, they are much indebted to Mr. E. M.
Washburn, of the South Side Academy, Chicago ; Mr. C. E. Dixon and Mr.
W. F. Tibbetts, of the Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. ; Professors
F. F. Abbott, G. L. Hendrickson, F. B. Tarbell, and G. J. Laing, of the Uni
versity of Chicago ; Professor Willard K. Clement, of Evanston, 111. ; Professor
J. C. Rolfe, of the University of Pennsylvania ; and Professor F. W. Shipley, of
Washington University, St. Louis. Professor Hempl of Michigan read the
sections on Phonology in manuscript, and made some important suggestions.
In particular, thanks are due to Mr. R. A. von Minckwitz, of the DeWitt
Clinton High School, New York City, for many helpful suggestions ; to Pro
fessor G. E. Barber, of the University of Nebraska, for searching and valu
able criticisms ; to Professor D. Thomson, of the University of Washington,
Seattle, for large collections of examples made by him for the purpose ; and
to Professor A. T. Walker, of the University of Kansas, for proof-reading
and suggestions, and also examples collected by him when Instructor in the
University of Chicago for an Outline of the Uses of the Latin Moods and
Tenses projected by the senior author, some of which examples have been
used in the present grammar. And finally, the authors wish to record their
especial indebtedness to Mr. C. H. Beeson, Fellow in the University of Chicago,
formerly of the Peoria High School, whose assistance has been generously
and freely given at points and in ways too numerous to state in detail.
W. G. H.
June, 1903. C. D. B.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part I
PHONOLOGY
PAGH
The Alphabet, Phonetic Explanations, the Latin Sounds . i
Syllables 5
Quantity 7
Accent 15
Slurring . ' 16
Suggestions with Regard to Pronunciation . . . . 17
Phonetic Changes 18
Orthography 26

Part II
INFLECTION
Gender 27
Number 29
Case .............. 29
Declension of Nouns 30
First Declension 31
Second Declension 33
Third Declension 36
Fourth Declension 48
Fifth Declension 50
Defective and Variable Nouns 50
Declension of Adjectives
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions . 53
Adjectives of the Third Declension 55
Comparison of Adjectives 58
Formation of Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions . 61
Comparison of Adverbs 63
Numerals: Forms and Inflection 64,
Declension of Pronouns 67
Pronominal Adjectives 73
vii
viii Tabic of Contents

PAGE
Correlative Pronouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs ... 74
Stems of the Verb 75
Types of Conjugation 76
Principal Parts 77
Personal Endings 78
Conjugation of Sum 79
The Four Regular Conjugations 82
Deponents and Semi-Deponents 93
Periphrastic Conjugation 94
Peculiarities in Conjugation 95
Formation of the Stems . . . . . 98
Illustrations of the Various Types of Verbs . . . 107
Irregular Verbs 112
Defective Verbs 118
Impersonal Verbs 120

Part III
WORD-FORMATION
Derivation of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs .... 121
Composition 129

Part IV
SYNTAX
Introductory :
The Parts of Speech; the Sentence; Clauses and Phrases 132
Dependence and Semi-Dependence 134
Classification of Sentences and Clauses .... 135
Subject and Predicate; Predicate Noun, Adjective, or
Pronoun 135
Questions and Answers; Alternative Questions; Rhetori
cal Questions 136
^ Substantive Clauses; Adverbial Clauses. . . . 138
The Parts of Speech in Detail: Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns,
Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections 139
The Expression of Ideas through Cases, Moods, and Tenses:
General Principles 170
Agreement 171
 Table of Contents ix

PAGE
Remaining Uses of the Cases:
Uses of the Nominative 179
Uses of the Genitive 180
Uses of the Dative iSy
Uses of the Accusative 200
Uses of the Vocative 210
Uses of the Ablative 211
Place-Constructions with Names of Towns, domus, rus,
ETc 235
Summary of Case-Uses with Prepositions . . . 238
General Forces of the Moods and Tenses
General Uses of the Negatives ne and non .
Tenses of the Indicative ....
Tenses of the Subjunctive ...
Tenses of the Imperative .1
Tenses of the Infinitive 245
Tenses of the Participle 246
Usual Combinations of Tenses ("Sequence") . . 247
Less Usual Combinations (" Exceptions to the Sequence ") 249
(Rare) Mechanical Harmony of Subjunctive Tenses . 250
Alternative Tense-Usages 250
Special Forces gained by various Tenses . . .252
Uses of the Imperative 256
Uses of the Subjunctive 257
The Volitive Subjunctive 259
The Anticipatory Subjunctive 265
The Optative Subjunctive 268
The Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety . . 270
The Subjunctive of Natural Likelihood . . . 271
The Potential Subjunctive 272
The Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty .... 273
The Subjunctive of Actuality in Consecutive Clauses 276
The Subjunctive in Conditions .... 283, 304
The Subjunctive of Proviso 283
The Subjunctive of Request or Entreaty . . . 283
The Subjunctive of Consent or Indifference 284
The Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse . . . 285
The Subjunctive by Attraction 290
The Subjunctive of Repeated Action .... 290
The (Later) Subjunctive with quamquam . . 291
The Subjunctive Generalizing Statement of Fact in
the Second Person Singular Indefinite . . .291
X Table of Contents

PAGB
Uses of the Indicative 292
Summary of Conditions and Conclusions . . . 304
Uses of the Infinitive 314
Uses of the Participle 323
Uses of the Gerundive and Gerund 329
Uses of the Supine 333
Word-Order 334
Figures of Syntax 340
Figures of Rhetoric 342

Part V
VERSIFICATION
Rhythm ; Ictus ; the Foot ; the Verse 344
The Dactylic Hexameter and Dactylic Pentameter . . 345
Relation of Ictus to Word-Accent 348
Pronunciations to be noticed 350

Part VI
APPENDIX
The Roman Calendar 353
Roman Money, Weights, and Measures 356
Roman Names 358
Hidden Quantity . . 359
Catalogue of Verbs 361
 Authors Cited xi

AUTHORS CITED

EARLY LATIN LATER LATIN

Plautus, 254-184 Sallust, 86-34.

Ennius, 239-169 ^Nepos, 99 ?-24 ?
-Terence, 185 ?- 159 ,Virgil, 70-19
Cato, 234-149 ,Horace, 65-8
.Livy, 59 b.c-17 a.d.
Ovid, 43 b.c-18? a.d.
CICERONIAN LATIN Persius, 34 A.D.-62 a.d.
Seneca, 4? b.c-65 a.d.
Varro, 1 16-27 Pliny the Elder, 23 A.D.-79 a.d.
Lucretius, 96 ?-5 5 Quintilian, 35 ?-95
Catullus, 87-54 ? Martial, 40 ?-io2
-Caesar, 100-44 Pliny the Younger, 62-113?
-Cicero, 106-43 -Tacitus, 55?-i20?
Juvenal, 60 ?-i4o ?

For Caesar, Cicero, Virgil, and Horace, and also for Plautus and Terence,
the name of the work alone is given, the name of the author not being cited.
The works of these authors drawn upon, with the abbreviations, are as follows :
Plautus: Amph. = Amphitruo, As. = Asinaria, Aul. = AululSria, Bacch. =
Bacchides, Capt. = Captivi, Cist. = Cistellaria, Epid. = Epidicus,
Men. = Menaechmi, Merc. = Mercator, Mil. Gl. = Miles Gloriosus,
Pers. = Persa, Poen. = Poenulus, Pseud. = Pseudolus, Rud. = Ru-
dens, Stich. = Stichus, Trin. = Trinummus.
Terence: Ad. = Adelphoe, And. = Andria, Eun. = Eunuchus, Hec. =
Hecyra, Heaut. = Heautontimoroumenos, Ph. = Phormio.
Caesar: B. C. = de Bello Civlll, B. G. =de Bello Gallico.
Virgil: Aen. = Aeneis, Eel. = Eclogae, Georg. = Georgica.
Horace : A. P. = Ars Poetica, Carm. = Carmina, Ep. = Epistolae, Epod. =
Epodi, Sat. = Satirae.
Remaining abbreviations are for the works of Cicero. The examples are
mostly from the Orations against Catiline (Cat.), for Archias (Arch.), and for
Pompey's Command (Pomp.). A few are from the Oration for Milo (Mil.).
The remainder are scattering. The abbreviations for them will explain them
selves, except that Am. = Laelius de AmlcitiS, Sen. = Cato Maior de Senec-
tute, Senat. = Oratid post Reditum in Senatu Habita, Fam. = Epistolae ad
Famililres, and Att. = Epistolae ad Atticum.
4 Phonology [10
c. Ei is frequent in early inscriptions, representing an original ei (and also ai and oi
in non-initial syllables; see 42, -\; 44, 4), but this ei became 1, e.g. early deico, inceido,
servei, later dico, incido, servi. In classical Latin ei occurs as a diphthong only in the
interjection hei and a few words in which it was of recent origin, e.g. dein, deinde from
de-inde. In most words ei forms two distinct syllables, as in de-i-flcus.
d. The diphthong ui occurred at first only in the interjection hui (so in German only
in the exclamations hui,pfui). But it arose later in the pronominal forms huic, cui,
and huius, cuius, coming from earlier hoic, quoi, and hoius, quoius, which were still in
use in the time of Cicero. In all other words ui forms two distinct syllables, as fu-it,
habu-it, etc. And even huic and cui are dissyllables in post-Augustan poetry.

CONSONANTS
11. Most consonants are pronounced as in English, but
the following points are to be noted :
c always has the k sound as in cat, never the s sound as in centre.
g as in get, never as in gem.
t as in tin, never as in nation.
s as in hiss, never voiced (z) as in his.
bs (e.g. in urbs, etc.) like ps in cups, not bz as in tubs.
bt (e.g. in ob-tineo) as pt.
x always is as in extra, never gz as in example.
n before c, g, qu has the sound of ng in singing. Before s it lost itjs
consonantal value, the preceding vowel being lengthened and nasa 1-
ized. So consul, pronounced cosul with nasalized 0 (4).
r " rolled " or " trilled " as in French.
z (in words borrowed from the Greek) as in zero.
i consonantal asj> in yet.
i is consonantal when standing at the beginning of a word and followt d
by a vowel, and also in the interior of a word between vowels. S 1,
for example, iungo, pronounced yungo, biiugis, pronounced biyugis,
mains, pronounced maiyus (29, 2, a), etc.
But in a number of words borrowed from the Greek, mostly proper nouns, an init" al
i before vowels represents the vowel, e.g. iambus. In Gaius i is a vowel (Ga-i-u .).
v as w in wet.
The letter u has the same value as v in the combinations qu and ngu
and in the words suavis, suaded, suesco. Compare English quarter,
anguish, persuade.
ch, ph, th are pronounced like k, p, t, but with an added breath-eleme1t,
— not as in church or chagrin, physic, thin. See 6, 5.
These sounds were introduced in the first century b.C. to represent, in borrowed
words, the Greek aspirates, which had previously been represented by the simple
mutes (e.g. teatrum, later theatrum). They came to be used also in a f';w
genuine Latin words, as pulcher.
14] 77*<? Latin Sounds 5
Double letters represent real double consonants, each being pronounced
with a distinct articulation and in different syllables, as in book-case,
hoop-pole, well-laid, etc. So sic-cus, ap-pel-lo.
Note. Although in general h was pronounced by careful speakers as in English, yet
in certain combinations it seems to have been wholly silent, as it probably was every
where in the popular speech. It never prevents slurring (34), the shortening of vowels
before other vowels (21), or rhotacism (47), and often admits contraction (45). It is
sometimes a mere sign of hiatus, that is, it is used to make clear to the eye that two vowels
are to be pronounced in two syllables rather than as a diphthong. So, for example, in
ahenus, a not uncommon spelling of aSnus. Moreover, the Romans were often in doubt
as to the proper spelling, such variations as harSna — arena, herus — eras, etc., being fre
quent ; and in the case of some words the approved spelling, which we follow, is not
the historically correct one, for example, in anser, goose, which, according to the related
forms in other languages, should be hanser.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LATIN SOUNDS

12. The following scheme gives a classification of the simple Latin
sounds. See the phonetic explanations (2-8). The sounds borrowed
from Greek are inclosed in parentheses.
a
e o
Vowels •< e d > Voiced
i u
i (y) u
Breathing h Voiceless
Semivowels i consonant V Voiced
Liquids r,l Voiced
Nasals n n m Voiced
<' 8 f Voiceless
Fricatives <
w Voiced
f c, k, q t P Voiceless
Mutes or Stops - (ch) (th) (Pi) Voiceless aspirate
I 8 d b Voiced
Guttural Dental Labial
Note. Since x represents not a simple sound, but two sounds (k + s), it is not
included in the classification.
SYLLABLES
13. A syllable is a sound or succession of sounds uttered
with a single breath-impulse.
14. Every Latin word contains as many syllables as it has
vowels or diphthongs. The division of syllables is as follows :
6 Phonology [14

1 . A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as in

bo-nus, a-git, fe-rO.
2. In the case of two or more consonants the division falls
before the last consonant, except that the combinations mute
+ liquid, and qu or gu, go with the following vowel.1 Thus :
1 ) ter-men, in-ter, sic-cus, fac-tus, op-timus, pris-cus, magis-ter, sanc-tus,
but,
2) pa-tris, ala-cris, tene-brae, cas-tra, se-quor, lin-gua.
Note. In a sound-group like tr (and qu, gu), the combination of the two elements
is naturally so close that they were regularly pronounced in the same syllable. But the
poets often made use of a division pat-hs, etc. (29, 3, a).
An aspirated mute, though spelled with two letters, is of course a single consonant
(pul-cher), while x has the sound of two consonants (e.g. axis, pronounced ak-sis, but
best written a-xis).
a. A syllable ending in a vowel is called open, while one ending in a
consonant is called closed. Thus, the first syllable of bo-nus is open,
that of sic-cus closed.
b. In the case of a closed syllable, the consonant which ends it may conveniently be
called ah obstructed consonant, since its clear and full pronunciation is made more
difficult through the fact that it comes immediately before another consonant.
15. 1. In the writing of compounds it is convenient to divide the
syllables in accordance with the etymology, as ad-est, ad-igo, etc. ; and
it is quite possible that they were so pronounced in the studied utterance
of purists. But in ordinary speech and in verse the two elements were
blended, and so treated in accordance with the general system of syllabi
fication. For example, ad-est and ad-hibeo were pronounced a-dest,
a-dhibeo. But if a mute and a liquid came through composition to stand
together, they were always pronounced in separate syllables, e.g. always
ab-rumpo, never a-brumpo like tene-brae.
2. Between words in connected discourse, at least in ordinary speech
and in verse, the division of syllables is the same as within a single
word. That is, before a word beginning with a vowel or h, a final
consonant goes with the following word, as happens in English in some
common phrases, such as at all, pronounced a-tall. So, for example,
id est, ad haec were pronounced i-dest, a-dhaec.
1 It is often stated that such combinations of consonants as can be pronounced at the
beginning of words (in either Latin or Greek) were not separated, the pronunciation
being, for example, fa-ctus, ca-stra, san-ctus, etc. But the actual division in inscrip
tions and manuscripts is against this; nor is the teaching of the Roman grammarians or
the evidence of the Romance languages really in favor of it.
 Quantity of VTozvels
17] 7

QUANTITY OF VOWELS
16. According to the length of time taken in their pronun
ciation, vowels are said to be long or short. Long vowels are
indicated thus : a, i, 6, etc. Vowels without any mark are
short.1
Note 1. If we regard the length of time taken in the pronunciation of a single short
vowel as the unit, sometimes called a mora, we may assume that a long vowel contained
two of these units or morae, that is, that it took twice as long. But it must be remem
bered that in a dead language we cannot know the exact relation in time, and that in
spoken languages there are often more than two variations in quantity. So in English
there are at least three, e.g. in met, mate, and made. In Latin it is quite possible that
where vowels were lengthened before certain groups of consonants the resulting quantity
was not the same as that of the original long vowels, but something between the usual
short and long. This would account for the fact that the evidence is sometimes conflict
ing. But the matter is beyond our knowledge, and we can take account only of the
two varieties. The fact that Latin verse is based on distinctions of quantity shows that
the difference between long and short vowels must have been very marked, — fully as
much so as between the English extremes of met and made.
Note 2. In most cases the quantity of a vowel is shown by its value in poetry. But
where the syllable is long without regard to the quantity of the vowel (as in dictus, etc. ;
see 29, 3), that is, in the cases of what is known as " hidden quantity," we are dependent
on other kinds of evidence. Such are :
1) Statements of the Roman grammarians.
2) Spelling in inscriptions, in which long vowels are frequently marked as such.
3) Greek transcriptions.
4) Etymology.
5) Treatment in compounds, long vowels not being subject to the same changes as
short ; e.g. adactus beside actus, but adfectus beside factus. See 41, 42.
6) The inherited forms of the Romance languages, which have preserved the differ
ences in quality which went hand in hand with differences in quantity (9, c) ; e.g. Italian
detto from dictus, but scritto from scriptus.
Often there are several kinds of evidence combined, e.g. in lectus, in which the S is
shown by 1), 2), 3), and 6). But all the evidence must be used with caution, and in a
few cases it is so meagre or conflicting that our designation of the quantity represents
only what is the more probable of the two possibilities.
17. The quantity of the vowel in any given word must be learned
by experience in the same way as its quality. From the outset in learning
forms, the student should be as careful to note whether, for example, the
vowel is short e or long e, as to note whether it is e or i. Since the
quantity of vowels is always marked in the grammar and in the texts
first read, there is no difficulty in doing this.
At the same time, there are certain general processes of lengthening or shortening,
from which there results a uniform quantity for certain conditions; and, also, some gen
eral groupings of the facts, which, though purely mechanical, will be of assistance to the
memory. Statements covering these are given in the following sections.
1 In a few instances a special sign for the short vowel has been used ; thus, 2, S.
Vowels are sometimes marked as common ; thus, mihi. But this only means that forms
belonging to two different periods were used by the poets. In this grammar such words
are commonly given in the form of the usual prose pronunciation, as mihi.
8 Phonology [18

Quantity of Vowels in Syllables not Final

18. Vowels are always long before ns, nf, nx, and net, as in consul,
infra, iunxi, iunctus.
Note. In these combinations the nasal was only faintly sounded, or, in the
case of ns, wholly lost as a consonantal element, the preceding vowel being itself
nasalized. But the total time taken in the pronunciation of the syllable remained
the same, the nasalization of the vowel being accompanied by lengthening.
a. There was a tendency in certain circles to lengthen the vowel before r + consonant.
This pronunciation was regarded in general as improper, but in some words it became the
recognized one. This is certainly true of forma, ordo, drdior, orno, and probably of
Marcus, Marcius, Mars, Lars, quartus.
b. Somewhat similarly before gn. Aside from rSgnum, stagnum, and segnis, in which
the vowel is long by origin, a pronunciation with lengthened vowel existed in the case of
dignus, signum, ignis, and in words like privignus ; but even in these it did not become
established. We therefore write dignus, signum, etc., as well as magnus, ignosco, etc.,
for which there is no evidence whatever of a long vowel.1
c. For the quantity before x and ct, just as before many other groups of consonants,
there is no uniformity; each case must be judged by itself. Just as the vowel is long
by origin in lex (Gen. legis), but short in nex (Gen. necis), so some Perfects, as rexi,
texl, etc. (173, C, d), have a long vowel parallel to that in legi, but others the short vowel,
as spexi, coxi, etc. Similarly lectus, rectus, tectus, etc., with a long vowel as in legi, rexi,
texi, but other Participles with a short vowel, as dictus, factus. See 180.
19. Vowels are long when they result from contraction, or represent
diphthongs. Thus nil from nihil, existimo from * ex-aestimd.
20. Vowels are regularly short (in all syllables) before nt and nd.
Thus amantis, amandus, amant, beside amamus.
a. But in certain words, in which the combination of a long vowel with a following
nt or nd arose after the shortening process had already taken place, the length is
retained. So contio (from coventio), prendo (from pre-hendo), vSndfl (venum-do),
nfintius, nundinae, quintus, undecim.
2. Vowels are short before ss, except in the contracted Perfect forms,
like amasse beside amavisse, etc., and in the short forms of edo, eat,
as es, est, esse, etc. So fissus, fossus, sessum, etc.
Note. This is because an original ss, when preceded by a long vowel,
became 8. See 49, 6.
1 A full discussion of this matter is impossible here, but a word of justification for
the departure here made from the previous practice of our grammars and lexicons is
perhaps desirable. Take, for example, the word signum. In inscriptions it is written
a few times with the tall I or ei, which point to a pronunciation with long vowel. On the
other hand, the inherited forms of the Romance languages and the borrowed forms in
the Germanic and Celtic languages point to a pronunciation with short vowel. In
this and some other words, then, both pronunciations existed, probably in different strata
of society. But there is no evidence to show that the pronunciation with long vowel
was considered preferable for any of these words. So, since for the majority of words
with gn, such as magnus, ignosco, etc., there is no evidence whatever for the long vowel,
the advantage of uniformity (barring, of course, the cases of original length, as regnum)
may be allowed to tip the scales in favor of signum with the short vowel. In writing
signum, magnus, etc., the authors are in agreement with the most recent practice of
several other scholars, though many still mark the vowel long. Some, indeed, write
"signum and signum," etc., but this is not possible for a school grammar.
It may be added that some scholars question whether the lengthening of a vowel
before nx and net was universal, but there is no sufficient reason for doubting this.
88] Quantity of Vowels 9
21. A vowel is regularly short before another vowel, and also when
only the weak sound h intervenes ; e.g. pius (originally with long i),
de-hisco beside de-duco, etc.1 But there are some exceptions, as in :
1. Forms of fio, except when i is followed by er; e.g. fio, fiunt,
fiebam, etc., but fieri, fierem, etc.
2. Pronominal Genitives like unius, illius, totius.
3. Genitives and Datives of the Fifth Declension in -el, when a
vowel precedes ; e.g. diei, but fidel.
4. Old Genitives of the First Declension in -ai, as aulai.
5. Some Greek words, as aer, Aeneas, etc.
6. DIus (for divus), sometimes Diana, ohe, eheu.
7. Early Latin fuit, pluit, etc., but usually fuit, pluit.
Note. For the Pronominal Genitives the pronunciation unius, etc., was the one
recognized by the Romans as correct, and we should follow this. But there was a
tendency in common speech to shorten the vowel, and forms like unius, illius, totius are
not uncommon in poetry of all periods. This is especially frequent in the case of alterius,
since alterius could not be used in dactylic poetry ; so, always, utriusque.
22. In the Root-Syllable the quantity of the vowel is generally the
same for all forms derived from the same root ; e.g. scribo, scriba, scriptor,
etc. But some roots appear in two different forms, which may differ in
the quantity of the vowel, as they do sometimes in its quality. See 46.
Note. For Perfects and Perfect Passive Participles with vowel quantity dif
ferent from that of the Present, see 173, C, c, d ; 1 80. Derivatives with variation
in vowel quantity, such as sedes (sedeo), tegula (tego), etc., are comparatively
rare and may be learned in each individual case.
23. I . The Stem-Vowel of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations
is long (a, e, i), while that of the Third is short (e, i, u). Thus, amare,
monere, audire, but tegere, tegitur, teguntur.
a. But in do, give, the stem-vowel is short a except in the Second Person of the
Present Indicative, das, and Imperative da ; e.g. damns, dabam, etc.
2. In the formation of Derivatives from Noun or Verb-stems, a is
long, representing the stem of Nouns of the First Declension or Verbs
of the First Conjugation ; e.g. Romanus, aratrum. E, 0, u are also usually
long ; e.g. fidelis, egenus, patronus, vinosus, tribunus, lanugo (but 0
and usually u are short before 1 ; e.g. filiolus, rivulus, etc.). I is oftenest
short, representing original short i, or a weakened e or 0 (42, 2, 5); e.g.
civitas, bonitas, dominus ; but long i is also frequent ; e.g. sedfle, regina.
3. In the stem of Nouns of the Third Declension -on- is always long ;
e.g. Gen. sermonis ; -or- is short in Neuters, e.g. corporis, but in Masculines
1 Observe the similar shortening of a diphthong, e.g. pre-hendo for prae-hendo ; like
wise, though without change in spelling, prae-eunte (Aen. 5, 186).
IO Phonology [23

and Feminines it is long except in the Nom.-Voc. Sing. ; e.g. amor,

amoris. Exceptions are arbor, tree, v., Gen. arboris ; lepus, hare, m.,
Gen. leporis.
4. Verbs in -sco, except disco, posco, and compesco have a long vowel
before the suffix ; e.g. cresco, pasco, adolesco, etc. See 168. F, note ; 212, 2.
24. In Compounds the quantity of vowels generally remains the same
as in the separate parts. Thus cado, incido ; cedo, abscedo.
But note the following variations in the form of certain prefixes :
1. Dis becomes di before a voiced consonant; e.g. dMo, dl-moveo,
di-iudico. In forms like di-scribo, although an s is dropped,
the vowel is not lengthened. See 51, 7.
2. Pro has a short vowel before another vowel or h, and before f
followed by a vowel, except in pro-fero and pro-ficio. So pro-
avus, pro-inde, pro-hibeo, pro-fugio, pro-fundo, etc. But before
vowels prod- is commonly used ; e.g. prod-ed, prod-esse, prod-igo.
a. The form with the short vowel appears also in pro-cella, pro-nepos, pro-pago
(usually), and, in some other less obvious compounds, as pro-cul, pro-pe, pro-bus.
Note. Although before a vowel or h the short vowel may be the result of the
regular shortening (21), in the other cases pro represents an inherited variety of pro
(Greek has regularly the short vowel). In early Latin the demarcation in the use of
the two forms was less fixed than later, and even in classical poetry there are occasional
departures from the normal usage ; e.g. pro-curo beside the usual pro-euro, and, vice
versa, pro-fundo beside the usual pro-fundo.
Observe that a, e, and de (except in such forms as de-hisco ; see 21)
always remain long ; also that re is always short (for red before vowels
and h, see 51, 15).
3. Ne, not ne, is the form of the negative prefix in ne-fandus, ne-fas,
ne-queo, ne-scio, ne-scius.

Quantity of Vowels in Final Syllables1 (including Monosyllables)

I. Words ending in a Consonant
25. Unless the final consonant is s, the vowel is short. Exceptions
are :
1. Some (not all) monosyllables in -1, -r, -n, and -c, namely sol, sal,
nil, par (with its compounds), ver, Lar, fur, cur, en, non, quin, sin,
dic, duc, sic ; also the Adverbs of Place hic, huc, illic, etc. (For
the Nominatives hoc and hic, see 30, 2.)
1 These statements do not cover all early Latin forms or words borrowed from the
Greek, which often retain original quantities. Thus aer, crater, Troes, Simois, Cymothoe.
27] Quantity of Vowcls

2. The contracted forms of the -ivi Perfect, e.g. audit.

Note. For words ending in more than one consonant no general statement can be
made, except that the vowel is always long before -ns and-nx (18), short before -nt (20, i).
26. This prevalence of the short vowel is mainly due to the fact that
every originally long vowel was regularly shortened before final m, t, nt
(for nt, see also 20), and", except in monosyllables, before final 1 and r.1
Examples of this shortening are seen as follows :
1. In verb-forms with the personal endings -m, -t, and -nt, wherever these are added
to a tense-stem or mood-stem ending in a long vowel. The long vowel shows itself in
the Second Singular and First and Second Plural. So :
a) Present Indicative of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations; e.g. amat,
amant, beside amas, amamus, amatis ; monet, monent, beside monSs, etc. ; audit
beside audis, etc.
b) Imperfect Indicative of all Conjugations ; e.g. amabam, amabat, amabant, beside
amabas, etc.
c) Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations; e.g. tegam, teget,
tegent, beside tegSs, etc.
d) Past Perfect Indicative of all Conjugations ; e.g. amaveram, amaverat, amave-
rant, beside amaveras, etc.
e) All tenses of the Subjunctive in all Conjugations; e.g. tegam, tegat, tegant,
beside tegas, etc. ; tegerem, tegeret, tegerent, beside tegerSs, etc. ; texerim, texerit,
texerint, beside texerimus ; texissem, texisset, texissent, beside texisses, etc.
2. In all Passive forms ending in -r ; e.g.tegor from *tego-r (i.e. Act. tego + r) ; Imperf.
tegebar beside tegebaris ; Fut. tegar from * tega-r (as Act. tegam from * tega-m) ;
Pres. Subj. tegar beside tegaris ; Imperf. Subj. tegerer beside tegereris ; Imperat.
tegitor, teguntor from *tegito-r, *tegunto-r ; and so in the other Conjugations.
3. In many Nom.-Voc. Sing, forms ending in -r or -1 (also Accusatives in the case of
Neuters) ; e.g. amor beside Gen. amoris, animal beside animalis, calcar beside calcaris ;
likewise pater, mater, frater, from original pater, etc.
4. In the Accusative Singular of the First and Fifth Declensions, which ended
originally in -a-m and -e-m.
5. In the Genitive Plural of all Declensions, which ended originally in -Sm. This
first became -om, then -um (44, 1).
Note. But before t and r the long vowel was still retained in early Latin,
and is sometimes found even in later poetry ; e.g. arat, videt, erat, peteret, ferar,
amor, pater. See under Versification, 662, 2.
27. Before final s the quantity varies.
1 . Final as is long ; e.g. sellas, amas.
Exceptions anas, duck, Gen. anatis ; as, copper, Gen. assis.
2. Final es is usually long ; e.g. reges, fides, mones.
But final es is short :
a) In the Nom.-Voc. Sing. of most dental stems which show a short
vowel in the other cases, as dives, Gen. divitis ; miles, Gen.
mflitis ; seges, Gen. segetis, etc. But note pes, abies, aries,
paries (Gen. pedis, abietis, etc.).
1 Note also that final d cannot occur after a long vowel, since in this position it was
lost in early Latin (48). Of the other consonants which occur as finals, only n is frequent,
and this, in large part, in Neuter n-Stems like nomen, where the short vowel is in accord
ance with the origin of the formation.
12 Phonology' [27
b) In es, thou art or (but es, eat, from edo), and penes, with.
Note. Original short -es became -is (44, 2). Of the examples of existing short -es
nearly all represent earlier -ess, traces of which are found in early Latin (30, 3). For
example, es is from ess, miles from miless (*milet-s).
3. Final os is long ; e.g. hortos, flos.
Exceptions : os, bone (but ds, mouth), compos, impos.
4. Final is is oftenest short ; e.g. regis, tegis.
But final is is long :
a) In Plural Case-endings ; e.g. Dat.-Abl. sellis, hortis, nobis, Acc.
finis.
b) In the Second Person Singular of verb-forms where the First
Plural is -imus, namely in :
Pres. Indic. Act. of the Fourth Conjugation, e.g. audis.
Pres. Indic. Act. of some Irregular Verbs, e.g. is, fis ; also
vis, mavis, etc.
Pres. Subj. Act. of some Irregular Verbs, e.g. sis, veiis, nolis.
Perf. Subj. Act., e.g. amaveris, tegeris (but sometimes short
-is ; vice versa in the Fut. Perf. Indic, sometimes -is
beside the regular -is. See 164, 6).
c) In vis, force, Quiris, Samnis (Gen. -itis) ; often sanguis, rarely
pulvis.
5. Final us is usually short ; e.g. hortus, genus, regibus, tegimus.
But final us is long :
a) In the Gen. Sing. and the Nom. and Acc. Plur. of the Fourth
Declension, as tribus.
b) In the Nom.-Voc. Sing. of Nouns of the Third Declension which
have long u in the other cases, as virtus, tellus, ius, etc. (Gen.
virtutis, telluris, iuris).
II. Words ending in a Vowel
28. 1. Final a is oftenest short, namely in the Nom. Sing. of the
First Declension and the Nom.-Acc. Plur. of all Neuters ; e.g. sella,
dona, genera.
But final a is long :
a) In the Abl. Sing, of the First Declension, as sella.
b) In the Imperative of the First Conjugation, as ama.
c) In most uninfected words (except ita, quia), e.g. iuxta, triginta,
and Adverbs like contra, extra, postea, which are Ablatives in
origin.
29] Quantity of Syllables 13

2. Final e is usually short ; e.g. horte, tege, tegere.

But final e is long :
a) In the Abl. Sing. of the Fifth Declension, e.g. die.
6) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation, e.g. mone (but
often short in ave, cave, vale, and, in early Latin, in many other
Imperatives ; see note).
c') In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions (126, 1), e.g. recte, alte (but always short in bene,
male).
d) In all monosyllables except those used as enclitics (-que, -ne, etc. ;
see 33, 1), namely e, de, me, te, se, ne.
3. Final i is long, except in nisi, quasi, and, in the usual prose pro
nunciations, in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. But the older forms mihi, etc.,
with final long i, are used in poetry side by side with mihi, etc.
4. Final 0 is long, except in ego, modo, cito, duo, cedo (give). But in
several other words it is sometimes short in poetry, e.g. homo, volo, scio.
(From Ovid on, the short vowel becomes more and more frequent in the
Nom. Sing. of the Third Declension, in Verb-forms, and in many other
words, such as ergo, octo, immo, etc.)
5. Final u is long.
Note. The short final 0 and i in all the examples given, and likewise the short e in
bene and male, represent originally long vowels or diphthongs, e.g. modo from * modo like
primo, bene from *bene like alte (126, i), quasi, nisi from quasei, nisei (so written on
early inscriptions ; cf, si, early sei). The change was due to a process known as iambic
shortening. In words of two syllables the first of which was short, there was a marked
tendency to shorten the final syllable if long, that is, to change the word-rhythm from
w — to w w. This was not a mere matter of poetic usage, but a characteristic of
common speech. In isolated forms, such as those mentioned, the tendency had full
sway, and the short vowel is prevalent from the earliest period. In mihi, etc., the form
with the short vowel became established, but the poets continued to use also the old
form mihi, etc., at all periods. For other classes of words, early poetry, reflecting popular
speech, shows many examples of the same process ; e.g. Gen. Sing, domi, viri ; Dat. Sing,
malo ; Nom. Sing, homo ; Imperat. ama, puta, mone, cave, abi, redi ; First Sing, volo ;
Second Sing, vides ; viden (for viden, from vides-ne), rogan, etc. But here the tendency
to uniformity between words of the same class restored the normal type with the long
vowel in the cultivated speech. Still, the short vowel remains in puta, meaning for
instance (originally an Imperative of puto), in viden, see? and usually in ave, cave used
as Interjections, sometimes also in homo, volo, etc. Such forms in final short 0 gain ground
again from Ovid on (see above). The short a of the Nom. Sing, of the First Declension
and of Neuter Plurals was once long, but here the short vowel, though probably arising
in iambic forms, extended to all words, and but few traces of the long a are found even
in early Latin.
QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES
29. 1. Syllables are short or long, according to the length
of time taken in pronouncing them,
14 Phonology [29

2. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diph

thong ; for example, the first syllables of mater, audio.
a. The first syllables of words like maius, cuius, eius, Troia, etc., are
long because they really contain diphthongs. For example, maius,
sometimes spelled maiius, is pronounced mai-ius, much like our my use,
with the accent on my. These words are often written maius, cuius,
eius, etc., but should not be, since the vowel itself is short.
3. A syllable is also long, even when the vowel is short, pro
vided it ends in a consonant. The time taken in pronounc
ing the consonant, being added to that taken in pronouncing
the vowel, makes the syllable long.1
That is, following the system of syllabification laid down in 14, 2,
a syllable is long if its vowel is followed by two or more consonants,
except a mute followed by a liquid (or qu). So the first syllable is :
1) Long in por-ta, sic-cus, fac-tus, axis (ak-sis).
2) Short in bo-nus, pa-tris, se-quor, a-dhibeo (14, 2, note ; 15, 1).
a. In words like patris the poets often use a syllabic division pat-ris,
teneb-rae, etc. (14, 2, note), which makes the first syllable long.1
t. The poets, following Greek usage, treat z as a double consonant.
4. The same is true of final syllables. • If a word ends in a
single consonant its last syllable is long before a word begin
ning with a consonant, but short before a word beginning
with a vowel or h, since in this case the final consonant is
carried over to the next word. See 15, 2.
30. In a few words we meet with a long syllable even where a short
vowel is followed by only one consonant in the normal spelling, namely
in compounds of iacio (adicio, conicio, etc.), in hoc, and very often in hic.
1. In compounds of iacio the regular spelling is adicio, disicio, etc. (not adiicio, etc.),
and this represents the usual prose pronunciation. Yet in poetry the first syllable is
nearly always long. This is explained by the older forms adiecio, etc., in which the first
syllable was, of course, long. The poets made use of these earlier forms, which were
more convenient for the metre, — or, at least, retained the old division of syllables, pro
nouncing ad-icio, etc. Similarly, for reicio the poets made use of the older form reiecid,
in which the first syllable was long for the same reason as in eius, etc. (i.e. rci-yecid, like
ei-yus ; see 29, 2, a) or at least retained the older form of the first syllable, pronouncing
then rei-icio. In the same way the first syllable is long in both conicio and the less
common coicio.
1 The quantity of the vowel is not affected. Calling the vowel " long by position "
often misleads the beginner into such an error as pronouncing est, M, with a long e.
32] Accent 15

2. In final syllables which once ended in two consonants, these consonants were some
times preserved in pronunciation before vowels, though not shown by the spelling. So
the Nom. Sing. Neut. hoc stands for hocc, that is * hod (like quod) + c(e), and was usually
so pronounced before vowels, though rarely so written. Hence it is nearly always a long
syllable, for example, hoc donum and hoc-c erat. The Nom. Sing. Masc. hic (earlier
he-c) has a short vowel, and in earlier poetry is always a short syllable before a word
beginning with a vowel. But a form nicc arose under the influence of hocc, and in the
classical poets the word is oftener a long syllable than a short one.
3. In early Latin there are other similar cases,e.g. es(s), thou art, miles(s), ter(r),etc.
ACCENT
31. The Latin accent was, like the English, one of stress.
Its position is as follows :
1 . In words of two syllables the accent is upon the first ;
e.g. magis, tego.
2. In words of more than two syllables it is upon the next
to the last (the penult) if this is long, otherwise on the next
preceding that (the antepenult) ; e.g. a-mi-cus, ma-gis-ter, but
bel-li-cus, te-ne-brae (29, 3).
3. Compounds are accented in the same way ; e.g. ad-fero not ad-fero,
conficit not conficit. But in non-prepositional compounds of facio such
as calefacio, tepefacio, etc., which were written separately in the earliest
period, the accent is always on the verb, e.g. calefacit not calefacit.
Note. The system of accent here described was preceded in the earliest period of
the language, before the beginnings of literature, by a different system, according to which
all words had a stress accent upon the first syllable. A relic of this is seen in the early
Latin accentuation of words of four syllables of which the first three are short, e.g.
facilius. Some important phonetic changes are traced to this earlier accentual system.
32. There are, however, a few exceptions to these statements.
r. When a final syllable following a long penult is lost, the accent
remains on what has now become the final syllable. So illic from illice,
tanton from tantone, adduc from adduce, Perfect audit from audlvit, etc. ;
also adjectives in -as, Gen. -atis, denoting one's native place, as nostras
(from nostratis), Arpinas, Capenas, etc.
2. The Genitive and Vocative in -i of nouns in -ius and -ium are
accented on the penult even when short, e.g. Vergili, ingeni.
Note. According to statements of the grammarians of the fourth and fifth centuries
A.D., words ending with the enclitics -que, -ve, -ne, -ce were always accented on the
syllable preceding the enclitic, even when this was short, e.g. bonaque, liminaque, etc.
Since the vast majority of inflected forms end in a long syllable, so that the accent would
necessarily fall on the syllable preceding the enclitic (e.g. Abl. Sing, bonaque, bonoque, Acc.
Sing, bonamque, etc.), one can readily see how the few forms ending in a short vowel
might come to be accented in the same position. But in early Latin such forms were
accented in accordance with the usual system, and there is some reason for believing that
i6 Phonology [32

in the Augustan period, too, the accent was still bonaque, limlnaque, etc. It seems best,
therefore, to accent such words in accordance with the general system, that is, bonaque,
not bonaque; similarly itaque (in both meanings).
33. In Latin there existed sentence accent, as in English, some words
being emphasized by stress, others being pronounced lightly.
1. Certain words which were always unemphatic were pronounced and
written as a part of the preceding word. Such words are known as
enclitic particles, or simply enclitics. The commonest of these are -.que,
-ne, -ve, -ce, -pte, -met, -dum.
2. Besides these, Relative and Indefinite Pronouns, Personal and
Determinative Pronouns when not emphatic, Prepositions, Conjunctions,
and parts of the verb " to be " were pronounced with little or no stress.

SLURRING
34. i . When a final vowel is followed by a word beginning
with a vowel or h, it is slurred or run into the vowel of the
following word (as in "await alike the inevitable hour"),
without, however, changing the quantity of the latter.
Note. It is frequently said that the final vowel was dropped in such a case. We
know, however, that it was not wholly lost. One^should pronounce it very lightly,
quickly passing to the following word. Thus bona et, bon&(h)aec.
2. The same is true of a word ending in m, final m losing its
consonantal value before a word beginning with a vowel or h. The
preceding vowel was nasalized, and the lips approached each other
in a sort of w-sound, which did not interfere with the slurring of the
vowels, e.g. bonum addit, pronounced bon"waddit; bonum hoc, pronounced
bon'™(k)oc; bonam addit, pronounced bon~™addit.
Note. Such pronunciation need occasion no difficulty in practice. If one tries, in
the case of -um, simply to touch lightly upon the u in passing to the following vowel, the
nasalization and the glide w will be produced unconsciously. The same habit can then
be easily transferred to combinations with other vowels.
3. Owing to their unemphatic or enclitic use the words es, are, and est,
is, lose their vowel when preceded by a word ending in a vowel, just as in
English you 're, he 's, she 's. And this, in contrast to the processes
mentioned in 1 and 2, is sometimes indicated in the writing. So bonas
for bona es, bonast for bona est, and also bonust for bonum est (bonum
being pronounced without the final m ; see 2).
Note. Instead of bonust, which is the only contracted spelling for bonum est
known on inscriptions, and which is frequent enough in MSS., our text-books, if they use
89] Suggestions on Pronunciation 17
the contracted spelling at all, write bonumst, which is a later spelling introduced to dis
tinguish this from another bonust, an early Latin form for bonus est (i.e. really from
bonu est, a final s in early Latin being lost under certain conditions). The spelling
bonumst invites a wrong pronunciation and misleads one as to the way in which the form
originated. If the m had been fully sounded, the vowel of est would have remained,
since it is never lost after consonants. Such a form as idst for id est, like English it 'j,
is unknown in Latin.
SUGGESTIONS WITH REGARD TO PRONUNCIATION
35. A correct pronunciation is, of course, by no means the most
important thing in the study of Latin, but, if attained, it will lend much
attractiveness to the reading of the literature. The three striking differ
ences (36, 37, 38) between Roman pronunciation and the pronunciation
of English should therefore be constantly kept in mind.
36. The difference in time between a short vowel and a long vowel
was as great in Roman speech as in the extremes of short and long in
our speech (e.g. met and made), and was steadily observed. Thus the a
in the termination -anus (e.g. Romanus) took, roughly speaking, twice as
long to pronounce as the short a in anus, old woman (-anus = SSnus).1
37. The pronunciation of an obstructed consonant (14, 2, b) was
much fuller and clearer in Roman speech than it ordinarily is in English,
— so full and clear, indeed, that it took about as tituch time as a short
vowel. For example, in Sn-nus, pSJ-tus, or Is-te, the obstructed n, c, or s
at the end of the first syllable takes as much time to utter as the a, the e,
or the i. In an English word like protected, on the other hand, so little
time is spent upon the c in ordinary speech that the syllable which it ends
belongs to the short class rather than to the long class.
38. The Romans habitually slurred a vowel (34, 1 and 2) at the end
of a word before an initial vowel or h, unless there was some special
reason for pausing. In English we occasionally do this, especially with
such words as to or the (e.g. / desire to advance the all-important interests
of, etc.), but habitually we do not.
39. There are certain very common combinations of quan
tities with accent, which, though they occur in English in
1 Instead of trying to remember that, in his book, a given vowel in a given word had
a mark crver it, or did not, the student should rather, in learning each new word, pro
nounce all the long vowels distinctly long, and the short vowels distinctly short (or so
think the pronunciation to himself), and thus fix the word in mind as sounding so and so.
When, later, he has occasion to write the word, he should ask himself, not " How did it
look in the book ? " but " How do I pronounce it ? "
A student who possesses the gift of visual memory should of course avail himself of it.
But, even in his case, the picture of the printed word which he carries in mind should be
translated at once into a memory of sound.
i8 Phonology [89

groups of words, do not occur in any single word, and are there
fore strange to us. These accordingly require special practice
and care at the beginning. The most important are as follows :
1) The combination w —, as in deae, deo, ama, m6ne, tene, iiibes,
t6ro. Compare English dt home and td home in " I said dt
home, not to home." The difficulty here is in making the first
syllable really short, and in keeping all accent off the second
syllable, while at the same time tranquilly giving it its full
length. This is the hardest Latin combination for modern
speakers.
2) The combination w w—, as in Latio, rapidi. Compare English
Me"rry Mount (with the last word lengthened, but not accented).
3) The combination -wor - —, as in regina, regina. Com
pare English whole pailful, with full length, but no accent, on
whole, and full length, with accent, on pail.
4) The combination (much like the preceding) w w, or
w , as in amabamus, tenebatur, trahebatur. Compare
English a whole pailful, with the a short, and the rest as
above.
5) The combination — www, or — ww —, as in dividimus, _
iudicia, impend, oceano. This may be reproduced in the Eng
lish no silliness, pronounced with a long no, not accented,
and with a short and accented first syllable in silliness.
40. The student should regard the marking of long vowels in writing
Latin simply as a form of spelling, to represent differences of sound.
Long i and short i, for example, are as different in Latin as i in fit
and ee in feet in English.

PHONETIC CHANGES1
Weakening of Vowels in Medial Syllables
41. The vowels of medial syllables are subject to certain modifica
tions which do not appear in initial syllables. This is most apparent in
the variation of the root-syllable, observable between compounds and
1 Only such changes are mentioned as are fairly obvious, and involve the relations of
existing Latin forms. There are many other changes, a treatment of which is needful
and possible only in connection with the forms of other languages.
Changes in the quantity of vowels have been mentioned already (18-21, 26, 28, note) ;.
also some changes of original diphthongs (10, a, b, c, d).
42] Phonetic Changes 19

the simple words from which they are derived, as facio, but per-ficid.
But the change is not confined to such cases.
Note 1. These changes came about at a time when the older accentual system (31,
note) prevailed, according to which all but initial syllables were unaccented. The slight
ing of the vowels of unaccented syllables is common to languages with a strong stress
accent, and nowhere more so than in English, where the result of the weakening is usually
an obscure vowel much like « in but. Note, for example, the pronunciation of drayman,
ploughman as compared with that of man, or the identical sound given to the a, e, and 0
of currant, patient, patriot (but patriitic). In Latin the weakening takes the form of
replacing the more open vowel by one less open. So a is changed to e, and e frequently
to i; similarly ai (ae), through ei, to i. Sometimes, owing to the character of the sur
rounding sounds, the change is to u ; similarly au (through ou) to u. Long vowels are
never affected. Contrast ad-actus from actus with ad-fectus from factus.
Note 2. In many compounds the feeling for the connection with the single word is
so strong that the latter appears without change. So circum-ago, lead around, ad-lego,
elect to, etc. Sometimes both weakened and unchanged forms are found : thus from neco
the compound e-nicd is found in early Latin, but the usual form is S-nec6 ; cdn-secro, from
sacro, remains the usual form, but con-sacro is also found. This retention or revival of
the form of the simplex in compounds is known as decomposition, and is seen in our
pronunciation of man in beside
pronunciation fore-head iceman,for'ed,
as contrasted to that
Saturday given
beside to it in (like
Saturday drayman, or inetc.
Mond'y), the;
also in housewife beside hussy, which is in origin the same word. In uncompounded
words there are other influences which sometimes prevent the usual changes.
42. The principal changes are as follows :
1 . a becomes i before a single consonant except r, and before ng ;
it becomes e before r and before two consonants, and u before 1 +
consonant.1
agd ad-igo cado Perf. cecidi
facio per-ficio capio ac-cipio
tango at-tingo frango . con-fringo
pario Perf. peperi fallo Perf. fefelli
factus per-fectus captus ac-ceptus
salto in-sultd calco in-culco
Note. Recomposition (41, note 2) is seen in circum-ago, com-paro, etc. In Noun-
Stems ending in a + consonant, the a of the Nom. Sing, remains unchanged in the other
cases; e.g. Caesar, Caesar, Gen. Caesaris.
2. e, unless preceded by i, becomes i before a single consonant
except r.
teneo at-tineo rego cor-rigo
sedeo ad-sided premo com-primo
miles Gen. mHitis (but paries Gen. parietis)
Note. Recomposition is seen in ad-lego, circum-sedeo, etc. In forms like segetis
(Gen. of seges) as compared with militis, the retention of the e is due to the assimi
lating influence of the e of the first syllable.
1 This statement combines the final results of several different changes which took
place at successive periods.
20 Phonology [48

3. ae becomes i, and au becomes u.

quaero in-quiro claudo in-cludo
caedo Perf. cecidl causa ac-cuso
Note. But oftener Recomposition takes place, as ad-haereo, ex-audio, etc.
4. av and ov become u.
lavo e-luo novus denud (*de-novo)
5. 0 becomes i (or e if preceded by i) before a single consonant
except 1 ; it becomes u before two consonants and, unless preceded by a
vowel, before 1. Examples :
nico from *in(s)loco leguntur from *legontor
bonitas " *bono-tas (bonus) porculus " *porco-los (porcus)
societas " * socio-tas (socius) but filiolus (filius)
Note. But the change to i is rare except before suffixes, as in bonitas. In the root-
syllable of compounds o nearly always remains unchanged, e.g. ab-rogo, con-loco, ad-
moneo, etc. For the change to u, see also 44, 1.
6. (Note to i, 2, and 5.) When the vowel of the medial syllable,
whether a, e, or 0, is followed by a labial (p, b, f, or m), it is sometimes
changed to u instead of to i, — but not always, and the reasons for the
difference are not clear, except that the quality of the vowels of the
surrounding syllables was a factor. In some of these words the u
remained unchanged, but in most it was eventually supplanted by i.
Examples are : oc-cupo (from the root cap- of capio) as compared with anti-
cipo ; au-cupis, -Gen. of auceps, compared with principis from princeps ;
con-tubernalia (taberna) ; possumus, volumus compared with agimus,
tegimus ; mancupium and mancipium ; maxumus and maximus, proxumus
and proximus, etc. The same variation is seen when the original vowel
was u or i, e.g. cornu-fex and corni-fex (cornu-), pontu-fex and ponti-fex
(ponti-), and in some cases of original u even in initial syllables, e.g.
lubet and libet, clupeum and clipeum.

Syncope of Vowels
43. 1. Short vowels are sometimes lost in medial and final syllables.
So, for example, surgo beside the older sur-rigo, pergo from * per-rigo ;
reppuli, rettuli, from the reduplicated Perfects *re-tetuli, *re-pepuli;
valde beside validus ; caldus, soldus, beside calidus, solidus ; in final sylla
bles nec, ac, beside neque, atque (cf. also words having enclitic -c, -n,
beside -ce, -ne); Nom. Sing. of i-Stems pars, mons, etc., from original
Nom. * partis, *montis, Neut. animal from animale, *animali.
IS] Phonetic Changes 21

Note. Like the weakening of vowels, this process began under the old accentual
system (31, note), as shown by rettuli from * re-tetul!, etc. Where double forms like
calidus and caldus exist, the shorter forms are those of the rapid utterance of everyday
speech, and were often used by the poets. A similar relation, as regards use, exists
between periculum and periclum, saeculum and saeclum, etc. But in these the shorter
forms represent a retention of, or in part a reversion to, the original formation; the
vowel before 1 is a secondary development.
2. Syncope is especially common in syllables containing ro and ri,
and, if the r is not already preceded by a vowel, an e is developed before
it. So regularly in the Nominative Singular of stems in -ro- and -ri-, as
puer from *pueros, ager from *agros, imber from *imbris, acer from
•acris. Similarly sacerdos from *sacri-dos, agellus (*ager-los) from
* agro-lo-s, etc. The successive stages of development are, for example,
*agros, *agrs, *agers, *agerr (49, 11), ager (49, 13).
Change of Vowels in Final Syllables
44. 1. Change of 0 to u. Before final consonants an original 0
became u ; e.g. hortus, hortum, illud, legunt, from * hortos, * hortom,
* illod, * legont, the stem-vowel in all such cases being 0.
A similar change took place in medial syllables before two consonants or 1 (42, 5) ;
and even in initial syllables 0 became u when followed by 1 + consonant or by nc, ngu,
mb ; e.g. multa from molta, nunc from hone, etc. In all three classes of words this
change took place in the third century b.C., and examples of the original 0 are found
only in the earliest inscriptions ; e.g. praifectos, opos, cosentiont, pocolom, molta, hone.
But if the 0 was preceded by v or u, it was retained for nearly two centuries longer,
so that vivos, exiguos, servos, equos, relinquont, sequontur, volt, volgus are the proper
forms not only for Plautus and Terence, but also for Cicero. And when the change to u
finally came, the product of quo and guo was at first cu, gu, not quu, guu, which were
introduced later ; cum for earlier quom remained.
The forms of the different periods may be illustrated as follows :
Earliest Inscriptions . . hortos servos equos relinquont
Plautus, Cicero .... hortus " " "
Augustan Period ... " servus ecus relincunt
Later Imperial Period . " " equus relinquunt
2. Before final s or t an original e became i ; e.g. in Verb forms like legis, legit from
earlier * leges, *leget (with the "thematic vowel" e), or Gen. Sing, patris, etc., from
*patr-es (the original Genitive ending of consonant-stems being -es or -os).
3. An original final i, if it was not dropped (43, 1), became e; e.g. ante from *anti
(cf. anti-cipo), or Nom. Sing. Neut. mare, sedile, etc., from *mari, *sedili (i-Stems).
4. In final syllables original oi (which in initial syllables became oe, u ; see 10, a) and
ai (ae) became first ei, then i. So Nom. Plur. horti, Dat.-Abl. Plur. hortis, sellis, from
early Latin hortei, horteis, selleis, these from earlier * hortoi, * hortois, * sellais.
Contraction of Vowels *
45. Two like vowels unite to form the corresponding long vowel, as
nil from nihil, Minus from * hi-himus (hiems), copia from * co-opia, currum
from curruum (Gen. Plur.). For the contraction of two unlike vowels
22 Phonology [46

no brief general statement can be made ; examples are : cogo from

* co-ago, como from * co-emo, dego from * de-ago, amo from * amao (cf.
moneo), Subjunctive ames from * amaes.
Vowel Gradation
46. There are some vowel variations which are not due to any
changes within the Latin language, but are relics of a system of vowel
interchange inherited from the parent speech,1 and known as Vowel
Gradation, — such as is seen, for example, in English sing, sang, sung.
An understanding of the system as a whole cannot be gained from Latin
alone, and is unnecessary here.
The principal variations are :
1 . e, — o, as tego, — toga ; sequor, — socius.
2. e, — e, " tego, — texi, tegula ; sedeo, — sedi, sedes.
3. 1 (earlier ei),— (oe),— i, " dico, — dictus, abdico ; fIdo, — foedus, — fides.
4. ii (earlier *eu, ou), — u, " duco, — ductus, dux, Gen. ducis.
5. a, — a, " scabo, — scab!; caveo, — cavi.
6. 0, — d, " fodio, — fodi ; voco, — vox.
7. a, — e, " ago, — eg! ; capio, — cepi.
Changes of Single Consonants
47. Rhotacism. An s between vowels becomes r, as in generis from
* genesis (Nom.-Acc. genus), gero from *geso (Perf. ges-si, Perf. Pass.
Partic. ges-tus), ero (es-t), dir-imd (cf. dis-pono) ; also dir-ibeo from habeo.
Note. Compare English were beside was. The intermediate stage between s and r
was the voiced s, the sound of s in rose or z in zero, and this was still preserved in the
earliest Latin. Final s is not subject to this change, but in some nouns, as honor beside
bonds, amor, etc., the s which is proper in the Nom. Sing, has yielded to the influence of
all the other cases, in which s regularly became r. See 80, 4, note ; 86, note.
48. A final d is lost after long vowels, though still found in early inscriptions;
e.g. Abl. Sing, sententia, early sententiad, Imperative esto, early estod.
Changes in Consonant Groups
49. 1 . A voiced mute when followed by a voiceless mute or s becomes
itself voiceless ; e.g. scrip-tus, scrip-si (scribo).
2. Not only g, but also qu, gu, and h, become c before t or s (cs
then appearing as x), as in the Perf. Pass. Partic, and the Perf. in -si;
1 That is, the language from which are descended not only Latin (with its own descen
dants French, Italian, etc.) and the other dialects of ancient Italy (Oscan, Umbrian, etc.),
but also Greek, the Germanic languages (German, English, etc.), the Celtic languages
(Irish, Welsh, etc.), the Slavonic languages (Russian, etc.), the languages of India and
Persia, and others. This parent speech is called Indo-European.
49] Phonetic Changes 23

e.g. rectus, rexi (rego), coctus, coxi (coquo), unctus, finxi (unguo), vectus,
vexi (veho). And as v between vowels sometimes stands for original
gu,1 we find ct and x in interchange with v ; e.g. Nom. Sing. nix, Gen.
nivis (from * niguis ; cf. ninguit), vixl, victus (vivo) ; similarly fructus
(fruor), flux! (fluo), etc.
3. A guttural mute is lost between 1 or r and a following t, s, m, or n ;
e.g. fultus, fulsi (fulcio), tortus, torsi, tormentum (torqueo), urna (urceus).
4. A dental mute is assimilated to a following s, and the resulting ss
becomes s if standing after a long syllable, or before another consonant,
or if final ; e.g. messui from * met-sui (meto), clausi, earlier claussl from
*claud-si (claudo), aspicio (ad-spicio), miles, earlier miless (30, 3) from
* mflet-s.
5. When a final dental of a root comes to stand before a suffix begin
ning with a dental, the result is ss, which, after a long syllable, is reduced
to s. So sessum from * sed-tum (sedeo),fissus from*fid-tos(findo), clausus,
earlier claussus from *claud-tos (claudo), etc. But if the second dental
is followed by r, the result is str; e.g. rostrum from *rod-trom (rodo).
6. Original ss, as well as the ss arising under the rules just given, was
reduced to s when preceded by a long syllable. So hausi from haus-si
(haurio from *hausio, 47), as clausi from claus-si (4), clausus from claussus
(5). LI sometimes suffers a similar reduction, as in milia from millia,
paulum from paullum.
a. The ss remains in the contracted Perfect forms, like amasse beside amavisse,
and in the short forms of edo, eat, as esse, essetur.
7. A p is sometimes inserted between tn and a following t or s ; e.g.
emptus (emo), sumpsi (sumo), hiemps beside hiems.
8. Dental and labial mutes are assimilated to a following guttural,
and dentals to labials. So ac-cido from * ad-cado, siccus from * sit-cos
(sitis), oc-cido from * ob-cado, ap-pareo from ad-pareo, etc.
9. A nasal is assimilated to the class of the following mute ; e.g.
im-puto (in-puto), eundem (eum-dem), princeps with guttural n (primus).
10. Labial and dental mutes when followed by a nasal become nasals,
and, if the preceding syllable is long, mm becomes m. So :
summus, from * sup-mos (super) somnus, from * sop-nos (sopor)
mamma " * mad-ma (madeo) ramus " *rad-mos (radix)
1 The sound-group gu, parallel in character and origin with qu, was retained only
after n, as in unguo, etc. Otherwise, when followed by a vowel, it lost the g, appearing
then as v, which, in case the preceding vowel was u, was itself lost. Hence ninguit,
nix, but nivis; fructus, but fruor (from *fruvor, *fruguor), etc.
24 Phonology [49

11. dl, Id, nl, In, rl, Is become ll, and rs becomes rr. So :
sella, from *sed-la (sedeo) sallo, from * saldo (English salt)
corolla " * cordn-la (corona) collis " * colnis
agellus " *ager-los velle " *vel-se (cf. es-se)
ferre from *fer-se
12. An s, or group of consonants ending in s, is dropped before voiced
consonants, and the preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened. So :
bini, from * bis-ni (bis) luna, from * louc-sna (luceo)
primus " * pris-mos (cf. pris-cus) . pilum " * pins-lom (pinso)
idem (Nom. Sing. Masc), from * is-dem seviri " *secs-viri (sex)
13. Finals. Double consonants at the end of a word are simplified.
So os, bone, from *oss (Gen. ossis) ; miles from unless, *milets (4) ; mel
from *mell, * meld (Gen. mellis ; see 11); far from *farr, *fars (Gen.
farris; see 11); ager from *agerr, *agers (11, 48, 2). Note also cor
from cord (Gen. cordis) and lac from lact (Gen. lactis).
a. In Nom.-Acc. hoc from hocc, *hod-c (8), the double consonant was retained, in
pronunciation, before a vowel ; in early Latin also unless, etc. See 30, 2, 3.

Assimilation in Compounds
50. When assimilation takes place in compounds, the changes are
nearly all such as have just been mentioned. But assimilation is often
absent, owing to the influence of the separate form of the word which is
the first member of the compound. This is the same principle of
Recomposition that often prevents the regular vowel changes in the
second member of compounds (41, note 2).
Thus the Nom.-Acc. Sing. Neut. of quisquam is regularly quicquam (rarely quidquam),
but that of quisque is regularly quidque (rarely quicque) ; while from quisquis both quid-
quid and quicquid were in common use, and from quispiam both quippiam and quidpiam.
The greatest variation is seen in the so-called prepositional compounds, that is, com
pounds with adverbial prefixes, most of which occur separately as Prepositions. For
certain combinations assimilation predominates from the earliest period ; in others only
the unassimilated form is in use until a late period. So, for example, spellings like
accipio, attineo are more common at all periods than adcipio, adtineo, and, though the
latter forms are sometimes found in imperial times, it is doubtful if the recomposition
affected anything but the spelling. On the other hand, spellings like adfero, adsigno,
conloco, etc., prevailed to the almost total exclusion of affero, assigno, colloco until sev
eral centuries after Christ, so that we must believe that ad and con were actually so
pronounced in such words. Yet here again there are special cases. For example, the
spelling conlegium, exclusively employed down to the time of Augustus, gives way to
collegium in the Augustan period, though conloco and other similar forms continue to
prevail until a much later period.
51. The following are the forms of the adverbial prefixes according
to the normal spelling. For the sake of convenience, the few variations
not coming under the head of assimilation are also mentioned.
51] Phonetic Changes 25

1. Ab remains unchanged before d, g, 1, n, r, and s, is replaced by abs before t and c, by as

before p, by au before f, by a before m, and before f in a-fui. Examples : ab-do, ab-grego,
ab-lud, ab-nuo, ab-rumpo, ab-solvo, abs-tineo, abs-condo, as-porto, au-fero, a-mitto.
2. Ad is assimilated before t, c, and p, as at-tineo, ac-cipio, ap-pareo. (But before p
in verbs other than appello, appareo, apparo, the spelling with d is very frequent, as ad-
probo, etc.) The ad remains unchanged before b (ad-bibo), m (ad-mitto), q (ad-quiesco),
g (ad-gredior, but ag-gerd frequently), f (ad-fero), s (ad-signo), n (ad-numero). Before
1 it usually remains unchanged, as ad-luo, ad-lego, etc., but in al-ligo (-are) and al-latus
the assimilated form is preferable. Before r it usually remains unchanged, as ad-rogo,
etc., but is assimilated in ar-ripio and ar-rigo. Before gn, sc, sp, and st, it is assimi
lated (ag-gn, as-sc, as-sp, as-st), and one of the two like consonants is dropped, as
agnosco, ascribo, aspicio, asto, etc. But in many words the unassimilated form is also
frequent, in some even preferable. So agnatus and adgnatus, agnosco and adgnosco ;
ascendo and adscendo, ascribo and adscribo, ascisco and adscisco ; aspiro and adspiro,
aspicio and (less commonly) adspicio, but regular aspergo, aspernor ; asto and adsto, but
usually adstipulor, adstringo and adstruo.
3. Amb (older ambi), seen in amb-igd, amb-iiro, etc., becomes am before a consonant,
as am-plector, am-puto.
4. Ante appears as anti (its original form) in anti-cipo, anti-stes, and sometimes in
anti-sto.
5. Circum becomes circu in circu-eo beside circum-eo.
6. Cum appears as con before t, d, c, q, g, s, f, and v ; as com before p, b, and m.
Before 1 the unassimilated form is preferable except in col-ligo and its compounds, e.g.
con-loco, con-loquium, con-lapsus, etc. But before r the assimilated form is preferable,
as cor-rumpo, cor-ripio, etc. Before vowels, h, and gn the form is co, as co-alesco,
co-haereo, co-gnosco (from gnosco, the older form of noseo). Before n the form is
co, as co-niveo, co-necto. Comb-uro is probably formed after the analogy of amb-uro.
Before consonantal i the proper form is con, as con-iungd, con-iuro, etc.; so con-icid
from con-iecio, but also co-icio (30, 1), like co-alesco.
7. Dis remains unchanged before t, c, q, p, and s (but when this is followed by a conso
nant, one s is dropped) , becomes dif before f, di before voiced consonants, and dir before
vowels. Examples : dis-tendo, dis-cludo, dis-quiro, dis-pono, dis-solvo, di-scribo, dif-fero,
di-do, di-gero, di-moveo, di-numero, di-luo, di-rigo, di-vulgo, di-iiidico, dir-imo. But dis
sometimes appears in place of di, as in dis-rumpo beside di-rumpo, and regularly in disicio.
8. Ex remains unchanged before t, c, q, p, and s, but becomes e before voiced conso
nants. Examples : ex-tendo, ex-cludo, ex-quiro, ex-pendo, ex-scribo, e-dico, S-gero,
S-bibo, e-mitto, e-ligo, e-numero, e-rumpo, e-voco, e-ifiro. Before f a form ec was used,
which became ef, as in ef-fero, ef-flcio (earlier ec-fero, ec-flcio).
9. In remains unchanged before t, d, c, q, g, n, f, v. Before p, b, m it becomes im, as
im-pero, im-bibo, im-mitto though the spelling in-pero, etc., is also found. Before gn the n
is lost, as ignoscd. Before 1 and r, in remains unchanged until a very late period, as in-
lustris, in-latus, in-rumpo, in-rogd, etc. A form ind, representing an early indu (cf. indu-
perator, indi-gena), is seen in ind-igeo (egeo), ind-ipiscor (apiscor), and ind-uo (cf. exuo).
10. Inter remains unchanged except in intel-lego.
11. Ob is assimilated before c, p, and f, as oc-cido, op-pond, of-fero. It appears as 0
in o-mitto, as om in om-mutesco beside ob-mutesco, and as os (from obs) in os-tendo.
Elsewhere it is retained.
12. Per remains unchanged except that it is sometimes assimilated to a following 1.
So pel-lego and pel-licio, preferable to per-lego, per-licio, but per-luceo preferable to pel-
luceo, and always per-luo, per-lustro, per-latus.
13. Por, a form related to pro, and seen in por-tendo, por-ricio, por-rigo, is assimilated
in pol-luo, pol-liceor, pos-sideo. For pro, pro, prod, see 24, 2.
14. Sub is treated for the most part like ob, but before some words beginning with t
or c it appears as sus (from subs). So sus-tineo, sus-tuli, beside sub-traho ; sus-censed,
sus-cipio, beside suc-cumbo, suc-cido. Sub-spicio becomes suspicio, but sub-scribo is
more usual than suscribo. Before r, sub remains unchanged, except in sur-ripio and
sur-rSxi, Perf. of surgo ; e.g. sub-rogo, sub-ruo, sub-rideo, etc. Sum-mitto, sum-moveo
are preferable to sub-mitto, sub-moveo, which are examples of late recomposition.
15. Re appears as red before vowels and h, as red-hibeo, redeo, red-igo, etc. ; also in
red-do, and in early Latin red-diico (usually re-diico).
16. Trans becomes tra before d, n, and v, as trado, tra-duco, trano, travehd, etc. ;
also traicio. But trans-duco, etc., are also found.
26 Phonology [52

ORTHOGRAPHY
52. The spelling of many Latin words varied in different
periods, or even in the same period. Our traditional orthog
raphy is that of the first century a.d., and we retain this as
the normal spelling for school grammars, and for school
editions even of authors like Cicero, the spelling of whose
time was somewhat different. Some of the more important
classes of variations are as follows :
1. The earlier forms of servus, equus, vult, etc., were servos, equos,
ecus, volt, etc. See 44, 1.
2. For a long time the spelling varied between n and i in maxumus,
maximus, optumus, optimus, lubet, libet, etc., but the spelling with i
finally became the normal one. See 42, 6.
3. The reduction of ss to s and ll to 1 has been mentioned (49, 6).
The spelling with one s or 1 is occasionally found before the Augustan
period, and becomes universal in the first century. We should write
causa, clausus, milia, paulum, — not caussa, claussus, millia, paullum.
4. Where I stands for an original diphthong (10, c ; 42, 3 ; 44, 4) ei is
the common spelling down through the time of Cicero ; e.g. deico (dico),
Nom. Plur. servei (servi), etc.
5. Owing to the reduction of n before s (11), the n is frequently
omitted in inscriptions. In the Numeral Adverbs and in the Ordinals
like vicensimus the omission is frequent in manuscripts also, and we often
find toties beside totiens, decies beside deciens, vicesimus beside vicensimus,
etc. But the full forms are to be preferred.
6. There was much uncertainty at all periods in the use of initial h;
for example, harena, haruspex, haedus, holus, beside the incorrect arena,
aruspex, aedus, olus, and eras, umerus, umidus, beside the incorrect herns,
humerus, humidus. See 11, note.
7. For variation in the spelling of compounds, see 50, 51.
 Part II

INFLECTION

53. The Parts of Speech are the same as in English, except

that there is no Article.
Definitions of the Parts of Speech are given under Syntax in 221.
54. Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns,
and Verbs are capable of Inflection, or change of form express
ing the varied relations of the word to the other parts of the
sentence. In the case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns
such inflection is called Declension ; in the case of Verbs, it
is called Conjugation.
DECLENSION
55. Declension comprises the variations in Gender, Num
ber, and Case.
GENDER
56. The Genders are three, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
a. Natural Gender is simply the distinction of sex, the names of males
being Masculine, those of females being Feminine, and those of things
without sex being Neuter.
b. Grammatical Gender is a distinction of form as manifested either
by the Noun itself, by an Adjective agreeing with it, or by a Pronoun
agreeing with or referring to it.

The Relation of Gender to Signification

57. Grammatical gender, which is commonly meant by the
term Gender as applied in grammar, has a marked connec
tion with natural gender, but is by no means identical with
27
28 Inflection [67

it.1 In Latin the grammatical gender of names of persons

and of most animals follows the natural gender, but the names
of inanimate objects are as often Masculine or Feminine as
Neuter. For these the gender is determined simply by the
form, — of the Noun itself, or if, as is often the case, the
form of the Noun is not sufficiently characteristic of gender,
by the form of an Adjective agreeing with it, or a Pronoun
agreeing with or referring to it. What the forms character
istic of gender are will be shown under the separate Declen
sions, and, moreover, the gender of all Nouns will be marked.
58. Certain general statements may, however, be made
which will help in remembering the gender of many words.
1. All Names of Months and Winds, and most names of
Rivers, are Masculine. Examples :
AprHis, April; Eurus, the southeast wind; Tiberis, the Tiber.
2. Most names of Trees, Plants, Cities, Countries, and
Islands are Feminine. Examples :
ficus, fig tree; crocus, crocus; Corinthus, Corinth; Aegyptus, Egypt;
Cyprus, Cyprus,
3. Indeclinable Nouns, Substantive Clauses, Infinitives used
substantively, and quoted expressions, are Neuter.
nihil, nothing; totum hoc philosophari, all this philosophizing; istuc
taceo, that "I HI be still" of yours.
a. With reference to statements 1 and 2, observe the gender of the corresponding
general words : mSnsis, month, M. (the names of the months are really Adjectives), ventus,
wind, M., fluvius, amnis, river, M., — but arbor, tree, f., planta, plant, f., urbs, city, f.,
terra, country, f., insula, island, f.
b. Many words belonging to the classes mentioned under 2 are not Feminine. Forms
with distinctly Neuter endings, as Latium, Leuctra (Plur.), Reate, are Neuter; also
many names of plants in -er, Gen. -eris, as piper, pepper. Names of cities and countries
in -1 (Plur.) , as Delphi, are Masculine. But Feminines greatly predominate, since they
include not only the forms with distinctly Feminine endings, but also most of the numer
ous forms in -us, Gen. -1.
1 In English, where almost the only surviving sign of grammatical gender is that of
the Pronouns he, she, it, this agrees with natural gender ; for the feeling of sex-distinc
tion (or, in the case of it, lack of or indifference to sex-distinction) is always associated
with these words, — even when used metaphorically of inanimate objects (as she of a ship).
The view that all grammatical gender, for example as seen in Latin, is nothing but
metaphorical sex-distinction, is losing ground.

'
62] Declension 29

59. 1. Certain words are of common gender, that is, they are
Masculine or Feminine according to the sex referred to, as civis, citizen
(male or female), bos, ox or cow.
2. Certain names of animals have a fixed gender without regard to
the sex referred to, as vulpes, fox, always Feminine, anser, goose and
gander, always Masculine.

NUMBER
60. There are, as in English, two Numbers, the Singular
and the Plural.
THE CASES
61. There are six Cases :
Nominative : the case of the subject ;
Genitive : " of case ;
Dative : " to orfor case ;
Accusative : " case of the direct object, etc. ;
Vocative : " case of address ;
Ablative : " from, with, or in case.
The meanings given are only for purposes of identification, the uses of the cases being
treated in detail under the head of Syntax.
a. All but the Nominative and Vocative are called Oblique Cases.
b. There were originally two other cases, the Locative and the Instru
mental (or Sociative). They are, for the most part, merged with the
Ablative. But the Locative is still preserved in many names of places
and adverbial expressions.

62. i. The Cases are distinguished by different endings,

known as Case-Endings. These are not the same for all De
clensions, and in Pronouns some few endings are used which
are unknown in the declension of Nouns and Adjectives.
Note. In reality the difference between corresponding case-forms of the various
Declensions is largely one of Stem, that is, the base to which the endings are added.
This is evident, for example, in the Nominatives -us, -is, -5s, in which the ending proper
is the same, namely, s. Yet sometimes the ending, too, is different, for example in the
Dative and Ablative Plural, where the -Is of the First and Second Declensions has no
connection with the -ibus of the Third, Fourth, and Fifth. Very often, in the case of
stems ending in a vowel, the line between the stem and the ending proper is not apparent
on the surface, owing to contraction and to other phonetic changes affecting either the
30 Inflection [62
stem or the ending ; so th#, for practical purposes, we apply the term Case-Endings to
certain variable parts, which, in the case of vowel-stems, include both the final vowel of
the stem and the ending proper. In the case of consonant-stems, the variable termina
tions are also the true case-endings.
2. The Nominative and Accusative are alike in all Neuters, both in
the Singular and in the Plural.1
3. The Nominative and Vocative are always alike in the Plural, and
also, except in Masculines and Feminines of the Second Declension, in
the Singular.1
4. The Dative and Ablative are always alike in the Plural.1

NOUNS
63. In the declension of Nouns there are five distinct
types, distinguished by different Stems. These are known
as the Five Declensions. The form of the Genitive Singular
is chosen as a convenient characteristic of each. Thus :

Stem ends in : Gen. Sing, ends in :

Declension I a ae
II 0 i
III 1 or a consonant is
IV u us
V e 61

64. The scheme of the normal endings is as follows :

Declension I Declension II
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
A!om. a ae us, er ; n. um 1; n. a
Gen. ae arum i Brum
Vat. ae is S is
Acc. am as um Ss ; n. a
Voc. a ae e, er ; N. um i; n. a
Abl. 5 to 0 is

1 Hence we speak of the Nom.-Acc. Sing. Neut. as a single form ; likewise of the
Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut., the Nom.-Voc. Sing, or Plur., or the Dat.-Abl. Plur.
65] First Declension 31

Declension III
S1NGULAR
Consonant-Stems i-Stems
Nom. N. is, es, er ; N. e,
Gen. is
Dat. i
Acc. em ; N. em, im ; n. e, —
Voc. s, ; N. is, es, er ; N. e,
Abl. e e, i

PLURAL
Nom. n. a M., f. 6s N. ia
Gen. am ium
Dat. ibus
Acc. es ; n. a is (es) 2 ; N . ia
Voc. n. a M., f. SB N. ia
Abl. ibus
Note. The endings given in the middle column are those which are always the
same for both Consonant-Stems and i-Stems.

Declension IV Declension V
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. us ; n. u us ; n . ua Ss Ss
Gen. US uum 61, ei erum
Dat. ui, u; n. Q ibus, ubus 61, ei ebus
Acc. um ; N. u us ; N. ua em 6s
Voc. us ; N. S us ; N. ua 6s 6s
Abl. u ibus, ubus 6 ebus

FIRST DECLENSION
a-Stems
65. The Nominative Singular ends in short a, which stands
for original -a. Example of Declension :
1 A dash indicates that the ending or, in the case of a vowel-stem, both ending and
stem-vowel are lacking. But the Nom.-Voc. Sing, in -er from o-Sterns or i-Sterns, though
likewise lacking both ending and stem-vowel (70, 87), is, for greater convenience, given
;vs -er.
* Here, and in general in examples of inflection, forms inclosed in ( ) are variants
which are less common in the best period.
32 Inflection [65
sella, seat, F.
(stem sells-)
S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. sella, a (the) seat sellae, (the) seats
Gen. sellae, of a (the) seat sellarum, of (the) seats
Dat. sellae, to or for a (the) seat sellis, to or for (the) seats
Acc. sellam, a (the) seat sellas, (the) seats
Voc. sella, (O) seat sellae, (O) seats
Abl. sella, from , with, or in a sellis, from, with, or in
(the) seat (the) seats

Remarks on the Case-Forms

66. i. An old form of the Genitive Singular in -.as is preserved in
families, used in such phrases as pater families, head ofthe household, etc.
2. A Genitive form in -ai is found in poetry, as aulai, of the court.
3. A Genitive Plural in -um beside that in -arum is found in com
pounds of -cola, dwelling in, and -gena, descendant of; also in amphora,
a liquid measure, drachma, a Greek coin, and in many proper names of
Greek origin, as Aeneadae, Lapithae, etc. So agricolum, Troiugenum,
amphorum, Aeneadum, etc.
Note. This is not a contraction of -arum. The compounds of -cola and
-gena, being Masculines, fell under the influence of the Second Declension, in
which -um is an old ending. All the other words mentioned are of Greek origin,
and in these the -um corresponds to the Greek ending.
4. For the Dative and Ablative Plural of fflia, daughter, and dea,
goddess, the forms filiabus and deabus are frequently used to avoid con
fusion with the corresponding cases of filius, son, and deus, god. So in
the phrases fflus et ffliabus, diis deabusque. In other words -abus is rare.
5. There is a Locative Singular form which is identical with the Geni
tive, as Romae, at Rome. In the Plural the form is the same as the Dative
and Ablative, as Athenis, at Athens.
6. The Ablative Singular once ended in -ad, which is preserved in early inscriptions,
e.g. sententiad.
7. The Dative and Ablative Plural once ended in -ais, which first became -eis (still
preserved in the spelling of the Ciceronian period, e.g. vieis), then -is.

Gender
67. Words of the First Declension are Feminine, except a
few referring to male persons, as nauta, sailor, agricola, farmer;
also Hadria, the Adriatic.
70] Second Declension 33

Greek Nouns
68. Greek nouns of the First Declension often retain their
proper Greek forms in some cases of the singular. The
resulting mixture of Greek and Latin declension may be seen
in the following examples :
Nom. Aeneas Anchises Andromache, -a
Gen. Aeneae Anchisae AndromachSs, -ae
Dat. Aeneae Anchisae Andromachae
Acc. Aenean, -am AnchisSn, -am AndromachSn, -am
Voc. Aenea AnchisS, -a, -a Andromache, -a
Abl. Aenea AnchisS, -5 Andromache, -a
Note. Many proper names of the Greek First Declension are inflected in Latin
according to the Third Declension, as Aeschines, Miltiades. Ablatives like AnchisS are
formed according to the Fifth Declension.

SECOND DECLENSION
o-Stems
69. The Nominative Singular ends in -us, or, in the case
of Neuters, in -um. These endings were originally -os, -om
(44, i). Examples of Declension :
hortus, garden, m. donum, gift, n.
(stem horto-) (stem dono-)
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. hortus horti donum dona
Gen. horti hortorum doni donorum
Dat. horto hortis dono donia
Acc. hortum hortoa donum dona
Voc. horte horti donum dona
Abl. horto horSs dono donia

70. Most stems in -ro-, in the Nominative Singular, drop

o and s of the original ending and insert an e before the r,
if the latter is not already preceded by a vowel. See 43, 2.
Examples :
34 Inflection [70

puer, boy, m. ager, field, m. vir, man, M.

(stem puero-) (stem agro-) (stem viro-)
S1NGULAR
Nom. puer ager vir
Gen. pueri agri viri
Dat. puero agro viro
Acc. puerum agrum virum
Voc. puer ager vir
Abl. puero agro viro
PLURAL
Nom. puer! agri viri
Gen. puerorum agrorum virorum
Dat. pueris agris viris
Acc. pueros agroa viros
Voc. pueri agri viri
Abl. pueris agris viris
a. A few stems in -ro- are declined like hortus. So erus, master,
numerus, number, umerus, shoulder, uterus, womb, hesperus, evening
star, taurus, bull.
b. The words like puer, in which the stem is -ero-, are : gener, son-in-
law, socer, father-in-law, adulter, adulterer, Liber, god of wine, liberi,
children, vesper, evening, signi-fer, standard-bearer, armi-ger, armor-
bearer, and other compounds of -fer and -ger.
Remarks on the Case-Forms
71. i. Stems in -vo-, -quo-, -uo- retained o in the Nom. and Acc.
Sing, until the end of the Ciceronian period ; e.g. Nom. servos, equos,
mortuos (Adjective), Acc. servom, equom, mortuom, Nom.-Acc. Neut.
aevom. The forms of the Augustan period are servus, servum, etc.,
— but ecus, ecum, the forms equus, equum being still later. See 44, i .
2. Proper Names in -ius form their Genitive Singular in -i (not -ii)
and also their Vocative Singular in -I (not -ie). The accent is on the
penult, even when it is short. So Vergilius, Servius, Tullius, Gains have
Gen. and Voc. Sing. Vergili, Servi, Tulli, Gal.
Note. In such Proper Names, in contrast to the other nouns in -ius, -ium
(see 3), the i of the Genitive is not generally replaced by -il, though the latter is
occasionally found.
3. Other nouns in -ius and -ium also form the Genitive Singular in
-i, which, however, begins to be replaced by -il in the Augustan period.
Such forms as imperium, ingenium, negdtium have Gen. imperi, ingeni,
72] Second Declension 35
negoti in Virgil and Horace, as well as in the earlier poets, but nearly
always imperii, ingenii, negotii in Propertius, Ovid, and later poets.
Fflius, son, has Gen. Sing. fili and also Voc. Sing. fili.
4. A Genitive Plural in -um is found :
a) Usually in words denoting coins or measures, such as nummus,
coin, sestertius, sesterce, modius, measure, iiigerum, acre; e.g.
nummum, of coins, etc.
b) Frequently in deus, god, socius, ally, liberi, children, and faber
in the phrase praefectus fabrum, chief engineer.
c) Occasionally, in poetry, in vir, man, and some other words.
5. Deus, god, has Voc. Sing. deus, Nom. Plur. dl, Gen. Plur. deum
beside deorum, Dat.-Abl. Plur. dis.
Note. The forms di and dis were sometimes spelled dil, diis, but were regu
larly pronounced as one syllable. The forms del, deis represent a dissyllabic
pronunciation, which, however, is rare before Ovid.
6. The Locative Singular form is identical with the Genitive ; e.g.
humi, on the ground, dorm, at home, CorinthI, at Corinth. In the Plural
the form is the same as the Dative and Ablative ; e.g. Delpbis, at Delphi.
7. The Ablative Singular once ended in -od, which is preserved in early inscriptions ;
e.g. preivatod. -
8. The Nom. Plur. and Dat.-Abl. Plur. ended originally in -oi and -ois, which first
became -ei, -eis (still preserved in the spelling of the Ciceronian period; e.g. servei,
serveIs), then -I, -Is.
Gender
72. Nouns of the Second Declension ending in -us, -er, -ir
are mostly Masculine ; those in -um are Neuter.
a. Feminine are :
1) Most names of Cities, Countries, and Islands, as Corinthus,
Aegyptus, Rhodus, etc.
2) Most names of Trees and Plants, as fagus, beech, ficus, fig tree.
3) Some Greek Feminines, as dialectus, dialect, diphthongus, diph
thong.
4) Also the following : alvus, belly, carbasus, flax, colus, distaff,
humus, ground, vannus, winnowing-fan.
b. Neuters are : virus, poison, pelagus, sea, vulgus, crowd, rabble
(sometimes m.), in which the Accusative has the same form as the
Nominative. These words have no Plural, except that for pelagus,
which is a Greek word, a Nom.-Acc. Plur. pelage is sometimes found.
Note. In reality these words are Heteroclites (107), the Nom.-Acc. form belonging
to the Neuters of the Third Declension like corpus, genus, etc. (85).
36 Inflection [78

Greek Nouns
73. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension usually follow the Latin
declension. But the Nominative and Accusative Singular often end in
-os, -on, especially in proper names in poetry. Thus Tenedos, Acc.
Tenedon (also -us, -um), Nom.-Acc. Ilion (also Ilium).
a. Androgeos has Gen. Sing, -eo and -el, Acc. Sing, -eo and -eon. PanthSs
has Voc. Sing. Panthu.

THIRD DECLENSION
74. The Third Declension comprises :
A. Consonant-Stems, with various subdivisions, according
to the nature of the final consonant.
B. I-Stems.
C. Mixed Stems, of which the Singular is declined like that
of Consonant-Stems of the Mute Class, and the Plural like
that of i-Stems.1
D. Some Irregular Nouns, including Stems in -u and -ov.

75. Consonant-Stems and i-Stems originally followed, two totally

distinct types of declension, which have been partially confused in Latin,
so that many of the forms are identical in both classes. But the distinc
tion is wholly or partially preserved in several of the cases, — most

1 There are other, less common, forms of mixture between Consonant-Stems and i-Stems,
which are more conveniently treated as individual varieties of one or the other of these
types. Words like mus, Gen. Plur. murium, are cited under s-Stems. The few forms
like canis, Gen. Plur. canum, which show a combination just the opposite of that seen in
the Mixed Stems, are mentioned under i-Stems. Nouns in -5s, Gen. Sing, -is, are classed
under i-Stems, although the -5s itself is probably not formed from an i-Stem (it perhaps
originated in certain S-Stems, existing beside i-Stems formed from the same root, and
was then extended to other i-Stems). Certain i-Stems, like imber, Gen. imbris, and the
Neuters in -al, Gen. -alis, -ar, Gen. -aris, which have lost the i by regular phonetic
change, have come to resemble some Consonant-Stems in the Nominative Singular; but
they are classed where they belong, under i-Stems.
Many of the words classed under Mixed Stems are also, in origin, i-Stems which have
lost the i in the Nom. Sing.; e.g. pars from *parti-s (cf. the Adverb partim), g5ns from
*genti-s, and many others which contain the once common suffix -ti-. But it is not
practicable to separate these from others which are properly Mute-Stems that have been
drawn into this type, and from still others in which the variation between Mute-Stem
and i-Stem is inherited from the parent speech.
Under Mixed Stems, then, are included not all forms of mixture between Consonant-
Stems and i-Stems, but only that particular and widespread type in which the Singular is
like that of Mute-Stems.
76] Third Declension 37
clearly in the Genitive Plural. See the scheme of endings given in 64,
and contrast the declension of rex (76) with that of turris (87).
a. In Masculine and Feminine i-Stems the original endings of the
Acc. and Abl. Sing., namely -im and -I, were at an early period sup
planted in most words (for exceptions, see below, under i-Stems) by -em
and -€, the endings of Consonant-Stems ; but in the Acc. Plur. the
original -is was not superseded until after the Augustan period, though
-es was also used as early as Cicero's time. Neuter i-Stems nearly
always retain -I in the Abl. Sing. ; the Nom.-Acc. Sing. ended originally
in -i, but this is regularly changed to -e (44, 3), or dropped (43, 1).
Note. Most of those forms which in Latin are identical in both types belonged
originally to only one type. So the ending of the Gen. Sing, -is (from -es) be
longed properly only to Consonant-Stems, but in prehistoric times replaced the
ending of the i-Stems, which otherwise would have been -is in Latin ; and the -5s
of the Nom. Plur. Masc. and Fem, belonged only to i-Stems, the ending of Con
sonant-Stems being properly -es, which would have become -is. So, too, the - ibus
of the Dat. and Abl. Plur., found in all Stems, belongs properly only to the i-Stems.
The -i of the Dat. Sing, may belong to either i-Stems or Consonant-Stems, or both.

A. CONSONANT-STEMS
Mute-Stems
76. Examples :
rSx, king, M. princeps, chief, m. .pea, foot, s
S1NGULAR
Nom. rex princeps pes
Gen. regis principis pedis
Dat. regi principi pedi
Acc. regem principem pedem
Voc. rex princeps pes
Abl. rege principc pede

PLURAL
Nom. reges principes pedes
Gen. regum principum pedum
Dat. regibus principibus pedibus
Acc. reges principes pedes
Voc. reges principSs pedSs
Abl. regibus principibus pedibus
3« Inflection [76
miles, soldier, m. caput, head, n.
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. miles milites caput capita
Gen. militis militum capitis capitum
Dat. militi militibus capiti capitibus
Acc. militem milites caput capita
Voc. miles milites caput capita
Abl. milite niilitibus capite capitibus

Changes in the Stem1

77. i . In the Nom.-Voc. Sing. Masc. and Fem., the ending s combines
with a final guttural of a Stem to form x, with a dental to form s, and
with a labial to form ps or bs (pronounced ps) ; e.g. vox, voice (* voc-s),
rex, king (* reg-s) ; miles, soldier (* mflet-s), pes, foot (* ped-s) ; princeps,
chief (princep-s), trabs, beam (trab-s). The final consonant has been
lost in the Neuters cor, heart (Gen. cordis), and lac, milk (Gen. lactis).
2. The vowel of the stem generally remains unchanged in all the cases ;
e.g. dux, leader, Gen. ducis ; lux, light, Gen. lficis ; custos, guard, Gen.
custodis ; virtus, manliness, Gen. virtutis ; lapis, stone, Gen. lapidis, etc.
But :
3. An interchange of e in the Nom.-Voc. Sing. with e in the other
cases is seen in pes and its compounds, also in abies,fir, aries, ram, paries,
wall; e.g. Gen. pedis, abietis, etc.
4. In words of more than one syllable in which the vowel of the
Nom.-Voc. Sing. is short e, this is regularly weakened to i in the other
cases (42, 2). So auspex, soothsayer, Gen. auspicis ; princeps, chief,
Gen. principis ; mfles, soldier, Gen. mflitis ; obses, hostage, Gen. obsidis,
etc. Such forms are very numerous, but there are some exceptions, as
seges, crop, Gen. segetis (so teges, praepes, interpres, indiges).
5. In auceps, fowler, Gen. aucupis, the weakening results in u (42,
6). In early Latin also manceps, contractor, Gen. mancupis. An inter
change of u and i is seen in caput, head, Gen. capitis.
6. Supellex, furniture, has Gen. supellectilis, etc.
78. Gender. Neuter are only : cor, heart, lac, milk, caput, head.
Masculine are : nouns in -es, Gen. -itis ; -eps, Gen. -ipis ; most in -ex,
Gen. -icis.
1 These remarks apply also to nouns of the Mixed Type, which are declined as Mute-
Stems in the Singular (90), and to Adjective Mute-Stems (117).
79] Third Declension 39
Feminine are : nouns in -tus, Gen. -tutis ; -tas, Gen. -tatis ; most of
the commonest nouns in -x (except those in -ex, -icis ; see above) ; but
grex, rex, m., dux, coniux or coniunx, m. or f.
Note. Other classes vary too much between Masculine and Feminine to be brought
under any general statement.

Liquid Stems
79. Examples :
Masculines (and Feminines)
victor, victor, M. pater, father, m. consul, consul, m.
S1NGULAR
Nom. victor pater consul
Gen. victoris patris consulis
Dat. victor! patri consuli
Acc. victorem patrem consulem
Voc. victor pater consul
Abl. victore patre consule

PLURAL
Nom. victorSs patrSa consules
Gen. victorum patrum consulum
Dat. victoribus patribus consulibus
Acc. victorSa patrSa consules
Voc. victoria patrSs consules
Abl. victoribus patribus consulibus

Neuters
ebur, ivory tuber, swelling
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. ebur ebora tuber tubera
Gen. eboris eborum tuberis tuberum
Dat. ebori eboribus tuberi tuberibus
Acc. ebur ebora tuber tubera
Voc. ebur ebora tuber tubera
Abl. ebore eboribus tubere tuberibus
 5
40 ' Inflection " . ->. [so

Remarks
80. 1. The type represented by victor is the most common, com
prising the nouns of agency in -tor, and many abstracts in -or, as amor,
love. The stem is -tor or -or throughout, except in the Nom.-Voc. Sing.,
where the vowel has been shortened before the final r (26, 3).
2. Like pater are inflected mater, mother, frater, brother, accipiter,
hawk, and a few proper names.
3. Other Masculines are declined like consul in that the stem remains
unchanged throughout. So, for example, vigil, watchman, Gen. vigilis ;
sol,sun, Gen. solis ; &naei,goose, Gen.anseris ; augur, augur, Gen.auguris ;
Caesar, Caesar, Gen. Caesaris.
4. Honor, honor, Gen. honoris, and arbor, tree, Gen. arboris, were origi
nally s-Stems, and the old Nominatives honos and arbds (like flos, 85)
are frequently found.
Note. Many others of the words classed here as r-Stems were originally s-Stems,
some of them showing traces of 8 in early Latin. This is true of the whole class of
abstracts in -or, -oris mentioned under 1, and of several Neuters, as robur (old Latin
robus; cf. robustus), fulgur, aequor, etc. So also mulier, woman, f., and vomer,
ploughshare, M., beside which is found Vomis (like cinis, 85). See 86, note.
5. Other Neuters declined like ebur are robur, oak, femur, thigh, iecur,
liver. But femur has also feminis, femini, etc., formed from an n-Stem ;
and iecur (iocur in the Augustan period) has Gen. iocineris beside iecoris.
6. Other Neuters declined like tuber are fiber, teat, cadaver, dead body,
cicer, pea, piper, pepper, and several names of plants'"and trees. Iter, way,
has Gen. itineris, etc. (cf. iocineris, 5).
7. There are also Neuters in -ar, Gen. -aris ; -or, Gen. -oris ; and -ur,
Gen. -uris ; e.g. nectar, nectar, aequor, sea, fulgur, lightning, Tibur, Tivoli,
etc. ; also ver, spring, Gen. veris ; far, spelt, Gen. farris (stem farr- from
* fars-) ; sal, salt, Gen. salis ; mel, honey, Gen. mellis (stem mell- from
* meld-) ; fel, gall, Gen. fellis (stem fell- from * feld-).

81. Gender. Liquid Stems are nearly all Masculine or Neuter.

Masculine are : nouns in -tor, Gen. -toris ; -or, Gen. -oris, except, of
course, soror, sister, f., and uxor, wife, f. ; -er, Gen. -ris, except mater,
mother, f. ; -1, except the Neuters sal, mel, fel.
Neuter are : nouns in -ur, Gen. -oris ; -or, Gen. -oris, except arbor,
tree, f.
Masculines and Neuters are included in nouns in -er, Gen. -eris (but
mulier, woman, f.) ; -ar, Gen. -aris ; -ur, Gen. -uris.
84] Third Declension 41

Nasal Stems
82. Examples :
sermo, speech, m. virgo, virgin, f. nomen, name, N.
S1NGULAR
Nom. sermo virgo nomen
Gen. sermonis Virginis nominis
Dat. sermon! virgin! nomini
Acc. sermonem virginem nomen
Voc. sermo virgo nomen
Abl. sermone virgine nomine

Nom. sermones virgines nomina

Gen. sermonum virginum nominum
Dat. sermonibus virginibus nominibus
Acc. sermonSa virginSa nomina
Voc. sermones virginSa nomina
Abl. sermonibus virginibus nominibus

Remarks
83. 1. Like sermo is declined the large class of nouns in -io, as
regio, direction, Gen. regionis ; actio, action, Gen. actionis, etc.
2. Like virgo are declined all nouns in -go or -do (except praedo,
robber, harpago, grappling-hook, ligo, mattock, which are declined like
sermo) ; also homo, man, nemo, no one, turbo, whirlwind, Apollo, Apollo.
3. There are some Masculines in -en, Gen. -inis, Acc. -inem, as flamen,
priest, pecten, comb, oscen, divining bird (sometimes f.), and names of
players on musical instruments, as tibicen, player, etc.
4. There is one stem in -m, namely hiem(p)s, winter, f., Gen. hiemis.
5. In caro, flesh, v., the stem appears as earn- (not caron- or carin-)
in all cases but the Nom.-Voc. Singular ; e.g. Gen. Sing. carnis, Nom.
Plur. carnes. Cf. pater, Gen. patris, etc. Another peculiar form is
sanguis, blood, m., Gen. sanguinis, etc.
Note. Beside sanguis, which is properly an i-Stem form, there is also a Nom.
sanguis (from * sanguin-s), which is frequently used by the poets. The Neuter
sanguen is an early Latin form.
84. Gender. Masculine are all nouns in -0, Gen. -onis (not -io, Gen.
-ionis).
42 Inflection [84

Feminine are all nouns in Gen. -inis, except cardo, margo, ordo, homo,
nemo, turbo, Apollo, which are Masculine ; also most in -io (abstracts and
collectives), though there are many Masculines, denoting material objects,
as pugid, dagger.
Neuter are all nouns in -en, except those mentioned under 83, 3.

S-Stems
85. Examples :
Masculines (and Feminines')
cinis, ashes, M. flos, flower, m.
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. cinis cinerSs flos florSs
Gen. cineris cinerum floris riorum
Dat. cineri cinerlbus flori floribus
Acc. cinerem cinerSs florem flores
Voc. cinis cinerSs flos florSs
Abl. cinere cineribus flore floribus

Neuters
genus, race corpus, body
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. genus genera corpus corpora
Gen. generis generum corporis corporum
Dat. generi generibus corpori corporibus
Acc. genus genera corpus corpora
Voc. genus genera corpus corpora
Abl. genere generibus corpore corporibus

Remarks
86. 1. Most s-Stems are Neuters, declined like genus or corpus.
Other Neuters are : ius, right, Gen. iuris (so rus, country, cms, leg, tus,
incense, pus, pus) ; aes, bronze, Gen. aeris ; os, mouth, Gen. oris ; os,
bone, Gen. ossis (Nom. Plur. ossa, Gen. Plur. ossium) ; vas, vessel, Gen.
vasis.
2. Masculines like cinis are pulvis, dust, and cucumis, cucumber (but
Acc. and Abl. Sing. cucumim, cucumi, after i-Stem) ; like flos are ros,
dew, mos, custom, lepos, charm. Other Masculines are : mas, male,
87] Third Declension 43
Gen. maris, mus, mouse, Gen. miiris, as, copper, Gen. assis, all with
Gen. Plur. in -ium ; lepus, hare, Gen. leporis.
3. Feminines are very rare. Examples are Venus, Venus, Gen.
Veneris ; tellus, earth, Gen. telluris ; Ceres, Ceres, Gen. Cereris.
Note. In all cases but the Nom.-Voc. Sing, (and Acc. Sing. Neut.) the s, as standing
between vowels, regularly becomes r (47). In many original s-Stems even this final s
became r, under the influence of the other cases, so that such Stems became wholly iden
tical with r-Stems, and have been classed as such (e.g. honor, sometimes honos ; see
80, 4). Of the once numerous forms in -ds, Gen. -oris, only the monosyllables (and lepds)
always retain the -s.
B. I-STEMS
87, The Nominative Singular of Masculines and Femi
nines ends regularly in -is ; but there are also many nouns
ending in -es ; and a few in -er, from stems in -ri-, e.g. imber
from imbris, like ager from *agros (see 43, 2). The Nomina
tive and Accusative Singular of Neuters ended originally in
-i, but this has either been changed to -e (44, 3), or, in the case
of most stems in -ali- or -ari-, dropped (43, 1). Examples :

Masculines and Feminines

turris, finis, caedes, imber,
tower, f. end, m., f. slaughter, v. shower, M.
S1NGULAR
Nom. turris finis caedes imber
Gen. turris finis caedis imbris
Dat. turri fini caedi imbri
Acc. turrim (-em) finem caedem imbrem
Voc. turris finis caedes imber
Abl. turn or -e fine caede imbre or -1

PLURAL
Nom. turrSs fines caedes imbrSs
Gen. turrium flnium caedium imbrium
Dat. turribus finibus caedibus imbribus
Acc. turris (-5s) finis (-es) caedis (-es) imbris (-es)
Voc. turrSs fines caedes imbres
Abl. turribus finibus caedibus imbribus
44 Inflection [«

Neuters
sedile, seat animal, animal exemplar, pattern
S1NGULAR
Nom. sedile animal exemplar
Gen. sedilis animalis exemplaris
Vat. sedili animal! exemplar!
Acc. sedile animal exemplar
Voc. sedile animal exemplar
Abl. sedili animal! exemplar!
PLURAL •
Nom. sedilia * animalia exemplaria
Gen. sedilium animalium exemplarium
Dat. sedilibus animalibus exemplaribus
Acc. sedilia animalia exemplaria
Voc. sedilia animalia exemplaria
Abl. sedilibus animalibus exemplaribus

Remarks
88. i . The Accusative Singular always or usually has -im in :
bans, plough-beam puppis, stern sitis, thirst
febris, fever restis, rope turns, tower
pelvis, basin securis, axe tussis, cough
and names of rivers and cities, like Tiberis, the Tiber, Neapolis, Naples;
occasionally in several others.
2. The Ablative Singular has the form -I :
a) In all Neuters except rete, net, and some names of places, like Prae-
neste, Praeneste. Mare, sea, sometimes has Abl. mare in poetry.
b) Always or usually in securis, sitis, tussis, bipennis, battle-axe,
canalis, conduit, and names of rivers, cities, and months.
c) Often in the following, which also have e :
amnis, river febris, fever pelvis, basin
avis, bird fiistis, club puppis, stern
civis, citizen ignis, fire sementis, sowing
classis, fleet imber, shower strigilis, scraper
clavis, key navis, ship turns, tower
d) Occasionally in finis, end (in adverbial phrases ; see 407, 4), collis,
hill, orbis, circle, unguis, nail, and a few others.
81] Third Declension 45
3. The Acc. Plur. Masc. and Fem. has earlier -is, later -6s. See 75, a.
The -is also occurs sometimes in the Nominative, as aedis.
4. The Genitive Plural ends in -ium, but -um is the regular form for
canis, dog, iuvenis, youth, volucris, bird, and for senex, old man (Nom.
Sing. formed from a stem senec- ; Gen. Sing. senis) ; -um is also found
beside -ium in sedes, seat, mensis, month, and, rarely, in vates, bard.
5. The Ablative Singular of fames, hunger, is fame, following the
Fifth Declension ; tabe also occurs once, from tabes, wasting.
89. Gender. Masculine are nouns in -er, except linter, skiff, f.
Feminine are nouns in -es (but verres, boar, m., vates, bard, m., f.) ;
also the majority of those in -is (but those in -nis, and nearly thirty
others, are Masculine).
Neuter are nouns in -e, -al, -ar.

Q. MIXED STEMS
90. The Singular agrees with that of Mute-Stems, the
Plural with that of i-Stems. Examples :
DOZ, night, f. urbs, city, f. gens, race, f.
S1NGULAR
Nom. noz urba gens
Gen. noctis urbis gentis
Dat. nocti urbi genti
Acc. noctem urbem gentem
Voc. nox urbs gens
Abl. nocte urbe gente
PLURAL
Nom. noctes urbSs gentSs
Gen. noctium urbium gentium
Dat. noctibus urbibus gentibus
Acc. noctis (-Sa) urbis (-es) gentis (-es)
Voc. noctea urbes gentSs
Abl. noctibus urbibus gentibus

Remarks
91. 1 . To this type belong :
a) Nouns in -ns, -rs, -rx, lx, as mons (Gen. Plur. montium), glahs
(glandium), pars (partium), arx (arcium), falx (falcium), etc. ; also dos,
46 Inflection [91

lis, fraus (also -nm), nox, nix (Gen. nivis ; see 49, 2), fauces. But cliens,
client, and parens, parent, have Gen. Plur. -um and -ium.
b') Monosyllables in -ps, -bs, as stirps (stirpium), plebs (plebium), etc.
But always opum, of resources, from *ops, Gen. opis.
c) Nouns in -as, -is, -tas, as Arpinas (-ium), penates (-ium), optimates
(-ium and -um), Quirites (-ium) Samnites (-ium), civitas (-ium and -um).
Note. Mas, mas, and as, with Gen. Plur. in -ium, are classed under S-Stems (86, 2).
2. Gender. Nouns of this type are Feminine, except that there are
several Masculines in -ns, Gen. -ntis, as dens, fons, mons, pons.

D. IRREGULAR NOUNS
92. The declension of the following nouns differs from
any of the usual types :
vis, sus, bos, Iuppiter,
force, v. swine, M., f. ox, cow, m., f. Jupiter, m.
S1NGULAR
Nom. vis sus bos Iuppiter
Gen. (vis) suis bovis Iovis
Dot. (vi) sui bovi Iovi
Acc. vim suem bovem Iovem
Voc. vis sus bos Iuppiter
Abl. vi sue bove love
PLURAL
Nom. vires sues boves
Gen. virium suum boum
Dat. viribus suibus (subus, subus) bubus (bobus)
Acc. viris (-es) sues boves
Voc. vires sues boves
Abl. viribus suibus (subus, subus) bubus (bobus)
a. Like sus is declined grus, crane, m., f. (Dat.-Abl. Plur. gruibus).
b. Other peculiar forms have been mentioned as varieties of the
regular types, e.g. caro, Gen. carnis (83, 5); iter, Gen. itineris (80, 6);
senex, Gen. senis (88, 4), etc.
Note. Vis is an old s-Stem (with vis, Nom. Plur. vir6s, compare mSs, mflrSs), but
the Dat., Ace, and Abl. Sing, are formed from a stem vi-. Siis and grus are relics of a
u-Declension. bos is from a stem bov- (bos from *bo(u)-s). Iuppiter, earlier Iupiter,
comes from a Vocative form * Iou (once *dieu) + piter (from pater, father, by the regular
weakening, 42, 1).
95] Third Declension 47

The Locative Singular of the Third Declension

93. The Locative Singular is identical with the Ablative
Singular in -e, as Carthagine, at Carthage. But there are also
forms in -i, as Carthagini, riiri, in the country (beside rfire).

Gender in the Third Declension

94. The following is a summary of such of the important types as
are fairly uniform in gender. For more detailed statements, with excep
tions, see under the several classes.

1. Masculine: nouns in -tor (Gen. -tOris), -or (Gen. -oris),

-er (Gen. -ris), -O (Gen. -flnis), -es (Gen. -itis), -eps (Gen. -ipis),
-ex (Gen. -icis).
Examples : dator, amor, pater, sermo, miles, princeps, auspex.

2. Feminine : nouns in -tas (Gen. -tatis), -tus (Gen. -tutis),

-€s (Gen. -is), -go or -dd (Gen. -inis), -rs (Gen. -rtis) ; and the
majority of those in -iO (Gen. -ionis) and -is (Gen. -is).
Examples : civitas, virtus, caedes, virgo, grando, pars ; regio, turris.

3. Neuter : nouns in -en, -us, -e, -al (Gen. -alis), -ar (Gen.
-aris), -ur (Gen. -oris), -or (Gen. -oris).
Examples : nomen, genus, sedfle, animal, exemplar, ebur, aequor.

Greek Nouns
95. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension often retain
their Greek forms in the Nominative, Accusative, and Voca
tive Singular, the Nominative and Accusative Plural, and
sometimes in the Genitive Singular. The Latin endings are
nearly always used in the other cases ; also, usually, in the
Genitive Singular and frequently in the Accusative Singular.
Examples of Declension :
48 Inflection [95

lampas, torch, f. Socrates, Socrates hSros, hero, M.

S1NGULAR
Nom. lampas Socrates heros
Gen. lampados, -is Socratis, -i herois
Dat. lampadi Socrati heroi
Acc. lampada, -em Socratem, -en heroa, -em
Voc. lampas Socrates, -6 heros
Abl. lampade Socrate heroe

Nom. lampadSs herofis

Gen. lampadum heroum
Bat. lampadibus herolbus
Acc. lampadSs heroas
Voc. lampadSs herofis
Abl. lampadibus heroibus
a. Proper names in -eus usually follow the Latin Second Declension
(often with synizesis ; 658), except in the Vocative, which ends in -eu.
But note also Acc. Orphea, Ilionea, Dat. Orphei, etc. Perseus appears also as
Perses, Acc. Persem, etc. Achilles sometimes has forms of -eus, as Gen. Achillel.
b. Names like Dido are regularly declined in -d, -onis, etc. But there
is also a Gen. in -us, as Mantus, and Acc. in -d, as Dido.
c. For names in -is, -idis, observe Acc. Paridem, Tyndarida, Parim,
Parin, Voc. Daphni. Cf. Dares, Acc. Dareta and Daren.
d. For names in -ys, observe Acc. Capyn, Halym, Voc. Tiphy, Abl.
Capye.

FOURTH DECLENSION
96. The Nominative Singular ends in -us, or, in the case of
Neuters, in -u. Examples of Declension :
friictus, fruit, M. tribus, tribe, f. cornu, horn, n.
(stem fructu-) (stem tribu-) (stem cornu-)
S1NGULAR
Nom. friictus tribus cornu
Gen. fructus tribus cornus
Dat. fructui, -u tribui, -u cornu
Acc. fructum tribum cornu
Voc. fructus tribus cornu
Abl. fructu tribii cornu
98] Fourth Declension 49
PLURAL
Nom. fructus tribus cornua
Gen. fructuum tribuum cornuum
Dat. fructibus tribubus cornibus
Acc. fructus tribus cornua
Voc. fructus tribus cornua
Abl. fructibus tribubus cornibus

Remarks on the Case-Forms

97. i. The Dative and Ablative Plural end in -ubus as follows :
a) Always in arcus, tribus, quercus.
b) Frequently in artus, lacus, partus, veru.
c) Occasionally in genu, tonitru, and a few others.
2. The Dative Singular in -Q is regular in Neuters, and, except in early
Latin, is frequent in Masculines and -Feminines.
3. The Genitive Plural sometimes ends in -um, as passum, formed
after nummum, etc., of the Second Declension (71, 4, a).
4. In early Latin is found a Genitive Singular in -uis, as fructuis,
quaestuis ; on inscriptions also -uos, as senatuos.
5. Some nouns show an intermixture of forms of the Second Declen
sion, as senatus, senate, Gen. senati beside senatus, and especially domus,
house, the inflection of which is as follows :
domus domus
domus (domi) domorum, domuum
domui (domo) domibus
domum domos, domus
domus domus
domo (domu) domibus
Loc. Sing, domi, at home.

Gender «
98. Nouns of the Fourth Declension ending in -us are
mostly Masculine, those in -u Neuter.
a. But the following in -us are Feminine :
acus, needle porticos, porch
anus, old woman Quinquatrus (Plur.),
domus, house name of a festival
Idfis (Plur.), Ides socrus, mother-in-law
nurus, daughter-in-law tribus, tribe
50 Inflection [99

FIFTH DECLENSION
99. The Nominative Singular ends in -es. Examples of
Declension :
diSs, day, m. (stem diS-) res, thing, f. (stem re-)
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. dies dies rSs res
Gen. diei dierum rei rerum
Dat. die! diebus rei rebus
Acc. diem dies rem rSa
Voc. dies dies rSs rSs
Abl. die diebus rS rebus
Remarks on the Case-Forms
100. 1. In the Genitive and Dative Singular we find -ei after a
vowel, but -ei after a consonant, as diei, faciei, but rei, fidei. But this
distinction does not hold in early Latin, where we find, for example, rei,
rei, and oftener monosyllabic rei.
2. A form of the Genitive and Dative Singular in-e is found, as die,acie.
3. The Genitive Singular of plebes, people, is often plebi in the phrases
tribunus plebi and plebi scitum. Similarly (rarely), dii for diei.
4. The only words which have a 'complete Plural are dies and res, but
several others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender
101. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
dies, day, and meridies, midday. And dies is usually Feminine
when meaning an appointed time, or time in general.

DEFECTIVE AND VARIABLE NOUNS

102. Nouns may lack one Number or one or more Cases ;
they may follow partly one Declension, partly another ; or
they may vary in Gender.
Nouns used only in the Singular
103. Some words are of such a meaning as to be used
commonly only in the singular. Such are :
105] Defective and Variable Nouns

1. Proper Names.
2. Abstracts, like caritas, affection.
3. Collectives, like vulgus, the rabble.
4. Words denoting Material, as aes, bronze.
Note. But some of these are used in the Plural in a peculiar sense, as Caesares,
the Caesars, caritates, kinds of affection, aera, bronzes, arms of bronze, wages.

Nouns used only in the Plural

104. Nouns used only in the Plural include :
1 . Some names of places, as Athenae, A thens.
2. Most names of festivals, as Bacchanalia, festival of Bacchus.
3. Many names of objects naturally Plural in signification, as arma,
arms, spolia,1 spoils, viscera, entrails.
4. Many others, for some of which English prefers the Singular.
The most important are :
angustiae, defile, difficulty (straits) insidiae, ambush
cibaria, food (rations) liberi, children
deliciae, pleasure minae, threats
divitiae, wealth (riches) moenia, walls
v$u\a&pbanquet (viands) nundinae, market-day
facetiae,1 wit (witticisms) nuptiae, wedding (nuptials)
fores,1 door reliquiae, remainder (remains)
hiberna, winter quarters tenebrae, darkness
indutiae, truce verbera,1 scourging (lashes)

Different Meaning in Singular and Plural

105. Many nouns are used in both the Singular and the
Plural, but with a difference of meaning. The most impor
tant instances are :
S1NGULAR PLURAL
aedes, temple aedes, house
auxilium, help auzilia, auxiliaries
career, prison carceres, barriers
castrum, fort castra, camp
cera, wax cerae, wax tablets
comitium, place of assembly comitia, assembly
copia, plenty copiae, troops
1 Occasionally Singular in poetry. 2 Also epulum, public ianquet.
52 Inflection [105

S1NGULAR PLURAL
facultas, possibility facilitates, resources, goods
finis, end, border fines, borders, territory
fortuna, fortune fortunae, possessions
impedimentum, hindrance impedimenta, baggage
littera, letter (of the alphabet) litterae, letter, epistle
opera, work operae, workmen
pars, portion partes, role
rostrum, beak rostra, platform for speakers
vigilia, watch vigiliae, pickets

Nouns Defective in Case-Forms

106. Nouns may lack one or more of the Case-Forms.
1 . Many u-Stems are used only in the Ablative Singular, as natii, by
birth, iussu, by order; similarly pondo, by weight, sponte, offree will
(Gen. spontis rare). Of forte, by chance, the Nom. fors also occurs.
2. Several Neuters are used only in the Nom.-Acc. Sing., as fas,
right, nihil, nil, nothing, instar, likeness, opus, need, etc.
3. Nemo, no one, has a Dat. nemini and an Acc. neminem, but the
Gen. and Abl. are supplied by nullius and nullo, from nullus.
4. The Nominative Singular is lacking for dapis, feast, friigis, fruit,
opis, help (lacks also Dat.), vicis, change (lacks also Dat.), preci (Dat.),
prayer (lacks also Gen.), etc.
5. The Genitive Plural is lacking in many nouns, as pax, lux, etc.
Note. An enumeration of all the examples of Defective Nouns is unnecessary.
It is sometimes a mere accident that a certain case-form is not found.

Nouns Variable in Declension

107. Some nouns show forms belonging to two different
Declensions or to two classes of the same Declension. Such
are known as Heteroclites ("differently declined").
1. Some examples have been given already, as domus (97, 5), which
varies between the Second and Fourth Declensions ; virus, etc., of the
Second, but having the Nom.-Acc. Sing, of the Third (72, b, note) ;
fames, of the Third, but having the Abl. Sing. fame of the Fifth (88, 5) ;
femur, an r-Stem in the Nom. and Acc. Sing., but forming its other cases
from an n-Stem (80, 5).
Note. From the historical point of view all words of the Third Declension are
Heteroclites, since their case-forms belong partly to i-Stems and partly to Consonant-Stems.
110] Adjectives of First and Second Declensions S3
2. Other illustrations are : vas, vessel, with Singular of the Third
Declension (Gen. vasis, etc.), and Plural of the Second (vasa, vasorum,
etc.) ; iiigerum, acre, with Singular of the Second Declension (Gen.
iugeri, etc.), and Plural of the Third (ifigera, iiigerum, iugeribus) ; requies,
rest, of the Third (Gen. requietis, etc.), but having also an Acc. Sing.
requiem of the Fifth ; materia, material, of the First, but having also a
Nom. Sing. materies and an Acc. Sing. materiem of the Fifth, and
similarly many others.
Nouns Variable in Gender
108. Nouns may have forms of different Genders. Such
are known as Heterogeneous Nouns.
1. Some nouns of the Second Declension have both Masculine and
Neuter forms, as clipeus, m., and clipeum, n., shield.
2. Many nouns have different genders in the Singular and Plural,
as locus, m., place, Plur. loca, N., places (loci, m., passages in authors) •
iocas, jest, m., Plur. often ioca, n. ; frenum, bit, n., Plur. often freni, m.

ADJECTIVES
109. There are two types of Adjectival Declension, the
one being based on the First and Second Declensions of
Nouns, the other on the Third.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND

DECLENSIONS
110. The Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager
(69, 70), the Feminine like sella (65), the Neuter like donum
(69). Examples :
bonus, good
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. bonus bona bonum boni bonae bona
Gen. boni bonae boni bonorum bonarum bonor
Dat. bono bonae bono bonis bonis bonis
Acc. bonum bonam bonum bonds bonas bona
Voc. bone bona bonum boni bonae bona
A 61. bono bona bono bonis bonis bonis
54 Inflection Ll]0

a. The Gen. and Voc. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of adjectives in -ius
end in -ii and -ie, not in -I, as in Nouns ; e.g. Gen. Sing. regii, Voc. Sing,
regie, from regius, royal.
111. liber, free ruber, red
S1NGULAR
it. f. N. M. F. N.
Nom. liber libera liberum ruber rubra rubrum
Gen. llberi llberae llberi rubri rubrae rubri
Dat. llbero llberae llbero rubro rubrae rubro
Acc. liberum Hberam liberum rubrum rubram rubrum
Voc. liber libera liberum ruber rubra rubrum
Abl. llbero libera llbero rubro rubra rubro
PLURAL
Nom. llberi llberae libera rubri rubrae rubra
Gen. llberorum llberarum llberorum rubrorum rubrarum rubroru1
Dat. liberis liberis liberis rubris rubris rubris
Acc. llberos Hberaa libera rubros rubras rubra
Voc. llberi llberae libera rubri rubrae rubra
Abl. liberis liberis liberis rubris rubris rubris

a. The adjectives which are declined like liber (not like ruber) are :
asper, rough; lacer, torn; prosper, prosperous; tener, tender; com
pounds of -fer and -ger, like aliger, winged; sometimes dexter, right.
b. Some adjective -ro-Stems form the Nom. Sing. Masc. in -rus
instead of -er, as is also the case with some Nouns (70, a). Such are :
ferus, wild, properus, quick, praeposterus, absurd, and usually inferos,
under, and superus, upper; further, all those in which the r is preceded
by a long vowel, as sincerus, sincere, austerus, austere, etc.
c. The declension of satur, full, is parallel to that of liber, namely,
satur, satura, saturum, etc.

Pronominal Adjectives
112. Several adjectives show in the Genitive and Dative
Singular the Pronominal endings -ius and -i. In other respects
they are declined like bonus, or like liber or ruber. Examples
of the Singular :
114] Adjectives of the Third Declension 55

totus, whole uter, which of two

H. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. totus tota totum uter utra utrum
Gen. totius totius totius utrfus utrius utrius
Dat. toti tea tod: utri utri utri
Acc. toturn totarn totum utrum utram utrum
Abl. toto tota toto utro utra utro
Note. In the Genitive ending -ius the I is sometimes shortened
in poetry, especially in alterius and, always, in utriusque. See 21, note.
a. The adjectives declined in this way are :
alius, other solus, alone alter, the other
Silas, any totus, whole uter, which (of two)
nullus, none Onus, one neuter, neither
b. The Nom.-Acc. Sing. Neut. of alius is aliud ; the Genitive Singular
is usually supplied by alterius.
Note. Early and rare forms are alis and alid, for alius and aliud ; also Dat.
Sing, ali for alii, and Gen. Sing, alius and alii.
c. The Dat. Sing. Fem. of alter is sometimes alterae.

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION

113. Adjectives of the Third Declension are conveniently-
classified according to the number of endings in the Nomina
tive Singular, namely, one, two, or three.

Adjectives of Three Endings

114. acer, sharp
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. acer acris acre acres acres acria
Gen. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium
Dat. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
Acc. acrem acrem acre acris (-S:s) acris (-es) acria
Voc. acer acris acre acre's acres acria
Abl. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
a. All adjectives of this type are from stems in -ri-, the Nom. Sing.
Masc. becoming -er, as in Nouns like imber (87). But some stems in
-ri-, as funebris, muliebris, inlustris, etc., have the Nom. Sing. Masc. in
-ris, and so belong in the next class.
56. Inflection [115

Adjectives of Two Endings

115. gravis, heavy
S1NGULAR
M., f. N. M., f. N.
Nom. gravis grave gravSa gravia
Gen. gravis gravis gravium gravium
Dat. gravi gravi gravibus gravibus
Acc. gravem grave gravis (-es) gravia
Voc. gravis grave graves gravia
Abl. gravi gravi gravibus gravibus
a. All adjectives of this type are i-Stems.

Comparatives
116. melior, better
S1NGULAR
M., f. N. M., f. N.
Nom. melior melius meliores meliora
Gen. melioris melioris meliorum meliorum
Dat. meliori meliori melioribus melioribus
Acc. meliorem melius meliores (-is) meliora
Voc. melior melius meliores meliora
Abl. meliore meliore melioribus melioribus
a. The Comparatives are properly s-Stems, the s being preserved only
in the Nom.-Acc. Sing. Neut. Compare honor (honos), honoris (80, 4).
Plus, more, in the Singul;ar used only as a Neuter, has Gen. Plur.
plurium, but Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut. plura (but compluria beside complura).

Adjectives of One Ending

(Including Present Participles)
117. duplex, double
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M., f. N. M., f. N.
Nom. duplex duplex duplices duplicia
Gen. duplicis duplicis duplicium duplicium
Dat. duplici duplici duplicibus duplicibus
Acc. duplicem duplex duplicis (-es) duplicia
Voc. duplex duplex duplices duplicia
Abl. duplici duplici duplicibus duplicibus
118] Adjectives of the Third Declension 57
amans, loving
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M., f. N. M., f. N.
Nom. amans amans amantes amantia
Gen. am antis amantis amantium amantium
Dat. amanti amanti amantibus amantibus
Acc. amantern amans amantis (-es) amantia
Voc. amans amans amantes amantia
A 61. amante (-1) amante (-1) amantibus amantibus
vetus, old
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M., f. N. M., f. N.
Nom. vetus vetus veterSs vetera
Gen. veteris veteris veterum veterum
Dat. veteri veteri veteribus veteribus
Acc. veterem vetus veterSa vetera
Voc. vetus vetus veterSs vetera
Abl. vetere vetere veteribus veteribus
a. These Adjectives are Consonant-Stems in origin, but, with the
exception of vetus and a few others, they have taken on the characteris
tic i-Stem forms in the Plural, and for the most part in the Ablative Sin
gular. For details, see 118.
b. Of the various classes of Consonant-Stems the Mute-Stems are the most frequent.
The union of the mute with the s of the Nom. Sing., and the changes in the stem
between the Nom. Sing, and the other cases are in accordance with the statements given
above for Nouns (77). So duplex, double, Gen. duplicis ; particeps, sharing, Gen. par-
ticipis; dives, rich, Gen. divitis. Peculiar are the compounds of caput, as anceps, two-
headed, Gen. ancipitis ; praeceps, headlong, Gen. praecipitis.
There are also a few stems in -1, -r, and -s, as vigil, watchful, Gen. vigilis ; memor,
mindful, Gen. memoris ; pubes, grown up, Gen. puberis ; vetus, old, etc.

Remarks on the Case-Forms

118. i. Adjectives of the Third Declension have the
i-Stem forms of the Ablative Singular, Genitive Plural, and
Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter, namely, -i, -ium, -ia.
But Comparatives have the Consonant-Stem forms, namely,
-e, -um, -a. Present Participles have -ium and -ia, but the
Ablative Singular in -e, unless used in an Adjective sense,
when they usually have -i ; e.g. eo praesente, in his presence,
but praesenti tempore, at the present time.
58 Inflection [118

a. Exceptions :
1) Adjectives of Two or Three Endings. A Gen. Plur. in -um is
regular in eeler, swift, volucris, flying, occasional in caelestis,
heavenly, agrestis, rustic, but rare elsewhere.
2) Adjectives of One Ending. An Abl. Sing. in -e and a Gen. Plur.
in -um are regular in the following (Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut.
wanting in most) :
* caeles, heavenly, Gen. caelitis pubSs, grown up
compos, master of impubes, under age
particeps, sharing sospes, safe
pauper, poor superstes, remaining
princeps, chief dives, rich (but ditia)
vetus, old (also Vetera)
A Gen. Plur. in -um is also regular in inops, needy, memor, mindful,
vigil, watchful, and in compounds of pes, foot, such as bipes, quadrupes.
3) In other Adjectives of One or Two Endings an Abl. Sing, in -e is occasionally
found, chiefly in poetry ; e.g. grave, duplice.
4) Comparatives. An Ablative in -i is rare. For plus see 116, b.
5) Present Participles. A Gen. Plur. in -um is found in poetry.
2. Adjectives used substantively retain their usual forms, as Abl.
natali, birthday. But when they are used as proper names the Ablative
generally ends in -e, as Iuvenale, Quirinale.
3. Participles used substantively retain their usual forms, as in a
sapiente, by a wise man.
4. The Acc. Plur. Masc. and Fem, had the regular i-Stem form -is,
and this was in general more persistently retained than in Nouns,
although forms in -es are also found in the Augustan period. But the
words which had the Gen. Plur. in -um had the Consonant-Stem form of
the Acc. Plur., namely, -es, from the outset.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES1
119. There are three Degrees of Comparison, as in English,
namely, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior, the
Superlative by adding -issimus, to the stem of the Positive
minus its final vowel, if it has one. The Declension of
1 The Comparison of Adjectives is a matter belonging more properly to Word-
Formation than to Inflection, but is conveniently treated in connection with the Declen
sion of Adjectives.
120] Comparison of Adjectives 59

Comparatives has been given (H6). Superlatives are declined

as Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. Par
ticiples used as Adjectives are compared in the same man
ner. Examples of Comparison :
POS1T1VE COMPARAT1VE SUPERLAT1VE
clarus, clear clarior, clearer clarissimus, clearest
gravis, heavy gravior, heavier gravissimus, heaviest
audax, bold audacior, bolder audacissimus, boldest
amans, loving amantior, more loving amantissimus, most loving
120. i . Adjectives in -er form the Superlative in -errimus, as if by
adding -rimus to the -er. Examples :
asper, rough asperior asperrimua
celer, swift celerior celerrimus
acer, sharp acrior acerrimus
a. So also vetus, Superlative veterrimus. The old Comparative
veterior is replaced by vetustior, formed from vetustus. Maturus, ripe,
has once a Superlative maturrimus, but usually maturissimus.
2. Certain adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative in -illimus, as
if by adding -limus to the stem of the Positive minus its final vowel.
Examples :
facilis, easy facilior facillimus
gracilis, slender gracilior gracillimus
humilis, lowly humilior humillimus
similis, like similior simillimus
a. So also difficilis, dissimilis. Other adjectives in -ilis are compared
in the usual manner, as nobilis, nobilior, nobilissimus. But many of them
lack the Superlative.
Note. The stems of the Superlatives in -illimus and -errimus come from * -il-simo-,
»-er-simo- (cf. -is-simo-), the s being assimilated to the preceding 1 or r (49, n).
3. Adjective compounds in -volus, -dicus, -ficus have Comparatives
and Superlatives which belong properly to compounds in -volens, -dicens,
-ficens, of which, except in the case of -ficens, examples occur in early
Latin ; e.g. benevolens, maledicens. Examples :
benevolus, benevolent benevolentior benevolentissimus
maledicus, slanderous maledicentior maledicentissimus
magnificus, eminent magnificentior magnificentissimus
4. There are a few Superlatives in -mus, -imus, -timus, and -emus, which are cited in
122, 123. So sum-mus (*sup-mos; see 49, 10), min-imus, op-timus, supr-emus.
6o Inflection [121

121. Many adjectives form the Comparative and Super

lative by prefixing magis, more, and maxime, most, to the
Positive. This is true of most adjectives in which the
vowel of the stem is itself preceded by another vowel,
and of many others. Examples :
dubius, doubtful Comp. magis dubius Superl. maxime dubius
idoneus, suitable Comp. magis idoneus Superl. maxime idoneus
Note. Some adjectives are compared by means of magis and maxime,
as well as by the usual method ; e.g. elegans, select, Comp. elegantior or
magis elegans, Superl. elegantissimus or maxime elegans.
Peculiar or Defective Comparison
122. Several adjectives show two or three different stems
in the three Degrees, or different forms of the same stem.
Compare English good, better, best. Such are :
bonus, good melior, better optimus, best
malus, bad peior, worse pessimus, worst
magnus, great maior, greater maximus, greatest
multus, much plus, more plurimus, most
parvus, small minor, smaller minimus, smallest
nequam (indecl.), worthless nequior nequissimus
frugi (indecl.), thrifty friigalior frugalissimus
iuvenis, young iiinior [minor natu] [minimus natu]
senex, old senior [maior natu] [maximus natu]
123. In the case of some adjectives the Positive is wholly
lacking, or is rare except in certain expressions. But the stem
of the Positive often appears in adverbial or prepositional
forms. Such are :
cis, citra, on this side citerior, on this side citimus, nearest
uls, ultra, beyond ulterior, farther ultimus, farthest
in, intra, within interior, inner intimus, innermost
exterus (nationes exterae, exterior, outer < extremus, 't
foreign nations) X extimus, f outermost
prope, near propior, nearer proximus, nearest
prae, pro, before prior, former primus, first
de, down deterior, worse deterrimus, worst
126] Adverbs 61

potior, preferable potissimus, strongest

ocior, swifter ocissimus, swiftest
infimus, )
Inferus, below Inferior, lower
|supremus,,
superus, above superior, higher
( summus, )
j postremus, last
posterus, following posterior, later I postumus, late-born
a. The Comparative is wanting for novus, newy sacer, sacred, pius, pious
(Superl. piissimus), and rare for fidus, faithful, falsus, false, and others.
b. The Superlative is wanting for iuvenis, young, and senex, old (but
see 122), and for some others, including many adjectives in -ilis, -bilis.

ADVERBS
(Prepositions and Conjunctions)
124. Although Adverbs are not themselves capable of inflection, they
are most conveniently treated at this point, because many of them are
regularly formed from Nouns and Adjectives, and with endings which
are identical with the Case-endings.
Note. It is believed that all Adverbs are, in their ultimate origin, nothing but
stereotyped Case-forms. Some of them show endings which appear as Case-endings in
related languages, but have become obsolete as such in Latin. Still others, especially
among Adverbs formed from Pronominal Stems, show endings which even in the parent
speech were used only in Adverbs, not as real Cafi&endings.
125. Prepositions and Conjunctions are Adverbs in origin, and some
of them, which show the common adverbial formations, are cited among
the examples of such formations. But many of them, including most of
the commonest Prepositions, do not admit of any analysis or classification
as regards form. They are, therefore, treated only as regards their
uses, i.e. under the head of Syntax.
126. The common Adverbial endings are :
I . -e (-e), as in alte, highly, from altus ; care, dearly, from cams ;
male, badly, from malus ; bene, well, from bonus. This is the
usual ending of Adverbs formed from Adjectives of the First
and Second Declensions. For fere and ferme, nearly, the
Adjective forms are lacking.
Note. This ending appears on early inscriptions as -5d, which was once
an Ablative ending of o-Stems existing beside that in -od, but has become
obsolete in Latin, except in Adverbs. For the short e in male and bene,
see 28, note.
62 Inflection [126

2. -ter, -iter, as in audacter, boldly, from audax ; graviter, heavily;

from gravis ; humaniter, humanely, from humanus. This is
the usual ending of Adverbs formed from Adjectives of the
Third Declension, but is not confined to these.
Note. This ending is probably the same as that seen in such Adverbs
and Prepositions as inter, subter, etc., from which it was extended, but with
a loss of its distinctly local force (a transition which might readily take
place in such a word as circiter, about).
3. -d (-0), as in tuto, safely, from tutus ; primo, atfirst, from primus ;
cito, quickly, from citus ; modo, only, from modus. So also
the Pronominal Adverbs eo, quo, etc. ; cf. also retro, and, in
composition only, contro-.
Note. This is the Ablative ending, originally -od. For the short 0 in
modo and cito, see 28, note.
4. -a, as in dextra, on the right, from dexter ; alia, otherwise, from
alius ; recta, straightway, from rectus ; and other Adverbs of
place. So also the Pronominal Adverbs ea, qua, hac, postea,
posthac, etc., and Prepositions like extra.
Note. This appears on early inscriptions as -ad, and is the Ablative
ending of the Feminine (originally, perhaps, ea via, etc.).
5. -tim (-sim), as in furtim, secretly, from fur ; privatim, privately,
from privatus; cursim, quickly, etc.
Note. These adverbs originated in forms like partim, partly, from pars,
in which -tim represents the Acc. Sing, of a stem in -ti-.
6. -um, as in multum, much, from multus ; postremum^wtf/^, from
postremus ; verum, but, from verus ; ceterum, for the rest,
from *ceterus. So also the Pronominal Adverbs tum, dum,
cum, and the Preposition circum.
Note. This is the ending of the Acc. Sing. Neut. of o-Stems. The
same Case is seen in the adverbs in -ius from Comparatives (see 128, note),
and in a few forms in -e from i-Stems, as facile, easily, from facilis ; also in
the Conjunction quod. The Acc. Plur. Neut. is seen in the Conjunction
quia.
7. -am, as in clam, secretly, palam, openly, coram, openly. So the
Pronominal Adverbs tam, iam, quam, etc.
Note. This is the ending of the Acc. Sing. Fem. The Acc. Plur. Fem,
is seen in alias, at other times, and foras, out of doors.
8. -tus, as in funditus, from the bottom, from fundus ; intus, from
within.
Note. This is an old suffix -tos, used also in related languages to denote
source.
 129] Comparison of Adverbs 63

127. Other endings, used chiefly with Pronominal Stems, and mostly
of obscure origin, are :
1. -nde, as in inde, thence, unde, whence. 6. -im, -inc, as in illim, illinc, thence, ninc,
2. -dem, as in tandem, at last, pridem, long hence.
ago. 7. -ic, as in hie, here, iuic, there. These
3. -dam, as in quondam, once. are Locatives in -I-c(e).
4. -dum, as in dudum, a while ago. S. -bi (-bi), as in ibi, there, ubi, where.
5. -do, as in quando, when. 9. -per, as in semper, always, nuper, lately.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
128. In Comparison the Adverb follows the formation of
the Adjective, except that the Comparative ends in -ius, and
the Superlative in -6. Examples :
alte, highly altius, more highly altissime, most highly
audacter, boldly audacius audacissime
acriter,y?mri?/j' acrius acerrime
facile, easily facilius facillime
tuto, safely tiitius tutissime
Note. The Comparative Adverb is simply the Acc. Sing. Neut.of the Comparative
Adjective, used adverbially ; the Superlative is formed from the Superlative Adjective
with the regular adverbial ending -5. Adverbs are also compared by prefixing magis
and maximS.
Special Peculiarities
129. The following show two or three different stems in the
three Degrees (like the corresponding Adjectives ; see 122), or
are otherwise peculiar or defective.
bene, well melius, better optime, best
male, ill peius, worse pessime, worst
magnopere, greatly,
magis, more maxime, most
multum, ) much
multum, much plus, more plurimum, most
parum, little minus, less minime, least
satis, enough satius, better
potius, rather potissimum, especially
prius, before primum, first
nuper, recently nuperrime, most recently
saepe, often saepius, oftener saepissime, oftenest
diu, long diiitius, longer diutissime, longest
prope, near propius, nearer proxime, nearest, next
Note. SStius, less, is not related to secus, otherwise.
64 Inflection [130

NUMERALS
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
130. Cardinals answer the question " How many ? " Ordi
nals, the question " Which in order? "
Roman
Cardinals Ordinals
Notation
1. unus, one primus, first 1
2. duo, two secundus, second 11
3- tres tertius in
4. quattuor quartus mi or iv
5- qulnque quintus V
6. sex sextus VI
7- septem Septimus VII
8. octo octavus Vlll
9- novem nonus vim or ix
IO. decem decimus X
1 1. undecim undecimus XI
12. duodecim duodecimus XII
13. tredecim tertius decimus XIII
14. quattuordecim quartus decimus xim or xiv
IS- qulndecim quintus decimus XV
16. sedecim sextus decimus XVI
17. septendecim Septimus decimus XVII
18. duodeviginti duodevicensimus XVIII
19. undevigintl undevicensimus xviiii or xix
20. viginti vicensimus XX
21. vigintl Onus vicensimus primus
(unus et viginti) (unus et vicensimus) XXI
22. viginti duo vicensimus secundus
(duo et viginti) (alter et vicensimus) XXII
30. triginta tricensimus XXX
40. quadraginta quadragensimus xxxx or xl
So. quinquaginta quinquagensimus L
60. sexaginta sexagensimus LX
70. septuaginta septuagensimus LXX
80. octoginta octogensimus LXXX
90. nonaginta nonagensimus lxxxx or xc
131] Cardinals and Ordinals 65

Cardinals Ordinals Roman

Notation
100. centum centensimus c
1 01. centum (et) Onus centensimus primus ci
120. centum (et) viginti centensimus vlcensimus cxx
121. centum viginti unus centensimus vlcensimus primus cxxi
200. ducenti ducentensimus cc
300. trecentl trecentensimus ccc
400. quadringenti quadringentensimus cccc
500. qulngenti quingentensimus d
600. sescenti sescentensimus DC
700. septingenti septingentensimus DCC
800. octingenti octingentensimus dccc
900. nongentl nongentensimus dcccc
1 000. mille millensimus (earlier cio) m
1 1 20. mille centum viginti millensimus centensimus
vlcensimus mcxx
1900. mille nongentl millensimus nongentensimus mdcccc
2000. duo mllia bis millensimus mm
10,000. decem milia deciens millensimus x
100,000. centum milia centiens millensimus c
1,000,000. deciens centena milia deciens centiens millensimus rxi
Note. For some of the numeral signs, other forms, not resembling Latin letters,
were commonly used in inscriptions, especially in the early period. M for 1000 did not
replace cid until the second century a.d. For numbers like 4, 9, 14, etc., the method
of notation by adding was commoner than the method by subtracting ; so, for example,
vim is usual, ix rare.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
131. Both Cardinals and Ordinals are Adjectives, and the
latter are declined like bonus (no). But of the Cardinals up
to 100, only the first three are declined.
1. Unus is declined like totus (112).
2. Duo and tres are declined as follows :
Nom. duo duae duo tres tria
Gen. duorum duarum duorum trium trium
Dat. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus
Acc. duos (duo) duas duo tris (tres) tria
Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus
Note. Like duo is declined ambo, ambae, ambo, both.
66 Inflection [131
3. The plural of mille is milia, declined like tria. It is not an
Adjective like mille, but a Substantive, and is followed by the Genitive ;
for example, cum mille militibus, with a thousand soldiers, but cum
dudbus mflibus mQitum, with two thousand soldiers.
4. The hundreds, ducenti, etc., are declined like the plural of bonus, but
the Genitive ends in -um, not in -drum.
Note. The older spelling millia was supplanted by milia in the first century a.d.
The Ordinals like vicensimus are also spelled vicesimus, etc. ; but the spelling -Snsimus
is preferable (52, 5). An early spelling of Septimus and decimus is septumus and
decumus (52, 2).

Order of Words in Compound Numerals

132. 1. The method of making the compound numerals from 20 to
100 is the same as in English ; just as we say either twenty-one or one
and twenty (rarely twenty and one), so the Romans said viginti unus
or unus et viginti (rarely viginti et unus).
2. The compound numerals from 100 on regularly begin with the
largest number and descend to the smallest, just as in English. If
there are only two numbers, et is sometimes used, sometimes not. But
if there are more than two numbers et is never used. So trecenti unus or
trecenti et unus, 301, but trecenti quadraginta unus, 341, and mille ducenti
triginta duo, 1232.
3. Compound numerals are sometimes used for the numbers 11 -19,
the large number usually preceding, as decem et octo.

DISTRIBUTIVES, MULTIPLICATIVES, AND NUMERAL

ADVERBS
133. Distributives denote how many apiece, as singuli, one
apiece, one by one. Multiplicatives denote how many fold, as
duplex, twofold, double. Numeral Adverbs denote how many
times, as bis, twice. The following is a partial list :
Distributives Multiplicatives Numeral Adverbs
1. singuli, one apiece simplex, simple semel, once
2. blni, two apiece duplex, double bis, twice
3. terni (trini) triplex ter
4. quaterni quadruplex quater
5. qulni quincuplex quinquiens
 134] Personal Pronouns 67

Distributives MULTIPL1CATIVES Numeral Adverbs

6. seni sexiens
7- septeni septemplex septiens
8. octonl octiens
9. novenl noviens
io. deni decemplex deciens
I1. undenl undeciens
12. duodeni duodeciens
ternldenl terdeciens
vicenl viciens
21. viceni singuli semel et viciens
triceni triciens
ioo. centenl centuplex centiens
1O1. centeni singuli
200. duceni ducentiens
1OOO. singula milia miliens
a. For the use of Distributives in place of Cardinals, see under
Syntax (247).
Note. The Numeral Adverbs sexiens, etc., are also spelled sexiSs, etc., but the
spelling -iens is preferable (82, 5).

PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
134. The Personal Pronouns of the First and Second Per
sons are declined as follows :
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Nom. ego, / nos, we tu, thou vos, you
Gen. mel nostrum, nostri tui vestrum, vestri
Dat. mihi (mi) nobis tibi vobis
Acc. me nos te vos
Voc. tu vos
Abl. me nobis te vobis
a. Beside mihi and tibi, the old forms with final long i are frequent in
poetry (28, note).
b. The Genitive Plural ends in -am or -i according to the meaning.
Nostrum and vestrum are used as Genitives of the Whole, nostri and vestri
68 Inflection [134

as Objective Genitives. Early and late forms of vestrum and vestri are
vostrum, vostri.
c. Old forms of the Genitive Singular are mis, tis ; of the Accusative and Ablative
Singular mSd and ted (similarly s5d).
d. The particles met and te are added to the pronominal form for emphasis ; egomet,
/ myself; tute, you yourself (also tutemet).
e. For the Third Person the Determinative Pronoun is (137) is used.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
135. For the First and Second Person the ordinary forms
of the Personal Pronoun are used with the reflexive sense, as
lauds me, / praise myself, laudas t6, you praise yourself, lauda-
mus nOs, we praise ourselves. For the Third Person there is
a distinct Reflexive Pronoun, without distinction of gender or
number, which is declined as follows :
Gen. sul, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
Dat. sibi, to " " " "
Acc. se, sese, " " " "
Abl. se, sese, by " " " "
a. Beside sibi, the old form with final long i is frequent in poetry
(28, note).
POSSESSIVES
136. The Adjective forms of the Personal and Reflexive .
Pronouns are known as Possessives. They are :
meus, mea, meum, my; noster, nostra, nostrum, our;
tuus, tua, tuum, thy ; vester, vestra, vestrum, your;
suus, sua, suum, his, her, its, their.
a. They are declined as regular Adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions. But the Vocative Singular of meus is mi.
b. An early and late form of vester, -tra, -trum is voster, -tra, -trum.
c. The enclitic -pte is frequently added to the Ablative Singular for
emphasis, as meopte ingenio, by my own genius; suapte natura, by its own
nature.
d. Suus is used only in the reflexive sense, his (her, their, etc.) own.
For the Possessive of the Third Person when not reflexive, the Genitive
of is is used, as eius (of him, etc.), his, her, its; edrum, earum, their.
187] Determinative-Descriptive Pronouns 69

DETERMINATIVE-DESCRIPTIVE PRONOUNS
137. The Pronoun is, this (or he) or such, and its com
pound idem, the same, are declined as follows :
la
S1NGULAR
M. F. N.
Norn, is ea id
Gen. eius eius eius
Dat. el el ei
Acc. eum eam id
Abl. eo e5 eo
PLURAL
Nom. il (T), el eae ea
Gen. eorum earum eorum
Dat. its (is), eis its (is), eis its (is), eis
Acc. eos eas ea
Abl. iis(is), eis iis (Is), eis iis (Is), eis

Idem
SINGULAR
M. r. N.
Nom. idem eadem idem
Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
Dat. eidem eidem eidem
Acc. eundem eandem idem
Abl. eodem eadem eodem
PLURAL
Nom. Idem (ildem), eidem eaedem eadem
Gen. eorundem earundem eorundem
Dat. Isdem(iisdem),eisdem Isdem(iisdem),eisdem Isdem(iisdem),eisdem
Acc. eosdem easdem easdem
Abl. isdem(iisdem),eisdem Isdem(iisdem),eisdem Isdem(iisdem),eisdem
a. The Gen. Sing, eius was pronounced ei-yus, the first syllable con
taining a diphthong and being long for this reason (29, 2, a).
b. The Nom. Plur. Masc. and the Dat.-Abl. Plur. of is were oftenest written ii, iis,
but these were pronounced, and not infrequently written also, I, is. The forms ei, eis
are also frequent, but poetic usage shows that dissyllabic pronunciation was rare. The
70 Inflection [137

same is true of the corresponding cases of idem, except that idem and isdem, whicii
represent the actual pronunciation, are also the commonest spellings.
c. The Dative Singular appears in early poetry as el, ei, or monosyllabic ei.
138. i. Hic, this or such, and ille, that or such, are declined
as follows :
S1NGULAR
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. hie haec hoc ille illa illud
Gen. huius huius huius illius illius illius
Dat. huic huic huic ill! illl illl
Acc. hunc hanc hoc ilium illam illud
Abl. hoc hac hoc illa ilia ilia
PLURAL
Nom. hi hae haec tin illae illa
Gen. liorum harum horum illorum illarum illorum
Dat. his his his illis illis illis
Acc. hos has haec illos illas illa
Abl. his his his illis illis illis
2. Iste, that or such, is declined like ille.
a. For hic and hoc as long syllables, see 30, 2.
b. The Gen. Sing. huius was prononced hui-yus, the first syllable
containing a diphthong and being long for this reason (29, 2, a) ; for
the pronunciation of the Dat. Sing. huic, see 10. The earlier forms
hoius and hoic were still used in Cicero's time.
c. The particle -c(e), always present in hic, haec, etc., is often added to
other forms. Thus huiusce, haec (Nom. Plur. Fem.), hosce, hasce, hisce,
and, in early Latin, also horunc, harunc. Similarly early Latin illic and
istic, declined as follows (the Neuter forms istuc and istaec also used later) :
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. illic illaec illuc illaec illaec
Gen. illlusce illiusce illiusce
Dat. illic illic illic illisce illisce illisce
Acc. illunc illanc illuc illosce illasce illaec
Abl. illoc iliac illoc illisce illisce illisce
d. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes added to forms in -oe,
the e of the latter changing to i (42, 2); e.g. hic(c)ine, haecine, hoc(c)ine,
etc. (So, too, the adverb hicine, in this place? Cf. sicine, in this way?
similarly formed'from sice, the old form of sic.)
140] The Relative Pronouns 71
e. Early Latin has a Nom. Plur. Masc. hisce.
/. Some forms of early Latin olle or alius, used like ille, occur also in later writers ;
e.g. Dat. Sing, olli, Nom. Plur. Masc. olH, Dat. Abl. Plur. oUis.

The Intensive Pronoun

139. The Intensive Pronoun ipse, self, is declined as follows :
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa
Gen. ipslus ipslus ipslus ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
Dat. ipsl ipsl ipsi ipsis ipsis ipsis
Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos ipsas ipsa
Abl. ipso ipsa. ipso ipsis ipsis ipsis
a. Early Latin has also Nom. Sing. Masc. ipsus. Note ea-pse, eam-pse, ea-pse
(reapse), etc.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS

14& The Relative Pronoun qui, who, is declined as follows :
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M. f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae
Gen. cuius cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum
Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Acc. quem quam quod quos quas quae
Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus
a. The Gen. and Dat. Sing, cuius and cui were pronounced in the same manner as
huius and huic. See above, 138, 2, b. The earlier forms quoius and quoi were still used
in Cicero's time.
b. An Abl. Sing. qui in place of quo, qua, is frequent in the phrase
quicum, with whom or with which. The adverb qui, whereby, also
used interrogatively, is of the same origin.
c. A Dat.-Abl. Plur. quis in place of quibus is frequent.
d. Other Relatives are : quicumque, whoever, with the qui declined
as above ; quisquis, whoever, with both parts declined like quis of the
following paragraph (but only quisquis, quidquid or quicquid (50), and
quoquo in common use); uter, which of two, the declension of which is
given above (112), and utercumque, whichever of two, the first part of
which is declined in the same way.
72 Inflection

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

141. The Interrogative Pronoun, when used Substantively,
is quis, who f When used Adjectively, it is qui, what ? (e.g.
qui deus, what god?). Qui is declined like the Relative. The
declension of quis, differing from that of qui only in a few
forms, is as follows :
S1NGULAR PLURAL
M., f. N. M. f. N.
Nom. quis quid qui quae quae
Gen. cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum
Dat. cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Acc. quem quid quos quas quae
AM. quo quo quibus quibus quibus
a. The distinction between the substantive and adjective forms is not
always maintained ; quis is sometimes used adjectively, and, vice versa,
qui is sometimes used substantively (hence the Fem, quae also occurs
substantively, although the proper substantive form is quis for both
Masculine and Feminine).
b. Other Interrogatives are : quisnam, who, pray ? with the Adjective
form quinam ; ecquis, any one? Adjective ecqui (Nom. Sing. Fem, ecquae
or ecqua) ; uter, which of two? declined in 112.
Note. The stem is quo- in the Relative forms qui (earlier quoi) and quod,
but qui- in the Interrogative forms quis and quid. The other forms, which are
the same for both Relative and Interrogative, are from the stem quo-, except
quem and quibus, which are from the stem qui- (quem like finem). But the qui
of quicum (140, b) is also from qui-, and, vice versa, Dat.-Abl. Plur. quis for
quibus is from quo-. A rare Nom. Plur. ques (Interrog. and Indef.) is also from
qui- (like fin5s). A third stem quu-, belonging properly to adverbial formations,
appears in the form cu- (cf. quincu-plex from * qulnquu-plez) in alicubi, etc.,
and, with loss of the initial consonant, in ubi, unde, ut, and uter.
INDEFINITE AND DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
142. The principal Indefinite Pronouns are quis (qui) and
its various compounds. They are used both substantively
and adjectively. In Substantive use the Neuter is quid, and,
except in a few of the compounds, quis is used for both the
Masculine and the Feminine gender ; in the Adjective use
the Neuter is quod, and qui and quae (or qua) are used for the
Masculine and the Feminine gender,
143] Indefinite and Distributive Pronouns 73
Used Substantively Used Adjectively
1. quis (qui), any one quid, anything qui (quis), quae or qua, quod, any
Note. For the Nom. Sing. Fern, and the Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut., both quae and
qua are used.
2. aliquis (aliqui), aliquid, something aliqui (aliquis), aliqua, aliquod, some
some one
Note. The Nom. Sing. Fem, nearly always, and the Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut.
always, is aliqua.
3. quidam, quaedam, a quiddam, a certain quidam, quaedam, quoddam, a certain
certain one thing
Note. As in the declension of Mem, m is changed to n before d ; e.g. quendam (for
*quemdam), quandam, etc.
4. quispiam, some one quippiam or quid- quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, some
plam(50),something
5. quisquam, any one quicquam, any- quisquam, qufcquam, any (rare)
at all thing at all
Note. There is no Plural. The Adjective use is commonly supplied by ullus.
6. quisque, each one quidque, each quisque, quaeque, quodque, each
thing
7. unusquisque, each unumquidque, each iinusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque,
one severally thing severally each severally
8. qulvis, quaevis, any quidvis, anything quivis, quaevis, quodvis, any whatever
one whatever whatever
9. quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet, anything quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet, any what-
any one whatever ever
a. The following compounds of uter have the force of Indefinite or
Distributive Pronouns, in both substantive and adjective use. For their
declension, see 112.
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two
utervis, utravis, utrumvis, either of two
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either of two
alteruter, alterutra or altera utra, alterutrum or alterum utrum, one or the other
Note. In alteruter sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter.

Pronominal Adjectives
143. Besides the Adjective forms of the Pronouns already
given may be mentioned :
talis, tale, such alter, altera, alterum, the other
qualis, quale, such as or of what neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of
sort ? two
tantus, tanta, tantum, so great ullus, ulla, ullum, any
quantus, quanta, quantum, so great nflllus, nulla, nullum, no one
as ox how great? ndnnullus,nonnulla,nonnullum, some,
alius, alia, aliud, another many a
Note. For the declension of the last six forms, see 112.
74 Inflection [144

Correlatives
144. Adjectives and Adverbs which stand to each other
in the relation of corresponding Determinative, Interrogative,
Relative, and Indefinite words are called Correlatives. A
partial list is :

Determinative Relative Interrogative Indefinite

is, hic, etc., this qui, who quis, who ? aliquis, any one
talis, such quaiis, as qualis, of what
sort?
tantus, so great quantus, asgreat quantus, how aliquantus, some
great ? what
tot, so many quot, as many quot, how many ? aliquot, several
ibi, there ubi, where ubi, where ? alicubi, a ny -
where
inde, thence unde, whence unde, whence? alicunde, from
somewhere
eo, thither quo, whither quo, whither? aliquo, to some
place
tum, then cum, when quando, when ? aliquando, some
time
totiens, so many quotiens, as many quotiens, how aliquotiens, sev
times times many times ? eral times

VERBS
145. The Inflection of Verbs, or Conjugation, comprises
the variations in Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.
There are :
Two Voices, — Active and Passive.
Some Verbs have only one Voice. Those which are mostly
Passive in form but Active in meaning are known as Depo
nents.
Three Moods, — Indicative, Subjunctive, and Impera
tive.
147] Verbs 75
Six Tenses, — Present, Imperfect, Future ; Perfect, Past
Perfect,1 and Future Perfect.
Only the Indicative has all six Tenses. The Subjunctive lacks
the Future and the Future Perfect. The Imperative has
only the Present and the Future.
Two Numbers, — Singular and Plural.
Three Persons, — First, Second, and Third.
146. The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative forms
make up what is known as the Finite Verb.
Besides these, the following Noun and Adjective forms have
become a part of the Verb-System :
Verbal Nouns, — Infinitives (Present, Future, and Perfect
of both Voices), the Supine, and the Gerund.
Verbal Adjectives, — Participles (Present and Future
Active, Perfect Passive,2 and Future Passive 2 or Gerun
dive).

THE THREE STEMS OF THE VERB

147. There are three principal Stems about which are
grouped the various forms of the Verb.
Note 1. As, in declension, the Stem is the base to which the Case-endings are
added, so, in Conjugation, the Stem of any given Tense is the base to which the Personal
Endings are added. These stems, the formation of which, by means of suffixes known
as Tense-Signs or Mood-Signs, is treated below (166 ff.), are conveniently grouped under
the three principal stems, as given above. Not all tenses of the Present System, for
example, are actually formed directly from the Present Stem, but most of them are
formed from stems which contain the Present Stem with certain fixed additions or sub
stitutions.
Note 2. The part which is common to all three stems is known as the Verb-Stem,
that is, the general stem of the verb. Thus in a verb like amd, amare, amavi, amatum,
ami- is the Verb-Stem, as well as Present Stem. Often the only part which is common
to all the stems is the monosyllabic element which is called the Root (see 203, footnote),
and in such cases we speak of the Root or the Root-Syllable rather than of the Verb-
Stem. The Root occasionally varies in form, owing partly to regular phonetic change,
partly to an original variation. Thus the root of cano is can, which has become cin in
the Perfect cecim (42, 1) ; the root of tego is teg, but this had another form teg, from
which are formed Perf. texi, Partic. tectus (46).
1 Commonly, and properly, so named in English grammars ; commonly called Plu
perfect in Latin grammars.
2 The form commonly known as the Perfect Passive Participle is not always Perfect
or always Passive. Similarly the term Future Passive Participle does not properly
describe the functions of this form. See the Syntax.
76 Inflection [147

A. The Present Stem, or stem of the Present System,

which consists of :
[. The Present, Imperfect, and Future of all Moods and Voices in
which they occur.
2. The Present Infinitive of both Voices.
3. The Present Active Participle.
4. The Future Passive Participle and the Gerund.
B. The Perfect Stem, or stem of the Perfect System
(Active), which consists of:
1. The Perfect, Past Perfect, and Future Perfect, — of the Active
Voice.
2. The Perfect Infinitive of the Active Voice.
C. The Participial Stem, or stem of :
1 . The Perfect Passive Participle, from which is formed the Per
fect Passive System, consisting of :
2. The Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect, and the Perfect Infini
tive, — of the Passive Voice.
From the same stem can also be determined, nearly always :
3. The Supine.
4. The Future Active Participle, from which is formed :
5. The Future Infinitive, — Active and Passive.

THE CONJUGATIONS
148. There are four regular types of Verb Inflection,
known as the Four Conjugations and distinguished by the
ending of the Present Stem. The Present Infinitive is chosen
as a convenient characteristic of each Conjugation.
Present Stem ends in : Infinitive :
Conjugation I a -are
"II S -Sre
" III e or o1 -ere
"IV i -ire
1 This variable vowel, e or 0, which also occurs in other tense-stems, is known as the
Thematic Vowel. This term means really nothing more than Stem-Vowel, but has
come to be applied to that particular stem-vowel which is, or was in the parent speech,
the commonest in v^rb-formation. It is identical in form with the stem-vowel of Nouns
150] Verbs 77
149. There are also some verbs the inflection of which
does not conform to any of the Four Conjugations. Such
are known as Irregular Verbs.

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS

150. Certain forms of the verbs are known as the Prin
cipal Parts, because they furnish the key to the inflection of
any given verb, showing, as they do, the Present Stem and
thereby the Conjugation, and the Perfect and Participial
Stems. These are :
1. The Present Indicative Active, cited in the First Person
Singular.
2. The Present Infinitive Active.
3. The Perfect Indicative Active, cited in the First Person
Singular.
4. The Perfect Passive Participle, cited in the Nomina
tive Singular Neuter.1
So for example :
Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic. Perf. Pass. Partic.
amo, love amare amavi amatum
a. For verbs which lack the Perfect Passive Participle, the Supine,
if occurring, is cited ; e.g. :
Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic Supine.
maneo, remain manere mans! mansum
of the Second Declension, which is commonly 0 (hence the name o-Stems) but is some
times e (e.g., in Latin, in the Vocative Singular, and in the variant form of the Ablative
Singular which appears in the Adverbs in -e; see 126, 1, note).
Verb-formations- which contain this variable vowel are called thematic, while those in
which the endings are added directly to the root are known as unthematic. Such are
many of the forms of the Irregular Verbs (170).
1 This is preferred to the Nominative Singular Masculine, because of the large
number of Verbs in which the Perfect Passive Participle occurs only in the Neuter form
(i.e. is used only impersonally), and also because of the advantage of citing a form
which is identical with that of the Supine. It is not essential for students, in learning
the Principal Parts, to distinguish between Verbs which have the fully inflected Parti
ciple and those which have only the Neuter, and, again, those which have only the
Supine. The reason for abandoning the older method, of always giving the Supine as
the fourth of the Principal Parts, is that the Perfect Passive Participle is vastly more
common than the Supine, and that upon it, rather than upon the Supine, is based the
Perfect Passive System.
78 Inflection [150
b. For verbs which lack both the Perfect Passive Participle and the
Supine, the Future Active Participle, if occurring, is cited ; e.g. :
Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic. Fut. Act. Partic.
doled, grieve dolere dolui doliturus
c. For verbs which occur only as Passives or Deponents, the form
of the Perfect Indicative answers for both the Perfect and Participial
Stems ; e.g. :
Pres. Indic. Pres. Infin. Perf. Indic
miror, admire mirari miratus sum

THE PERSONAL ENDINGS

151. The Personal Endings are :
Active Passive
singular plural singular plural
1 . -S, -m -mus 1 . -r -mur
2. -s -tis 2. -ris or -re -mini
3. -t -nt 3. -tur -ntur
Note. In the Second Singular Passive, -re is the usual ending in early Latin, but
yields more and more to -ris, which eventually becomes the normal ending. In some
authors, as Cicero and Virgil, -ris is more common in the Present Indicative, but -re
elsewhere.
a. The Perfect Indicative Active has different endings, namely :
singular plural
1 . -1 -mus
2. -sti -stis
3. -t -erunt or -ere
Note. In the Third Plural, -erunt is the usual ending, but -5re is also very com
mon. In poetry is also found -erunt with short e.
b. The endings of the Imperative are :
Active Passive
singular plural singular plural
Pres. 2. -te -re -mini
Fut. 2. -to -tote -tor
3. -to -nto -tor -ntor
Note. In early Latin there is a rare ending -mino, used in place of -tor in a few
Deponents ; e.g. fruimino.
153] Verbs 79

The Union of the Endings with the Stem

152. i . If the stem to which the endings are added ends in the
thematic vowel, originally e or o (see p. footnote), this (1) appears
as e before r, as in tege-ris ; (2) unites with the ending of the First
Person Singular to form -d, as in tego ; (3) becomes u before nt (44, 1 ;
42, 5), as in tegunt, teguntur ; (4) becomes i before all other endings
(44, 2 ; 42, 2), as in tegis, tegit, tegitur, etc.
2. If the stem to which the endings are added ends in a long vowel,
this vowel is shortened before the endings -m, -t, -nt, and -r ; e.g. amat,
amant, beside amas, amamus, amatis ; monet, monent, beside mones, etc. ;
audit beside audis, etc. (but not * audint ; audiunt is from * audiont, formed
from a stem in -io- ; see 169, note) ; Pres. Subj. amem beside ames,
Pass, amer beside ameris. See 26, 1, 2. Before the ending -d of the
First Singular the a of the First Conjugation disappears by contraction,
as in'amo, from *amao, while in the Second and Fourth Conjugations
we find short e and short i, as in moneo, audio (167, note ; 169, note).
Note. But before the ending -t the original forms with the long vowel are found
in early Latin and in poetry ; e.g. arat, videt, etc. See 26, note.
3. In the Perfect Indicative the endings beginning with a consonant
are preceded by a short i ; e.g. amavisti, amavit, amavimus.
Note. In early Latin and in poetry there is also a Third Singular with long i
(probably formed after the analogy of the First Singular) ; e.g. subiit. The usual form
with the short vowel is not derived from this (by shortening before -t), but represents a
different formation.
CONJUGATION OF SUM
153. Sum, be, is one of the Irregular Verbs, but as an auxil
iary it enters into the inflection of the regular verbs, and is
therefore given first.
Principal Parts
PRES. 1ND1C. 1Nf1N. PERf. 1ND1C. fUT. PART1C.
sum esse fui futurus
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
S1NGULAR
1 . sum, / am sim
2. es, thou art sis
3. est, he (she, it) is sit
1 Any single translation of the Subjunctive is likely to be misleading. Accordingly
none is given. For the different meanings, see the Syntax.
 Inflection

INDICAT1VE SUBJUNCTIVE
PLURAL
sumus, we are simus
estis, you are sitis
sunt, they are sint

Imperfect
S1NGULAR
eram, / was essem
eras, thou wast esaSa
erat, he was esset

PLURAL
eramus, we were essSmus
eratis, you were esaStis
erant, they were essent

Future
S1NGULAR
ero, / shall be
eris, thou wilt be
erit, he will be

erimus, we shall be
eritis, you will be
erant, they will be

Perfect
S1NGULAR
fui, / have been, was fuerim
fuisti, thou hast been, wast fueria
fuit, he has been, was fuerit

PLURAL
fulmus, we have been, wen fuerimus
fuistis, you have been, were fueritia
fuerunt or -6re, they have been, were fuerlnt
154] Verbs 81
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Past Perfect
S1NGULAR
1. fueram, I had been fuissem
2. fueras, thou hadst been fuisses
3. fuerat, he had been fuisset
PLURAL
1 . fueramus, we had been fuissSmus
2. fueratis, you had been fuissetis
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent
Future Perfect
S1NGULAR
1. fuerS, / shall have been
2. fueris, thou wilt have been
3. fuerit, he will have been
PLURAL
1. f uerimus, we shall have been
2. fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerint, they will have been
IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. 2. es, be thou 2. este, be ye
Put. 2. esto, thou shalt be 2. estote, you shall be
3. esto, he shall be 3. sunto, they shall be
INFINITIVE PART1CIPLE
Pres. esse, to be Fut. futurus, about to be
Perf. fuisse, to have been
Fut. futurus esse, to be about to be
154. The following forms are sometimes found in place of those
given in the paradigm :
1 . Imperfect Subjunctive forem, fores, foret, forent.
2. Future Infinitive fore.
3. Present Subjunctive (in early Latin) siem, sies, siet, sient; also fuam, fuas,
fuat, fuant.
4. For early Latin es (s) in the Present Indicative, see 30, 3.
5. For early Latin fin in the Perfect Indicative, see 21, 7.
Note. The various forms of the verb sum are made from two different roots,
one, es, related to English if, the other, tu, related to English be.
82 Inflection [155

FIRST CONJUGATION
155. amo, love
Principal Parts
PRES. 1ND1C. PRES. 1Nf1N. PERf. 1ND1C. PERF. PASS. PART1C.
amS amare amavi amaturn
Active Voice
indicative SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
amo, / love amem
amfia amfia
amat amet
amamus amemua
amatis ametis
amant ament
Imperfect
amabam, / was loving amarem
amabas amares
amabat amaret
amabamus amarSmus
amabatis amaretis
amabant amarent
Future
amabo, / shall love
amftbis
amabit
amabimus
amabitis
amabunt
Perfect
amavi, / have loved, loved amaverim
amavisti amaveris
amavit amaverit
amavimus amaverimus
amavistis amaveritis
amaverunt or -6re amaverint
155] First Conjugation 83
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Past Perfect
amaveram, / had lozied amavissem
amaveras amavisses
amaverat amavisset
amaveramus amavissemus
amaveratis amavissetis
amaverant amavissent
Future Perfect
amavero, / shall have loved
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amaverint
IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. ama, love thou amate
Fut. amato, thou shalt love amatote
amato, he shall love amanto
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. amare, to love Pres. amans, loving
Perf. an\avisse, to have loved Fut. amaturus, about to love
Fut. amaturus esse, to be about to love
GERUND SUPINE
Gen. amandi, of loving
Dat. amando,/or loving
Acc. amandum, loving* amatum, to love
Abl. amando, by loving amatfl, to love
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
amor, / am loved amer
amaris or -re amSris or -re
amatur ametur
amamur amSmur
amamini amSmini
amantur amentur
 Inflection

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Imperfect
amabar, / was loved amarer
amabaris or -re amarSris or -re
amabatur amaretur
amabamur amarSmur
am&bamini amarSmin!
amabantur amftrentur
Future
amabor, / shall be loved
amaberis or -re
araabitur
amabimur
amabimini
amabuntur
Perfect
amatus sum, / have been (was) loved amatus sim
amatus es amatus sis
amatus est amatus ■It
amati sumus amati annus
amati estis amati sitU
amati sunt amati sint
Past Perfect
amatus eram, / had been loved amatus essem
amatus eras amatus esses
amatus erat amatus esset
amati eramus amati essSmus
amati eratis amati essStis
amati erant amati essent
Future Perf.ct
amatus er8, / shall have been loved
amatus eris
amatus erit
amati erlmus
amati eritis
amftt! erunt
156] Second Conjugation 85
IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. amare, be loved amamim
Fut. amator, thou shalt be loved amantor
amator, he shall be loved
INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. amari, to be loved Perf. amatus, loved
Perf, amatus esse, to have been Fut. amandus, to be loved,
loved worthy of love
Fut. amatum !ri, to be about to
be loved

SECOND CONJUGATION
156. moneo, advise
Principal Parts
moneo monere monui monitum

Active Passive
indicative SUbjunctive INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
moneo moneam moneor monear
mones moneas monSris, -re monearis, -re
monet moneat monetur moneatur
monemus moneamus monemur moneamur
monetis moneatis monSmini moneamini
monent moneant monentur moneantur

Imperfect
monebam monerem monebar monerer
monebaa monerSs .monebaris, -re monereris, -re
monfibat moneret monebatur moneretur
monSbamus monSremus monebamur monerSmur
mcnebatis monerStis monebamini monSremini
monSbant monSrent monebantur monSrentur

1
8|5 Inflection [156
INDICATIVE SnBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
mon5b8 monebor
monebis moneberis, -re
monebit monebitur
monebimus monebimur
monebitis monebimini
monSbnnt monebuntur
Perfect
monui monuenm monitus sum monitus sim
monuisti monueris monitus es monitus sis
monuit monuerit monitus est monitus sit
monuimus monuerimus moniti sumus moniti simus
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis
monuSrunt, -Sre monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint
Past Perfect
monueram monuissem monitus eram
monitus essem
monueras monuissSs monitus eras
monitus essSs
monuerat monuisset monitus erat
monitus esset
monueramus monuissSmus moniti eramus moniti essemus
monueratis monuissStis moniti eratis moniti essStis
monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent
Future Perfect
monuero monitus ero
monueris monitus eris
monu'erit monitus erit
monuerimus moniti erimus
monueritis moniti eritis
monuerint moniti erunt

IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. monS monete monSre monSmini
}rnt. monSto monStote monStcr
monSto montruS monStor monentor
157] Third Conjugation

INFINITIVE
Pres. monSre monSri
Perf, monuisse monitus esse
Fut. moniturus esse monitum iri
PARTICIPLE
Pres. monSns Perf. monitus
Fut. moniturus Fut. monendus
GERUND SUPINE
Gen. monendi
Dat. monendo
Acc. monendum monitum
Abl. monendo monitfl

THIRD CONJUGATION
157. tego, cover
Principal Parts
tegS tegere texi tectum
Active Passive
indicative subjunctive INDICATIVE SUbjunctive
Present
teg5 tegam tegor tegar
tegis tegas tegeris, -re tegaris, -re
tegit tegat tegitur tegitur
tegimus tegamus tegimur tegamur
tegitis tegatis tegimini tegamini
tegunt tegant teguntur tegantur
Imperfectt
tegSbam tegerem tegebar tegerer
tegebas tegerBs tegebaris, -re tegerSris, -re
tegebat tegeret tegebatur tegeretur
tegSbamus tegerSmus tegebamur tegerSmur
tegebatis tegerStis tegebamini tegerSmini
tegBbant tegerent tegebantur tegerentur
88 Inflection [157
INDICATIVE SUBJUnCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
tegam tegar
teges tegSris, -re
teget tegetur
tegSmus tegemur
tegetis tegSmini
tegent tegentur
Perfect
texi texerim tectus aum tectus aim
texisti texeria tectus es tectus aia
texit texerit tectus est tectus ait
teximus texerimus tecti aumua tecti aimus
texistis texeritis tecti estis tecti aitis
texerunt, -ere texerint tecti aunt tecti Bint
Past Perfect
texeram texisaem tectus eram tectus essem
texeraa texisaes tectus eraa tectus esses
texerat texisset tectus erat tectus esaet
texeramus texissSmus tecti eramus tecti esaemus
texeratis texisaetis tecti eratis tecti essetis
texerant texisaent tecti erant tecti essent
Future Perfect
texerS tectus ero
texeris tectus eris
texerit tectus erit
texerimus tecti erimus
texeritis tecti eritis
texerint tecti erunt

IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. tege tegite tegere tegimim
Fut. tegitS tegitote tegitor
tegito teguato tegitor teguntor

i
158] Third Conjugation 89
INFINITIVE
Pres. tegere tegi
Perf texisse tectus esse
Fut. tectums esse tectum !rl

PARTICIPLE
Pres. tegSns Perf. tectus
Fut. tectums Fut. tegendus

GERUND SUPINE
Gen. tegendi
Dat. tegendo
Acc. tegendum tectum
Abl. tegendo tectu

Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation

158. Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation have in the
Present System many forms identical with those of the
Fourth Conjugation, namely, all those in which i is followed
by a vowel.

capio, take

Principal Parts
capio capere cepi captum

Active Passive
indicative SUbjunctive indicative SUbjunctive
Present
capio capiam capior capiar
capis capias caperis, -re capiaris, -re
capit capiat capitur capiatur
capimus capiamus capimur capiamur
capitis capiatis capimini capiamini
capiunt capiant capiuntur capiantur
90 Inflection [158
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Imperfect
capiebam 1 caperem capiebar caperer

Future
capiam capiar

Perfect
cepi ceperim captus sum captus sim

Past Perfect
ceperam cepissem captus erani captus

Future Perfect
ceperS captus ero

IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. cape capite capere capimini
Fut. capito capitote capitor
capito capiunto capitor capiuntor
INFINITIVE
Pres. capere cap!
Perf. ceplsse captus esse
Fut. capturus esse captum iri
PARTICIPLE
Pres. capiSns Perf. captus
Fut. capturus Fut. capiendus
GERUND SUPINE
Gen. capiendi
Dat. capiendo
Acc. capiendum captum
Abl. capiendo captu

1 That is, capiSbam, capiebas, capiebat. etc. So elsewhere.

159] Fourth Conjugation 91

FOURTH CONJUGATION
159. audio, hear
Principal Parts
audiS audire audivi auditum
Active Passive
indicative subjunctive INDICATIVE SUbjunctive
Present
audio audiam audior audiar
audia audits audiris, -re audiaris, -re
audit audiat auditur audiatur
audimus audiamus audimur audiamur
auditis audiatis audimini audiamini
audiunt audiant audiuntur audiantur
Imperfect
audiSbam audirem ' audiSbar audirer
audiSbas audires audiSbaris, -re audirSris, -re
audiSbat audiret audiebatur audiretur
audiebamus audirSmus audiSbamur audirSmur
audiSbatis audiretis audiSbamim audirSmini
audiebant audirent audiSbantur audirentur
Future
audiam audiar
audiSa audiSris, -re
audiet audiStur
audiSmus audiSmur
audietis audiSmim
audient audientur
Perfect
audivi audiverim auditus sum auditus sim
audivisti audiveris auditus es auditus sis
audivit audiverit auditus est auditus sit
audivimus audiverimus auditi sumus auditi simus
audivistis audiveritis auditi estis auditi sitis
audivSrunt, -Sre audiverint auditi aunt auditi sint
92 Inflection [159
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Past Perfect
audiveram audivissem auditus eram auditus essem
audiveras audivisses auditus eras auditus esses
audiverat audivisset audltus erat auditus esset
audiveramus audivissemus auditi eramus audita essemus
audiveratis audivissetis auditi eratis auditi essetis
audiverant audivissent auditi erant audita essent

Future Perfect
audivero auditus ero
audiveris auditus eris
audiverit auditus erit
audiverimus auditi erimus
audiveritis auditi eritis
audiverint audit! erunt

IMPERATIVE
S1NGULAR PLURAL S1NGULAR PLURAL
Pres. audi audite audire audimini
Fut. audito auditote auditor
audito audiunto auditor audiuntor
INFINITIVE
Pres. audire audiri
Perf. audivisse auditus esse
Fut. auditiirus esse auditum ir!

PARTICIPLE
Pres. audiSns Perf. auditus
Fut. auditiirus Fut. audiendus
GERUND SUPINE
Gen. audiendi
Dat. audieudo
Acc. audiendum auditum
Abl. audiendo auditu
160] Deponent Verbs 93

DEPONENT VERBS
160. Deponent Verbs 1 are mostly Passive in form but Active
in meaning. In addition to the Passive forms, they have
also the Present and Future Participles Active, the Future
Infinitive Active, and the Supine. The Future Passive Par
ticiple, and occasionally the Perfect Participle, are Passive
in meaning. The inflection follows that of the regular Con
jugations. Examples :
Principal Parts
Conjugation I miror, admire mirari miratus sum
«< ii vereor, fear vereri veritus sum
III sequor, follow sequi secutus sum
IV partior, share partiri partitus sum
INDICATIVE
I II III IV
Pres. miror vereor sequor partior
mlraris, -re vereris, -re sequeris, -re partiris, -re
mlratur veretur sequitur partitur
miramur veremur sequimur partlmur
miraminl vereminl sequiminl partimini
mlrantur verentur sequuntur partiuntur
Imperf. mirabar verebar sequebar partiebar
Fut. mirabor verebor sequar partiar
Perf. miratus sum veritus sum secutus sum partitus sum
Past Perf. miratus eram veritus eram sectitus eram partitus eram
Fut. Perf. miratus ero veritus ero secutus ero partitus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. mlrer yerear sequar partiar
Imperf. mlrarer vererer sequerer partirer
Perf. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim partitus sim
Past Perf. miratus essem veritus essem secutus essem partitus essen
1 For many verbs ordinarily Deponent, early Latin shows Active forms,
94 Inflection [160
IMPERATIVE
Pres. mirare verere sequere partire
Fut. mlrator veretor sequitor partitor
INFINITIVE
Pres. mirari vereri sequi partlri
Perf mlratus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse
Fut. miraturus esse veriturus esse secuturus esse partlturus esse
PARTICIPLE
Pres. Act. mlrans verens sequens partiens
Fut. Act. miraturus veriturus secuturus partiturus
Perf. Pass, mlratus veritus secutus partltus
Fut. Pass, mlrandus verendus sequendus partiendus
GERUND
mirandi, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. partiendl, etc.
SUPINE
mlratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu partltum, -tu

Semi-Deponents
161. Semi-Deponents are verbs of which the Perfect
System is Passive in form but Active in meaning, such as :
audeo, dare, audere ausus sum
gaudeo, rejoice, gaudere gavisus sum
soleo, am wont, solere solitus sum
fido, trusty fidere fisus sum
Note. Some verbs, otherwise regular, have a Perfect Passive
Participle with active meaning. So cenatus, having dined, from ceno,
dine; iiiratus, having sworn, from iuro, swear; pransus, having break
fasted, from prandeo, breakfast; potus, having drunk, from poto, drink.

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION
162. The Periphrastic Conjugation 1 is a combination of the
Future Active or Future Passive Participle with the verb sum.
1 That is, a Conjugation in which all the parts are expressed by a phrase rather than
by a single form. Some parts of the Regular Conjugations are also periphrastic, as
amatus sum.
163] Periphrastic Conjugation 95
Active
Amaturus sum, / am about to love
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. amaturus sum, / am about to love amaturus sim
Imperf. amaturus eram, / was about to love amaturus essem
Fut. amaturus ero, / shall be about to love
Perf. amaturus ful, / have been, was, about amaturus fuerim
to love
Past Perf. amaturus fueram, / had been about to amaturus fuissem
love
Fut. Perf. amaturus fuero, / shall have been about
to love
INFINITIVE
Pres. amaturus esse, to be about to love
Perf. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love

Passive
Amandus sum, / (am to be loved) have to be loved
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. amandus sum, / have to be loved amandus sim
Imperf. amandus eram, / had to be loved amandus essem
Fut. amandus ero, / shall have to be loved
Perf. amandus ful, / have had to be loved amandus fuerim
Past Perf. amandus fueram, / had had to be amandus fuissem
loved
Fut. Perf. amandus fuero, / shall have hatl to be
loved
INFINITIVE
Pres. amandus esse, to have to be loved
Perf. amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved

PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION
Short Forms of the Perfect System
163. i. Perfects in -avi and -evi, as well as the other
tenses formed from the same stem, have a series of short
ened forms in which the v, together with the following vowel,
96 Inflection [168

is lost before s and r. Perfects in -ivi also have forms without

the v, but the vowel is lost only before s, not before r. The
two sets of forms may be seen in the following 1 :
Full Forms Shortened Forms
Perfect Indicative
amavisti, delevistl, audlvistl amasti, delesti, audisti
amavistis, delevistis, audivistis amastis, delestis, audistis
amaverunt, deleverunt, audiverunt amarunt, delerunt, audierunt
Past Perfect Indicative
amaveram,2 deleveram, audiveram amaram, deleram, audieram
Future Perfect Indicative
amavero, delevero, audivero amaro, delero, audierS
Perfect Subjunctive
amaverim, deleverim, audiverim amarim, delerim, audierim
Past Perfect Subjunctive
amavissem, delevissem, audlvissem amassem, delessem, audissem
Perfect Infinitive
amavisse, delevisse, audlvisse amasse, delesse, audlsse
2. Similarly from novi: novistl, — n&sti; noverunt, — norunt; nove-
ram, — noram ; novisse, — nosse, etc. (but Fut. Perf. noro only in
compounds).
3. Beside Perfects in -ivi are sometimes found, in the First and Third
Singular, forms in -ii, -iit,. as audii, audiit ; and, rarely, a similar First
Plural form, such as audiimus. A contracted form audit from audivit
also occurs.
Note. It is probable that neither the forms like audii, nor those like audieram,
mentioned above, really come from the forms with v. They seem, rather, to have
started from Perfects which were regularly formed without v, especially the Per
fect of eo, go, and its compounds, e.g. ii, abii, etc. (194, a). On the other hand,
forms like audistl, audissem, etc., and all the short forms of Perfects in -avi and
-evi, are the result of contraction.
4. Perfects in -si and the other tenses formed from the same stem sometimes have
contracted forms, beside the full forms, wherever the s is iteelf followed by -is- in the
ending ; e.g. dixti beside dixisti ; dixem beside dixissem ; dixe beside dixisse. Such
forms are more frequent in early Latin, but are also found in later authors.
1 The student should observe that in the shortened forms the vowel before s is always
long, and also that before r, except in forms like audieram, etc., in which both i and e
are short.
2 That is, amaveram, amaveras, amaverat, etc. Similarly elsewhere.
165] Periphrastic Conjugation 97

5. In the Future Perfect Indicative and the Perfect Subjunctive early Latin has
forms in -so and -sim (-880 and -ssim) ; e.g. faxo and faxim from facio; ausim from
audeo; capso from capio; axim from ago; Perf. Subj. siris, slrit, etc., from sino (siris
from * si-sis; see 47) ; amasso, negassim (also Infin., as reconciliassere).
Faxo, faxim, ausim, and, rarely, siris occur also in later authors.
Other Peculiarities
164. i. The Imperatives of dico, duco, and facid are dic, duc, and fac,
instead of dice, diice, and face, though in early Latin the latter are more
frequent. The same is true of compounds of dico and duco ; e.g. maledic,
educ (for the accent, see 32, i) ; but in compounds of facio only the full
form is known ; e.g. calface. Cf. also fer, confer from fero (193).
2. The Future Passive Participle and the Gerund of the Third and
Fourth Conjugations often end in -undus and -undt ; e.g. ferundus, faci-
undus, potiundi.
3. The Present Infinitive Passive has an early and poetical form in -ier ; e.g. lauda-
rier, vidSrier, dicier.
4. The Imperfect Indicative of the Fourth Conjugation has an old form in -ibam,
found in poetry of all periods ; e.g. lenibat, polibant.
5. The Future of the Fourth Conjugation has an early form in -Ibo; e.g. audlbo,
dormibo.
6. There is some confusion in the Second Singular and First and Second Plural
between the Future Perfect Indicative, which regularly has short i in these forms, and
the Perfect Subjunctive, which regularly has long i. In the former -is is nearly as
common as the normal -is, and -imus, -itis are also found ; while in the latter -is is
frequent beside -Is, and -imus occurs once for -imus. See 174, 2, 175, b.
7. In the Future Active Infinitive and the Perfect Passive Infini
tive, esse is often omitted ; e.g. amaturus for amaturus esse ; amatus for
amatus esse.
8. In the Perfect Passive System the auxiliary is sometimes a form
of the Perfect System of sum, instead of the usual form of the Present
System ; e.g. amatus fait for amatus est, amatus fuerat for amatus erat,
etc. The form amatus fuero, etc., also occurs, but more rarely.

Variation between Conjugations

165. 1. Some verbs in -ior which in general follow the Third Con
jugation have also forms with 1. So orior has usually oritur (but ado-
ritur), but oriretur beside oreretur, and always Infinitive oriri; potior has
nearly always potitur, but potiretur beside poteretur, and nearly always
potiri ; morior has moritur, but sometimes Infinitive moriri (chiefly in
early Latin) beside mori. Other examples are rare.
2. Beside lav9, wash, lavare, there are also forms of the Third Conjugation, as
lavit, lavimus, etc. Other examples of variation between the First and Third Conju
gations, and also between the Second and Third, are mostly confined to early Latin.
9« Inflection [166

FORMATION OF THE STEMS

The Present Stem
166. Conjugation I. — Present Stem in -a-.
1. Most verbs of the First Conjugation are Denominatives,1 as euro,
care for, curare, from the Noun ciira, care. See 211, 1. The Present
Stem is also the Verb-Stem, the a appearing in the Perfect and Partici
pial Stems ; e.g. curavi, cflratum.
2. The Frequentatives, like rogito, keep asking, rogitare, are also
Denominative in origin, and form a large class. See 212, 1.
3. There are also a few Primary Verbs 1 from roots ending in a, as
no, swim, nare (Perf. navi), sto, stand, stare (steti).
4. There are a few Primary Verbs in which the a belongs only to the
Present Stem, as iuvo, aid, iuvare (but iflvi, iutum) ; seco, cut, secare
(but secui, sectum).
Note. The Present Stem of the Denominatives was originally -d-yo- and -a-ye-
(211, note), which became -a-, partly by loss of y and contraction, partly through the
influence of Primary Verbs having the stem in original -a-,

167. Conjugation II. — Present Stem in -e-.

1. In most verbs the e is confined to the Present System. We may
further distinguish :
a) Primary Verbs, as video, see, vidSre (vldi, visum).
b) Causatives, as moneo, cause to think, advise, monSre (monui, monitum), from
the root men seen in me-min-i, remember.
c) Denominatives, as albeo, be white, albere, from albus, white.
2. There are some Primary Verbs from roots ending in e. In these
the 5 belongs to the whole verb-system. So fleo, weep, flere, flevi, fletum.
Similarly neo, spin, pleo,^//, etc.
Note, The Present Stem of the Denominatives was originally -e-yo- and -e-ye-
(211, note; the Causatives also had -eyo- and -eye-). The latter became regularly -S-,
and, aided also by the influence of Primary Verbs having the stem in original -5-, this
became established as the Present Stem for most forms. But the First Sing. Pres. Indic,
in -eo and the Present Subj. in -eam, etc., are based upon the stem -e(y)o-, the y being
lost, but without contraction of the vowels.
168. Conjugation III. — Present Stem in -e- and -o-, the
thematic vowel.2 Various types are to be distinguished :
1 The term Denominative (from dS and nomen) is used of Verbs which are derived
from Nouns or Adjectives. In contrast to these are the Primary Verbs, which are
formed directly from Roots.
2 See p. 76, footnote.
168] Formation of the Stems 99
A. Simple Thematic Present, as ducd, lead (duxi, ductum). The
Present Stem consists simply of the root with the thematic vowel. This
is by far the commonest type.
B. Reduplicated Present, as si-sto, set (stiti, statum). The redupli
cation consists of the initial consonant of the root and the vowel i.
a. A less obvious example is sero, sow (sfivi, satum), which comes from * si-so.
C. Present with Inserted Nasal, as rumpo, break (rupi, ruptum).
Sometimes the nasal is extended to the Perfect and Participial Stems ;
e.g. vaago, join, iunxi, iunctum.
Note. Those verbs in which the nasal is extended throughout the verb-system
outwardly resemble verbs like pendo, in which the n is a part of the root. But the
related forms (as iugum beside iungo, but pondus beside pendo), as well as some other
less obvious factors, make it possible to distinguish the two classes. In verbs in -endo,
as tendo, pendo, fendo, the n belongs to the root.
D. Present in -no, as ster-no, strew (stravi, stratum).
a. This type properly includes some Presents in -llo, coming from -lnd by the regu
lar assimilation of In (49, ii); e.g. pello, strike (pepuli), tollo, raise (sus-tuli), faUo,
deceive (Perf. fefelli, with extension of ll from the Present).
E. Present in -to, as flec-to, turn (flexl, flexum).
F. Present in -sco, as cre-sco, increase (crevi, cretum).
Note. The root to which the -sCO is added ends in a long vowel in all examples of
this formation, except disco, learn, posco, ask, and compesco, restrain, in which a con
sonant has been lost before the -sco. Disco comes from *dic-sco, earlier *di-dc-sco
with reduplication (cf. Perf. didici) ; poscd from * porc-sco (cf. precor) ; compesco from
* comperc-sco. In posed the sc has spread from the Present to the whole verb-system
(Perf. po-posci).
a. The extension of this suffix in the specific meaning of becoming or beginning to
has given rise to the numerous class of Inchoatives in -Isco, -isco, -asco formed from
other Verbs and from Nouns. See 212, 2.
G. Verbs in -esso, as capesso, seize eagerly (capessm, capessitum).
See 212, 4.
H. Verbs in -uo, as statuo, set (statu!, statutum). They include :
1. Denominatives from u-Stems, as statuo from status.
2. Primary Verbs from roots in u, as suo, sew.
3. Primary Verbs with a suffix -nuo, as mi-nud, lessen.
a. This type includes also solvo, loose (solvi, solitus), and volvo, roll (volvl, volutus)
in which u has become consonantal.
/. Present in -io, as capio, take, capere (cepi, captum).
Note. Verbs like capio are in origin closely connected with the Primary Verbs of
the Fourth Conjugation. The short i, partly inherited, but partly, also, due to " iambic
shortening" (28, note; observe that the first syllable is short in all verbs of this type),
caused a resemblance to the forms of the Third Conjugation, in which i comes from e
For some examples of confusion with the Fourth Conjugation, see 165, 1.
 100 Inflection [169

169. Conjugation IV. — Present Stem in -i-. Two types

are to be distinguished :
1. Denominatives, as finio, finish, finire, from finis, end. The Pres
ent Stem is also the Verb-Stem (finivi, finitum).
2. Primary Verbs, as venio, come, venire. The i is usually confined
to the Present System (veni, ventum).
Note. The Present Stem of Denominatives was originally -i-yo- and -i-ye-, or,
when formed from consonant-stems, -yo- and -ye- (211, note) ; that of Primary Verbs
was -iyo- or -yo- and This last became established as the Present Stem for most
forms. But the First Sing, and Third Plur. Pres. Indic, in -id and -iunt, as well as the
' Imperf. Indic, in -iebam, etc., the Fut. in -iam, etc., and the Pres. Subj. in -iam, etc., are
based upon the stem -i(y)o-.
170. The Irregular Verbs.
These are relics of a once extensive system of conjugation known as
unthematic,1 in which the endings were added directly to the root, as in
es-t, is, fer-t, brings, etc. But only part of the forms of the Irregular
Verbs are of this nature ; the rest differ in no way from those of the
Third Conjugation, e.g. fero, ferimus, ferunt.

The Imperfect Indicative

171. The Tense-Sign of the Imperfect Indicative is -ba- (shortened
to -ba- before the endings -m, -t, -nt, -r ; see 26, 1 , 2), added to forms
ending in a long vowel, namely, -a for the First Conjugation, -e for the
Second and Third, and -ie (sometimes -i) for the Fourth.
Note. This formation originated in the combination of a past tense of the verb to
be (cf. ful) with certain case-forms (probably old Instrumental), which, in this combina
tion, became associated with the verb-system. The case-form in -S belonged to a noun-
stem in -o (cf. Adverbs in -5, originally Ablatives of o-Stems; see 126, i) ; and, since
in verbs the corresponding stem-vowel is the thematic vowel of the Third Conjugation
(p. 8o, footnote), the form in -5-bam came to be used in the Third Conjugation as well as
in the Second, in which the Present Stem ends in -S-. In the Fourth Conjugation, -I-bam
represents an earlier type than -ie-bam (cf. early Latin Fut. audibo, not *audiebo).

The Future Indicative

172. In the First and Second Conjugations, and in early Latin some
times in the Fourth, the Future is formed like the Imperfect, except that
the tense-sign is b + the thematic vowel, instead of -ba-.
In the Third and Fourth Conjugations the tense-sign is which
occurs in the First Person (shortened, because before the endings -m or
-r; see 26, i, 2), or -e-, which occurs in all other Persons (shortened
before the endings -t, -nt; see 26, 1).
1 See above, p. 76, footnote.
'.f
178] Formation of the Stems IOI
Note. The Future in -bo originated in the combination of a Future of the verb to
be (formed like ero, but from the root seen in fui) with the same case-forms which appear
in the formation of the Imperfect.
Both a and § were Mood-Signs of the Subjunctive (178), so that the Future of the
Third and Fourth Conjugation are in origin Present Subjunctives, — only, except in the
First Person, of a different type from that which is seen in the regular Present Subjunctive.
The Future of sum (ero, eris, etc.) is also a Subjunctive in origin, but of still another
type, the mood-sign being simply the thematic vowel. This was originally the regular
Subjunctive formation for all unthematic Indicatives, and so would have been the
normal formation for the Future of the Irregular Verbs so far as they are truly unthe
matic (170). But in all of these except sum, the Present contains so many thematic
forms identical with those of the Third Conjugation that the Future also has the same
formation as in the Third Conjugation ; e.g. Fut. feram beside Pres. fero, like tegam
beside tego.
The Perfect Indicative
173. Various types are to be distinguished :
A. Perfect in -vi. In the form -avi this type is common to most
verbs of the First Conjugation, and in the form -ivi to a large proportion
of the verbs of the Fourth. Several verbs of the Second and Third
Conjugations have Perfects in which -vi is added to the root, or to a
variant form of the root, ending in a long vowel, giving rise to forms in
-evi, -dvi, as well as -avi, -ivi. Examples (the prevailing types in black) :
ama-vi, from amo, love, amare fini-vi, from finio, finish, finire
fle-vi1 " fleo, weep, flere no-vi " nosco, know, noscere
cre-vi " cresco, grow, crescere stra-vi " sterno, strew, sternere
spre-vi " sperno, spurn, spernere tri-vi " tero, rub, terere
a. For shortened forms of -vi-Perfects, see above, 163.
B. Perfect in -ui. This is common to a large proportion of the verbs
of the Second Conjugation, and to many of the Third, mostly those in
which the root-syllable ends in 1, r, m, or n. It is also found in some
Primary Verbs of the First and a very few of the Fourth Conjugation.
Examples :
monui, from moneo, advise, monere molui, from molo, grind, molere
secul " seed, cut, secare salui " salio, leap, salire
Note. This is obviously related to the preceding type. The apparent difference
is that -vi is used after vowels and -ui after consonants. But -ui probably comes
through *-o-vi, from*-6-vi, just as denuo comes from *de-novo (42, 4) and this novo-
from an earlier *nevo-. With this assumed *-e-vi compare the Participle in -itus,
from * -e-tos, which nearly always accompanies the Perfect in -ui (179, 3).
a. A combination of this with the following type is seen in messui, from meto, mow,
and nexui from necto, bind.
1 Observe that -evi is not the common type for verbs of the Second Conjugation, as
-avi is for those of the First. Only those verbs in which S belongs to the root-syllable
have Perfects in -Svi. An apparent exception is deleo, destroy, Perf. dSlevi, but this is
really a compound dS-led (cf. Und, smear, Perf. lBri).
102 Inflection [173

C. Perfect in -si. This is most common in the Third Conjugation,

but is not infrequent in the Second, and is occasionally found in the
Fourth. Examples :
dm, from dico, say, dicere serpsi, from serpo, crawl, serpere
aim " augeo, increase, augere sens! " sentid, sentire
a. Consonant changes. The changes resulting from the combination of the final
consonant of the root with the s are in accordance with the statements already given
(49, 1-4, 7). Ius-si belongs under 49, 4, since the b of iubeo stands for an original
dental (dh). In ges-si, us-si, the root itself ends in s, which has become r in the
Presents gero, firo (47). Similarly pres-si from pres-, although the Present premo is
from prem-. For vlxi, struxl, flfixi (vivo, struo, fluS), see 49, 2.
b. In general, barring the regular lengthening before ns and nx (18), the quantity of
the vowel in the root-syllable of this Perfect is the same as in the Present. But there
are some examples of an inherited variation (46), as follows :
c. A short vowel, as against a long vowel in the Present, is seen in ussi, from firo ;
cessl, from cSdo.
d. A long vowel, as against a short vowel in the Present, is seen in misi, from mitto ;
dlviSi, from divido; rSxi, from rego; texi, from tego; flfixi, from fluo; struxi, from
struo ; and (probably) traxi, from trano. Compare lSgi, from lego, of type E.

D. Reduplicated Perfect. This is confined to the Third Conjugation,

except for four examples from the Second (mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, ton-
deo), and the verbs do and sto. The vowel of the reduplication is regu
larly e ; but this is replaced by the vowel of the root-syllable wherever
the latter, in both the Present and the Perfect, is i, u, or 0. For the
changes in the vowel of the root-syllable, see 42. Examples :
cecini, from cano, sing didici, from disco, learn
cecidi " caedo, cut cucurri " curro, run
pepuli " pello, strike momordi " mordeo, bite
tetendi " tendo, stretch steti " sto, stand
a. In compounds, except those of do, sto, sisto, disco, posco, the redupli
cation is usually lost. So oc-cidi, at-tendi, etc.; but often -cucurri beside
-curri in compounds of curro. Compounds of cano and pungo (Perf.
pupugl) substitute other formations ; e.g. oc-cinui and ex-punxi.
b. In verbs beginning with sp or st, both consonants appear in the reduplication, but
s is lost in the root-syllable ; e.g. spopondi (for * spo-spondi) from spondeo, steti from sto.

E. Perfect in -I with lengthened vowel in the root-syllable. This

type is found mostly in the Second and Third Conjugations. Examples :
sedi, from sedeo, sit edi, from edo, eat, edere
mdvi " moved, move feci " faciei, do, facere
cavl " caveo, beware fodi " fodio, dig, fodere
iuvl " iuvo, aid, iuvare veni " venio, come, venire
17S] Formation of the Stems 103

F. Perfect in -I without change of the vowel of the root-syllable.

This type is found in many Verbs of the Third Conjugation, including
nearly all in -ud. Examples :
verti, from verto, turn lui,1 from luo, atone for
fidi " findo, split minui " minuo, lessen

The Past Perfect Indicative and the Future Perfect

174. 1. The Past Perfect Indicative is formed from the Perfect Stem
+ -era- (originally -esa-), with the regular shortening of a before the end
ings -m, -t, -nt (26, 1).
2. The Future Perfect is formed from the Perfect Stem + -er- (origi
nally -es-), followed by the thematic vowel. The Third Plural in -int (not
-unt) and the Second Singular and First and Second Plural forms in -is,
-imus, -itis beside the regular -is, -imus, -itis, are due to confusion with
the Perfect Subjunctive, in which i was original. See 164, 6 ; 175, b.

The Subjunctive
175. The Subjunctive has three Mood-Signs, namely, -a-, -e-, and -i-
(shortened before the endings -m, -t, -nt, and -r ; see 26, 1, 2).
The -a- occurs in the Present Subjunctive of the Second, Third, and
Fourth Conjugations.
The -e- occurs in the Present Subjunctive of the First, and in the
Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive of all Conjugations.
The -i- occurs in the Present Subjunctive of many Irregular Verbs
and in the Perfect Subjunctive of all Conjugations.
Note. The Latin Subjunctive represents in its formation, as well as in its functions
(see the Syntax), a mixture of two originally distinct moods, namely, the Subjunctive
proper and the Optative. The -1- is the mood-sign of the old Optative. Another form
of this was -i5-, seen in early Latin siem, sies, etc., beside sim, sis, etc. The -a- and
-e- belong to the Subjunctive proper, and, besides the forms enumerated, they are seen in
the Future of the Third and Fourth Conjugations (172, note). Still another old Sub
junctive formation, with the simple thematic vowel, is seen in the Future ero (172, note),
and in the Future Perfect -erd, -eris, etc.
a. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the mood-sign -e- is added to the
Present Stem + s, the s becoming r regularly after a vowel (47). So
es-s-e-s (also velles, ferres, from *vel-s-e-s, *fer-s-e-s; 49, 11), but
ama-r-e-s, tege-r-e-s, etc.
b. In the Perfect Subjunctive the mood-sign -i- is added to the Perfect
Stem + -er- (originally -es-). The frequently occurring Second Singular
1 Such Perfects, though ending in -ttl, are not to be classified under the -u! type,
since the u belongs to the Verb-Stem.
io4 Inflection

in -is beside the normal -is, and the rare -imus for -imus, are due to con
fusion with the Future Perfect. See 164, 6 ; 174, 2.
c. In the Past Perfect Subjunctive the mood-sign -e- is added to -is-s- ;
e.g. tex-is-s-e-s.
176. The Imperative. The Imperative has no special mood-sign,
and is characterized only by its peculiar endings.
177. The Passive. The formation of the Moods and Tenses is the
same as in the Active, except in the Perfect System, which is periphrastic.

The Infinitive
178. i. The Suffix of the Present Infinitive Active is -se, which is
preserved in es-se (also velle, ferre, from *vel-se, *fer-se ; 49, u), but
which became -re after a vowel (47). So ama-re, tege-re, etc. The
Perfect Infinitive Active also has -se, which in this case is added to the
Perfect Stem + -is- ; e.g. amav-is-se, tex-is-se, etc.
2. The Present Infinitive Passive has -ri in all Conjugations except
the Third, where the ending is simply -i. So ama-ri, mone-ri, audi-ri, but
teg-i. With the addition of an -er (of doubtful origin), and the regular
shortening of the long vowel before another vowel (21), arose the variant
forms laudarier, dicier, etc. (164, 3).
3. The other Infinitives are periphrastic, the Perfect Passive Infinitive
being formed from the Perfect Passive Participle with esse, the Future
Active Infinitive from the Future Participle with esse, and the Future
Passive Infinitive from the Supine with iri (Pres. Infin. Pass, of eo, used
impersonally like itur, etc., but not occurring separately).
Note. Infinitives are, in origin, case-forms which have become associated with the
verb-system.
The Perfect Passive Participle
179. The Perfect Passive Participle is formed with the suffix -to-,
and is declined like an Adjective of the First and Second Declensions.
As regards the form of the stem to which the suffix is added, there is a
certain relationship between the formation of this Participle and that of
the Perfect Indicative, as follows :
1 . -atus, -itus. Such are the forms for nearly all verbs which have
Perfects in -avi, -ivi, as :
amatus beside amavi, from amd, love, amare
auditus " audivi " audio, hear, audire
a. Exceptions are : potus (but also potatus) beside potavi, from poto, drink, potare ;
sepultus beside sepelivi, from sepelio, bury, sepelire.
180] Formation of the Stems 105

2. -utus. This is the regular formation for Verbs in -uo (-vo), as

minutus from minuo, lessen, minuere, minui.
a. So also secutus, locutus, from the two Deponents in -quor, sequor, follow, and
loquor, speak. Compounds of ruo, fall, have -rutus.
3. -ittts. This is the usual formation for Verbs having Perfects
of the -ui type, as :
monitus beside monui, from moneo, advise, monere
molitus " molui " molo, grind, molere
domitus " domui " domo, tame, domare
a. But there are a few exceptions, e.g. :
doctus beside docui, from doceo, teach, docere
cultus " colul " colo, cultivate, colere
sectus " secul " seco, cut, secare
4. -tus (-sus) added directly to the root-syllable. This formation is
common to all Verbs with Perfects of other types than those
already mentioned. The consonant changes follow the state
ments given in 49. Examples :
fletus beside fle-vi, from fleo, weep, flere
scriptus " scripsi " scribo, write, scribere
morsus " momordi " mordeo, bite, mordere
factus " feci " facio, make, facere
flssus " fidi " findo, split, findere
Note. The form in -sus is regular for all roots ending in dentals, as
fissus, etc. (49, 5) ; but, after the analogy of such forms, -sus came to be
used also in a number of verbs with roots not ending in a dental ; e.g. :
lapsus, from labor, slip pulsus, from pello, drive
mulsus " mulgeo, milk census " censeo, think
fTxus " f\go,fix amplexus " amplector, embrace
180. Vowel Changes. In general, barring the regular lengthening
before ns and net (18), the quantity of the vowel of the root-syllable is
the same in the Perfect Participle as in the Present. But there are some
examples of an inherited variation (46). Besides such cases as satus
(sero, Perf. se-vl), stratus (sterno, Perf. stra-vi), motus (moveo, Perf.
movi), etc., there are also differences among verbs coming from roots
ending in a mute, as follows :
1. A short vowel, as against a long vowel in the Present, is seen in
cessus (cf. Perf. cessi), from cedo ; ustus (cf. Perf. ussi), from urd ; and
dictus, ductus, from dico, duco (Perf. also dlxl, duxi).
io6 Inflection [180

2. A long vowel, as against a short vowel in the Present, is seen in

casurus, divisus, fusus, esus, emptus, actus, lectus, rectus, tectus, fluzus
(Adj.), structus, fractus, partus, tactus.
Note. With the exception of casurus and tactus (with which compare con-tag-io),
these long-vowel forms are accompanied by Perfects with a long vowel, as fudi, legi, rexi,
etc. (though in some it is a different long vowel, e.g. Sgi, beside actus, etc.). But it does
not follow that a long-vowel Perfect is always accompanied by a long-vowel Participle.
Cf. misi, but missus ; sedi, but sessum (Supine) ; fodl, but fossus ; riipi, but ruptus ;
feci, but factus, etc.
' It is also true that the Participles mentioned come from roots ending in a voiced
mute, namely, d or g (for fluxus, structus, see 49, 2). But among verbs from roots in
a voiced mute there are also some that have the short vowel ; e.g. fossus from fodio :
sessum from sedeo ; strictus from stringd.
181. The Supine. This is formed in the same way as the Perfect
Passive Participle, but with the suffix -tu-, not -to-. It is, then, a Verbal
Noun of the Fourth Declension, of which the Accusative and Ablative
only are in common use.
Note. The Dative form in -tui is rare.
182. The Future Active Participle. This is formed with the suffix
-turo-, and is declined like an Adjective of the First and Second Declen
sions. As regards the form of the stem to which the suffix is added, it
usually follows the formation of the Perfect Passive Participle ; e.g.
amaturus, like amatus. But there are occasional variations, as :
moriturus beside mortuus, from morior, die, mod
oritQrus " ortus " orior, arise, oriri
pariturus " partus " pario, bringforth, parere
ruiturus " -rutus " ruo, tumble down, mere
183. The Present Active Participle. This is formed with the suffix
-nt-, added to the Present Stem, and is declined as an adjective of one
ending (117). The long vowels of the First, Second, and Fourth Con
jugations are regularly shortened (20, 1). The thematic vowel of the
Third Conjugation appears as e, not o(u) ; e.g. Gen. legentis, contrasted
with legunt, from * legont, of the Present Indicative. But iens, from
eo, go, has the stem eunt- in all other forms ; e.g. Gen. euntis.
184. The Future Passive Participle and the Gerund. These are formed
with the suffix -ndo-, added to the Present Stem, which appears in the
same form as in the Present Participle. The Future Passive Participle
is declined as an Adjective of the First and Second Declensions. The
Gerund is the Neuter Singular of this, lacking the Nominative and
Vocative.
187] Illustrations of the Various Types of Verbs 107

Note. The forms in -undus, -iundus of the Third and Fourth Conjugations
(164, 2) represent what was probably the original type in these conjugations, the forms
in -enduS, -iendus having arisen under the influence of the Present Participles, which
have -ent-. From eo, go, the Gerund is always eundi, corresponding to the Participle
euntiS.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF VERBS
185. The Principal Parts of any given Verb are found most conveniently by
reference to a single list arranged alphabetically, such as the Catalogue of Verbs given
at the end of this grammar, or to a lexicon. The following list is merely illustrative,
showing what different combinations of Present, Perfect, and Participial Stems occur,
and which are the most common.
The types which are most common are given in black letters, the others in Roman.
Where small letters are used, it is to be understood that all the examples of the type are
given. A prefixed hyphen indicates that the form occurs only in compounds. For all
details, such as variant forms, etc., see the Catalogue of Verbs.

186. First Conjugation

1 . Perfect in -avl.
amo, love amare amavi amatum
poto, drink potare potavi potum (potatum)
2. Perfect in -ul.
domo, tame domare domul domitum
Here also crepo, cubo, frico, mico, -plico, seco, sono, tond, veto.'
3. Perfect in -i with lengthened vowel.
iuvo, help iuvare iuvi iutum
lav5, wash lavare lavi lautum, lotum
4. Reduplicated Perfect.
sto, stand stare steti staturus
5. Deponents,
miror, wonder mirari miratus sum

187. Second Conjugation

1 . Perfect in -ui.
moneo, advise monere monui monitum
doceo, teach docere docui doctum
egeo, need egere egul
2. Perfect in -si.
augeo, increase augere auctum
1 But Perf. Pass. Partic. frictum, sectum. In this and the similar statements below,
it is not meant that the verbs cited as belonging to the type specified in the heading
follow in every detail the example under which they stand.
io8 Inflection [187

3. Perfect in -vi.
fieo, weep flere flSvi flfitum
Here also neo, -pleo, dSleo, aboled, cieS.
4. Reduplicated Perfect,
mordeo, bite mordere momordi morsum
Here also pendeo, spondeo, tondeo.
5. Perfect in -i with lengthened vowel.
caved, take care cavere cavl cautum
Here also faveo, foveo, moveo, paveo, voveo, sedeo, video, of which all but the last
two end in -veo. '
6. Perfect in -I without lengthening.
ferveo, boil fervere fervi
prandeo, lunch prandere prandl pransum
strides, grate stridere stridi
7. Deponents,
vereor, fear vereri veritus sum
fateor, confess fateri fassus sum

188. Third Conjugation

A. Simple Thematic Present.
1 . Perfect in -si.
scribo, write scribere scripsi scriptum
dico, say dicere dixi dictum
claudo, shut claudere clausi clausum
With few exceptions, from roots ending in a mute.
2. Perfect in -ui.
mold, grind molere molul molitum
With few exceptions, from roots ending in a liquid or nasal,
meto, mow metere messui
3. Reduplicated Perfect.
cado, fail cadere cecidl
Here also caedo, cano, curro, parcS, pendo, tendo.
4. Perfect in -I without lengthening.
verto, turn vertere vert! versum
188] Illustrations of the Various Types of Verbs 1 09

5. Perfect in -i with lengthened vowel.

ago, drive agere ggi actus
Here also edd, emd, legS.
6. Perfect in -Ivi.
tero, rub terere trivl tr!tum
peto, seek petere petlvi (-ii) petltum
quaero, seek quaerere quaesivi quaesitum

B. Present with reduplication.

sistd, set sistere stiti statum
gigno, beget gignere genu! genitum
sero, sow serere sevi satum
bibo, drink bibere bibi

C. Present with inserted nasal.

1 . Perfect in -si.
mngo, join mngere mnxi mnctum
So cingo, lingo, -mango, ninguit, pango, plango, stingud, tinguS, unguo.
fingo, mould fingere flnxi fictum
So mingo, pingo, stringo.
2. Reduplicated Perfect,
tango, touch tangere tetigi tactum
Here also pango, pungo, tundo.
3. Perfect in -1 with lengthened vowel.
fundo, pour fundere fudl fusum
Here also rumpo, vinco, linquo, frango.
4. Perfect in -i without lengthening.
findo, split findere fidi fissum
scindo, rend scindere scidi scissum
pand5, open pandere pandi passum
5. Perfect in -ui.
-combs, recline -cumbere -cubui -cubitum

D. Present in -nO (and -11d from -lnd).

1 . Perfect in -vi.
sterno, strew sternere stravi stratum
Here also spemfi, cernS, lino, sino,
I IO Inflection [188

2. Reduplicated Perfect.
pello, drive pellere pepuli pulsum
fallo, deceive fallere fefelli (falsus, Adj.)
tolld, raise tollere (sus-tuli) (sub-latum)
3. Perfect in -si.
temno, scorn temnere con-tempsl con-temptum
E. Present in -tO.
fiecto, bend flectere flexi flexum
So pecto, plecto, necto (but Perf. nezni commoner than neii),

F. Present in -sco.
1 . Primary Verbs.
disco, learn discere didici
cresco, grow crescere crevi eretum
nosco, get to know noscere novi (notus, Adj.)
2. Inchoatives in -escB.
calesco, become hot calescere calui 1 (from caleo)
duresco, become hard durescere durui 1 (from durus)
algesco, catch cold algescere alsi 1 (from alge6)
3. Inchoatives in -isco.
-dormisco, fall asleep -dormiscere -dormivi 1 (from dormio)
4. Inchoatives in -asco.
vesperasco, \ ^ecome X vesperascere vesperavi 1 (from vesper)
r [evening)

G. Present in -essd.
capesso, seize capessere capessivi capessltum

H. Present in -uo.
I . Perfect in -ui.
statuo, set up statuere statu! statutum
ruo, fall ruere rul ruiturus
1 The Perfect of Inchoatives which are derived from Verbs is the same as that of the
simple verbs ; in the case of Inchoatives derived from Nouns or Adjectives, it follows
the type which is commonest in those derived from verbs, namely, -ui for Presents in
-Ssco, -Ivi for Presents in -Isco, -avl for Presents in -asco. The Participial Stem is
nearly always lacking.
 189] Illustrations of the Various Types of Verbs ill

2. Perfect in -xi.
struo, build struere struxl structum
fluo, flow fluere fluxi (fluxus, Adj.)
I. Present in -io.
1. Perfect in -I with lengthened vowel.
capio, take capere cepi captum
Here also facio, iacio, fodio, fugio.
2. Perfect in -si.
-spicio, see -spicere -spexi -spectum
-lido, allure -licere -lexi -lectum
quatio, shake quatere quassum
3. Perfect in -Ivi.
cupio, wish cupere cupivi cuplttim
sapio, be wise sapere sapivi
4. Perfect in -ui.
rapio, seize rapere rapui raptum
5. Reduplicated Perfect,
pario, bring fortk parere peperi partum
J. Deponents.
utor, use utl usus sum (cf. A)
fungor, perform fungi functus sum (cf. C)
amplector, embrace amplecti amplexus sum (cf. E)
vescor, feed vesci (cf. F, 1)
obliviscor, forget obllvlsci oblltus sum (cf. F, 3)
sequor, follow sequi secutus sum (cf. H)
gradior, step gradi gressus sum (cf. /)

189. Fourth Conjugation

1 . Perfect in -ivi.
audio, hear audire audivi auditum
sepelio, bury sepelire sepellvi sepultum
2. Perfect in -si.
vincio, bind vinctum
3. Perfect in -ui.
aperio, open aperire aperui apertum
operio, cover oper!re operui opertum
salio, leap salire salui
112 Inflection [189

4. Reduplicated Perfect (originally).

reperifl, find reperire repperi repertum
comperio, learn comperire comperi compertum
5. Perfect in -i with lengthened vowel.
venio, come ventum
6. Deponents,
partior, divide partlri partitus sum
ordior, begin ordlri orsus sum

IRREGULAR VERBS
For the character of Irregular Verbs in general, see 170.
Compounds of Sum
190. Adsum, etc. Most compounds of sum follow the conjugation
of the simple verb, which has been given above (153). So ad-sum,
ad-esse, ad-fui, etc. The Present Participle, which is wanting in the
simple verb, appears in the adjectival absens, absent, from ab-sum, and
praesens, present, from prae-sum. In pro-sum the preposition appears as.
prod before a vowel (24, 2) ; e.g. Pres. Indic, prosum, prodes, prodest, prosu-
mus, prodestis, prosunt ; Imperf. Indic, proderam; Imperf. Subj. prodes-
sem ; Fut. prodero ; Pres. Infin. prodesse ; Imperat. prodes, prodesto, etc.
191. Possum, be able. The Present System is based on a union of
potis or pote, able, with sum ; the Perfect System does not contain sum,
but belongs to a Present * poteo, * potere, of which only the participial
form potens is in use.
Principal Parts
possum posse potui
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. possum possim
potes possis
potest possit
possumus possimus
potestis possitis
possunt possint
Imperf. poteram 1 possem
1 That is, poteram, poterts, poterat, etc. Similarly elsewhere.
192] Irregular Verbs 113

Fut. potero
Perf. potul potuerim
Past Perf. potueram potuissem
Fut. Perf. potuero

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. posse potens (Adj.)
Perf. potuisse
a. Early Latin shows the uncompounded forms potis sum or pote sum, potis est
or pote est, etc. ; also Infin. potesse.

Volo, wish, and its Compounds

192. Principal Parts
vol5, wish velle volui
nolo, be unwilling nolle nolui
malo, prefer malle malui
Present
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ.
V0I6 velim nolo nolim malo malim
V1S velis non vis nolis mavis malis
vult vel* non vult nolit mavult malit
volumus velimus nolumus nolimus malumus malimus
vultis velitis non vultis nolltis mavultis malltis
volunt velint nolunt nolint malunt malint

Imperfect
volebam vellem nolebam nollem malebam mallem
Future
volam nolam malam
Perfect
volul voluerim nolui noluerim malui maluerim
Past Perfect
volueram voluissem nolueram noluissem malueram maluissem
Future Perfect
voluero noluero maluero
ii4 Inflection [192
IMPERATIVE
Pres. noli nollte
Fut. noflto nolitote
INFINITIVE
Pres. velle nolle malle
Perf voluisse noluisse maluisse
PARTICIPLE
Pres. volens nolens
a. For vult, vultis, the forms in use down to the Augustan period were volt, voltis
(44, i). For si vis a contracted form sis is common, and, in early Latin, sultis is used
for si voltis (sultis is from * soltis, which arose beside si voltis, not by contraction, but
after the analogy of the relation of vis to si vis).
b. For non vis and non vult, early Latin has nevis, nevolt.
c. For malo, malim, etc., the early forms are mavolo, mavelim, and these are com
pounds of magis and volo (mavolo probably from *mag(i)s-volo; cf. sSviri, 49, 12).
193. Fero, bear
Principal Parts
fero ferre tull latum
Active Passive
indic. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ.
Present
fero feram feror ferar
fers feras ferris feraris, -re
fert ferat fertur feratur
ferimus feramus ferimur feramur
fertis feratis ferimini feramini
ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur
Imperfect
ferebam ferrem ferebar ferrer
Future
feram ferar
Perfect
tuli tulerim latus sum latus sim
Past Perfect
tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem
Future Perfect
tulero latus ero
194] Irregular Verbs "5
IMPERATIVE
Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini
Fut. ferto fertote fertor
ferto ferunto fertor feruntor
INFINITIVE
Pres. ferre ferri
Perf. tulisse latus esse
Fut. laturus esse latum Iri
PARTICIPLE
Pres. ferens Perf. latus
Fut. laturus Fut. ferendus
GERUND
ferendl, etc,
a. The earlier form of the Perfect is tetuli (cf. also rettuli ; see 43, i) ; the root i
the same as in tolld ; latus is for * tlatus, tla being another form of the same root.

194.
Principal Parts
eS ire ii itum
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. eo imus eam earaus
is itis eas eatis
it eunt eat eant
Imperf. Jbam irem
Fut. Ibo
Perf. ii iimus
isti (iisti) Tstis (iistis)
iit, lt ierunt, -ere
Past Perf. ieram issem
Fut. Perf. iero
IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. I ite Pres. ire Pres. iens, Gen. euntis, etc.
Fut. Ito Itote Perf. isse (iisse) Fut. iturus
ltd eunto Fut. iturus esse Fut. Pass, eundum (est)
GERUND
eundi, etc.
ii6 Inflection [194
a. In the Perfect System, forms with v, as ivl, iveram, etc., are rare, except in late
writers. Compounds often have iisti, iistis, etc., for Isti, Istis, etc.
b. The Passive is used only impersonally ; e.g. itur, ibatur, itum est, etc. But com
pounds with transitive meaning have the full Passive ; e.g. adeor, adlris, etc., from adeo,
approach.
c. Queo, can, follows the conjugation of eo, except that the Perfect is
quivi.

Fio, become
195. The verb fi5, become, serves as the Passive of faciO, make,
in the Present System. The Perfect System and the Future Passive
Participle are formed regularly from facio.

Principal Parts
fi6 1 fieri factus sum

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. fio — flam fiamus
fis fias fiatis
fit fiunt flat flant
Imperf. flebam fierem
Fut. flam
Perf. factus sum factus sim
Past Perf. factus eram factus essem
Fut. Perf. factus ero

IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE

Pres. fi fite Pres. fieri
Perf. factus esse Perf. factus
Fut. factum lri Fut. faciendus
a. Prepositional compounds of facio usually have the regular Passive ;
e.g. conficio, Pass, conficior. But compounds of fio also occur in some
forms ; e.g. confit, happens, defit, lacks, infit, begins. For the Passive
of compounds like benefacio, calefacio, etc., benefio, calefid, etc., are
used.
1 The student should remember that the i is long throughout, except in the Third
Singular and before short e.
197] Irregular Verbs 117

Present System of Edo, eat

196. The Present System of edo contains several forms in which the
endings are added directly to the root in the form ed-. The Perfect
System is regular.
Principal Parts
edo esse edi esum

Active
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. edo edimus edim, edam edimus, edamus
es estis edis, edas edltis, edatis
est edunt edit, edat edint, edant
Imperf. edebam
Fut. edam

IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE

Pres. es este esse edens
Fut. esto estote esurus esse esurus
esto edunto

Passive
Pres. Indic. 3. Sing, estur
Imperf. Subj. 3. Sing, essetur

a. The Subjunctive forms edim, etc., which go with the Indicative forms es, 5st, just
as sim, etc., with es, est (175), were almost exclusively employed until well into the
Augustan period. Horace has only edim, but Ovid edam.
b. Indicative forms edis, edit, editis, following the regular type, are not found until
late times.
c. Comedo has a Perfect Passive Participle comestus beside comesus.

Present System of "Do, give

197. The Present System of do differs from that of verbs of the
First Conjugation only in having the a short everywhere except in
the Second Singular of the Present Indicative and Present Imperative,
and, of course, the Nom. Sing. of the Present Participle. The Perfect
System is regular.
1 18 Inflection [197

Principal Parts
as dare dedi datum

Active
indicative SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. do damus dem demus
das datis des detis
dat dant det dent
Imperf. dabam darem
Fut. dabo
IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. da date dare dans
Fut. dato datote daturus esse daturus
dato danto
GERUND SUPINE
dandi, etc. datum, datu
Passive
datur, damur, etc. ; dabar, dabor, darer, datus, dandus, etc.
a. Early Latin often uses a Present Subjunctive duim, duTs, duit, etc., and sometimes
duam, duas, duat, etc. These are from a related root du-. Such Subjunctives are also
formed from compounds like crSdo, believe, perdo, lose,1 etc., which otherwise follow the
Third Conjugation. So creduit, perduit, etc.

DEFECTIVE VERBS
Aio, Inquam, Far!
198. i. Aio, say, assent, has the following forms. It is pronounced
and often spelled ai-io (29, 2, a).
Pres. Indic. aio, ais, ait, aiunt Imperat. ai
Pres. Subj. - aias, aiat Partic. aiens
Imperf. Indic, aiebam, aiebas, aiebat, aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant.
a. Early Latin has Imperf. aibam, etc., from *aibam like lenibam (164, 4), but with
ai pronounced as one syllable.
1 These compounds are really from a root meaning " put," which was originally
distinct from do, give.
200] Defective Verbs 119

2. Inquam, say (said I, said he, etc.), has the following forms, of
which only inquamr inquis, and inquit are in common use.
Pres. Indic. inquam, inquis, inquit
inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt Perf. Indic, inquil, inquistl
Imperf. Indic, inquiebat Imperat. inque, inquito
Fut. Indic. inquies, inquiet
3. Fan, speak, has the following forms, of which some occur only in
compounds.
Pres. Indic. fatur, -famur Infin. fari
Imperf. Indic. -fabar, -fabantur Pres. Act. Partic. fans
Fut. labor, fabitur.-fabimur Perf. Pass. Partic. fatus
Perf. Indic. fatus sum, etc. Fut. Pass. Partic. fandus
Past Perf. Indic, fatus eram, etc. Gerund fandi, fando
Imperat. fare Supine fatu

Memini, Odi, CoepT

199. 1. Memini, remember, and odi, hate, are Present in meaning,
but in form belong to the Perfect System. But memini has an Impera
tive, and odi a Future Participle.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
memini, / remember odi, / hate meminerim, oderim
memineram, / remembered oderam, / hated meminissem, odissem
meminero, / shall remember odero, / shall hate
Imperat. memento, mementote
Infin. meminisse, odisse
Fut. Partic. , osurus
2. Coepi, have begun, began, is also confined mainly to the Perfect
System, the Present being supplied by incipio. When a Passive Infinitive
follows, coeptus sum takes the place of coepi ; e.g. quae res agi coeptae
sunt, which began to be done.
a. Some forms of the Present System are found in early Latin, as coepio. coepere.
200. Other isolated forms are :
1. Imperat. salve, hail, salvete, salveto ; Infin. salvere.
2. Imperat. (h)ave, hail, (h)avete, (h)aveto ; Infin. (h)avere.
3. Imperat. cedo, give, cette.
4. Pres. Indic, quaeso, beg, quaesumus.
120 Inflection [201

Impersonal Verbs
201. A special class of Defectives consists of verbs used
only impersonally, the forms occurring being those of the
Third Person Singular, the Infinitive, and sometimes the
Gerund. So, for example, licet, it is allowed.

INDICATIVE . SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. licet liceat
Imperf. licebat liceret
Fut. licebit
Perf. licuit or licitum est licuerit or licitum sit
Past Perf. licuerat or licitum erat licuisset or licitum esset
Fut. Perf. licuerit or licitum erit
Infin. licere, licuisse, liciturum esse

a. The following verbs are always, or usually, Impersonal :

decet, it is fitting piget, it grieves
libet, it is pleasing pluit, it rains
licet, it is permitted pudet, it shames
miseret, it excites pity taedet, it disgusts
ninguit, it snows tonat, it thunders
oportet, it is necessary
b. Many verbs are used impersonally only in certain senses ; e.g.
placet, it pleases, is decided, accidit, it happens.
c. The Passive of intransitive verbs can be used only impersonally ;
e.g. itur, there is a going, some one goes, curritur, there is a running,
some one runs.
 Part III

WORD-FORMATION

202. Introductory. In the broadest sense, Word-Formation includes the

subject of Inflection ; but the term as used here refers to the formation of the word
as a whole, i.e. the unit of which the inflectional forms are variations.
In the case of declensional forms the true unit is the Stem, to which the case-
endings are added, so that Stem-Formation would be a more precise term to use in
this connection. But in the case of Verb-forms, although the unit of any given tense
is the stem, the verb as a whole includes several different stems (tense and mood-
stems), and their formation is properly treated as a part of Inflection. As regards
Verbs, then, there is left for treatment here only what is known as Secondary Verbal
Derivation, that is, the formation of Verbs from Nouns, Adjectives, or other Verbs.
The derivation of most uninflected words is too obscure to be discussed except in
connection with the related forms of other languages. The formation of Adverbs, how
ever, which in part stands in close relation with case-formation, has been touched
upon under Inflection.
Under Word-Formation, then, will be included :
1 ) Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives by means of suffixes.
2) Secondary Verbal Derivation.
3) Composition.

DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

203. The stems to which the case-endings are added are sometimes
identical with the Root,1 as in dux, Gen. ducis, of which duc- is both stem
and root. But usually they are formed by means of Suffixes2 added
either to the root or to other stems.
1 By a Root is meant the simplest element common to a group of related words and
conceived as containing the essential meaning common to all. It is what is left after
the separation of all recognizable formative parts, such as prefixes, suffixes, endings.
But for any given language it is only a convenient grammatical abstraction, not neces
sarily an absolutely primitive element. For example, in English the root of preacherand
preaching is preach, but this, when taken back to prae-dico, is seen to be a compound.
.The roots assumed in Latin are not necessarily the same as those assumed for the
parent speech, much less are they to be thought of as ultimate roots.
2 Suffixes are doubtless independent words in origin, just as the English suffix -ly
(man-ly, etc.) meaning like, having the form of, has arisen in historical times from a
word meaning body, form (from which comes also like, i.e. having the same form as).
But most suffixes had already, in a remote period, become mere formative elements,
which it is useless to try to connect with any known independent words.
The ultimate origin of the inflectional endings is of the same nature, but in detail
will always be obscure. There is, then, in the general principles of formation no hard
and fast line between composition, derivation by suffixes, and inflection.
121
122 Word-Formation [203

If the suffix is added to a Root or a Verb-Stem, the form is known as a

Primary Derivative ; if the suffix is added to a Noun-Stem, Adjective-
Stem, or Adverb, the form is known as a Secondary Derivative. Thus
vic-tor, victor, in which the suffix is added to the root of vinco, conquer,
is a Primary Derivative ; while victor-ia, victory, in which the suffix is
added to the Noun-Stem victor-, is a Secondary Derivative. Many
suffixes were used primarily for only one of these two kinds of derivation,
but their use was often extended, the same suffix appearing in both
Primary and Secondary Derivation.
204. Some suffixes are seen in words inherited from the parent
speech, but are no longer used freely to form new words. They are
called non-productive suffixes. Thus -ti-, seen in par-ti- (pars), mor-ti-
(mors), etc., was once one of the commonest suffixes for the formation of
feminine abstracts, but in Latin it is not productive, its place having been
usurped by an extension of it, namely, -tion-, seen in action- (actio), etc.
205. Regarding the combination of the root or stem with the suffix,
observe :
1. If the root or stem ends in a consonant and the suffix begins with
one, the usual consonant changes take place ; e.g. scriptor from scribo ;
defen-sor from defendo, etc. See 49.
2. The final vowel of a stem is lost before the initial vowel of a suffix ;
e.g. aur-eus from auro- (aurum).
3. The final short vowel of a stem suffers the regular weakening
before a suffix beginning with a consonant ; e.g. boni-tas from bono-
(bonus) ; porcu-lus from porco- (porcus). See 42, 5.
Note. The final vowel of a stem (or sometimes a consonant, or
even a whole syllable belonging properly to the stem) often becomes so
closely associated with the suffix that it is felt to be a part of it, and not
a part of the stem. In this way a new suffix arises. So from words
like Romanus (really Roma-mis) the suffix -anus arises, and is then applied
freely to stems not ending in -a, as urb-anus (urbs), pag-anus (pagus),
etc. Similarly from words like porcu-lus (see above, 3) arose words like
reg-ulus (rex), etc. This process was constantly going on.1
1 For this reason, the division between the stem and the suffix is often somewhat
arbitrary. For example, one may divide Roma-nus in accordance with its origin, but,
since -anus has itself come to be a common suffix, one may properly divide Rom-anus
like urb-anus, etc. Indeed, in some cases, the only practicable division is one which
includes in the suffix an element which a scientific analysis shows to have belonged
properly to the stem ; for any other division would be not only confusing to the stu
dent, but contrary to the feeling which the Romans themselves had in using the suffix.
206] Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives 123

Nouns — Primary Derivatives

206. 1. -tor1 (Fem. -trix) forms nouns denoting the agent or
doer of the action expressed by the verb (cf. English -er).
vic-tor, victor, f. vic-trix (vinco) scrip-tor, writer (scribo)
can-tor, singer (cano) ama-tor, lover (amo)
defen-sor (for *de-fend-tor2), defender (defendo).
a. By an extension of use, this suffix is sometimes added to Nouns to form other
Nouns, as iktoi-tor,janitor, one who keeps the door (ianua), gladi-ator (-ator from ama-
tor, etc. ; see 205, note), one who uses the sword (gladius).
2. -id, -tiO, -tus (Gen. -tus), -tura, and often -ium, form
abstracts denoting the action expressed by the verb, or, by
a frequent transfer from the abstract to a concrete meaning,
the result of the action. Compare English clipping, the act
of clipping, and a (newspaper) clipping, the thing clipped.
leg-id, legion, originally the select- scrip-tiira, writing (scribo)
ing, levying (lego) ton-sura,2 shearing (tondeo)
ac-tio, the doing, act (ago) gaud-ium, joy (gaudeo)
mis-sio,2 dismissal (mitto) stud-ium, zeal (studeo)
can-tus, singing (cano) imper-ium, command (impero)
adven-tus, arrival (advenio) iiidic-ium, judgment (iudico)
vi-sus,2 sight (video)
a. Many words with the suffix -tura are closely associated with agent-nouns in -tor,
and denote office.
quaes-tura, quaestorship (quaestor) cSn-sura, censorship (cSnsor)

3. -men and-mentum from nouns denoting action, or, oftener,

the result of an action.
flu-men, stream (fluo) frag-men, frag-mentum,yrag7w«/
se-men, seed (sero, Perf. se-vi) (frango)
orna-mentum, ornament (orno)
a. So sometimes -monium, as ali-monium, nourishment (aio) ; but this suffix is more
frequent in secondary derivatives, as patri-monium, patrimony (pater).
1 Only some of the commoner and more productive suffixes will be mentioned. For
the sake of convenience the form of the Nominative Singular is cited, rather than the
stem.
2 Before suffixes beginning with t, the same consonant-changes take place as in Per
fect Passive Participles. Hence -sor, -sio, -sus, -sura, beside -tor, -tio, -tus, -tura.
See 49, 4.
124 Word-Formation [206

4. -or (Gen. -Oris) forms abstracts which usually indicate a

physical or mental state.
trem-or, trembling (tremo) cand-or, brightness (candeo)
cal-or, warmth (caleo) am-or, love (amo)
5. -dd and -gd form nouns of various meanings,
cupl-do, desire (cupio) ori-go, source (orior)
6. -ulum, -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, and -trum (also -ula,
-bula, -bra, etc.), form nouns denoting instrument or means.
The idea sometimes passes over into that of place or result.
vinc-ulum, chain (vinco) delurbrum, shrine (deluo)
pa-bulum, fodder (pasco) simula-crum, image (simulo)
vehi-culum, wagon (veho) ara-trum, plough (aro)
fa-bula, tale (fan) dola-bra, axe (dolo)

Nouns — Secondary Derivatives

207. 1. -lus (Fem. -la, Neut. -lum) and its various combina
tions -ulus, -olus, -ellus, -illus, -ullus, and -cuius, form Diminutives.
These usually follow the gender of the word from which they
are derived.
porcu-lus, little pig (porcus) reg-ulus, chieftain (rex)
filio-lus, young son (filius) fili-ola, young daughter (filia)
agel-lus, smallfield (ager ; see 49, 11) tabel-la, tablet (tabula)
lapil-lus, small stone (lapis ; homul-lus, manikin (homo ;
* lapid-lo- ; see 49, 11) * homon-lo- ; see 49, 11)
os-culum, little mouth, kiss (os) arti-culus, joint (artus)

2. -ia, -tia, -tiSs, -tas, -tudo, -tus, and sometimes -ium and
-tium form abstracts denoting quality or condition.
miser-ia, misery (miser) magni-tudo, greatness (magnus)
audac-ia, boldness (audax) civi-tas, citizenship, state (civis)
dflri-tia, duri-ties, duri-tas, hardness vir-tiis, manliness (vir)
(durus) sacerddt-ium, priesthood (sacerdos)
boni-tas, goodness (bonus) servi-tium, servitude (servus)
208] Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives 125

3. -ades, -iades, -ides, -Ides (Masc.) and -ias, -is, -eis (Fem.) occur in
Greek Patronymics, denoting descent.
Aene-ades, son of Aeneas Thest-ias, daughter of Thestius
Anchis-iades, son of Anchises Tyndar-is, daughter of Tyndarus
Tantal-ides, descendant of Tantalus Ner-eis, daughter of Nereus
Pel-ides, son of Peleus

4. -ina often forms nouns denoting an art or craft, or the place

where a craft is practiced.
medic-ina, healing (medicus) doctr-ina, teaching (doctor)
discipl-ina, instruction (discipulus) tonstr-ina, barber's shop (tonsor)
a. This type originated in Adjectives used substantively, ars or offlcina being under
stood. But the suffix -ina is used in other ways, e.g. in simple Feminines like reg-Ina,
queen (rex) or in Primary Derivatives, as rap-ina, robbery (rapio).
5. Other significant suffixes are : -atus (Gen. -atus), denoting office or
official body ; -arms, a dealer or artisan ; -arium, a place where things "
are kept; -He, a place for animals. '
consul-atus, consulship (consul) aer-arium, treasury (aes)
argent-arius, money changer (argentum) ov-ile, sheepfold (ovis)

Adjectives — Primary Derivatives

208. 1. -ax and sometimes -ulus form adjectives denoting
tendencies or qualities.
aud-ax, bold (audeo) bib-ulus, fond of drink (bibo)
ten-ax, tenacious (teneo) cred-ulus, crtdulous (credo)
vor-ax, voracious (voro)

2. -ilis and -bilis form adjectives denoting passive qualities.

frag-ilis, breakable, frail (frango) mo-bilis, movable (moveo)
fac-ilis, easy (facio) ama-bilis, lovable (amo)
bib-ilis, drinkable (bibo) credi-bilis, worthy of belief (credo)

3. -bundus forms adjectives having about the force of a Present

Participle, but is more intensive ; -cundus denotes a characteristic.
verbera-bundus, flogging (verbero) Ira-cundus, wrathful (irascor)
mori-bundus, dying (morior) fa-cundus, eloquent (fan)
126 Word-Formation [809

Adjectives — Secondary Derivatives

209. i. -eus, -aceus, and sometimes -nus, -neus, -inus, form
adjectives of material.
aur-eus, golden (aurum) acer-nus, of maple (acer)
ferr-eus, of iron (ferrum) ebur-neus, of ivory (ebur)
ros-aceus, of roses (rosa) fag-inus, of beech (fagus)

2. -osus and -lentus form adjectives denoting fullness.

vin-osus, drunken (vinum) vino-lentus, drunken (vlnum)
verbo-sus, verbose (verbum) opu-lentus, wealthy (* ops, opis)
bellic-dsus, warlike (bellicus)

3. -tus, identical with the suffix of the Perfect Passive Par

ticiple, is also added to Noun-Stems, forming adjectives mean
ing provided with (cf. English -cd).
barba-tus, bearded (barba) auri-tus (long-)eared (auris)
dent-atus, toothed (dens) cornfl-tus, horned (cornu)
onus-tus, laden (onus)

4. -idus forms adjectives denoting a condition.

luc-idus, light (lux) fum-idus, smoky (fiimus)
a. This suffix, though originating in SecondaryDerivatives (properly compounds ; e.g.
luci-dus, light-giving ; cf. do, give, or -io, put), is also used to form Primary Derivatives.
cup-idus, eager (cupio) langu-idus, weak (langueo)
5. -ernus, -ternus, -urnus, -turnus, and -tinus, form adjectives denoting
time, mostly from Adverbs.
hodi-ernus, of to-day (hodie) diu-turnus,1 long-continued (difl)
hes-ternus, ofyesterday (heri) difl-tinus, long-continued (difl)
di-urnus, daily (dies) cras-tinus, of to-morrow (eras)
anno-tinus, last year's (annus)

210. 1 . -ius, -cus, -icus, -icius, -icius, -nus, -anus, -inus, -alis,
-His, -elis, -aris, -arius, form adjectives meaning belonging to,
connected with, derived from, etc.
1 In spite of the connection with diu, the u in the second syllable is short in all the
passages thus far noted in poetry.
211] Secondary Verbal Derivatives 127

patr-ius, paternal (pater) urb-anus, of the city (urbs)

senatdr-ius, senatorial (senator) can-inus, canine (cams)
hosti-cus, hostile (hostis) reg-alis, royal (rex)
bell-icus, of war (bellum) civ-ilis, of a citizen (civis)
patr-icius, patrician (pater) crud-elis, cruel (crudus)
nov-icius, new (novus) popul-aris, of the people (populus)
pater-nus, paternal (pater) legion-arius, of a legion (legio)
2. -ivus, seen in aest-ivus, of summer (aestus), was often added to
the stem of the Perfect Passive Participle, giving rise to a suffix -tivus.
cap-tivus, captive (capio, captus) fugi-tivus, fugitive (fugio)
a. Observe also the names for the Cases and Moods ; e.g. nomina-tivus, gene-tivus,
indica-tivus, etc. (used substantively, casus or modus being understood).
3. -ensis and -iensis form adjectives from words denoting place, mostly
names of towns.1
castr-ensis, of the camp (castra) Carthagin-iensis, of Carthage
Cann-ensis, of Cannae
4. Other suffixes frequently added to names of towns and countries
are -as, -anus, -Inus, and -icus.1
Arpin-as, of Arpinum Lat-inus, of Latium, Latin
Rom-anus, of Rome, Roman Ital-icus, of Italy, Italian
a. -as is used only with names of Italian towns. Adjectives denoting nationality
usually, though not always, end in -icus ; e.g. Gall-icus, Gallic, German-icus, Germanic.
5. Adjectives derived from names of persons commonly end in -anus
or -ianus.
Sull-anus, of Sulla Ciceron-ianus, of Cicero

SECONDARY VERBAL DERIVATIVES

Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives
(Denominatives)
211. The great mass of Denominatives follow the First
Conjugation, but there are also many of the Fourth, some of
the Second, and a few (from u-Stems) of the Third.
1 Many such adjectives are also used substantively, especially in the Plu1al ; e.g.
AtheniensSs, Athenians, ArpInites, inhabitants of Arpinum, Roman!, Romans, etc.
128 Word-Formation [211

1. First Conjugation,
euro, carefor (cura) sinuo, bend (sinus, Gen. sinus)
dono, give (donum) honoro, honor (honor, Gen. honoris)
levo, lift (levis) laudo, praise (laus, Gen. laudis)
2. Fourth Conjugation,
finio, end (finis) custodid, guard (custos, Gen.custodis)
partior, divide (pars, Gen. partis) servio, be a slave (servus)
3. Second Conjugation.
albed, be white (albus) floreo, blossom (flos, Gen. floris)
a. These are mostly intransitive, denoting a condition. Contrast clared, be bright
(clarus), with claro, make bright, clarare.
4. Third Conjugation.
statuo, set up (status) tribuo, assign (tribus)
Note. Denominatives were formed from Noun-Stems by means of a suffix -yo-
and -ye-. The y disappeared between vowels, and, in most forms, the vowels then con
tracted. Thus euro from * cura-yo ; albed from * albe-yd. See notes to 166, 167, 169.
The type in -0, -are originated in a-Stems, that in -1S in i-Stems and Consonant-Stems,
that in -eo in o-Stems (but with the e-form of the stem, which appears in the Vocative).
But the different formations came finally to be used without reference to the form of the
Noun-Stem, and especially the type -0, -are was used to form Denominatives from all
kinds of stems.

Verbs derived from Other Verbs

212. 1. Frequentatives. These end in -to (-so), -its, and
sometimes -tito, and denote repeated, or sometimes merely
intensive, action.
dicto, dictate (dico) habito, dwell (habeo)
verso, keep turning (verto) rogito, keep asking (rogo)
dictito, keep saying, declare (dico)
Note. The Frequentatives are Denominative in origin, being formed from the
stem of the Perfect Passive Participle. But, owing to their distinctive meaning, they
came to be contrasted with the simple Verbs and were felt to be derived from them. In
general they follow the formation of the Participle, but many are formed directly from
the Present Stem, as agito, move violently (ago, Partic. actus). The Frequentatives
from verbs of the First Conjugation always end in -ito, not -ato, as rogito. The forms
in -tito are double Frequentatives, being based on the forms in -to.
2. Inchoatives. These end in -«sco, -asc5, -iscO, and denote
beginning or becoming.
calesco, become hot (caleo) obdormisco, fall asleep (dormio)
214] Composition 129

a. Some Inchoatives are derived from Nouns or Adjectives, and so,

properly, form a special class of Denominatives.
duresco, become hard (diirus) vesperasco, become evening (vesper)
Note. This formation has its origin in the Primary Verbs in -sco, as crS-sco, no-sco,
etc. Gaining the specific meaning of beginning to or becoming (through verbs like cresco,
grow, that is, begin to be large), its use was then extended so as to form Verbs from other
Verbs, and also to form Denominatives.
3. Desideratives. These end in -turio (-surid), and denote desire;
e.g. par-turio, desire to bringforth, be in travail (pario) ; esurio,1 desire
to eat, be hungry (edo).
4. Intensives (also called Meditatives). These end in -esso and denote earnest
action ; e.g. petesso, seek eagerly (peto) ; capesso, seize eagerly (capio).

COMPOSITION
213. Composition is the union of two or more words in
one.
Nouns and Adjectives
Form
214. According to the form of the first part, compounds
may be classified as follows :
1. The first part is the Stem of a Noun or Adjective. The final
vowel of the stem appears as i before consonants, and is dropped
before vowels (rarely before consonants). Consonant-Stems usually
take the form of i-Stems.
armi-ger, armor-bearer (anna) un-oculus, one-eyed (unus)
agri-cola, farmer (ager) prin-ceps, chief (primus)
tubi-cen, trumpeter (tuba) fratri-cida, fratricide (frater)
parti-ceps, sharing bi-dens, two-pronged (bi-, found
corni-ger, horned (cornu) only in compounds)
Note. The final i of the first part may represent original i, or, by the regular weak
ening (42, 5, 6), 0 or u ; and, by the analogy of such cases, it is also used for a.
2. The first part is an Adverbial Prefix. Such prefixes, with the excep
tion of the negatives in- and ve-, are also common in the composition of
Verbs, and most of them occur separately as Prepositions. See 218, 1.
in-gratus, unpleasant per-facilis, very easy
ve-cors, senseless sub-riisticus, somewhat rustic
1 From * -Sd-turio. See 49, 5.
13o Word-Formation [214

Note. Some compounds outwardly resembling those mentioned are

of essentially different origin, being derived from phrases consisting of
a Preposition with its proper case. So pro-consul, one who is in the
place of a consul (pro consule) ; e-gregius, distinguished, out of the com
mon run (e grege) ; ob-vius, in the way (ob-viam).
3. The first part is a Case-form or Adverb. Since this is merely
the union of forms which can be used separately, it is sometimes called
Improper Composition, or Juxtaposition.
senatus-consultum, decree of the aquae-ductus, aqueduct
senate bene-volens, well-wishing
215. 1 . The second part of a compound is always the Stem of a Noun
or Adjective. But sometimes it is one which appears only in composi
tion ; e.g. -fer, -ger, -ficus, -ceps, -cen, -cida (related to the verbs fero, gerd,
facio, capio, cano, caedo), -duum (bi-duum, two days ; related to dies), etc.
2. Adjective compounds, of which the second part represents a noun
of the First or Second Declension, are commonly declined like bonus
(110), but many of them are made into i-Stems, e.g. bi-formis, double
(forma).1 In some compounds a suffix is added, especially -ius, -ium ; e.g.
in-iurius, unlawful (ius) ; bi-ennium, period of two years (annus). For
the vowel-weakening in the second part of compounds, see 42.

Meaning
216. According to their meaning, compounds may again
be classified as follows :
1. Copulative Compounds. The parts are coordinate, as in suove-
taurOia, sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull, quaitnoi-iecim,fourteen.
2. Descriptive Compounds. The first part stands to the second in
the relation of an adjectival or an adverbial modifier, as in lati-fundium,
large estate, per-facilis,- very easy.
3. Dependent Compounds. The first part stands in a logical (not
formal) case-relation to the second, as in armi-ger, armor-bearer.
4. Possessive Compounds. Compounds of which the second part
is a Noun may become Adjectival with the force of possessed of So
un-oculus means not one eye, but possessed of one eye, one-eyed.
1 Similarly in-ermis (arma), bi-iugis (iugum), but also in-ermus, bi-iugus. Most
adjectives of varying declension are compounds. But cf. also hilarus beside hilaris, etc.
218] Composition

Adverbs
217. i. Most Adverbs that are apparently compounds are simply
Adverbs formed from Nouns or Adjectives already compounded, as per-
facile, very easily, from perfacilis, very easy. But :
2. Some of the compounds with the prefixes in-, not, and per, very, are formed directly
from the simple Adverbs ; e.g. in-gratiis, without thanks, from gratiis, with thanks ; in-
iassa, without command, fromiussu, by command: per-saepe, very often, from saepe, often.
3. The juxtaposition (214, 3) of Prepositions and Adverbs of Time or Place is fre
quent; e.g. ab-hinc, from this time, since, de-super, from above, ad-hiic, hitherto, inter-
ibi, meanwhile.
4. The juxtaposition of a Preposition and its case gives rise to some compound
Adverbs ; e.g. ob-viam, in the way, ad-modum, to a degree, very, de-nuo, anew (from
*dS-novo; see 42, 4), dS-subito, of a sudden, suddenly.
Verbs
218. 1. The only genuine and widely extended type of
Verbal Composition is that in which the first part is an
Adverbial Prefix, as ab-eo, go away, dir-imo, take apart.
These prefixes, many of which are also used separately as
Prepositions or Adverbs, are as follows (for change in form,
see 5l) :
<z) Also used separately,
a.-, ab-, abs-, away in-, in pro-, pro-, prod-, forth
ad-, to inter-, between retro-, back
ante-, before ob-, obs-, before, against sub-, subs-, under
circum-, about per-, through, thoroughly subter-, beneath
con-, with (cum-) post-, after super-, over
de-, away prae-, before supra-, over
e-, ex-, out praeter-, beside trans-, across
b) Not used separately.
amb-, am-, about intro-, within re-, red-, back
an-, in (rare) por-, forth se-, sed-, apart
dis-, apart
2. Juxtaposition is seen in forms like bene-dico, bless, manumitto, set
free, animadverto, attend to, from animum adverto.
3. Forms like cale-facio, make hot, cande-facio, make white, originated
in simple juxtaposition (cale facio written separately in early Latin), but
came to be felt as derived from Verbs in -eo.
4. Forms like aedi-fico, build, are apparently compounds of a Noun-Stem with a
Verb, but this type really originated in Denominatives from Nouns already compounded ;
e.g. aediflco, from * aedi-fex or * aedi-flcus, house builder.
 Part IV

SYNTAX

A. INTRODUCTORY
219. Syntax treats of the use of words in the expression
of thought or feeling.
220. A Sentence is a complete expression of thought or
feeling through the use of words.
221. The Latin Sentence is made up of some or all of the
following kinds of words, called Parts of Speech :
The Noun, which expresses a person or thing.
The Adjective, which expresses a quality, condition, etc.
The Pronoun, which stands instead of a Noun.
The Verb, which expresses an act or state.
The Adverb, which expresses manner, degree, etc.
The Preposition, which expresses relations between words.
The Conjunction, which expresses connection.
The Interjection, which expresses feeling, etc.
a. Nouns are called Substantives ; e.g. arbor, tree; murus, wall;
amator, lover; vita, life.
b. Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles, when taking the place of
Nouns, are, like Nouns, called Substantives ; e.g. hic, this man; boni,
the good; amans, a lover.
c. The Verb-forms called Participles often express condition, quality,
etc., and so have much in common with Adjectives. Compare, e.g., fati-
gatus, wearied, with fessus, weary; and vir laudandus, a man to bepraised,
with vir laudabilis, a praiseworthy man. In what follows, statements
that are true both of the Adjective and of the Participle will be given in
the treatment of the former.
d. The last four Parts of Speech, the Adverb, Preposition, Conjunc
tion, and Interjection, are often called Particles.
e. Latin has no article.
132
224] Introductory 133

SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

222. Generally, one or more Verbs are either expressed
or clearly understood in every sentence.
a. Certain verbs which can easily be supplied are often omitted.
Thus dico, loquor, ago, and the auxiliary est (sunt, etc.).
sic Venus, thus (spoke) Venus ; Aen. 1, 325.
b. Occasionally a sentence does not admit of a verb.
S tempora, S mores ! O the times, O the ways of men! Cat. 1, 1, 2.
S fortunatam rem publicam ! O happy Commonwealth 1 Cat. 2, 4, 7.
223. i. A Simple Sentence is one that contains not more
than a single Finite Verb.
dicit liberius, he speaks with more freedom; B. G. 1, 18, 2.
2. A Compound Sentence is one that consists of two or more
Simple Sentences of the same rank, called Coordinate.
D. Briitum classi praeficit, et in Venetos proficisci iubet, he appoints
Decbnus Brutus to the command of the fleet, and orders him to
. proceed to the country of the Veneti; B. G. 3, 1 1, 5. (Praeficit and
iubet are Coordinate.)
3. A Complex Sentence is one in which, in addition to one
or more simple sentences, there are one or more sentences
of inferior rank, called Subordinate or Dependent.
quod iussi sunt, faciunt, they do what they have been told (to do);
B. G. 3, 6, 1. (Quod iussi sunt is a Dependent Sentence, while
faciunt is the Main, or Principal, Sentence.)

CLAUSES AND PHRASES

224. In a Complex Sentence,
1. The Independent Sentences are called Main, or Principal, Sen
tences ; while the Dependent Sentences are generally distinguished by
being called Dependent, or Subordinate, Clauses. Thus, in quod iussi
sunt, faciunt, they do what they have been told (to do), faciunt is called
a Principal Sentence, and quod iussi sunt a Dependent Clause.
2. But, for convenience, the word Clause is sometimes used of the
main sentence also, so that one speaks of Principal Clauses as well as
of Dependent Clauses.
134 Syntax [224

a. The word Clause is confined to members of a sentence that contain

a Finite Verb (146) or an Infinitive (cf. 238, a).
b. A Phrase is a group of associated words not containing a Finite
Verb or an Infinitive.
homines magnae virtutis, men ofgreat courage ; B. G. 2, 1 5, 5. (Magnae
virtutis is a Phrase.)
una ex parte, on one side ; B. G. 1 , 2, 3.
225. Clauses, like sentences, may be Coordinate ; or one
may be Dependent upon another.
huic mandat Belgas adeat atque in officio contineat, (Caesar) instructs
him to go to the Belgians and hold them to their allegiance; B. G.
3, 11, 2. (Adeat and contineat are Coordinate.)
equitatum praemittit, qui videant quas in partis hostes iter faciant, he
sends the cavalry ahead, to find out in what direction the enemy
are moving; B. G. 1, 15, 1. (Quas . . . faciant is Subordinate to
qui videant, — which itself is Subordinate to praemittit.)

DEPENDENCE AND SEMI-DEPENDENCE (OR PARATAXIS)

226. The term Dependence, or Subordination, as used in
grammar, means dependence both in thought and in form.
Thus in quod advenit, gaudeo, / am glad because he has come, not
only the obvious thought, but the form of the clause, show the depend
ence of advenit, he has come, upon gaudeo, / am glad.
227. Semi-Dependence, or Parataxis,1 is dependence hi
thought, with independence in form.
Thus in advenit : gaudeo, he has come : I am glad, advenit is really
dependent upon gaudeo (I am glad because he has come), though there
is nothing in the form to show this.
a. Almost all dependent clauses have passed through the middle stage of Parataxis.
Thus eas 2 necesse est, it is necessary that you go, must have come down from a paratactic
stage, eas: necesse est, go : it is necessary.
b. In passing into the dependent form a sentence often shifts its meaning somewhat, to-
fit the closer relationship in which it stands in the new form. Thus the (original) para
tactic combination me eripiam : ne causam dicam must have meant / will save myself:
I will not plead my cause ; while mS Sripiam ne causam dicam means / will save
myself from pleading my cause. Cf. ne causam diceret sS Sripuit, R. G. 1, 4, 2.
1 A Greek word meaning setting side by side.
2 Eas is dependent, not paratactic. Cf. 501, 3, a, 2).
229] Introductory 135

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

228. Every Sentence or Clause declares, assumes, inquires,
or exclaims.
1. It declares (tells) something (Declarative Sentence or Clause).
veniat, let him come; utinam veniat, I -wish he would come ; venit,
he is coming.
Note. To declare is to make known. Thus in the above, the various
verbs declare respectively the speaker's will, his desire, and his perception of
a fact. A Dependent Clause may likewise declare. Thus in die ut veniat,
tell him that he is to come, veniat declares the speaker's will (he is to come).
2. It assumes something as a condition for something else (Condi
tional, or Assumptive?- Sentence or Clause).
si venit, if he is coming; si veniat, if he should come; quisquis
venerit, occidetur, whoever comes will be killed (i.e. if any man
comes, he will be killed).
3. It inquires or exclaims about something {Interrogative ox Exclam
atory Sentence or Clause).
venit? is he coming? fortis est? is he brave? quam fortis est ! how
brave he is !
a. Interrogative and Exclamatory sentences, if the latter contain a verb,
have the same form in Latin. It is therefore best to treat them together.
b. All true Dependent Clauses introduced by a Relative (qui, etc.), or by
any Conjunction implying a Relative idea (quotiens, cum, dum, antequam,
postquam, etc.), are necessarily confined to the first two uses, i.e. they are
either Declarative or Conditional; for it is impossible to inquire or exclaim
in a really dependent Relative Clause.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

229. The Subject is that about which something is declared,
assumed, or asked. That which is declared, assumed, or
asked, is called the Predicate.2
Caesar respondit, Caesar answered; B. G. 1, 14, 1. (Caesar is
the Subject, and respondit the Predicate.)
a. The Predicate is often omitted, especially if formed from the verb sum.
quot homines, tot sententiae, as many men, so many minds ; Ph. 454.
1 The word " conditional " is convenient, as being in common use. The word
assumptive, as corresponding to the verb assume, would be more exact. Cf. 573.
2 The word Predicate is derived from praedico, predicate, assert.
136 Syntax [230

PREDICATE NOUN, ADJECTIVE, OR PRONOUN

230. A Noun, Adjective, or Pronoun forming a part of
that which is predicated is called a Predicate Noun, Adjective,
or Pronoun.
horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, of all these, the Belgians are the
bravest; B. G. 1, 1,3. (The idea " bravest " is as much predicated
as is the idea " are.")
a. The verb sum, when thus joining a predicate word with its subject, is
called a Copula (i.e. "joiner").
b. Participles employed as Adjectives (248) are often used predicatively,
true Participles very rarely.

FORMS OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

231. Questions are of two main kinds :
I. Questions of the whole sentence ("yes" or "no" ques
tions). Of these there are four possible forms :
a) Without introductory word, as in English :
ris pugnare? do you want to fight? Rud. io11.
non sentis ? do you not see ? Cat. i , i , i .
^)"^Vith the neutral enclitic -ne (implying nothing about the answer).
The enclitic is attached to the emphatic word :
voltisne eamus visere ? do you wish that we should go and call upon
her? Ph. 102.
Note 1. The neutral enclitic -ne is occasionally used where the context
makes it clear what the answer must be. Thus videtisne ut apud Homerum ?
Sen. 10, 31 (answer " yes ") ; potestne tibi huius caeli spiritus esse iucundus ?
Cat. 1, 6, 15 (answer "no").
Note 2. In poetry, -ne is sometimes attached to interrogative words.
Thus quone maid ? by what curse ? Sat. 2, 3, 295.
Note 3. -ne sometimes loses its e, especially in early Latin. Thus ain ?
(foraisne? for loss of s, see 49, 12), audin ? (for audisne ?), itan ? (for itane ?),
satin? (for satisne?), scin ? (for scisne ?), viden? (for vidSsne?; for the quantity,
see 28, note), vin ? (for visne ?), utin (for uti-ne, from uti, a by-form of uti, ut,
as in uti-nam, uti-que). Similarly Pyrrhin (= Pyrrhine), Aen. 3, 319.
c) With nonne, implying the answer "yes" :
Mithridates nonne ad Cn. Pompeium legatum misit? did not Mithridates
send an ambassador to Gnaeus Pompey ? Pomp. 1 6, 46.
d) With num, implying the answer " no " :
nurn negare audes ? you dare not deny, do you ? Cat. 1 , 4, 3.
234] Introductory 137

2. Questions of detail.
quid exspectas ? what are you lookingfor ? Cat. 2, 8, 18.
cur tam diu loquimur ? why do we talk so long ? Cat. 2, 8, 1 7.
Note. Tandem, or the interrogative enclitic -nam, may be added to the
simple interrogative to strengthen it ; thus quousque tandem ? how long,pray !
Cat. 1, 1,1; quibusnammanibus? with what hands, pray? B. G. 2, 30, 4.

FORMS OF ANSWERS TO "YES" OR "NO" QUESTIONS

232. 1 . " Yes " may be expressed by repeating the Verb ; or, less
formally, by ita, sic, etiam, verd, certo, sane, etc.
" fuistin liber ? " "Fui," " were you a free man?" "Iwas"; Capt. 628.
" ilia maneat ? " " Sic," " is she to remain ? " " Yes " ; Ph. 813.
2. " No " may be expressed by repeating the Verb and adding a
negative ; or, less formally, by non, minime, etc.
" non ego illi argentum redderem ? " " Non redderes," " should I not have
paid him the money ? " " You should not have paid him " ; Trin. 133.
" ea praeteriit ? " " Non," " has that (day) passed? " "No "; Ph. 525.
233. An answer correcting or heightening the force of a preceding
question is introduced by immo, on the contrary, why even.
vivit ? Immo vero etiam in senatum venit ! lives, do I say ? Why ! he even
comes into the senate ! Cat. 1, 1, 2.

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
234. Alternative Questions, or questions that offer the hearer or
reader two or more things to choose among, are expressed as follows :
I. With utrum . . . , an . . .
II. With -ne . . . , an . ,. .
III. With . . . , an . . .
I. haec utrum lex est, an legum omnium dissolutio ? (whether) is this a law,
or an undoing of all laws ? Phil. 1 , 9, 21.
II. Romamne venio, an hie maneo, an Arpinum fugiam? do I come to Rome, or
stay here, or shall Iflee to Arpinum ? Att. 16, 8, 2.
III. privatam servitutem servit, an publicam ? is he slave to a private person, or
to the state ? Capt. 334.
a. If the second part of the question is negatived, non, not, is added to an,
making an non (annon), or not. The verb is regularly omitted. In an Indirect
Question (537), necne may also be used instead of an non (rarely in a Direct one).
pater eius rediit an non ? has his father returned or not ? Ph. 147.
quaesivi in conventii fuisset necne, / asked whether he had been at the
meeting or not ; Cat. 2, 6, 13.
b. In the Indirect Question, the forms utrum . . . , -ne and , -ne some
times occur; also, in poetry, -ne . . . , -ne (as in Aen. 5, 702 and 1, 308).
138 Syntax [236

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS, Etc.

235. Questions that do not really ask for information, but
are only stronger ways of declaring something) are called
Rhetorical Questions.
quis dubitat? who doubts ? (= nobody doubts).
quis dubitet? who would doubt ? (= nobody would doubt).
cur dubitem? why should I doubt? (=1 ought not to doubt).
quid prodest? what is the use? (= there is no use).
236. An Absurd Question is often introduced by an alone.
an vero Catilinam perferemus ? are we really going to tolerate Catiline ? •
Cat. 1, 1, 3.
237. A Question Suggesting the Probable Answer may be intro
duced by an.
cuiumpecus? An Meliboei? whoseflock? That (perhaps) of Meliboeus ?
Eel. 3, 1.

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
238. Indicative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive Clauses are often
used Substantively (i.e. in some ^j^-relation in the sentence),
ut ne addam quod ingenuam nactus es, not to add that you have now a
freeborn wife; Ph. 168. (Quod nactus es is the Object of addam.)
placuit ei, ut ad Ariovistum legatos mitteret, it seemed best to him that
he should send ambassadors to Ariovistus; B. G. 1, 34, 1. (Ut
. . . mitteret is the Subject of placuit.)
legatos mitti placet ? does it seem best that ambassadors be sent ? Phil. 5,
9, 25.
placuit experiri, it seemed best to try; Caecin. 7, 20.
a. The Infinitive in such relations, even when standing alone, is the equivalent of a
clause. No line can be drawn in the a'wve between the three subjects of placuit or placet.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
239. Clauses modifying Verbs are called Adverbial.
nec enim, dum eram vobiscum, animum meum videbatis, for while I was
with you, you did not see my soul, Sen. 22, 79. (Dum eram
vobiscum is attached, like an Adverb of time, to videbatis.)
241] Nouns 139

B. THE PARTS OF. SPEECH IN DETAIL

NOUNS
240. Nouns are divided into the following kinds :
1 . Proper Nouns denote particular persons, places, or things, as Cicero,
Cicero; Roma, Rome; Mausoleum, the tomb of Mausolus.
2. Common Nouns denote any person or thing of a given class, as
senator, senator; servus, slave; miles, soldier; urbs, city; sepulcrum, tomb.
a. Proper Nouns are sometimes used like Common Nouns, as Catones, men
like Cato ; Am. 6, 21.
b. Common Nouns are sometimes used like Adjectives, as victorem exerci-
tum, victorious army ; B. G. 7, 20, 12.
3. Collective Nouns denote a. group or class of persons or things, as sena-
tus, senate (collection of senators) ; exercitus, army (collection of soldiers).
4. Concrete Nouns denote things that can be perceived by the senses
(sight, touch, hearing, etc.), as mums, wall; aurum, gold; sonus, sound.
5. Abstract Nouns denote things that cannot be perceived by the
senses, namely, qualities, states of mind, conditions, activities, and the
like, as virtus, virtue; sapientia, wisdom; servitium, serfdom, slavery.
a. Abstract Nouns are occasionally used with concrete meaning. Thus
servitia concitat, he is stirring up the slaves ; Cat. 4, 6, 13.
b. The Plural of Abstracts is often used to express acts, instances, or kinds.
Thus audaciae, acts of insolence; Cat. 2, 5, 10.
c. In poetry, the Plural of either Abstract or Concrete Nouns is sometimes
used for the singular to produce a more striking effect.
d. The line between Concrete and Abstract Nouns is impossible to draw
sharply. Thus animus, mind, lies between the two.

ADJECTIVES (and Participles, in Certain Parallel Uses)

COMPARISON
241. 1. The three degrees of Comparison have the same
meanings as in English.
2. But the Comparative is also used merely to indicate a higher
degree of the quality or condition than is usual (English rather or
too), as loquacior, rather talkative ; audacior, too bold.
3. The Superlative is used, more freely than in English, to indicate a
very high degree of the quality or condition, as loquacissimus, most
talkative, very talkative; eruditissimus, very learned.
a. In this sense, the Superlative is often strengthened by the addition of vel, even ;
or unus, the one. Thus vel gumma paupertas, even the greatest poverty ; Tusc. 5, 39, 1 13.
140 Syntax [241

4. To indicate the highest degree possible, the Superlative is accom

panied by quam with some form of possum, or by quam alone.
navis quam plurimas possunt cogunt, they collect as many ships as they
can (as many as possible) ; B. G. 3, 9, 9.
quam plurimas civitatis, as many states as possible; B. G. 1, 9, 3.
242. Two Comparatives. When an object is said to possess a quality
in a higher degree than some other quality (English rather . . . than),
both Adjectives regularly take the same form.
pestilentia minacior quam pemiciosior, a plague that was alarming rather than
destructive (more alarming than destructive) ; Liv. 4, 52, 3.
magis invidioso crimine quam vero, on an accusation that was invidious rather
than true (more invidious than true); Verr. 2, 46, 113.
a. The uses of the Comparative Adverb correspond, as also for 241.
Compare 241 with 300, and 242 with 301.

SPECIAL USES OF CERTAIN ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES

243. The Romans used the Adjectives prior, princeps, primus, postre-
mus, and ultimus to express the idea offirst, or last, to do a thing.
ea princeps poenas persolvit, this was thefirsttopay thepenalty; B. G. 1, 12, 6.
244. The Romans used certain Adjectives to denote apart. Thus :
primus, first summus, topmost medius, middle
postremus, last infimus (imus), lowest serus, late
extremus, outermost intimus, innermost multus, much
summus mons, the top of the mountain ; B. G. 1, 22, 1.
multo die, late in the day (in the late part of the day) ; B. G. 1, 22, 4.
primo impetu, at the beginning of the attack ; B. G. 2, 24, 1.
a. This use must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary one, as in
ante primam vigiliam, before thefirst watch ; B. G. 7, 3, 3.
245. The Romans generally used certain Adjectives and Participles
where we use Adverbs. The most common of these are :
sciens, witting{ly) inVitus, unwilling'ly) assiduus, constant'ly)
inacieas,uuwitting(ly) laetus, glad'ly) praeceps, headlong
libens, willing(ly) maestus,sorrowful(ly) frequens. in great numbers
laeti pergunt, proceedjoyfully : B. G. 3. 18, 8.
frequentes venerunt, came in great numbers; B. G. 4, 13, 4.
249] Adjectives 141

246. When multus is used with an Adjective or Participle expressing

quality, the two are generally connected by a word meaning " and."
multis gravibusque vulneribus, with many dangerous wounds ; B. G. 2, 25, 1.
multis ac summis viris, to many influential men ; Cat. 1, 4, 10.
247. A Distributive Numeral is used instead of a Cardinal :
1. If its Noun is Singular in meaning, though Plural in form (104,4;
10S). Thus duas epistulas or binas litteras, two letters (of correspond
ence. Duas litteras would mean two letters of the alphabet).
a. For three, trim, not term, is used in prose with such a noun.
b. For one, uni is used (not singuli), as unas litteras, one letter.
2. Usually in multiplication, as bis blni, twice two.
3. Occasionally in poetry with the meaning of the corresponding
Cardinal, as in centenas manus, a hundred hands ; Aen. 10, 566.

THE PARTICIPLE AS ADJECTIVE

248. Participles are often used as Adjectives. But in
Ciceronian Latin the only Future Active Participles thus
used are futurus and venturus.
acutus et providens, intelligent andfarsighted; Fam. 6, 6, 9.
opinio venturi boni, an impression of coming good; Tusc. 4, 7, 14.

ADJECTIVE OR PARTICIPLE AS SUBSTANTIVE

249. Certain Adjectives and Participles are used as Sub
stantives.
1. In the Singular Number, the Masculine denotes a class of persons,
the Neuter a quality, or a corresponding abstract idea.
iustus, the just man iustum, that which is just, justice
timidus, the timid man timens, the man that fears
2. In the Plural, the Masculine denotes a class of persons, the Neutet
either a class of things or a number of instances of a quality.
iustt, the just iusta, due ceremonies (just things)
bonl, the good bona, good things, goods, blessings
docti, the learned, scholars praeterita, past things, the past
142 Syntax [250

250. In prose, the Substantive uses of the Adjective and

Participle are confined within certain limits, as follows :
1 . In the Singular :
a) The Masculine 1 of the Participle is freely used in any Case except
the Nominative and Vocative, and in any construction.
b) The Masculine of the Adjective is freely used in the Predicate
Genitive only (340). If it is of the Third Declension, this construction
is preferred to that of the Predicate Nominative.
dementis est, it is thepart ofa madman (not demensest); Off. 1 , 24, 83 .
c) The Masculine Nominative of either the Adjective or the Par
ticiple is rare in prose, unless modified by a Pronoun (hic, quisque, etc.) ;
but it is freely employed by the poets.
semper avarus eget, the miserly is always poor ; Ep. 1, 2, 56.
Note 1. In place of using the Masculine Nominative Adjective alone, the
prose writers generally couple it with vir or homo, as in vir bonus, the good man ;
Tusc. 5, 16, 48.
Note 2. In place of usingthe Masculine Nominative Participle alone, the prose
writers generally use is qui, e.g. is qui timet, the man who fears ; Leg. 1, 14, 41.
d) The Neuter of the Adjective is freely used in any Case, but is espe
cially frequent with Prepositions and in the Genitive of the Whole (346).
in angusto, in straits; B. G. 2, 25, 1.
sine dubio, without doubt; Cat. 2, 1 , 1 .
nihil solidi, nothing solid; N. D. 1, 27, 75.
Note. This Genitive is rare with Adjectives of the Third Declension (346, a).
2. In the Plural :
a) The Masculine of either the Adjective or the Participle is freely
used in any Case and in any construction.
cognovit montem a suis teneri, learned that the mountain was held
by his men; B. G. 1, 22, 4.
qui leviter aegrotantis leniter curant, who cure the moderately sick
by mild methods; Off. 1, 24, 83.
b) The Neuter is generally avoided except in the Nominative and
Accusative, in which the form makes the Gender clear. In other Cases,
the Noun res, with the Adjective in agreement, is generally preferred.
omnia, all things, Cat. 1, 13, 32 ; but omnium rerum, of all things,
Pomp. 9, 22.
1 The uses of the Feminine correspond for all the constructions of this section, but
examples are rare.
254] Pronouns 143

Note. Perfect Passive Participles used as Substantives may retain the verb-feeling
sufficiently to be modified by an Adverb, or they may completely become Nouns, and
so have an Adjective agreeing with them. Thus facta rScte, deeds well done, Cat. 3,
12, 27; but improbis factis, evil deeds, Fin. 1, 16, 51. Similarly in the Singular.
251. Many words which came to be used as simple Nouns
were originally Adjectives or Participles. Thus :
amicus, friend dextra, the right hand
inimicus, enemy sinistra, the left hand
propinquus, relation hiberna, winter quarters
par (an even thing), a pair institutum, institution
252. Rarely, a Perfect Passive Participle is used impersonally (287 )
as a Noun.
notumque furens quid femina possit, and the knowledge to what lengths a
woman in wrath may go ; Aen. 5, 6. (Notum = notitia.)

PRONOUNS AND CORRESPONDING ADJECTIVES

253. Pronouns and corresponding Adjectives are divided
into the following classes :
I. Personal, and VI. Determinative-Descriptive
Personal Possessive VII. Interrogative
II. Reflexive, and VIII. Indefinite
Reflexive Possessive IX. Collective
III. Reciprocal X. Distributive
IV. Intensive XI. Pronominal Adjectives
V. Identifying XII. Relative

I. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THE CORRE

SPONDING POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
254. The Personal Pronouns denote persons, with no further
idea (/, you, etc.). The Possessive Pronouns denote persons
as possessors {mine, your, etc.).
a. The Personal Genitives in -i (mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri) are
generally Objective (354) ; while nostrum and vestrum are Genitives of
the Whole (846).
memoriam nostri, the recollection of us ; Sen. 22, 81.
unumquemque nostrum, every one of us ; Cat. 1, 1, 2.
b. But the form in -um is occasionally used Objectively, and is regularly used with
omnium, whatever the construction. Thus omnium nostrum salutem, the safety of us
all; Cat. 1, 6, 14.
144 Syntax [255

255. Latin has no true Personal Pronoun of the Third Person (he,
she, etc.). The place of this is supplied by one of the Determinative
Pronouns (271), — most frequently by is.
Helvetii legatos ad eum miserunt, the Helvetians sent ambassadors
to him ; B. G. 1, 27, 1.
256. The place of the Possessive Pronoun of the Third Person is
supplied by the Genitive of one of the Determinative Pronouns (271),
— most frequently of is.
consilio eius, by his plan (the plan of him); B. G. 4, 21, 5.
257. Since the form of the Verb shows its person, the Personal
Pronouns are generally not expressed as Subjects. But they are neces
sarily expressed when emphasis or contrast is intended.
Not expressed : polliceor, I promise ; Cat. 1, 13, 32.
Expressedfor emphasis : ego curabo, I will attend to it; Ph. 713.
Expressedfor contrast : tuos (= tuus) est damnatus gnatus, non tii, it was
your son that was condemned, not you ; Ph. 422.
a. Quidem is often added to tu for still further emphasis. Equidem is mostly confined
to the first person, and the pronoun is not expressed. Thus haud equidem adsentior . . . ;
perseveras tu quidem, / do not assent . . . ; you keep on ; Leg. 3, 11, 26.
258. The Possessive Pronouns are generally not expressed if the
meaning is clear without them. But they are necessarily expressed
where clearness requires, or where emphasis or contrast is intended.
When expressed for clearness, they, like Adjectives, follow their
Nouns. When expressed for emphasis or contrast, they, like Adjec
tives under the same circumstances, precede their Nouns.
Not expressed: fflium narras mihi? doyou talk to me of (my) son? Ph. 401.
Expressedfor clearness : opera tua ad restim mihi res redit, through your
doing it has come to be a hanging matter for me; Ph. 685.
Expressed for emphasis : mipatrue! my dear Ph. 254.
Expressedfor contrast: nostran culpa ea est an iudicum ? is it our fault
or the judges'? Ph. 275.
259. Plural of Dignity. The Personal or Possessive Pronoun of
the First Person is often used in the Plural instead of the Singular, for
greater dignity.
ad senatum referemus, we (= I) shall refer (other matters) to the
senate; Cat. 2, 12, 26.
362] Reflexive Pronouns 145

II. THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND THE CORRE- .

SPONDING POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
260. The Reflexive Pronouns and corresponding Posses-
sives denote persons who are also the Subject of the Verb
(as in 1 love myself, you love your son), or of an activity
expressed by an Adjective or Noun.
se alunt, they support themselves ; B. G. 4, 1, 5.
conservatio sui, the saving of himself; Fin. 5, 13, 37.
a. In the First and Second Persons, the Reflexive Pronouns and
Possessives are identical with the Personal Pronouns and Possessives
(ego, meus, tu, tuus, etc.). Thus me amat, he loves me, and me amo,
/ love myself (I love me).
b. In the Third Person, the Reflexive Pronoun is se (or sese), and
the Reflexive Possessive is suus. (For ipse as Reflexive, see 263.)
261. The Latin Reflexive Pronouns and corresponding Possessives are
generally not accompanied by any word corresponding to our English "self."
me defend!, / have defended myself; Cat. 1, 5, 11.
se ex navi proiecit, he flung himselffrom the ship ; B. G. 4, 25, 4.
suis finibus eos prohibent, they keep them from their territory ; B. G. 1, 1, 4.
a. Yet ipse, self, is sometimes added. See 268.
262. S6 and suus are used mainly in two ways :
1 . To refer to the Subject of the clause in which they stand. (" Direct
Reflexive.")
se suaque omnia dediderunt, they surrendered themselves and all their
possessions ; B. G. 2, 15, 2.
2. To refer to the Subject of the main clause, though themselves
standing in a subordinate clause. ("Indirect Reflexive.")
This is possible only where the subordinate clause expresses the
thought of the Subject of the main clause.
his mandavit ut quae diceret Ariovistus ad se referrent, he charged them
to report to him what Ariovistus should say ; B. G. 1, 47, 5.
a. Where the subordinate clause expresses the thought, not of the subject
of the main clause, but of the writer or speaker, is is used, not se, and eius,
etc., not suus, to refer to that subject ; for the idea in this case is not reflexive,
cum propter multas eius virtiites magna cum dignitate viveret, since on account
ofhis many virtues he was enjoyinggreat authority ; Nep. Them. 8, 2.
146 Syntax [263

263. In a subordinate clause ipse may be used as a Reflexive

referring to the Subject of the main clause, as follows :
1 . Where/wf Reflexivesareneeded,refemngtoM^ja»z*personorthing.
Ariovistus respondit : si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum
venturum fuisse, A riovistus replied that, if he himself had wanted
anythingfrom Caesar, he would have come to him ; B. G. 1, 34, 2.
2. Where two Reflexives are needed, referring to different persons
or things.
cur de sua virtute aut de ipslus dfligentia desperarent ? (Caesar asked) why
they shoulddespair oftheir own valor or his vigilance; B. G. 1,40, 4.
3. Where se or suus would be ambiguous :
erat el praeceptum a Caesare ne proelium committeret, nisi ipsius copiae
prope hostium castra visae essent, he had been instructed by Caesar
not to join battle, unless his (Caesar's) forces should be seen near
the enemy's camp ; B. G. 1, 22, 3.
264. Se, suus, and ipse gain the following extensions of usage •.
1. Suus is often used to refer to the subject of an act involved in the
thought, though not distinctly stated.
Caesar Fabium cum sua legion remittit in hiberna, Caesar sends Fabius
back with his (Fabius's) legion to his winter quarters (Fabius went
back with his legion) ; B. G. 5, 53, 3.
2. Suus is occasionally used to refer to the person most prominent in
the thought of the sentence, even though that person is neither the
grammatical nor the real (" logical ") subject.
desinant insidiari domi suae consuli, let them cease to set an ambuscade
for the consul in his own house ; Cat. 1,13, 32.
a. So especially with quisque, as in suus cuique erat locus attributes, to each
had been assigned his proper place (his own place to each) ; B. G. 7, 8i, 4.
3. Out of the meaning own arise the meanings proper, favorable, etc.
de ordine praecipiemus suo tempore, on the matter of rank we wiH^ive
instructions at the proper time (its time) ; Quintil. 2, 4, 21.
si hostis in suum locum elicere posset, if he could draw the enemy into a
favorable place (his own place) ; B. G. 5, 50, 3.
a. Similarly noster, our, may have the meaning favorable, and aliSnus
belonging to another, the meaning unfavorable.
4. Se, suus, and ipse are often used of an indefinite self.
deforme est de se ipsum praedicare, it is bad form to brag about one's
self; Off. 1, 38, 137.
 Reciprocal Pronouns 147

III. PRONOUNS USED WITH RECIPROCAL FORCE

265. The Pronouns used with Reciprocal Force denote two
or more persons as affecting each other or one another.
The reciprocal idea may be expressed, for two persons or things,
by using alter or uterque twice, in different cases ; for more than two
persons or things, by using alius twice, in different cases,
at alter alter! auxilio esset, so that each was of assistance to the other;
B. G. 5, 44, 14.
uterque utrique est cordi, they are dear to each other; Ph. 800.
accedebat ut alios alii deinceps exciperent, then besides, they relieved one
another successively ; B. G. 5, 16, 4.
a. The reciprocal idea is sometimes expressed by ipsi, with sui, sibi, or se\
ubi milites sibi ipsos esse impediments vidit, when he saw that the soldiers
were hindering one another ; B. G. 2, 25, 1.
266. The phrase inter nos (or vos, or se), is used with reciprocal force,
in any case-relation.
cohortati inter se, encouraging one another ; B. G. 4, 25, 5.
quo differant inter sese, wherein they differ from one another ; B. G. 6, 11, 1.

IV. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN

267. The Intensive Pronoun ipse, self, expresses emphasis
or distinction.
Catilina ipse profugit ; hi quid exspectant ? Catiline himself has fled;
what, then, are these men waitingfor? Cat. 2, 3, 6.
a. Ipse is sometimes used alone, to denote a person prominent in the minds
of the speaker and the hearer.
respondere solitos: "ipse dixit"; "ipse" autem erat Pythagoras, they used
to answer "he said so himself" ; now "himself" was Pythagoras ;
N. D. 1, 5, 10.
sSdes in Gallia, ab ipsis concessas, a home in Gaul, granted by (the Gauls)
themselves ; B. G. 1, 44, 2.
268. When ipse is used at the same time with the Reflexive Pronoun
(see 261) it agrees with the Subject or with the Reflexive, according as
the idea of the one or the other is to be emphasized.
me ipse condemno, I condemn myself; Cat. 1, 2, 4. (Self as actor.)
nee agrum sed ipsum me excolo, and I cultivate, not my field, but myself;
Plin. Ep. 4, 6, 2. (Self as object)
148 Syntax [269

269. Ipse is much more freely used than English " self," being
employed to express ideas conveyed by our " very," " mere," " pre
cisely," " exactly," " positively," " in person," " of his own motion," etc.
in ipsis fluminis ripis, on the very banks of the river; B. G. 2, 23, 3.
Catilinam ipsum egredientem verbis prosecuti sumus,2f« havepresentedCati
line with ourcompliments as he wentout ofhis own accord; Cat. 2, 1 , 1 .
a. For ipse as a Reflexive, see 263 ; for ipsius with a Possessive Pronoun, 339, b.

V. THE IDENTIFYING PRONOUN

270. Idem, same, identifies a person or thing with one that
has just been mentioned or is immediately to be mentioned,
eadem de causa, for the same reason (mentioned before) ; B. G. 2, 7, 2.
a. Idem often corresponds to English " also," " likewise," or " yet."
dixi ego idem in senatii, / also said in the senate (I, the same man) ; Cat. 1, 3, 7.
b. " The same as " is expressed by idem qui or idem atque or ac (307, 2, a).

VI. THE DETERMINATIVE-DESCRIPTIVE PRONOUNS

AND CORRESPONDING ADJECTIVES
hie, iste, ille, is, talis, tantus, tot
271. These Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives have the
power of telling either (I) what person or thing is meant
(determinative power), or (II) what kind of person or thing
is meant (descriptive power).
I. Determinative Use: Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, Quintus
Maximus, (I mean) the man who recovered Tarentum ; Sen. 4, 10.
id quod constituerant facere conantur, they endeavor to do (what ?) that which
they had determined upon ; B. G. 1 , 5, 1 .
II. Descriptive Use: habetis eum consulem qui non dubitet, you have (what
kind of consul?) a consul that does not hesitate ; Cat. 4, 11, 24.
a. The distinctive meanings of these words are as follows :
Hic, this, or of this kind, refers to something near the speaker, in space, time,
or thought.
Iste, that (of yours), or of that kind, refers to something near the person
addressed, in space, time, or thought.
Ule, that, or of that kind, refers to something more remote from both the
speaker and the person addressed, in space, time, or thought,
[s, this, that, or of this kind, of that kind, is less specific than any of these, and
may be used in place of any of them.
274] Determinative-Descriptive Pronouns 149

Talis, such, expresses a quality just indicated or to be indicated immediately.

Tantus, so great, expresses a size just indicated or to be indicated immediately.
Tot, so many, expresses a number just indicated or to be indicated immediately.
Note. Hie is often called the Pronoun of the First Person (this by me),
iste of the Second {that by you), and Ule of the Third (that by him).
272. The Determinative Pronouns are often used substantively, thus
supplying the place of the Third Personal Pronoun. See 255, 256.
a. In the Neuter, the substantive use is very common.
b. Ea r5s, etc., is often preferred to id, hoc, etc., especially where there might be a
doubt about the gender (cf. 250, 2, b).
273. From their meanings, the Determinative Pronouns and
Pronominal Adjectives are adapted to point to something at
hand, either in bodily presence or in the speaker's thought,
hic tamen vivit, yet this man is allowed to live (Catiline, who sits
before the speaker, and at whom he points); Cat. 1, 1, 2.
his paucis diebus, within these few days (i.e. the last few); B. G. 3, 17, 3.
a. A neuter pronoun is often used to point backward or forward to a
substantive clause. So especially id, eo, hoc, hoc, and illud.
eo quod memoria teneret, for the reason that he remembered (for this reason,
namely that); B. G. 1, 14, 1.
cum id nuntiatum esset, eos conari, when it was announced that they were
endeavoring ; B. G. 1, 7, 1. (Id is a mere "expletive," like English "it")
b. In Latin, a Noun-idea repeated, with a change only in a dependent
word, is generally left unexpressed. In English, we use a Pronoun,
carinae aliquanto planiores quam nostrarum navium, the hulls were somewhat
flatter than (those) of our ships ; B. G. 3, 13, 1.
274. Certain Determinative Pronouns gain special uses :
1 . Me is often used of a person or thing familiar to everybody, —
that (well-known), that (famous) person or thing.
M. Catonem, ilium senem, Marcus Cato, that (famous) old man; Arch. 7,16.
2. Hic and ille are often used to distinguish between persons or things
just mentioned, hic meaning the one last mentioned (" the latter "), and
ille the one mentioned farther back (" the former ").
si haec non dico maiora fuerunt in Clodio quam in Milone, sed in illo
maxima, nulla in hoc, if these (bad qualities) were, I will not say
greater in Clodius than in Milo, but immensely great in theformer,
and non-existent in the latter; Mil. 13, 35.
 Syntax [274

a. But sometimes hie refers to the person or thing more prominent in the
speaker's thought, and ille to the one less prominent, although the order in
which they have been mentioned is the opposite.
b. Hic and ille are often weakened into mere Indefinite Pronouns.
modo hoc modo illud, now one thing, now another ; N. D. i, 18, 47. Similarly
iam hos iam illos, Aen. 4, 157.
3. Is or is quidem, and ille or ille quidem, in combination with various
connectives (et, atque, nec, etc.), are used when a second and still more
striking quality or action is to be added to one already attributed to a
person or thing (English " and that," " and that too ").
vincula, et ea sempitema, imprisonment, and that toofor life ; Cat. 4, 4, 7.
a. Id, in combination with various connectives (et, -que, etc.), is used when
a similar addition is to be made to an idea expressed by a verb,
doctum hominem cognovi, idque a puero, / know him to be aperson oflearning,
and that toofrom boyhood; Fam. 13, 16, 4.
4. Iste is often used to express contempt.
de istis, qui se popularis haberi volunt, of these fellows who want them
selves to be thoughtfriends of the people; Cat. 4, 5, 10.

VII. THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND COR

RESPONDING ADJECTIVES
275. The Interrogative Pronouns and corresponding Adjec
tives are those which ask a question, namely :
1. Uter, which ? used in speaking of two persons or things, quis, who ?
which ? in speaking of any larger number.
in utro haec fuit, in Milone, an in Clodio ? in which of the two did this
exist, in Milo or in Clodius? Mil. 16, 43.
quis est me nritior? who is gentler than I? Cat. 4, 6, 11.
2. Cuius (-a, -um), whose? (rare),
cuium pecus? whoseflock is this? Eel. 3, 1.
3. Quot, how many ? quotus, which in order ? (e.g. second, third, etc.)
"quot sunt? " "Totidem quot ego et tii sumus," " how many are there
of them ?" "As many as ofyou and me'' ; Rud. 564.
hora quota est? what o'clock isit? (what in the order of hours?) ; Sat. 2,6,44.
4. Qui, what? of what kind? (= qualis ; see under 5).
at quod erat tempus? but what kind of a situation was it? Mil. 15, 39.
a. The poets sometimes use qui for quis in independent questions. In
dependent questions, the distinction stated is not always observed, even in
Ciceronian Latin. Cf. 141, a.
276] Indefinite Pronouns

5. Qualis, of what kind? quantus, how great ?

ubi tua (mens) aut qualis ? where is your mind, or of what nature ?
Tusc. 1, 27, 67.
" quanti (emptae) ? " " Octussibus," " (bought) at what price ? " "Eight
cents" ; Sat. 2, 3, 156.
6. Ecquis, any ? (without implication), and num quis, any ? (implying
" none "), are indefinite interrogatives.
ecquid adferebat festinationis ? did it occasion any delay? Mil. 19, 49.

VIII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND CORRE

SPONDING ADJECTIVES
276. The Indefinite Pronouns and corresponding Adjec
tives present the idea of some person, thing, quality, or
quantity, without further explanation.
quis, qui ; aliquis, aliqui ; quispiam ;
nescio 1 quis ; quidam, non nullus ; quisquam, ullus ;
utervis, uterlibet ; quivis, quflibet ; neuter, nullus ;
quantusvis, quantuslibet
1. Quis (or the corresponding Adjective qui), the vaguest of the
indefinites, means any one, some one, and is used chiefly with si, nisi, ne,
and with Interrogative 2 or Relative 8 words. It always stands after one
or more words of its clause.
roget quis, some one may ask; Eun. 511.
si quid his accidat, if anything should happen to them; B. G. 3, 22, 2.
2. Aliquis (or the corresponding Adjective aliqui) means somebody,
some one, as opposed to nobody.
si vis esse aliquid, ifyou want to be somebody (something) ; Iuv. 1, 74.
3. Quispiam, some one, approaches aliquis in force.
cum quaepiam cohors ex orbe excesserat, when some cohort had gone out
of the circle; B. G. 5, 35, 1.
4. Nescio quis (originally / don't know who) means somebody or other
(it doesn't matter who). It often is contemptuous.
nescio quo pacto, in some way or other; Cat. 1, 13, 31.
1 NesciS quis with iambic shortening as in volo, etc. (28, note), in all poetical occur
rences, in the hexameter necessarily so.
a E.g. nam ? ubi ? » E.g. cum, ubi, quo, quants.
152 Syntax [276

5. Quidam means a certain one (who might be named or more

definitely made known or described, if necessary),
video esse hic quosdam, qui tecum una fuerunt, / see that there are certain
men here present who were in your company; Cat. 1, 4, 8.
a. Like English " a certain," quidam is sometimes employed to soften an adjective
or noun. In this use it is frequently accompanied by quasi, as it were, so to speak.
omnes artes quasi cognatione quadam inter se continentur, all the arts are
bound together by a certain relationship, as it were; Arch. 1, 2.

1 6. Non nullus (not none) means some, or, in the Plural, several, a
number of. It differs from quidam in not suggesting that a more
definite statement might be made.
non nulli inter carros mataras subiciebant, some of them were throwing
javelins from below among the carts ; B. G. 1, 26, 3.
a. Non nSmd may be used in the same way. §ee example, 298, 2.

7. Quisquam, any at all, and the corresponding Adjective ullus are

used only in negative sentences or phrases, in questions implying a nega
tive, in clauses following a Comparative or Superlative, in Relative
Clauses, and in Conditions.
neque quisquam est tam aversus a Musis, nor is any one so hostile to the
Muses; Arch. 9, 20.
cur quisquam iudicaret? why should any one judge? (= no one should);
B. G. 1, 40, 2.
sine 6lld periculo, without any danger; B. G. 2, 11, 6.
taetrior quam quisquam superiorum, more hideous than any of his prede
cessors ; Verr. 4, 55, 123.
quam diu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, as long as there shall be
any one who will dare to defendyou ; Cat. 1, 2, 6.
si quicquam sperent, if they have any hope; B. G. 5, 41, j-

8. Utervis and uterlibet mean either of two indifferently (" whichever

you wish "), and quivis and quDibet, any one whatever (" any you
wish") of three or more. Quantusvis and quantuslibet mean of any
size whatever.
minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, / have less strength than
either of you; Sen. 10, 33.
ad quemvis numerum, up to any number whatever ; B. G. 4, 2, 5.
quantasvis copias, forces of any size whatever; B. G. 5, 28, 4.
278] Collective Pronoun 153

9. Neuter means neither of the two, and nullus, no one out of a

larger number. They are thus the negative words corresponding
respectively to utervis and qulvis.
neutri transeundi initium faciunt, neither party begins the crossing;
B. G. 2, 9, 2.
nullo hoste prohibente, with no enemy to prevent; B. G. 3, 6, 5.
a. The Plural forms of neuter have regularly the meaning of neither of the two
parties, as in the first example just above.
b. Nullus is sometimes used for nemo (i.e. as a Substantive), but rarely in Cicero.
c. Nemo is occasionally used for nullus (i.e. as an Adjective), as in servus est nemo,
there is no slave ; Cat. 4, 8, 16; nemo homo, no man ; Pers. 211.
d. Nemo is regularly used instead of nullus, to agree with a Proper Name or an
Adjective, Participle, or Pronoun used substantively.
nemo CornSlius, no Cornelius ; Att. 6, 1, 18.
nemo alius, no other ; Brut. 88, 302.
10. Quicumque, whosoever, and qualiscumque, of what kind soever
(properly Generalizing; 282, II), are sometimes used as Indefinite Pro
nouns or Adjectives even in Cicero's time, and very frequently later.
quae sanari poterunt, quacumque ratione sanabd, what can be healed,
I'll heal in any way soever; Cat. 2, 5, 1 1.

IX. THE COLLECTIVE PRONOUN

277. AmbO means both, i.e. two taken together.
ambo incolumes sese recipiunt, both return unharmed; B. G. 5, 44, 13.
a. For a larger number, Latin uses the Adjective omnes, all.

X. THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS

278. 1. Uterque (uter, either of two, plus the indefinite enclitic
-que, soever) means either soever of two, each of two, taken
separately. (Compare ambo, both of two, taken together)
uterque cum equitatu veniret, (demanded) that each ofthe two should
come with cavalry ; B. G. 1, 42, 4.
a. The Plural forms of uterque have the sense of each of the two sides, each of the
two parties, etc.
pugnatum est ab utrisque acriter, each of the two sides fought valiantly ; B. G. 4, 26, 1.
b. But with a Noun Singular in meaning though Plural in form (105), the Plural of
uterque is Singular in meaning.
utrisque castris, for each camp ; B. G. 1, 51, 1.
c. For uterque with reciprocal force, see 265.
154 Syntax [278

2 . Quisque (quis, any, plus the indefinite enclitic -que, soever) means any
one soever, each, all, etc., taken individually. (Compare omnes, all, taken
together.) 1 1 is used with the following words, and immediately after them :
a) With Reflexive, Relative, or Interrogative words.
pro se quisque, each to the best of his power; B. G. 2, 25, 3.
quam quisque in partem devenit, to whateverplace each came; B. G. 2, 2 i , 6.
quid quoque loco faciendum esset, what needed to be done in each place;
B. G. 5, 33, 3.
b) With Superlatives, to indicate a class.
optimus quisque, all the best men (each best man); Arch. 11, 26.
c) With Ordinal Numerals.
decimum quemque, one man in ten (every tenth man) ; B. G. 5, 52, 2.
quotus quisque formdsus est ! howfew are handsome ! (one of how many
is each handsome man?); N. D. 1, 28, 79.

XI. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES

alter, alius
279. 1. When used singly, alter means the other or one,
where two are thought of ; and alius means other or another,
where more than two are thought of.
itinera duo, unum per Sequanos, alteram per provinciam nostram, two
ways, one through the country of the Sequani, the other through
the province; B. G. 1,6, 1.
altero oculo capitur, is blinded in one eye; Liv. 22, 2, 11.
Alius Domiti aliique complures adulescentes, the son of Domitius and
several other young men; B. C. 1, 23, 2.
a. Ceteri differs from alii in meaning all the others, the rest.
hosce ego homines excipio ; ceteri vero qua virtiite consentiunt ! these men I
except ; but how nobly all the rest agree ! Cat. 4, 7, 15.
b. Reliqui, those remaining, approaches ceteri in force, but does not
so insist upon completeness.
oppida sua, vicos, reliqua privata aedificia incendunt, they set fire to their towns,
their villages, and the private buildings that remained ; B. G. 1 , 5, 2.
2. Alter or alius is often used twice, with correlative meaning, one . . .
the other, one . . . another.
harum altera occisa, altera capta est, of these, one was killed, the other
taken prisoner; B. G. 1, 53, 4.
282] Relative Pronouns 155

3. Alius is often used twice in the same clause or phrase, with the
meaning one . . . one . . . , another . . . another.
alius alia ex navi se adgregabat, they were gathering, one from one ship,
anotherfrom another; B. G. 4, 26, 1.
4. For alter and alius with reciprocal force, see 266.
a. The Adverbs aliter, alias, and alibi are used with forces corresponding
in all respects to those of alius, as given in 3 and 4.

XII. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND CORRESPONDING

ADJECTIVES
280. Introductory. The Latin Relative Pronoun is probably derived from two
sources (which were doubtless originally one), the Interrogative Pronoun and the Indefi
nite Pronoun, as follows :
In sentences like quis volet, vindex esto (Twelve Tables, II), the quis could be either
Interrogative or Indefinite. " Who shall wish ? He shall be protector " would lead to
the relative feeling, who shall wish, he shall be protector, i.e. he who shall wish shall be
protector! But so, also, could " any man shall wish : he shall be protector," i.e. whoever
shall wish, he shall be protector.
281. The Relative Pronouns and Adjectives are connecting
Pronouns and Adjectives referring to something that precedes
or follows.
a. The word to which a Relative refers is called its Antecedent.2
regnum quod pater habuerat, the royal power which his father had had;
B. G. 1, 3, 4. (Regnum is the Antecedent.)
282. The meanings of the Relatives are as follows :
I. Individual or Generalizing
qui, who, or whoever quantus, of what size, or of what
qualis, of which kind, or of what size soever
kind soever quot, of what number, or of what
number soever
II. Generalizing Only
quicumque, whoever quantuscumque, ofwhat size soever
quisquis, whoever quotcumque, 0/what number soever
qualiscumque, of what kind soever quotquot, of what number soever
a. Note that the uncompounded forms are either Individual or Generalizing
in meaning, while the compounded forms are always Generalizing.
1 Similarly, the English Relative "who" has arisen from the Interrogative "who."
a Because the word referred to generally comes before the Relative.
 Syntax [283

GENERALIZING FORMS WITH MERELY INDEFINITE MEANING

283. The same Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, or Adverbs which
may be used in a Generalizing sense can also be employed of individual
persons or things not definitely known to the speaker.
tibi hercle deos Iratos esse oportet, quisquis es, the gods must surely be angry atyou,
whoever you are ; Rud. 1 146. (The " you " is of course a particular person,
but the speaker doesn't know who) Similarly qoaecumque, Aen. 1, 330.

Peculiarities in the Use of the Latin Relative

284. 1. The Antecedent is often omitted, especially if indefinite.
ut quae bello ceperint quibus vendant habeant, that they may have (people)
to whom to sell what they take in war; B. G. 4, 2, 1.
a. The antecedent is often incorporated into the relative clause, appearing
only here.
habetis quam petistis facultatem, you have the opportunity which you have
been waitingfor ; B. G. 6, 8, 3,
2. The Relative is never omitted in Latin.
3. The Relative Clause is frequent in Latin, where English would use
a shorter expression (Noun, Participle, Appositive, etc.).
pontem qui erat ad Genavam, the bridge (which was) at Geneva (in Eng
lish idiom, the bridge at Geneva); B. G. 1, 7, 2.
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat, the man who bore the standard of
the tenth legion (= aquilifer); B. G.-4, 25, 3.
a. Yet occasionally the same condensation is found in Latin as in English,
sSd5s habere in Gallia ab ipsis concessas, (said) that he had a home in Gaul
(which had been) granted him by the Gauls themselves ; B. G. 1, 44, 2.
4. The Antecedent Noun is sometimes repeated, for greater distinct
ness, in the Relative Clause.
ultra eum locum, quo in loco Germani consederant, beyond the place in
which (place) the Germans had encamped; B. G. 1, 49, 1.
5. The Relative Clause often precedes its Antecedent. So especially
the Rhetorical Determinative Clause (550, a, n. 3).
quos ferro trucidari oportebat, eos nondum voce vulnero, / do not yet
wound with a word the men who ought to be slain with the sword
(what men . . . , those . . .) ; Cat. 1,4,9.
a. English idiom does not tolerate this order in prose.
6. When the Relative Clause precedes, the principal Noun is generally
attached to the Relative and takes its case.
28S] Verbs 15;

implorare debetis ut quam urbem pulcherrimam esse voluerunt, hanc

defendant, it is your duty to implore (the gods) that, since they
have chosen to make this city the fairest in the world, they will
defend it; Cat. 2, 13, 29. (For the translation, see a, just above.)
7. The Relative Clause frequently attracts into itself an Adjective
belonging to the Antecedent, especially if that Adjective is a Superlative,
consiliis pare, quae nunc pulcherrima Nautes dat, follow the admirable
plans which Nautes now proposes (follow the plans which, —
admirable they are, — Nautes proposes) ; Aen. 5, 728.
8. Latin often uses a Relative Pronoun where English would use a
Determinative or Personal Pronoun introduced by and, but, etc.
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so; Cat. 1, 5, 10.
9. More frequently than in English, the relative belongs in government
to a clause Subordinate to that which it really introduces,
nonpolitus iis artibus quas qui tenent erudlti appellantur,«<t/finishedin those
accomplishments the possessors of which are called learned; Fin. i,
7, 26 (those who possess which ; similarly cui qui pareat, Sen. 1, 2).
10. More frequently than in English, a Relative Adverb of place is
used, instead of a Relative Pronoun, to refer to a Personal Antecedent,
is unde te audisse dicis, the man front whom you say you heard it (the
man whence) ; De Or. 2, 70, 285.

VERBS
Expression (or Omission) of the Subject
285. Since the termination of the Finite Verb shows its Person and
Number (e.g. amo, I love; axn&a,you love; amant, they love), the Subject
does not need to be expressed, except for emphasis or contrast, or to
prevent ambiguity (cf. 257).
Subject omitted: abiit, he has gone away; Cat. 2, 1, 1.
Subject expressed for emphasis or contrast: tam ille apud nos servit
quam ego nunc apud te servio, he is a slave in our country just as
1 am now a slave in yours; Capt. 3 1 2.
Subject expressed to avoid ambiguity : Q. Laberius Dfirus, tribunus mfli-
tum, interflcitur. 1ll! pliiribus submissis cohortibus repelluntur, Quin-
tus Laberius Durus, a military tribune, is killed. They (i.e. the
enemy) are driven off by the sending of a number of cohorts to
the rescue; B. G. 5, 15, 5.
 Syntax [286

Indefinite Subject
286. The First and Third Persons Plural, and the Second Person
Singular Indefinite are used, as in English, to express an Indefinite
Subject ; ("we," "they," or "you" in the sense of "any one").
fortunatorum memorant insulas, they tell of the islands of the blessed
(men tell) ; Trin. 549.
datur ignis, tametsi ab inimico petas, fire is given you, even ifyou ask
it of an enemy ("you " is anybody); Trin. 679.

Impersonal Verbs
287. Some Verbs are used in the Third Singular without a Subject,
either expressed or understood, and are accordingly called Impersonal.
These Verbs express operations of nature, or mental distress, or acts
considered merely as such, without reference to the performer,
iam advesperascit, it is getting dark now ; And. 581.
eius me miseret, I pity him (it makes me pitiful of him) ; Ph. 188.
pugnatum est acriter, there was a fiercefight ; B. G. 3, 21, 1.
a. The name Impersonal is also conveniently applied to verbs that have an
Infinitive or a Clause for Subject, as in Insanire iuvat, His a pleasure to play
the madman; Carm. 3, 19, 18.

VOICE
288. 1. The Active Voice represents the Subject of the
Verb as acting or being.
Helvetii legatos mittunt, the Helvetians send ambassadors ; B. G. 1, 7, 3.
erant omnino itinera duo, there were in all but two ways; B. G. 1, 6, 1.
2. The Passive Voice represents the Subject as acted upon.
mittitur C. Arpineius, Gaius Arpineius is sent; B. G. 5, 27, 1.
3. Reflexive Use of the Passive.1 The Passive Voice is sometimes
used, especially in poetry, in a reflexive sense, to express an act as done
by the actor to or for himself.
ad spectaculum omnes effunduntur, all pour out to see the show ; Liv. 39, 49, 8.
(Cf. sese multitudo effudit, the crowd poured itself out ; B. C. 2, 7, 3.)
umeros instemor pelle, I cover my shoulders with a skin ; Aen. 2, 721.
1 Often called " Middle Voice," as in Greek.
290] Verbs

a. An Active verb that can be used reflexively in a Passive Finite form can also be
used reflexively in the Present Active Participle. Compare exercentur, exercise (them
selves), Tusc. 2, 23, 56, with exercentibus, exercising, De Or. 2, 71, 287.
b. The Deponent Verbs (160) were originally Reflexive. Thus vescor, eat (origi
nally, feed myself).
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
289. A Transitive Verb is one that expresses an action
immediately directed upon some person or thing ("transitive"
= passing over upon). That upon which the action is
immediately directed is called the Direct Object (390).
Caesar eius dextram prendit, Caesar took his hand; B. G. 1, 20, 5.
a. Absolute Use. A Transitive Verb may be used without an Object, to
represent the mere action, without reference to that upon which it is directed.
Thus arare mavelim, / shouldprefer to plough ; Merc. 356.
b. Similarly, verbs governing other cases than the Accusative may be used
Absolutely. Thus suscensendi tempus erit, there will be a time for being
angry; Liv.22,29,2; vescendi causa,for thepurpose of'eating ; Sail. Cat. 13,3.
290. An Intransitive Verb is one that expresses an act or
state not immediately directed upon any person or thing.
vivo et regno, / live and reign; Ep. 1, 10, 8.
a. Intransitive Verbs, generally speaking, have no Passive. But
1) An Intransitive Verb may be used impersonally in the Passive,
diu pugnatum est, there was a longfight (it was fought long); B. G. 1, 26, 1.
2) A few Intransitive Verbs may be used with a Subject of Kindred
Meaning.
ilia (pugna) quae cum rege est pugnata, the battle which was fought with
the king ; Mur.16, 34.
3) Verbs generally Intransitive are occasionally used in the Future
Passive Participle with true Passive meaning.
laetandum magis quam dolendum puts casum tuum, / think your fate is
rather to be rejoiced at than grieved over ; Sail. lug. 14, 22.
4) A few Perfect Passive Participles from Intransitive Verbs may be
used with Active meaning ; thus iuratus, having sworn, cenatus, having
dined, pransus, having breakfasted, potus, having drunk.
LQcullus iuratus dixit, Lucullus, having taken the oath, said ; Mil. 27, 73.
5) Coepi and desino with Infinitives of true Passive meaning are
generally themselves made Passive in form.
i6o Syntax [290

Mildnis consulatus temptari coeptus est, Afilo's candidature for the consulship
began to be assailed ; Mil. 13, 34. (But videri coepit, began to seem, in
Verr. 1, 50, 132, since videri has not true passive meaning here.)
Note 1. A verb may of course be Active, yet not be Transitive. Thus
regnat, reigns, is Active, because it expresses activity ; but it is not Transitive,
because the activity is not represented as immediately directed upon a person or
thing. We cannot say, for example, " the king reigns his subjects."
Note 2. Yet the poets sometimes force the meanings of Intransitive verbs,
and use them in the Passive.
terra regnlta Lycurgo, a land reigned over by Lycurgus ; Aen. 3, 13.

Voice-Meanings of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs

291. Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs (160, 161) are
active in meaning, except in the Future Passive Participle.
a. Accordingly, Transitive Deponents and Semi-Deponents have three
Participles of active meaning, and one of passive. Thus :
admirans, admiring admiratus, having admired
admiraturus, about to admire admlrandus, to be admired
b. Intransitive Deponents and Semi-Deponents of course lack a true
Future Passive Participle. Thus proficiscens, profectus, profecturus, .
But such Verbs may have a Gerund, and they may also have an imper
sonal Future Passive Participle. Thus ad proficiscendum,/or departing;
B. G. i, 3, i ; el proficiscendum est, he must depart ; Fin. 3, 22, 73.
c. For Future Passive Participles like laetandus, to be rejoiced at, see 290, a, 3).
d. The Perfect Passive Participle of Deponents and Semi-Deponents is sometimes
used with a true passive force.1
pactam diem, a date agreed upon ; Cat. 1, 9, 24.
adepta libertate, after freedom had been won ; Sall. Cat. 7, 3.

Subject of the Passive Voice

292. The Subject of the Passive Voice corresponds to the Direct
Object (390) of the Active. Thus Dick struck Tom (Active Voice)
becomes in the Passive Tom was struck by Dick.
a. Verbs that do not take an Accusative Object (390) in the Active Voice are regu
larly used only impersonally (287) in the Passive, with the same cases as in the Active,
ut hostibus nocSrS'tur, that harm might be done to the enemy ; B. G. 5, 19, 3. Compare
nocSre alteri, under 862, 1,
num. argumentis utendum ? must one make use ofarguments ? Verr. 4, 6, 1 i. Compare 429.
b. Yet Passives are sometimes formed from such verbs. Thus credits, believed, Aen. 2,
247 ; persuasus est, is persuaded, Caecin. ap. Fam. 6, 712 ; invldeor, / am envied, A. P. 56.
1 Especially of such Deponents as had also an active form in occasional use (e.g.
paciscor, occasionally pacisco ; adipiscor, occasionally adipisco).
 297] Adverbs 161

ADVERBS
293. Introductory. As explained in 124, 126, many Adverbs are simply stereo
typed case-forms, e.g. partim (as regards a pari), partly (old Acc. of Respect, 388),
hac, by this way (Abl. of Route, 426), vero, in truth (Abl. of Respect, 441), modo (with
a measure, exactly), just (Abl. of Manner, 445), misere, in a wretched manner (old
Ablative, 126, 1). A few are made up of Prepositions with a case, as admodum (to a
degree), very. Cf. 217, 4.
294. Adverbs express ideas of manner, degree, place, time, etc.
Thus ita, so or so much, ibi, there, tum, then.
295. Adverbs modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
(or Adverbial Phrases).
ita exercitum traducit, in this way he takes the army across; B. G. 1 , 13, 1 .
quartam fere partem, about a fourth part; B. G. 1, 12, 2.
minus facile, less easily ; B. G. 1, 2, 4.
paene in conspectu, almost within sight; B. G. 1, 1 1, 3.
a. Adverbs of number or degree may also, through brevity of expression, seem to
modify Nouns.
bis una consules, twice consuls together (= who had twice been consuls together) ; Am. 1 , 139.
b. In poetry and later prose, other Adverbs sometimes modify Nouns implying action.
populum latg regem, a people monarch (= ruling) far and wide; Aen. 1, 21.
baud dubie victor, beyond doubt a victor (= victorious) ; Sall. lug. 102, i.
c. A few Adverbs are freely used in the sense of Adjectives, espe
cially ita, sic, satis, bene, male. The poets extend the list.
quod satis esse arbitrabatur, which he thought to be sufficient ; B. G. 4, 22, 6.
sic sum, that 's the way I am (that 's the kind of man) j Ph. 527.
NEGATIVE ADVERBS
296. 1. The Sentence- Negative for the ideas of Command, Will, or
Wish is ne, not; or, if the negative is also a connective, neve or neu,
and not, nor.
a. Ne and neve (neu) also become Conjunctions. See, e.g., 502, 2, 3.
2. The Sentence-Negative for Statements or corresponding Ques
tions is non, not; or, if also a connective, neque, and not, nor.
a. For further details with regard to the negatives, see 464.
297. Haud (haut, hau) negatives a single word. In Ciceronian use, it
is employed sparingly, — mostly to modify Adjectives and Adverbs
expressing Quantity, Kind, or Manner.
haud mediocris vir, no ordinary man ; Rep. 2, 31, 55.
haud facile, not easily ; Rep. 1, 3, 6.
a. Haud is also used with a few Verbs, as scio (B. G. 5, 54, 5), dubito (Rep. 1,15, 23).
 1 62 Syntax [298

298. i. Instead of dico non, I say that . . . not, nego is preferred,

negavi me esse facturum, I said I would not (so) act; Cat. 3, 3, 7.
2. In general, two negatives make an affirmative.
video abesse non neminem, I see that some one is absent ; Cat. 4, 5, 10.
a. But after a sweeping negative, the negatives ne . . . quidem, neque
. . . neque, or neve . . . neve simply add emphasis.
numquam ilium ne minima quidem re offendi, / never offended him, not even
in the smallest thing ; Am. 27, 103,
299. When the phrase non modo (or non solum) . . . sed ne . . .
quidem is used in a sentence containing but a single verb, the second
negative is felt throughout the whole (not only not . . . but not even).
talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quicquam audebit, quod non
audeat praedicare, such a man will not only not venture to do a thing he
dare not speak of, but will not even dare to think of it ; Off. 3, 19, 77.
COMPARISON OP ADVERBS
300. The Comparative and Superlative degrees of Adverbs correspond
in meaning to those of Adjectives (241). Thus facile, easily; facilius,
more easily or rather easily ; facillime, most easily or very easily ; vel
facillime, very easily indeed; quam facillime, as easily as possible.
301. Two Comparatives. When an act is said to be done in one
way rather than in another (English with more . . . than . . . , rather
. . . than . . .), both Adverbs regularly take the same form (cf. 242).
libentius quam verius, with more readiness than truth ; Mil. 29, 78.
magis honeste quam vere, rather in compliment than truthfully ; Plane. 15, 37.

Forces of Certain Important Adverbs

302. 1 . Quidem, to be sure, indeed, at any rate (postpositive *), is
a particle of emphasis, generally expressing either a moderate conces
sion or a moderate claim. It is often followed by sed, autem, etc.
dicitur quidem a Cotta; sed . . . , Cotta does say so, to be sure ; but . . . ; Div. 1,
5, 8. (Moderate Concession.)
mihi quidem ilia certissima visa sunt argumenta, to me, at any rate, these things
seemed indubitable proofs ; Cat. 3, 5, 13. (Moderate Claim.)
a. For quidem (and equidem) with pronouns, see 257, a.
2. Etiam and et,2 even, also (regularly prepositive3), are used as
strengthening particles.
1 I.e. put immediately after the word on which the particle bears.
2 The same words as the Conjunctions etiam and et, but used Adverbially.
s I.e. put immediately before the word on which the particle bears.
 302] Adverbs 163

Quoque, also, too (postpositive), expresses mere addition.

etiam in extrema spe, even at the last ebb of hope ; B. G. 2, 27, 3.
verum et alii multi, but also many others ; Rose. Am. 33, 94.
haec quoque ratio (eos dedflxit), this reason, too, (impelled them) ; B. G. 2, 10, 5.
a. Etiam modifying a phrase containing no preposition is generally placed inside
that phrase. Thus nostra etiam memoria, even within our memory ; B. G. 2, 4, 7.
b. Et in the sense of etiam is not used by Caesar.
c. The later writers use etiam (or et) and quoque with less careful distinction.
3. Primo and primum should be carefully distinguished. With primo,
atfirst, the idea of time is more important ; with primum, firstly, the idea
of logical order.
These Adverbs often begin a series (more or less complete). Thus :
primo (= prindpio), atfirst,atthe begin- primum, firstly, in the first place,
ning, deinde (inde) or postea, later, deinde (inde) or postea, secondly,
tum, then, etc., postremo or denique, tum, then, etc., postremo or denique,
finally. lastly.
ille primo negavit ; post autem aliquanto surrexit, quaesivit . . . , at first he
denied; a little later, however, he rose and asked; Cat. 3, 5, 11.
id aliquot de causis acciderat, primum, quod . . . , tum etiam quod . . . ; accedebat
quod . . . , this had come about through several reasons ; first, because . . . ;
then also because . . . ; further because . . . ; B. G. 3, 2, 2.
a. The feeling of logical order sometimes prevails, even where the idea of order
in time is also present. Thus primum Antiochiae, nam ibi natus est, . . . ; post
in ceteris Asiae partibus . . . , first at Antioch, for this was his birthplace . . . ;
then in the rest of Asia . . . ; Arch. 3, 4.
4. Nunc, now, deals with a single point of time, without reference to
any other. Thus nunc adest, he is now present.
a. After a Condition Contrary to Fact (581), nunc means as it is.
5. Iam, by this time, already, contrasts a time with a preceding one.
Thus iam aderat, he was by this time present (had not been before) ;
iam adest, he is by this time present (has not been before) ; iam aderit
(Aen. 2, 662), he will soon be present (is not now).
With negatives, iam means no longer (by this time, not).
With the Imperfect, iam may suggest the beginning of an act or
state. Thus quod iam incredibile videbatur, which was beginning to
seem incredible; Pomp. 14, 41.
6. Potius, preferably, rather, and potissimum, in preference to all
other persons or things, express the idea of selection.
iis potissimum ostendam, qui . . . , I shall display it to those before
all others, who . . .; Pomp. 1,2.
164 Syntax [302

7. Aded, ed, and tam express degree, ita and sic manner, occasionally
degree. (For other Correlatives, see 144.)
8. Ne, surely, should be carefully distinguished from ne, not, lest.
ne illi vehementer errant, surely they are grievously in error; Cat 2, 3, 6.

PREPOSITIONS
303. Prepositions define the relation of a Substantive to
another word.
iter per provinciam, a journey through the province; B. G. 1, 14, 3.
a. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, modifying, not the Noun,
which at a later time they seemed to govern, but a Verb or Adjective.
At this period, all case-relations were expressed by the bare Case alone.
Thus a sentence like porta ab iit would have been used to express the
idea from the gate, he went away. But such a combination suggested a
relation between the Noun and the Verb (he went away from the gate).
In consequence, the Adverb came to be placed before the Noun, whence
the name Preposition (" placed in front ").
b. In certain combinations, the Adverb remained permanently attached to the Verb,
as in inferd, bring-in. In others, it remained with the Verb, even when repeated (as
Preposition) with the Noun, as in a porta abiit, he went-away from the gate. It is
customary and convenient to call such Verbs prepositional compounds.
c. Certain words can be used either as Prepositions or as Adverbs. So especially
ante, adversus, circa, circum, circiter, contra, post, prope, super.
anno post, a year after (=afterward by a year) ; B. G. 4, 1, 5.

CONJUNCTIONS
304. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, sentences, or
clauses. They are of two main kinds :
305. I. Coordinating Conjunctions join words, phrases, sentences, or
clauses of equal rank and essentially similar nature.
nobilissimus et ditisslmus, the noblest and the richest man ; B. G. 1, 2, 1.
consulem interfecerat et eius exercitum sub iugum miserat, had killed the
consul and sent his army under the yoke; B. G. 1, 12, 5.
a. Asyndeton, or "want of connective." The same effect of joining
is often produced still more sharply by using no connective at all.
frigus, sitim, famem ferre poterat, he could bear cold, thirst, hunger ; Cat. 3, 7, 16.
senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, the senate knows all this, the consul sees it;
Cat. 1, 1, 2.
307] Conjunctions 165

Note. In certain common phrases the conjunction is habitually omitted.

Thus Iuppiter Optimus Maximus, cf. Cat. 3, 9, 21 ; volens propitius, Liv. 1,
16, 3; vultis iubStisne, cf. Liv. i, 46, 1. So generally with the names of
colleagues, unless a single name only is given for each. Thus L. Pisone A.
Gabinio consulibus, B. G. 1, 6, 4 ; but Lepido et Tullo consulibus, Cat. 1, 6, 15.
II. Subordinating Conjunctions join a dependent clause to the sentence
or clause upon which it depends.
cum quaereret, sic reperiebat, when he inquired, he learned the fol
lowing; B. G. 2, 4, 1.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS IN DETAIL

306. Coordinating Conjunctions fall under four classes,
according as they express Union (Copulative Conjunctions),
Separation (Disjunctive Conjunctions), Opposition (Adversa
tive Conjunctions), or Inference (Inferential Conjunctions).

I. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS: et, -que, atque, ac, neque, nSve

307. 1. Et expresses simple connection (examples in 305, I.); while
-que expresses closer connection, — often one which exists in the nature
of things.
multitudo perditorum hominum latrdnumque, a multitude of desperadoes
and brigands ; B. G. 3, 17, 4.
el legioni castrisque, this legion and camp ; B. G. 6, 32, 6.
a. But a natural connection is often left unexpressed, as in impeditos
et inopinantis, encumbered and off their guard; B. G. 1, 12, 3.
b. When -que introduces a word, it is attached to it. Thus oppida vicosque, towns
and villages; B. G. 1, 28, 3.
When it introduces a phrase, it is generally attached to the first word of that phrase ;
but if that first word is a preposition, the -que is generally attached to the second word
of the phrase. Thus ob easque res, and on account of these achievements ; 13. G. 2, 35, 4.
When it introduces a clause, it is generally attached to the first word of that clause,
and this word is generally not the verb. Thus, duasque ibi legionSs conscribit, and
there enrolls two legions ; B. G. 1, 10, 3.
c. When several members are put together in a series, Latin ordinarily uses the
connective throughout, or not at all.
turpem et infirraara et abiectam, base and weak and downcast ; Cat. 4, 10, 20.
ferox, vehemens, promptus, rough, ardent, quick ; Sail. Cat. 43, 4.
d. Sometimes, however, in Latin as in English, the last two members only are con
nected (generally by -que, rarely by et).
pacem, tranquillitatem, otium, concordiamque, peace, tranquillity, repose, and
concord; Mur. 1, 1.
 Syntax [807

2. Atque or ac, and also, and indeed, and, likewise expresses close
connection, — sometimes with stress upon the word which it introduces,
a cultu atque humanitate provinciae, from the civilization and refinement
of the Province; B. G. 1, 1, 3.
hebeti ingenio atque nullo, of a dull mind, and indeed of none at all;
Tusc. 5, 15, 45.
a. After words of likeness or difference, atque or ac has the force of as or
than. Thus after Idem, is, aequus or aeque, alius or aliter, contra, par or pariter,
similis or similiter, simul.
Gallorum eadem atque Belgarum oppugnatio est haec, the Gallic way ofstorming
is the same as that of the Belgians, as follows ; B. G. 2, 6, 2.
prd eo ac mereor, according as I deserve (in proportion to that, as) ; Cat. 4, 2, 3.
b. Alius and aliter may also be followed by nisi, except, or quam, than.
c. For the choice between the forms atque and ac, see 3, c, below.
3. Neque (nec), and neve (neu), and not, nor, are at the same time
negatives and connectives. (For the difference between them, see 464.)
Orgetorix mortuus est ; neque abest suspicio . . . , Orgetorix died;
and a suspicion is not lacking . . . ; B. G. 1, 4, 3.
a. The idea "and not" is regularly expressed in Latin (as in the above
examples) by neque or n5ve, not by et non or et ne. Similarly "and none" is
expressed by nec ullus, " and never " by nec umquam ; etc., etc.
resistere neque deprecari, to resist and not beg off; B. G. 4, 7, 3.
b. But et non may be used to express contrast or emphasis.
manere et non discSdere, to remain and not give way ; Caecil. 2, 5.
periniquum et non ferundum, very unjust, and not to be endured; Pomp. 22, 63.
c. The forms atque and neque are used before either vowels or (less frequently)
consonants, ac and nec only before consonants (rarely before a guttural, as in ac
contra, B. G. 1, 44, 3). But the poets allow themselves more freedom.
atque ea, B. G. 1,1,3; atque pecore, 4, 1, 8 ; neque eam, 3, 2, 3 ; neque pedibus,
3, 12, 1 ; ac lassitudine, 2, 23, 1 ; nec loco, 7, 48, 4. (But nec exanimSs, Aen.
5, 669.)

O. DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS : aut, vel, -ve, sive (seu)

308. 1 . Aut, or, is used to connect alternatives. These may both be
possible, or they may be mutually exclusive.
cur de sua virtute aut de ipslus dfligentia desperarent ? why (Cssar asked)
should they despair of their own valor or of his vigilance ? B. G. 1,
40, 4. (They might do both.)
horae momento cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, in the brief space of
an hour comes swift death or joyful victory ; Sat. 1, 1, 7. (Only
one could come in a given case.)
810] Conjunctions

2. Vel 1 or -ve (enclitic) is used to connect alternatives between which

there may be a choice.
Catilinam vel eiecimus vel emisimus vel ipsum egredientem verbis prose-
cuti sumus, we have turned Catiline out, or, if you choose, have
sent him out, or, if you choose, have presented him our compli
ments as he went out of his own accord; Cat. 2, i, 1.
3. SIve or seu, or (originally or if) is used to connect alternatives
between which there is doubt.
eiecto sive emisso ex urbe Catilina, when Catiline had been turned out
of the city, or sent out; Sull. 5, 17.
a. Aut, vel, or sive may introduce a correction (" or rather," " or perhaps ").

Copulative or Disjunctive Conjunctions in Pairs

309. The following pairs of Conjunctions are in frequent use.
et . . . et . . . , both . . . and . . . ; Arch. 1,1.
neque (nec) . . . neque (nec) . . . , neither . . . nor . . . ; B. G. 2, 22, 1.
et . . . neque (nec) . . . , both . . . and at the same time not . . . ; Cat. 3, 8, 20.
neque (nec) . . . et . . . , not . . . and at the same time . . . ; B. G. 2, 25, 1.
aut . . . aut . . . , either . . . or . . . ; B. G. 1, 39, 4.
vel . . . vel . . . either . . . or . . . / B. G. 1, 19, 5.
sive (seu) . . . sive (seu) . . . , whether . . . or . . . ; B. G. 1, 12, 6.
a. -que . . . -que . . . and -que . . . atque (ac) are found in later Latin.
seque remque publicam, both themselves andthe Commonwealth ; Sall. Cat. 9, 3.
seque ac liberos, themselves and their children ; Tac. Hist. 3, 63.

HI. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS : at, autem, aed, tamen, vero, etc.

310. 1 . At, but, yet (regularly first in its clause), expresses contrast
or objection.
quid te impedit ? Mosne maiorum ? At persaepe etiam privati perniciosos
cms morte multarunt, what hinders you ? The traditions of our
ancestors ? But even men in private life have often punished
mischief-making citizens with death; Cat, 1, II, 28.
a. At, but, or at enim, but indeed, may introduce the supposed objection of an
adversary.
at res populSris, but, you will say, it is a popular movement ; Phil. 1, 9, 21.
b. At often merely shifts the scene to another person or place.
paret Amor dictis carae genetricis. At Venus . . . , Cupid obeys his beloved
parent's words. But Venus . . . ; Aen. 1, 689.
c. The form ast is sometimes used in legal Latin and in poetry.
1 An old Imperative of volo, meaning choose.
 Syntax [310

2. Autem, however, on the other hand (postpositive), expresses con

tinuation and contrast.
hanc si nostri translrent, hostes exspectabant ; nostri autem, si ab illis
initium transeundi fleret, parati erant, the enemy were waiting, in case
our men should cross this (swamp) ; our men, on the other hand,
were ready, in case the enemy should start to cross; B. G. 2, 9, 1.
a. Continuative autem must sometimes be translated by now, and some
times must be left untranslated ; e.g. Rhenus autem, B. G. 4, 10, 3.
b. Autem only rarely expresses addition (" moreover").
3. Atqui, but at any rate, but yet, and yet, is an emphatic at.
atqui nihil interest, andyet there is no difference ; Balb. 10, 26.
4. Sed, but, and the less common verum, but in truth, but, are used
to modify or contradict a previous statement. They are often accom
panied by tamen.
aetate iam adfectum, sed tamen exercitatidne robustum, feeling the effects
of age already, but nevertheless kept vigorous by exercise; Cat. 2,
9, 20. (Modification.)
reliquos non ex bello, sed ex tuo scelere, the survivors, not of war, but
of your wickedness ; Verr. 3, 54, 126. (Contradiction.)
a. CSterum, but, resembles sed in meaning (not in Cicero or Caesar as
a true Conjunction).
b. Sed and vSrum often follow non, in pairs of phrases. Thus
non solum (modo) . . . sed (verum), not only . . . but . . . ; Cat. 3, 10, 24.
Etiam or quoque, also, is often added to the sed or verum. Thus
non solum militaris virtus, sed aliae quoque virtutes ; Pomp. 22, 64.
5. Vero, in fact, indeed, but, however (postpositive), is used to
express strong contrast or emphasis.
mihi vero ferreus, to me, indeed, he (would seem) hard ofheart; Cat. 4, 6, 1 2.
a, Autem and vBro are interchangeable, but vero is stronger.
b. Vero is often on the doubtful line between Conjunction and Adverb.
6. Tamen, yet, nevertheless, expresses something as true in spite of a
previous concession, objection, or difficulty. It may be placed either at
the beginning of a clause or after the emphatic word.
vehementissime perturbatus, tamen signum cognovit, though greatly dis
turbed, still he recognized the seal ; Cat. 3, 5, 12.
7. Quamquam, etsi, and tametsi, and yet, however, are sometimes
used to introduce a modification or objection made by the speaker
(Corrective quamquam, etsi, tametsi).
quamquam quid loquor ! and yet why am I talking! Cat. 1, 9, 22.
313] Conjunctions

IV. INFERENTIAL CONJUNCTIONS

ergo, igitur, itaque, quare, proinde, nam, enim
311. 1. Ergo, therefore, expresses either natural result or logical
inference.
2. Igitur, accordingly, therefore, then (usually postpositive), expresses
natural result or logical inference, or the resumption of an interrupted
thought.
3. Itaque (and so), accordingly, introduces an action naturally follow
ing from a preceding one, or an example of something stated just before.
4. Quare, wherefore, introduces a consequence.
5. Proinde (forth from that), therefore, and sometimes igitur and
quare, introduce an inference which is also a command or exhortation.
proinde exeant, let them therefore depart ; Cat. 2, 5, 11.
6. Nam and enim,1for, introduce an explanation of what has preceded,
a justification of it, or a fuller statement. Enim is postpositive.
a. Namque, for indeed, is stronger than nam, and etenim, for indeed?
stronger than enim. (Note that etenim begins the clause, since in it the
postpositive enim has an et to which to attach itself.)
b. In nec enim and sed enim, enim has its original sense of indeed.
nec requievit enim, nor indeed did he rest ; Aen. 2, 100.
sed enim audierat, but she had heard indeed; Aen. 1, 19.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
312. These can be understood only in connection with the
constructions in which they are found, and accordingly will be
treated under the Uses of the Moods.

INTERJECTIONS
313. Interjections are exclamatory words (i) expressing
feeling, (2) calling attention to some one or something, or
(3) calling the attention of a person addressed to the speaker.
Thus a or ah ! alas ! ecce ! behold! 0, O.
1 Originally indeed. 2 Originally and indeed.
170 Syntax [814

C. THE EXPRESSION OF IDEAS THROUGH

CASES, MOODS, AND TENSES
PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMATICAL EXPRESSION
314. i. The varying forms of Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjec
tives make, beside other things, what are called Cases ; the
varying forms of Verbs make, beside other things, what are
called Moods and Tenses.
2. The study of Latin Syntax is in large degree the study of the way
in which the Romans expressed ideas by Cases, Moods, and Tenses.
3. A given way of expressing an idea by a Case, a Mood, a Tense,
etc., is called a Construction.
315. Each Case, each Mood, and each Tense probably had
at one time a single meaning of a simple kind, or a limited
sphere of closely related^ meanings.1
There took place, however, partly in the parent speech,
partly in Latin itself, a large growth and change of these
meanings ; and in Latin literature we find matty meanings of
the Cases, and many meanings of the Moods and Tenses.
These growths came about mainly in four ways :
1 . Through the Figurative Use of a Case, a Mood, or a Tense.
Thus pro castris, before the camp (literal place-idea), but also pro patria, in
defence of country (figurative idea).
2. Through the Association of a new idea with an existing construction.
Thus the idea of Definition or Explanation (341) grows up through associ
ation with the Genitive in combinations like nomen poetae, the name of poet
(originally merely the name which belongs to a poet).
3. Through the Fusion of two or more constructions into one. (Con
structions arising in this way may be called Constructions of Composite
Origin.)
Thus three different Kinds of Ablative may express Cause (444) : the Separa
tive, as in our "ill from anxiety" (cf. 444, b), the Sociative, as in "ill with
anxiety," and the Locative, as in " you take pleasure in my anxiety." There is
evidence that Latin originally expressed Cause in all three of these ways. But
since the form in the developed language was the same for all three, there must
to the Roman feeling have seemed to be merely a single construction of Cause.
1 But see,ToT a probable or possible exception, footnote, p. 303.
317] Principles of Grammatical Expression 171

4. Through Analogy, i.e. the influence of one or more constructions

upon another resembling them in meaning.
Thus, since the Ablative was used with vSscor, feed, eat, it might occur to
some one to use the same case with epulor, feast, — as it did to Virgil in
Aen. 3, 224 (see 429, d). This particular use is exceptional; but many
fixed uses grew up in just such a way.

AGREEMENT
316. By Agreement a word is put in the same case, number,
etc., as a Noun or Pronoun, to show that it belongs with that
Noun or Pronoun.
317. There are three ways in which an agreeing word may
be attached to its Noun or Pronoun :
1. A word may be closely united with its Noun or Pronoun.
Words so used are called Attributive.1
hic vflicus, this steward. (Hic is Attributive.)
vflicus meus bonus, my good steward. (Meus and bonus are Attribu
tive.)
2. A word may be loosely added to its Noun or Pronoun.
Words so used are called Appositive2 (i.e. put beside).
vflicus meus, adiutor rerum mearum, my steward, the aid of my
fortunes. (Adiutor is Appositive.)
vflicus meus, bonus et impiger, my steward, good and energetic
(Bonus and impiger are Appositive.)
vflicus meus, res meas adiutans, my steward, aiding my fortunes.
(Adiutans is Appositive.)
a. An Appositive may be defined as a word loosely attached to
another to exhibit it under some special aspect. Thus Caesar consul
means Caesar in the capacity of consul, Caesar as consul.
t. Apposition is, in reality, a sort of shortened Predication. Thus Caesar consul
means Caesar — he was at the time consul , etc.
c. An attributive or appositive word may express Condition, Cause, or Opposition.
Thus privatus, although in private life ; Cat. 1, i, 3. See also 578, 6.
1 The word adherent would more exactly describe the relation.
3 Nouns so attached are regularly called Appositive, as here. Adjectives similarly
attached have regularly been called Attributive. But there is no difference of relation,
and it is better to use the same word in both cases.
172 Syntax [317

3. A word may be predicated of its Noun or Pronoun

(see 229). Words so used are called Predicates, or Predicative,
vllicus meus bonus et impiger est, my steward is good and energetic.
(Est is a Predicate Verb, and bonus and impiger are Predicate
Adjectives.)
vllicus meus adiutor rerum mearum est, my steward is the aid of my
fortunes. (Est is a Predicate Verb, and adiutor a Predicate Noun.)
vllicus meus me adiutat, my steward aids me. (Adiutat is a Predicate.)
a. A Verb can be attached to a Substantive in this way only.

GENERAL STATEMENT OF AGREEMENT

318. Sofar asforms exist to make it possible, an Attributive,
Appositive, or Predicative word agrees in Gender, Number,
Person, and Case with the word to which it belongs.

DETAILS OF AGREEMENT FOR NOUNS, ADJECTIVES,

PARTICIPLES, AND PRONOUNS
I. AGREEMENT WITH A SINGLE WORD
Agreement of Nouns
319. Nouns agree in Case with the substantives to which
they belong, and, if possible, in Gender and Number also.
To these substantives they may be either appositive ox predicative.
I. Appositive Noun :
C. Volusenus, tribunus, Gaius Volusenus, a tribune; B. G. 3, 5, 2.
Volsinil, oppidum Tuscorum, Volsinii, a city of the Etruscans ; Plin.
N. H. 2, 139. (Agreement in gender and number impossible.)
a. Partitive Apposition. A noun denoting a whole may be followed by a distributive
pronoun in apposition, or by two or more words in apposition, each denoting a part.
quisque suos patimur minis, we suffer, each his own spirit ; Aen. 6, 743.
duo rSges, ille bello hie pace, civitatem auxerunt, two kings built up the
state, one by war, the other by peace ; Liv. 1, 21, 6.
II. Predicative Noun :
stilus optimus dicendi effector (est), the pen is the best producer of elo
quence ; De Or. 1, 33, 150. (Notice the Gender of effector.)
pecunia est effectrix multarum voluptiitum, money is the producer of many
pleasures; Fin. 2, 17, 55. (Notice the Gender of effectrix.)
321] Agreement 173

a. On the other hand, a noun may also be made to agree in Gender and
Number with an Appositive which is going to be used.
illas omnium doctrinarum inventrices AthSnas, that inventor of all learning,
Athens ; De Or. i, 4, 13.
regina Pecunia, the almighty Dollar (our lady Money) ; Ep. 1, 6, 37.
b. Most nouns exist in but a single gender-form, and agreement with another
noun in Gender is therefore often impossible.
c. A substantive clause (indicative, subjunctive, or infinitive) may be used
as an appositive or predicate. See especially 238 and 697, 1, a), b).

Agreement of Adjectives and Participles

320. Adjectives and Participles agree in Case, Gender, and
Number with the substantives to which they belong.
To these substantives they may be attributive,appositive, orpredicative.
I. Attributive Adjective or Participle :
magnam partem, a large part; B. G. 2, 20, 2.
acta vita, my past life; Sen. 1 1, 38.
II. Appositive Adjective or Participle :
Lucili ritu, nostrum melidris utroque, in the manner of Lucilius, a better
man than either of us ; Sat. 2, 1, 29.
Diviciacus, Caesarem complexus, obsecrare coepit, Diviciacus, embracing
Caesar, began to implore him; B. G. 1, 20, 1.
III. Predicative Adjective or Participle :
Caesar fit ab Ubiis certior, Caesar is informed by the Ubii (made more
certain) ; B. G. 6, 10, 1.
Gallia est omnis divisa in partis tres, Gaul as a whole is divided into
three parts; B. G. 1, 1, 1.

Agreement of Determinative Pronouns

321. Determinative pronouns agree in Case, in Gender, and
in Number with the substantives to which they belong.
To these substantives they may be attributive or predicative.
I. Attributive Pronoun :
is dies, this day; B. G. 5, 39, 4. eas res, thesefacts ; B. G. 1, 14, 1.
II. Predicative Pronoun :
haec fuit dratid, their address was as follows (was this); B. G. 4, 7, 2.
174 Syntax [322

Agreement of Relative Pronouns

322. Relative Pronouns agree with their Antecedents (281, a)
in Gender and Number, but their Case depends upon their
relations in the Clauses to which they belong.
ad eam partem pervenit quae ndndum flumen transierat, came to the part
which had not yet crossed the river; B. G. 1 , 1 2, 2. (feminine
Singular, because referring to eam partem ; Nominative, because
the Subject of transierat.)
omnis clientis, quorum magnum numerum habebat, all his clients, of whom
he had a great number; B. G. 1, 4, 2. (Masculine Plural, because
referring to clientis ; Genitive, because depending upon numerum.)
H. AGREEMENT WITH TWO OR MORE WORDS 1
323. 1. An Adjective, Participle, or Pronoun belonging or referring
to two or more substantives of the same Gender and Number must agree
with them in Gender, and may be either of the Number of the nearest,
or Plural, even if the nearest is Singular.
Of the Number of the individual substantives :
ventum et aestum nactus secxm&\im,getting afavorable windandtide ; B. G. 4, 23, 6.
(Relative) pro sua dementia ac mansuetudine, quam ipsi ab alils audirent, in
accordance with his clemency and gentleness, ofwhich they themselves heard
from others ; B. G. 2, 3 1 , 4.
Of the Plural Number :
angebant ingentis spiritfls virum Sicilia Sardiniaque amissae, the lost (i.e. the loss
of) Sicily and Sardinia troubled the high-spirited man ; Liv. 21, 1, 5.
(Relative) Cottae et Tituri calamitatem, qui occiderint, thefate of Cotta and Titu-
rius, whofell ; B. G. 6, 37, 8.
2. An Adjective, Participle, or Pronoun belonging or referring to two
or more substantives of different Gender or Number, or both, may agree
with the nearest of them ; otherwise it must be in the Masculine Plural
if one of the substantives denotes a man, in the Feminine Plural if one
of them denotes a woman and none of them a man, or in the Neuter
Plural if all of them denote things.
Agreeing with the nearest substantive :
signum et manum suam cognovit, acknowledged his seal and hand; Cat. 3, 5, 12.
(Relative) nostri non eadem alacritate ac studio quo uti consuerant fitebantur,
our men were not showing the same eagerness and zeal that they were in the
habit of showing ; B. G. 4, 24, 4. m
1 The uses of the Relative, which in no wise differ, are included in the statements of
323-326.
 825] Agreement 175

In the Masculine Plural where one substantive denotes a man :

rex regiaque classis prefect! (sunt), thekingandthe royalfleetsetout ; Liv. 2 1 , 50, 1 1 .
In the Neuter Plural where all the substantives denote things :
ubi Ira et aegritudo permixta sunt, when anger andgriefare united; Sail. lug. 68, 1 .
(Relative) usus ac disciplina, quae a nobis accepissent, the experience and disci
pline which they had gainedfrom us; B. G. 1, 40, 5.
a. The Neuter Plural may be used even if the substantives are all Mascu
line or all Feminine, provided they all denote things.

Agreement by Form, by Sense, and by Attraction

324. In Agreement by Form,1 a word takes its Gender and Number
from the form of the word or phrase to which it belongs.
sex milia hostium caesa, six thousand of the enemy were killed ; Liv. 21, 60, 7.
325. In Agreement by Sense, a word takes its Gender and Number from
the real meaning of the word or phrase to which it belongs. So from a
Collective Noun or Adverb, the name of a Country or Town, a Possessive
Pronoun or Adjective, or a Noun connected with another' by cum. Thus :
magna pars occisi (sunt), a large part were killed ; Sail. lug. 58, 2.
cum partim e nobis timid! sint, partim a re public! avers!, since some of us are
timid, and others hostile to the commonwealth ; Phil. 8, 11, 32.
Latium Capuaque multati, Latium and Capua were punished ; Liv. 8, 11, 12.
nostra, qui remansissemus, caede contentum, satisfied with killing us who had
stayed behind ; Cat. 1, 3, 7.
filiam cum minore filio, accitos Amphipolim, the daughter with the younger son,
being summoned to Amphipolis ; Liv. 45, 28, 11.
a. A Pronoun referring to the general thought of what precedes,
or follows, is in the Neuter Gender.
dierum quindecim supplicatio decreta est, quod ante id tempus accidit null!, a
thanksgiving of fifteen days was voted, which up to this time had hap-
peited to no one ; B. G. 2, 35, 4. Similarly with id quod, B. G. 4, 29, 3.
quod bonum, faustum, felixque sit, Quirites, regem create, citizens, — may it be
attended with good, with fortune, and with blessing, — appoint a king ; Liv.
1, 17, 10. (The Relative refers to what is to follow.)
Note 1. The word rSs (fact, circumstance, etc.) may be used, in which
case the pronoun must agree with it. So quae res, B. G. 3, 15, 4.
Note 2. There are thus three possible forms in such acase,—quod, idquod,
and quae res.
b. Substantive clauses, infinitives used substantively, and quoted
expressions, are neuter. Examples in 58, 3.
1 Also called Grammatical Agreement.
176 Syntax [325

c. A Neuter Adjective used substantively may be a predicate to a

subject of any Gender.
mutabile semper femina, a woman is always afickle thing ; Aen. 4, 569.
d. With similar feeling, the Romans liked to use the neuter in general
expressions, in place of the masculine orfeminine. Thusmihi te carina nihil
esse, (be sure) that nothing ( = no one) is dearer to me thanyourself; Fam .
14, 3,5 ; quicquid invalidum est, whatever(= whoever) is weak; Aen. 5,716.
326. In Agreement by Attraction, a word takes its Gender
and Number from some word closely connected with the one
to which it really belongs. Thus :
1. An Adjective, Participle, or Pronoun may be attracted into the
Gender and Number of an Appositive or Predicate.
Corinthum patres vestri, totius Graeciae lumen, exstinctum esse voluerunt, your
ancestors chose that Corinth, the light of the whole Greek world, should be
extinguished ; Pomp. 5. 11. (Exstinctum is attracted by lumen.)
idem velle atque nolle, ea amicitia est, to have the same desire and the same aver
sion, that isfriendship ; Sail. Cat. 20, 4. (Ea is attracted by amicitia.)
(Relative) omnis Belgas, quam tertiam esse Galliae partem dixeramus, coniurare,
that all the Belgians, who (which) we have said are a third part of Gaul,
were conspiring ; B. G. 2, 1, 1.
2. For Attraction of a Predicate into the Dative after licet esse, etc.,
it is permitted (to a man) to be ... , see 585, c.
3. A word denoting a Name may be attracted by a Dative depending
upon nomen est (374), nomen do (365), etc.
nomen Arcturo est mihi, my name is A rcturus ; Rud. 5.
a. Otherwise the Appositive construction is regularly used with nomen est
(not the Explanatory Genitive) ; thus Troia huic loco nomen est, Liv. 1, 1, 5.
4. Rarely, the Relative is attracted into the Case of its Antecedent,
quibus quisque poterat elatis, picking up what each could ( = iis elatis quibus
quisque poterat, in place of iis elatis quae, etc.) ; Liv. 1 , 29, 4.
5. In poetry, the Noun is sometimes put before the Relative and
attracted into its Case.
urbem quam statuo vestra est, the city which I build, 'tis yours ; Aen. 1, 573.
327. The Romans avoided making a Relative refer to an Appositive
Noun, preferring to attach the latter to the Relative itself.
tanta tranquillitas exstitit, ut se ex loco movere non possent ; quae quidem res
maxime fuit opportuna, so great a calm arose that they could not stir
from the place ; a circumstance which (which circumstance) was most
fortunate ; B. G. 3, 1 5, 3.
 Agreement 177

DETAILS OF AGREEMENT FOR VERBS

I. AGREEMENT WITH A SINGLE SUBJECT
328. i. A Finite Verb (146) agrees with its Subject in
Number and Person.
relinquebatur una via, one road remained; B. G. 1,9, 1.
erant itinera duo, there were two ways; B. G. 1, 6, 1.
a. When the subject is a Relative, the verb follows the Person of the
Antecedent.
adsum qui fSci, here am I, who did it ; Aen. 9, 427.
2. If a verb-form contains a Participle, this Participle must
agree with the Subject in Case, in Gender, and in Number.
ea res est enuntiata, the affair was made known ; B. G. 1, 4, 1.
ita Helvetios institutos esse, (answered) that the Helvetians had been so
trained; B. G. 1, 14, 7.

0. AGREEMENT WITH TWO OR MORE SUBJECTS

329. A Verb may have two or more words for its Subject, and these
may be of different Persons, Genders, or Numbers. The usage in such
cases is as follows :
1. Where the Subjects are of different persons, the First Person is
preferred to the other two, and the Second Person to the Third.
si tfi et Tullia valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valemus, ifyou and Tullia
are well, my dear boy and I are well ; Fam. 14, 5, 1.
2. When a Verb belongs to two or more words, it may either agree
with the nearest of them, or be put in the Plural.
Orgetorigis fflia atque firms S filiis captus est, the daughter of Orgetorix
and one of his sons were taken prisoners ; B. G. 1, 26, 4.
ubi Titurius atque Aurunculeius consederant, where Titurius and Aurun-
culeius had established themselves ; B. G. 6, 32, 4.
3. When a Verb belongs to several Subjects connected by aut,
aut . . . aut . . . , or nec . . . nec . . . , it may be in either the
Singular or the Plural.
neque pes neque mens suom officium facit, neither foot nor mind does its
duty ; Eun. 729.
haec si neque ego neque tfi fecimus, if neither you nor I did it; Ad. 103.
178 Syntax [380

Agreement of Verbs by Form, by Sense, and by Attraction

330. In Agreement by Form, a Verb takes its Number from the form
of the word to which it belongs.
pars stupet donum, a part (is) are amazed at the gift ; Aen. 2, 31.
331. In Agreement by Sense, a Verb takes its Number from the
real meaning, not the form, of its Subject. This takes place as follows :
1 . A Verb agreeing with a Collective Noun may be in the Plural.
pars molem mirantur, a part admire the mighty bulk; Aen. 2, 31. Civitati
persuasit ut exirent, persuaded the state to go out ; B. G. 1, 2, 1.
2. A Verb agreeing with quisque, uterque, etc., may be in the Plural.
uterque eorum exercitum ediicunt, each of them leads out his army;
B. C. 3, 30, 3.
a. For the more common Partitive Apposition, see 319, I, a.
3. A Verb agreeing with two or more Subjects which make one com
pound idea may be in the Singular.
ratio ordoque agminis aliter se habebat, the plan and arrangement of the line of
march was different ; B. G. 2, 19, 1.
4. A Verb agreeing with a Subject attached to another word by cum
may be in the Plural.
Lentulus, cum ceteris qui principes coniurationis erant, constituerant . . . , Lentulus,
with the other leaders ofthe conspiracy, had determined . . . ; Sail. Cat. 43, 1 .
332. In Agreement by Attraction, a Verb may take its Number, not
from the Subject, but from an Appositive or Predicate which stands
between it and the Subject.
pictSres suum quisque opus a vulgo considerari vult, painters want each his own
work to be examined by the public ; Off. 1, 41, 147.
amantium Irae amoris 1ntegratio est, lovers' tiffs are love's renewal ; And. 555.
LEADING IDEA NOT IN THE PRINCIPAL NOUN
333. The leading idea of a phrase may be carried, not by
the grammatically leading Noun, but by an Adjective, Parti
ciple, Pronoun, or Noun in agreement with it. (See also 608.)
post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city; Cat. 4, 7, 14.
ante Verrem praetBrem, before the praetorship of Verres; Verr. 3, 6, 15.
duce laetus Achate, rejoicing in the guidance of Achates ; Aen. 1, 696.
a. The usage is common in Cicero, but still more frequent later.
335] Nominative 179

REMAINING USES OF THE CASES

334. General Introduction, 1. The earliest ideas expressed by the cases (as
these are represented in Latin) were probably as follows :
By the Nominative, the Name,
" " Genitive, that which Possesses ; or a Whole, of which a Part only is affected.1
" " Dative, Direction.
" " Accusative, Contact or Nearness.
" " Vocative, Address.
f Separation.
" " Ablative, < Association.
( Location.
2. The Ablative is made up (61, b) of remains of three cases possessed by the parent
speech : I. the true Ablative, expressing Separation, II. the Sociative (generally called, ,
from a derived use, the Instrumental), expressing Association (i.e. Accompaniment), and
III. the Locative, expressing the Place Where.
3. It is obvious that these three cases of the parent speech originally expressed, or
involved, space-ideas : the Ablative that of motion from some place, the Locative that
of being in some place, the Sociative that of being with something (necessarily in some
place) . The two other common and striking space-ideas, namely that of Direction toward
something, and that of Contact or Nearness, must have been expressed by two out of the
remaining cases ; and the actual uses of the Dative and the Accusative make it probable
that these were respectively the two.
4. All space-ideas were originally expressed by bare cases ; for Prepositions were of
:omparatively late origin (see 125 ; 303, a).
5. From expressions of space-relations arose a variety of figurative expressions.
Compare English from the camp and from affection, in the camp and in haste.

THE NOMINATIVE
Subject of a Finite Verb
335. The Subject of a Finite Verb is put in the Nominative,
hic tamen vivit, still this man lives; Cat. 1, 1, 2.
interfectus est C. Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus was killed; Cat. 1, 2, 4.
a. The Subject is sometimes a Substantive Clause or an Infinitive
(238, 597, 1, a).
b. A Nominative is frequently used without a Verb, to present a
person or thing simply as doing, suffering, or being, without telling
what he or it does, suffers, or is.
en Priamus, lo and behold, Priam; Aen. 1, 461.
clamor inde concursusque populi, then a shouting and a rushing together of
' the people ; Liv. 1, 41, 1.
c. The Subject of the Historical Infinitive is likewise put in the
Nominative. (Examples under 595.)
1 The idea of Possession was perhaps the older ; for the Part belongs to the Whole.
Thus mult! Romanorum, many belonging to (= of) the Romans.
1 80 Syntax [336

336. The Nominative is also used :

1. As an Appositive. See 317, 2, and 319.
2. As a Predicate. See 317, 3, and 319.
3. In Exclamations. See 399, a.
4. In place of the Vocative. See 401.

THE GENITIVE
337. The Latin Genitive expresses three general classes
of ideas :
I. Possession.
II. The Whole, of Which a Part is affected.
III. Various ideas, in constructions of Composite
Origin (Fusion).

338. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Genitive

f Genitive of Possession or Connection, directly attached (339)
Possessive Genitive in Predicate (Genitive of Possession, Duty, Mark,
etc.; 340)
Derivatives from Genitive of Possession, directly attached :
Possessive Explanatory Genitive (341) 1
Genitive Genitive of the Charge (342) 1
Genitive of the Penalty or Fine (343) 1
Subjective Genitive (344)
Genitive with refert and interest (345)
True Genitive of the Whole (346)
Genitive of Plenty or Want (347)
II Poetic Genitive of Separation (348)
Genitive Genitive of Material or Composition (349)
of the Genitive of the Object, with Verbs :
Whole with obliviscor, memini, reminiscor (350)
" admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio (351)
" miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet ; misereor, miserSsco (352}
" potior (353)
III Objective Genitive and Genitive of Application (354)
Of Descriptive Genitive (355)
Composite Genitive of Value or Price (356)
Origin Genitive with Neuter Plural Adjectives (357)
1 In this table and those that follow, the setting back of a construction from the line
means that it is derived from the first construction above standing farther to the left.
Thua (under I) from the Possessive Genitive is derived the Explanatory Genitive ; from
the latter, the Genitive of the Charge ; and from the last, the Genitive of the Penalty.
339] Genitive i8i

L THE POSSESSIVE GENITIVE AND ITS DERIVATIVES

Possessive Genitive in Direct Attachment
339. Possession or Connection may be expressed by a Geni
tive attached to a Noun.
servo accusatoris, a slave belonging to (of) the accuser; Mil. 22, 5g.
difficultates belli, difficulties connected with the war; Leg. Agr. 2, 30, 83.
a. As in English, the possessive pronoun of the first or second person
or of the reflexive is regularly preferred to the Genitive of the personal
pronoun ; similarly, alienus to the Genitive of alius.
meum filium, my son ; Cat. 4, 11, 23.
alienis praecSptis, the teachings of others ; Pomp. 10, 28. t
b. When used with a possessive pronoun, ipse, solus, unus, omnis, and
sometimes other words, agree with the implied Genitive.
nostro omnium fletu, the tears of us all ; Mil. 34, 92.
vestrae ipsorum virtuti, your own valor ; Liv. 1 , 28, 4.
tuum studium adulescentis, your zeal as a youth ; Fam. 15, 13, 1.
aedem Nympharum, the temple of the Nymphs ; Mil. 27, 73.
cuius pater, whose father (the father of whom); B. G. 1, 3, 4.
amicos populi Roman!, friends of the Roman people ; B. G. 1, 35, 4.
c. Certain adjectives meaning like, common, connected, or the opposite,
may take either the Dative of Relation (362) or the Genitive of Posses
sion or Connection : 1
tuI similis, like you (the like of you) ; Cat. 1, 2, 5.
superstes omnium meorum, the survivor of all my people ; Quintil. 6, Pr. 4.
alienum dignitatis, inconsistent with dignity ; Fin. 1, 4, 11.
Note. With words denoting persons, similis more frequently takes the Genitive.
d. The idea of Possession or Connection may be lost, though the Genitive remains.
Thus with instar, causa, gratia, and ergo (the last three post-positive).
instar montis equum, a horse (the like of) like a mountain ; Aen. 2, 15.
amicitiae causa, by reason of theirfriendship ; B. G. 1, 39, 2.
illius ergo, on his account (on account of him) ; Aen. 6, 670.
e. In a few expressions, the noun on which the Genitive depends may be omitted
(so regularly with the master's name). Thus ad Castoris, to (the temple) of Castor ; Mil.
33, 91; Hectoris AndromachS, Hector's (wife) Andromache ; Aen. 3, 319.
/. For the Genitive with pridie and postridie, see 380, c.
g. For the occasional Genitive with tenus, see 407, 3.
1 $0 especially similis, par, communis, adfinis, and their opposites dissimilis. con-
trarius, alienus, proprius. Also superstes, surviving (left over with relation to, or the
survivor of).
182 Syntax [340

Possessive Genitive in the Predicate

340. The Possessive Genitive may be used in the Predicate
with sum or faciO to express the idea of belonging to, or various
ideas naturally suggested by this (is the business of, the part
of, the duty of, etc.).
neque Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Romani, and that Gaul
did not belong to Ariovistus any more than to the Roman people;
B. G. i, 45, i.
viri fortis (est) ne suppliciis quidem mover!, it is the duty of a brave
man not to be stirred even by tortures; Mil. 30, 82.
a. In certain phrases, the idea of Possession is faint or wholly lost.
nihil reliqui fScerunt, they left nothing undone (made nothing to belong
to the left undone) ; B. G. 2, 26, 5.
b. For the Dative of Possession with the verb sum, see 374.

Explanatory Genitive
341. The Genitive may be attached to a Noun to define or
explain its meaning.
hoc poetae nomen, this name of "poet" ; Arch. 8, 19.
Troiae urbem, the city of Troy ; Aen. 1, 565.

Genitive of the Charge

342. Verbs of accusing, condemning, or acquitting^ may
take a Genitive of the Thing CItarged.
eum accusas avaritiae ? do you accuse him of avarice ? Flacc. 33, 83.
me inertiae condemno, / condemn myselffor negligence; Cat. 1, 2, 4.
a. Similarly reus, defendant (i.e. person accused), may take the
Genitive. Thus pecuniarum repetundarum reus, charged with extortion
(money to be recovered); Sall. Cat. 18, 3.
b. The Thing Charged may also be expressed by de with the Ablative. Thus de vi
postulavit, arraigned him on a charge of violence ; Senat. 8, 19.
c. By a different turn of the thought, inter may be used to denote the class in which
the accused is placed. Thus inter sicarios accusabant, accused him of belonging among
cutthroats (i.e. of murder) ; Rosc. Am. 32, 90.
d. The Thing Charged may become the Direct Object (390), the Person being left
unmentioned. Thus ambitum accusas ? do you charge bribery? Mur. 32, 67.
1 So especially accuso and incuso, arcesso, arguo, defero, postulo, damno, condemno,
convinco, absolvo, libero. Similarly, in poetry or later prose, interrogo and the adjectives
or participles innocSns, insons, manifestus, noxius, innoxius, suspectus, etc.
346] Genitive 183

Genitive of the Penalty or Fine

343. Verbs of accusing, condemning, or acquitting may take
a Genitive of the Penalty or Fine.
octupli damnare, to condemn (to pay) eightfold; Verr. 3, 11, 28.
capitis condemnari, to be condemned to death ; Rab. Perd. 4, 12.
damnatum voti, successful in his vow (condemned to pay it) ; Nep.
Timol. 5, 3. With similar meaning voti reus, Aen. 5, 237.
a. The construction is confined in prose to indefinite words like pecuniae, money,
and quznti, how much, multiples like octupli, eightfold, and the word capitis, death.
b. For the Ablative of the Penalty with verbs of punishing or see 428.
Subjective Genitive
344. The Genitive may be used to express the Subject of
an Activity denoted by a Noun.
ab iniuria Cassivellaum,y>w« wrong at the hands of Cassivellaunus;
B. G. 5, 20, 3. (He committed the wrong.)
Caesaris adventus, Caesar 's coming; B. G. 6, 41, 4. (Caesar came.)

Genitive of the Person or Thing Concerned, with refert and interest

345. Refert and interest, it concerns, isfor the interest of, take
the Genitive of the Person or Thing Concerned, if expressed by
a Noun, the Feminine Ablative Singular of the Possessive if
expressed by a Pronoun (mea, tua, etc.).
quantum interesset P. Clodi se perire cogitabat, he always kept in mind
how much his death concerned Publius Clodius; Mil. 21, 56.
nihil mea refert, it does not concern me ; Pis. 17, 39.
mea vided quid intersit, / see what is to my interest; Cat. 4, 5, 9.
a. With the Genitive of the Person Cicero prefers interest.
b. The degree of the concern or interest may be expressed by an Accusative
of Degree (387), a Genitive of Value (356), or an Adverb. Thus mea interest
plurimum, plurimi, or maxime, it is greatly to my interest.
H. THE GENITIVE OF THE WHOLE,! AND ITS DERIVATIVES
Genitive of the Whole in the Strict Sense
346. The Whole to which a Part Belongs may be expressed
by the Genitive.
1 The name Partitive Genitive, which is often used, is convenient because of its
shortness. But the student should remember that what is expressed by the Genitive
word itself is the Whole, not the Part.
 Syntax [346

The construction may be used with any Noun, Adjective,

Pronoun, or Adverb that can imply a part of a whole.
eorum una pars, one part of them ; B. G. 1, 1, 5.
primos civitatis, the first men of the state; B. G. 2, 3, 1.
ubinam gentium sumus ? where in the world are we ? Cat. 1 , 4, 9.
sceleris nihil, no crime (nothing of crime) ; Mil. 12, 32.
quid sui consili sit, what his plan is; B. G. 1, 21, 2. (For quid sibi
consili sit, what ofplan he has.)
a. With words like nihil and aliquid, adjectives of the Second
Declension may be put either in the neuter Genitive of the Whole, or
in direct agreement ; while adjectives of the Third Declension are
almost always in direct agreement.
nihil certi (Ac. i, 12, 46) and nihil certum (Tull. 15, 35), nothing certain.
nihil maius, nothing greater ; Lig. 12, 38.
b. Uterque, each of two, and quisque, each of a larger number, regularly agree with
a noun, but take the Genitive of the Whole if a pronoun is used.
uterque dux, each general, both generals; Marc. 8, 24.
quorum utrique, to each of whom; Mil. 27, 75.
c. English often uses the word " of " where there is no partitive relation, as in " all
of us," meaning " we all." Latin is generally exact in this respect.
hi omnes, all (of) these ; B. G. 1, 1, 2,
reliquis Gallis, the rest ofthe Gauls (the remaining Gauls) ; B. G. 2, 2, 3.
d. In poetry and later prose the Genitive of the Whole is sometimes used with
words not implying a part.
te, sancte deorum, thee, O holy one of the gods ; Aen. 4, 576.
ties nobilium tu quoque fontium, thou too shalt be of the world's great foun
tains ; Carm. 3, 13, 13. (In Predicate.)
e. After many words, the Whole to which a Part belongs may be expressed by dS or
ex with the Ablative (405). So regularly with quidam and with cardinal numbers (130).
Thus unus ex istis, the only one of these ; Cat. 3, 7, 16.

Genitive of Plenty or Want

347. Certain Adjectives and Verbs of plenty or want may
take the Genitive.
plena exemplorum vetustas, the past is full of examples; Arch. 6, 14.
implentur Bacchi, they take theirfill of wine; Aen. 1, 215.
inopes amicorum. poor in friends ; Am. 1 j, 53.
ne quis auxili egeret, that none might be in need ofaid; B. G. 6, 1 1, 4.
350] Genitive 185

a. So, in Ciceronian Latin, the adjectives plenus, refertus, expers, inops,

inanis, and the verbs indigeo, egeo, compleo, impleo (the last three rarely).1
b. The words of this list also take the Ablative (425) freely in Cicero
nian Latin, except plenus, inops, indigeo (these three rarely), and expers
(never).
c. Other words of Plenty or Want take the Ablative in Ciceronian Latin (425).

Poetic Genitive of Separation

348. In poetry the Genitive is sometimes used to express Separation.
ut me laborum levas ! how you relieve me of toil ! Rud. 247.
liber laborum, from toil ; A. P. 212. (Cf. liberi a deliciis ; Leg. Agr. 1,9, 27.)
desine querellarum, cease from complaints ; Carm. 2, 9, 17.
neque ciceris invidit, nor grudged his chick-pea ; Sat. 2, 6, 83.
Remark. This construction is an extension of the Genitive of Want ; but
the extension was doubtless helped by the influence of the Greek Genitive of
Sepa1ation.

Genitive of Material or Composition

349. Material or Composition may be expressed by a Geni
tive attached to a Noun.
obtorti circulus auri, a chain of twistedgold; Aen. 5, 559.
ancillarum greges, crowds (composed) of maidservants; Mil. 21, 55.
a. The same idea may be expressed by the Ablative with ex (in poetry
with de also, or without preposition), and must be so expressed if a verb is
used (406, 4).
factae ex robore, made of oak ; B. G. 3, 13, 3.

Genitive of the Object, with Verbs

Genitive of the Object of Mental Action
350. Obliviscor, memini, and reminiscor, forget, remember, and
recall, may take a Genitive Object.
If the Object is a person, obliviscor takes the Genitive only, memini
either the Genitive or the Accusative, reminiscor the Accusative only.
If the Object is a thing, all three verbs take either the Genitive or
the Accusative of a Noun, and (regularly) only the Accusative of a Neu
ter Pronoun or Adjective.
1 Also, in later Latin (often with forced meaning), dives, egenus, laetus, and many
others ; and the verbs repleo, cared, and others.
 Syntax [350

vivdrum memini, nec tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, / remember the liv
ing, and, at the same time, it isn't possible for me to forget
Epicurus; Fin. 5, 1, 3.
nec umquam obliviscar noctis illius, nor shall I ever forget that night;
Plane. 42, 101. Cf. reminisceretur virtutis, B. G. 1, 13, 4.
an vero obliti estis sermones et opiniones? have you forgotten the
expressions of opinion ? Mil. 23, 62.
si id memineritis, quod oblivisci non potestis, ifyou bear in mind this
fact, which you cannot forget; Mil. 4, 11.
a. Memini may also take dg of a person (remember about).
b. Recordor, recolled, takes de of a person, and either de or the Accusative
of a thing.
351. Admoneo and commoneO, remind, and commonefacio, remind
or inform, may take, besides an Accusative of the Person, a
Genitive of the Thing of Which he is reminded or informed,
admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he would remind one
man of his poverty, another of his covetousness; Sall. Cat. 21,4.
grammaticos officii sui commonemus, we remind the professors of lan
guages of their duty ; Quintil. 1, 5, 7.
a. The Thing of Which one is reminded or informed, if expressed by
a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective, is regularly in the Accusative.
(See 897.)
b. These verbs of Reminding and Informing may take de with the Ablative.

Genitive of the Object of Feeling

352. 1 . Impersonal Verbs of Feeling may take, besides the
Accusative of the Person Feeling, a Genitive of that toward
which the feeling is directed.
These Verbs are miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet, it
makes one pitiful, repentant, disgusted, ashamed, or bored.
me meorum factorum numquam paenitebit, / shall never repent of what
I have done; Cat. 4, 10, 20. (Cf. " It repenteth me," Genesis, VI, 7.)
edrum nos miseret, we feel pity for them ; Mil. 34, 92.
a. Miseret never has a Subject. The other verbs of the list sometimes
have for a Subject a Neuter Pronoun in the Singular, an Infinitive, or a
quod-Clause (552).
taedet caeli convexa tueri, it wearies her to gaze upon the vault of Heaven ;
Aen. 4, 451.
354] Genitive

2. The personal Verbs of Feeling misereor and the poetic miseresco, /

pity, take their Object in the Genitive. (Miseror takes the Accusative.)
miserere animi non dignaferentis,///)/ a soul that bears ills undeserved;. Aen. 2, 144.
3. The old Genitive of the Object of Feeling is also found in poetry with the personal
verbs cupio, fastidio, miror, studeo, and vereor.
cupiunt tui, long for you ; Mil. Gl. 963.
iustitiaene mlrer ? should I admire yourjustice? Aen. 11, 126.

Genitive with potior

353. The Genitive is sometimes used with potior, become master
of, gain.
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to master the whole
of Gaul; B. G. 1, 3, 8.
urbis potiri, to gain possession of the city ; Sail. Cat. 47, 2.
a. For the regular Ablative, see 429 ; for the occasional Accusative, 429, b

HI. GENITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF COMPOSITE ORIGIN (FUSION)

Objective Genitive and Genitive of Application
354. The Genitive may be used to express the Object or
the Application of a Noun, an Adjective, or a Participle used
adjectively.
The list of nouns is very large. The adjectives are especially those
denoting desire, knowledge, skill, memory, or participation.1
regni cupiditate, by desire of sovereignty ; B. G. 1, 2, 1.
cupidum rerum novarum, desirous of a revolution; B. G. 1, 18, 3.
conscius iniuriae, conscious of wrong-doing; B. G. 1, 14, 2.
amantissimos rei publicae yiids, firm friends of the state; Cat. 3, 2, 5.
rei publicae iniuriam, the wrong done to the state ; B. G. 1, 20, 5.
excessu vitae, by departure from life ; Tusc. 1, 12, 27.
cui summam omnium rerum fidem habebat, in whom he had the greatest
confidence in all matters; B. G. 1, 19, 3.
praestantiam virtutis, preeminence in virtue; Am. 19, 70.
1 So especially avidus, conscius, consors, cupidus, exhSres, ignarus, immunis, inscius,
insolens, insuetus, memor, immemor, particeps, peritus, imperitus. rudis, studiosus. Also
expers, when meaning not sharing, without knowledge of, and consultus in iuris consultus.
Rudis, insol5ns, and insuetus differ but little in meaning from inscius and imperitus,
and thereforefollowed than in taking the Genitive ; similarly consultus followed studiosus
and peritus. But thefeeling ai the Genitive necessarily changed somewhat tofit the mean
ings of the new group, becoming that of Application.
 188 Syntax [354

a. Instead of the Objective Genitive depending on a noun, prepo

sitions with the Accusative are often employed, especially erga, in, and
adversus, toward, against.
in homines imunam,wrongto men; N.D.3,34,84. (Cf. reipublicaeiniuriam, above.)
deorum summo erga vos amdre, by Heaven's great love toward you ; Cat. 3, 1, 1.
b. In Ciceronian Latin, only a moderate number of adjectives, mostly
expressing or suggesting Activity, take this Genitive. With nouns it is
more freely used.
c. Freer poetic and later Genitive of the Object or of Application. In poetry and
later Latin this Genitive is used with greater freedom.1
fessi rerum, weary of trouble ; Aen. 1, 178.
integer vitae, upright of life; Carm. 1, 22, 1.
indignus avorum, unworthy of my ancestors ; Aen. 12, 649.
d. Adjectives and possessive pronouns are sometimes used with objective force.
metus hostllis, /car of the enemy ; Sall. lug. 4T, 2.
Descriptive Genitive
355. Kind or Measure may be expressed by the Genitive of
a Noun accompanied by a modifier.
The construction may be either appositive or predicative.
Cato, adulescens nullius consili, Cato, a young man of no judgment;
Q. Fr. 1, 2, s, 15.
Quintus Lucanius, eiusdem ordinis, Quintus Lucanius, of the same rank y
B. G. 5, 35, 7.
homines magnae virtiitis, men ofgreat courage ; B. G. 2, 15, 5.
eius modi tempestates, storms of such a kind; B. G. 3, 29, 2.
materia cuiusque generis, timber of every kind; B. G. 5, 12, 5.
dierum viginti supplicatio, a thanksgiving oftwenty days ; B. G. 4, 38, 5.
meam erus esse operam deputat parvl preti, my master considers my
services to be of small value; Hec. 799.
a. Compounds equivalent to a noun plus an adjective, and nouns
not used with serious meaning (e.g. nihili, zero, naught, nauci, a peas-
cod), take no modifier.
tridui (= trium dierum) mora, a delay of three days ; B. G. 4, 11, 4.
homo nihili, man of naught ; Trin. 1017 (= vir minumi preti, Trin. 925).
t. In Ciceronian Latin this Genitive is generally attached to a c/aji-name in apposi
tion with the name of the person (as in the first example above). In later Latin it is
more freely attached to the name of the person (as in the second example above).
c. For the Descriptive Ablative, see 443.
1 Thus, with Objective feeling, with certus, exsors, liberalis, pot5ns, praescius, pro-
fusus, securus, tenax. The list with the feeling of Application is very large.
358] Dative

Genitive of Value or Price

356. Indefinite Value or Price1 may be expressed by the
Genitive of :
1 . Certain Adjectives, especially tanti, quanti, magni, parvi ; pluris,
minoris ; plurimi, maximi, minimi.
2. Certain Substantives not used with serious meaning, especially
nihili, zero, nauci, a peascod, assis, a copper, flocci, a straw, pili, a hair,
huius, that much (with a snap of the finger).
haec noli putare parvi, don't reckon these things of small account ;
Catull. 23, 25. (Cf. esse deputat parvi preti in 355.)
noli spectare quanti homo sit ; parvi enim preti est qui tam nihili est,
don't consider how much the fellow is worth, for he is of little
value who is so worthless ; Q. Fr. 1, 1, 4, 14. (Note the parallel
expressions parvi preti, quanti, and nihili.)
non habeo nauci Marsum augurem, / don't care a peascodfor a Marsian
augur; Div. 1, 58, 132.
a. For the Ablative of Price or Value, see 427.

Genitive with Neuter Plural Adjectives

357. In the later writers a Genitive Noun is often attached to the
Neuter Plural of an Adjective, where in Ciceronian Latin the Adjective
would agree with the Noun.
strata viarum (= stratas vias), the paved streets ; Aen. 1, 422.
angusta viarum (= angustas vias), the narrow streets ; Aen. 2, 332.

THE DATIVE
358. The Latin Dative expresses three general classes of
ideas :
I. Figurative Direction (to- or for-Dative).
II. {Rarely) Literal Direction (to-Dative).
III. Person or Thing after Verbs compounded with certain
Prepositions (Construction of Composite Origin).
1 The principal verbs with which the construction is used are est, aestimo and exis-
timo, puto, habeo, dflco, facio, pendo, emo, redimo, vendo, vSneo.
Aestimo with this construction is rare before Cicero ; existimo is always rare with it.
190 Syntax [359

359. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Dative

Dative of Tendency or Purpose (360)
Dative of the Concrete Object for Which (361)
Dative of Direction or Relation, with Adjectives,Verbs, Adverbs, etc. (362)
Dative of the Indirect Object (365)
Dative of Reference or Concern :
1 With any Verb (366)
Dative Versus the Accusative (367)
of In place of the Genitive (368)
Figurative Freer Poetic Dative of Reference or Concern (369)
Direction Dative of the Person Judging (370)
Dative of the Local Point of View (370, a)
Dative with Verbs of Taking Away (371)
Ethical Dative (372)
Dative of the Agent (373)
Dative of Possession (374)
II
Dative of Poetic Dative of Direction in Space (375)
Direction
in Space
III
Of Compos Dative after Verbs compounded with certain Prepositions (376)
ite Origin

L DATIVE OF FIGURATIVE DIRECTION

Dative of Tendency or Purpose 1
360. The Dative of many Nouns may be used to express
Tendency or Purpose?
sibi eam rem curae futuram, that he would take care of this matter (this
matter would be to him for a care) ; B. G. 1, 33, i.
si haec vox non nullis saluti fuit, if this voice of mine has been (for) the
salvation of a number of men (has tended toward) ; Arch. 1,1.
muneri misit, sent as a present (for a present) ; Nep. Att. 8, 6.
auxilio Nerviis venirent, were coming to assist the Nervii; B. G. 2, 29, 1.
a. These Datives are mostly Abstracts, and all are Singular.
b. The Dative of Tendency or Purpose is often accompanied by a Dative
of the Person (Dative of Reference, 366), as in auxilid Nerviis above. Hence
the common name " Two Datives."
1 Compare English " it is for men's health to be temperate," " give a thing for a
present," " he is not to my satisfaction," etc.
2 The verbs most commonly used with this construction are sum, fio, do, dono, relinquo,
mitto, eo, venid, habed, ducd, tribuo, verto. The nouns most commonly used are auxilid
and subsidid, praesidid, saluti, exitio, bono, maid and detrimento, impedlmento, oneri,
curae, doldri, ornaments, honor!, probrd, usui, cordi, odid, dono and muneri, crimini, vitio.
Frugi (for profit), useful, as in est frugi bonae, Trin. 321, comes also to be used as an
indeclinable adjective. In early and later writers, many other verbs and nouns appsar
in this construction.
362] Dative 191

Dative of the Concrete Object for Which

361. The Dative of the Concrete Object for Which some
thing is intended may be used with Phrases containing Verbs
of choosing or appointing, and a few others.1
castris locum delegit, chose a place for a camp ; B. G. 1, 49, 1.
dies conloquio dictus est, a day was set for a conference ; IS. G. 1,
42, 3-
a. Later Freer Dative of the Object for Which. The poets and later writers
use the construction of the Object for Which more boldly, even attaching it
directly to nouns.
aggeritur tumuld tellus, earth is heaped together for a mound ; Aen. 3, 63.
causam lacrirois, a cause for tears (tending toward tears) ; Aen. 3, 305.
Similarly causas bello, Tac. Ann. 2, 64. (In Ciceronian Latin the
. Genitive, as in belli causa, B. G. 3, 7, 2.)

Dative of Direction or Relation2

362. The Dative is used to express that toward which
a Quality, Attitude, or Relation is directed (English "to,"
"toward," "for").
The construction occurs after many Adjectives, Verbs,
and Adverbs, and after certain Nouns in combination with
Verbs 3 :
1 Thus diem died (constituo) concilio, conloquio, operi, pugnae, huic rel, etc. ; locum
deligd (capio) castris, oppido, domicilid, etc. ; also receptui cand, sound for retreat,
and even receptui signum, signal for retreat ; sometimes fundamenta iacio (fodio) urbi,
delubro, etc. (but the Genitive is more common).
The later writers extend the list of phrases.
2 The line between these meanings is often not sharp.
8 (a) The total list, especially of adjectives and verbs, is very large. The commonest
meanings shared by two or more of the parts of speech are : Pleasing, helpful, advan
tageous ; friendly, favoring, obedient; indulgent, forgiving, trustful, yielding ; persua
sive, commanding, angry, threatening ; flattering, envious, jealous; good, sufficient,
necessary, permissible, suitable ; near, similar, related ; or the opposites of any of these.
(b) The principal verbs or phrases with verbs, occurring with this construction in
B. G., Cat., Arch., Pomp., and Mil. are: appropinqud, audiens sum, auxilior, cedo, con-
fido, desum, diffido, fldem facio and habeo, credo, dSsum, faved, gratiam habeo, ignosco,
impero, indulged, insidior, invideo, Irascor, libet, licet, medeor, minor, noceo, oboedid,
obsisto, obsto, officio, obsum, obtempero, obtrecto, obvius est, obviam fio, venio, etc.,
opitulor, parco, pared, placed, praesto (am superior), praesto sum, praestolor, prdsum,
resisto, repugnd, satis facio, servio, studed, suaded and persuaded, succensed, temperd.
(c) The more important remaining verbs or phrases with verbs are : adsentior,
adversor, aemulor, appared, ausculto, bene or male with died, loquor, or facio, blandior,
convenit, convenienter with a verb, conducit, dicto audiens sum, expedit, fides est
(poetical), fido, gratiflcor, gratulor, liquet and lucet, moderor, mdrem gerd, obsequor,
sufflcio, suppliCd, vacd. To these may be added nfibo (put on the veil for), marry.
192 Syntax [362

I. After words expressing or implying the Quality (Character, Nature)

of a Person, Thing, or Act.
mihi perniciosius, more injurious to me; Sat. 2, 7, 104.
nocere alter!, to injure one's neighbor (be injurious to) ; Off. 3, 5, 23.
mihi suavissimum, very acceptable to me; Fam. 8, 1, 1.
civitati persuasit, persuaded (made acceptable to) the state; B. G. 1, 2, 1 .
sibi satis esse duxerunt, thought it was enough for them; B. G. 1, 3, 2.
satis facere rei publicae, satisfy the state (do enough for) ; Cat. 1, 1, 2.
neque ei fas erat, nor was it properfor him (to speak) ; Off. 3, 7, 34.
sibi idem licere, (thought) the same was properfor them; B. G. 3, 10, 2.
II. After words and phrases expressing or implying Attitude.
blandus est pauperi, is flattering to the poor; Aul. 196.
matri \Aa.oA\tva, flatters the mother (is flattering to) ; Flacc. 37, 92.
adversus nemini, opposed to no man; And. 64.
qui vobis adversantur, who opposeyou (are opposed to you) ; Phil. 1,15, 36.
dicto audientes, obedient (listening to the word) ; B. G. 1, 39, 7.
Servio dicto audientem, obedient to Servius; Liv. 1, 41, 5.
mihi crede, trust me (be trustful toward) ; Cat. 1, 3, 6.
habebat studiis honorem, he had respect for literary pursuits ; Plin. Ep.
6, 2, 2.
III. After words and phrases expressing or implying Relation.
servire meae laudi, to serve my glory (be serviceable to) ; Cat. 1, 9, 23.
vectigalis sibi fecerunt, made them tributary to themselves; B. G. 4, 3, 4.
proximl sunt Germanis, they are next to the Germans ; B. G. 1, 1 , 4.
civitates propinquae iis locis, states near (to) these places; B. G. 2, 35, 3.
finibus appropinquare, to be drawing near the boundaries ; B. G. 2, 10, 5.
fit obviam Clodio, meets Clodius (becomes in-the-way to); Mil. 10, 29.
virtus hominem iungit deo, virtue joins men to the gods; Ac. 2, 45, 139.

Details of the Dative of Direction or Relation

363. 1. In general, the Dative of Direction is not used with a noun
alone, though it may be with a noun plus a verb. Compare cui fidem
habebat, in whom he had confidence (= cui confidebat), B. G. 1, 19, 3,
with testimom fidem, confidence in the testimony, Flacc. 15, 36, and fides
erga plebem, confidence in the people, Leg. Agr. 2, 8, 20.
a) But abstract and semi-abstract nouns strongly suggesting action
sometimes take the Dative of Direction. Thus obtemperatio legibus,
363] Dative 193

obedience to the laws, Leg. 1, 15, 42; Insidiae consuli, the plotting
against the consul, Sall. Cat. 32, 1 .
b) A few personal nouns, mostly official, may take the Dative of
Direction (rarely without a verb) instead of the ordinary Genitive. So
especially adiutor, comes, custos, dux, heres, legatus, patronus, quaestor,
socius, tutor. Similarly the adjective conscius.
tibi venit adiutor, came as assistant to you ; N. D. 1, 7, 17.
suis bonis heredem esse, to be heir to his goods ; Caecin. 4, 12.
nullus est portis custSs, there is no guardfor the gates ; Cat. 2, 12, 27.
huic ego me bello ducem profiteor, / offer myself as leader for this war ; Cat.
2, 5, 11.
2. Poetic and later Dative of Direction or Relation. The poets and
later writers extend the construction, using it
a) With many personal nouns of attitude or relation, with or without
a verb. So (beside the list above) with acceptor, auctor, caput, cognatus,
coniunx, fflius, frater, hospes, mater, nutrix, parens, pater, patruus, promus,
rector, regnator, rex (also regnum), sacerdos, sodalis, servus, testis.
Fauno Picus pater, to Faunus, Picus wasfather ; Aen. 7, 48.
b') With verbs resembling those of 362 in meaning.
propinquabam portis, was approaching the gates ; Aen. 2, 730 (with propinquo as
with appropinquo).
aequata caelo, made level with (equal to) the sky ; Aen. 4, 89 (with aequo as
with aequus).
dubiis ne defice rebus, fail not our doubtful fortunes ; Aen. 6, 196. Cf. 364, a.
c) With verbs of union, contention, or difference?-
se miscet viris, mingles with the men ; Aen. 1, 439.
haeret lateri letalis harundo, the deadly shaft sticks in the side ; Aen. 4, 73.
pugnabis amori? shall you struggle against love? Aen. 4, 38.
d) With adsuefacio, adsuesco, and suesco (the last poetic only). Thus mensae
adsuetus erili, accustomed to the table of his mistress, Aen. 7, 490 (Ablative in Ciceronian
prose; 431, and a) ; his suetus, accustomed to these; Aen. 5, 414.
e) With idem, the same (cf. the Dative with similis).
idem tacit Occident!, does the same thing as a murderer ; A. P. 467.
1 So with misceo (in prose regularly with Abl. or cum ; 431) ; socio, consocio (in prose
regularly with cum ; 419, 1) ; haereo (in prose with ad or in ; in the Dative with personal
nouns only) ; necto (in prose with ex) ; altercor, certo, contends, luctor, obluctor, pugno
(in prose regularly with cum ; 419, 4) ; differo, discordo, discrepo, dissentior, disto, differ
(in prose regularly with ab ; 412). Similarly with certain participles of other verbs.
Thus aversa hosti, turned away from the enemy; Tac. Ann. 1, 66.
JT^ereo also occurs with a locative ablative (436) without a preposition (rarely in
prose, oftener in poetry). Thus haeret pede pSs, Aen. 10, 361.
 194 Syntax [363

/) With verbs corresponding to adjectives that take the Dative, and adjectives
corresponding to verbs that take the Dative.
mihi saevit, is savage to me; Rud. 825. Cf. saevum ambobus, Aen. 1, 458.
simulata magnis Pergama, a Trojan citadel made like the great one ; Aen. 3, 349.
credula postero, trusting to the future ; Carm. 1, 11,8.
3. Several adjectives which ordinarily take the Dative may take the Genitive. Com
pare English "neighbor to" and "neighbor of" ; and see 339, c.
4. Propior and proximus may take the Accusative of Space-Relation. See 380, b.
5. Fido and confido may take the Ablative. See 439.

Remarks on the Dative of Direction or Relation

364. 1 . Verbs of Quality, Attitude, or Relation are with few exceptions
intransitive in Latin, while in English we more frequently employ transi
tive verbs. Compare noced, am injurious to, with the English " injure."
a. But Latin also possesses several transitive verbs of similar meanings,
e.g. iubeo, order, iuvd, help, assist, laedo, harm, deflcio, fail, delecto, please.
These of course take the Accusative of the Direct Object (390).
2. In the passive, verbs of this class are regularly used only imper
sonally. The Dative remains.
his persuader! non poterat, they could not be persuaded (it could not be made
agreeable to them) ; B. G. 2, 10, 5.
a. For rare exceptions, see 292, b.
3. Credo takes a Direct Object of the thing believed.
id quod volunt credunt, believe what they want to believe ; B. G. 3, 18, 6.
4. A few Verbs that take a Dative may take a Direct Object in addi
tion. Thus impero, levy, indulgeo, indulge, minor, threaten, persuaded,
persuade.
id iis persuasit, he persuaded them (to) this (made this agreeable); B. G. 1, 2, 3.
5. Several Verbs take either the Dative of Direction or the Accusative of the Direct
Object, with somewhat different meanings, or at different periods. Thus aemulor,
medeor, praestolor, tempers. Similarly aequo in poetry.
6. The Endfor which a Quality is Adapted is generally expressed by ad (occasion
ally in) with the Accusative. Thus ad pugnam inutiles, useless forfighting, B. G. 2,16, 5 ;
ad bellum apta, in shape for war, B. C. 1, 30, 5 ; ad hanc rem idoneo, suited for this
thing, Verr. 1, 33, 83.
7. Instead of the Dative, many Adjectives of Attitude may take erga, in, or adversus
with the Accusative. Thus in Teucros benignam, kindly disposed toward the Trojans ;
Aen. 1, 304. Cf. alii benigna, kindly disposed toward another ; Carm. 3, 29, 52.
8. The feeling of Direction sometimes leads to the use of in with Adjectives of
Quality. Thus gratae in vulgus, agreeable to the populace; Liv. 2, 8, 3.
366] Dative 195

Dative of the Indirect Object

365. The Indirect Object of a Transitive Verb is put in the
Dative.1
dat negotium Senonibus, assigns the task to the Senones ; B. G. 2, 2, 3.
regi haec dicite, tellyour king this (tell this to him) ; Aen. 1, 137.
a. Since a Transitive Verb ordinarily takes a Direct Object, an
Indirect and a Direct Object often appear together, as above.
b. With some verbs, e.g. dono and aspergd, different conceptions are possible, and
different constructions may accordingly be used.
praedam militibus donat, presents the booty to the soldiers ; B. G. 7, i1, 9.
civitate multos donavit, presented many with citizenship ; Arch. 10, 26.

Dative of Reference or Concern, after any Verb

366. Almost any Verb may be followed by a Dative of the
Person to whom the act or state refers, or whom it concerns.
A Dative of the Thing is less frequent,
mi esurid, non tibi, 'tis for myself I'm hungry, not for you ; Capt. 866.
praeterita se fratri condonare dicit, tells (Dumnorix) that he forgives the
past for the sake ^(having reference to) his brother; B. G. 1, 20, 6.
a. The Dative of Reference is especially frequent with est combined
with a noun or adverbial phrase.
nullus est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer any roomforgentleness ; Cat. 2, 4, 6.
tibi in consilio sunt, advise (are in council for) you ; Quinct. 1, 4.
b. Poetic and later Dative of Reference with Nouns. The poets and
later prose writers often attach the Dative of Reference to nouns.
collo monile, a collar for the neck (necklace) ; Aen. 1, 654.
pectori tegimen, a covering for the breast ; Liv. 1, 20, 4.
c. The Dative of Reference may be used, with words denoting per
sons, after interdico, forbid, intercludo, cut off, and depello, turn away ,
also, in poetry, after arceo, keep off, and defendo, ward off.
quibus cum aqua atque igni interdixisset, after forbidding them (from) the use
offire and water ; B. G. 6, 44, 3. (So regularly in this phrase.)
defendit aestatem capellis, wards off the heatfrom my goats ; Carm. 1, 17, 3.
1 So especially with verbs like do, reddo, trado, dono, tribuo, tendo, praebeo, praesto
(exhibit, furnish), sumo; fero, mitto; debeo, polliceor, promitto, sponded, nego ; mando,
praecipio; monstro, narro, died, nuntio, responded; facio (do), ago (render, give).
With fero and mitto, the force of the Dative is on the line between the original one
of Direction in Space and the derived one of the Indirect Object.
196 Syntax [366

Note. These verbs commonly take an Accusative of the Person and an

Ablative of the Thing (408). Interdico may also combine a Dative of the
Person (as above) with an Ablative of the Thing.
uti frumento Caesarem intercluderet, in order to cut Caesar offfrom supplies ;
B. G."I,48, 2. (Frumento is Ablative.)
qua adrogantia Gallia Romanis interdlxisset, with what arrogance he had
excluded the Romans from Gaul (interdicted them from) ; B. G. 1, 46, 4.
(Romanis is Dative.)
d. " For," meaning " in defence of," must be expressed by pro (407, 1).

Dative of Reference versus the Accusative

367. Several Verbs of Feeling or Thought take either the
Accusative or the Dative, according as the word which they
govern is thought of as the Direct Object, or as that in behalf
of which, for which, the feeling or thought is entertained.
So consulo, cupio, despero, metuo, prospicio, provides, timed,
suis rebus timere, to feel fears for their own position ; B. G. 4, 16, 1.
(But magnitudinem silvarum timere, feared the great stretch of
forest; B. G. 1, 39, 6.)
consulite vdbis, prospicite patriae, look out for yourselves, take thought
for your country ; Cat. 4, 2, 3. (But si me consulis, ifyou ask my
advice; Cat. 1, 5, 13.)

Dative of Reference in place of the Genitive

368. The Dative of the Person concerned by an act or state
as a whole is often used in place of a Possessive Genitive.
sese Caesari ad pedes proiecerunt, cast themselves at Caesar's feet; B. G.
1, 31, 2. Cf. cum se ad Caesaris pedes abiecisset, Fam. 4, 4, 3.
quotiens tibi iam extorta est ista sica de manibus ! how often has that
dagger ofyours been twisted (out of the hands for you, i.e.) out of
your hands ! Cat. 1, 6, 16. Similarly Aen. 1, 477.
a. This construction gives a touch of feeling, of concern, to the
expression. English has no corresponding idiom.

Freer Poetic Dative of Reference or Concern

369. The later poets freely use the Dative of Reference
in loose attachment to the rest of the sentence.
372] Dative 197

talia iactanti procella velum adversa ferit, as he utters these words a blast
strikes the sail athwart (for him, uttering these words); Aen. 1, 102.
vivitur parvo bene, cui paternum splendet in mensa tenui salinum, he lives
well upon a little, for whom there shines, upon a frugal board, the
saltcellar which his father had before him; Carm. 2, 16, 13.
a. The warmth and feeling of this construction gave it great vogue
in later poetry. It is used with pronouns with especial frequency.

Dative of the Person Judging

370. The Dative is used to denote the person in whose
eyes or for whom the statement of the sentence holds good.
Quintia formosa est multis, in the eyes of many (to many) Quintia is
beautiful; Catull. 86, 1.
levata mihi videtur, (the state) seems to me relieved; Cat. 2, 4, 7.
a. Out of this grew the Dative of the Local Point of View (with the
Participle, first in Caesar).
quod est oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, which is thefirst town
of Thessaly as one comes (for people coming) from Epirus ; B. C. 3, 80, 1.
Dative with Verbs of Taking Away
371. Verbs of taking away 1 are regularly followed by the
Dative of words denoting Persons.
nunc mihi timorem eripe, remove this fear from me; Cat. 1, 7, 18.
scfito mfliti detracto, snatching a shieldfrom a soldier; B. G. 2, 25, 2.
omnia sociis adimere, took everythingfrom the allies; Sall. Cat. 12, 5.
a. The original conception was that of the Person as concerned by the act.
Thus " remove for me this fear."
b. The poets use the construction more boldly, employing it with names of
things as well, and also after verbs of stealing, going away, etc.
silici scintillam excudit, struck out a spark from theflint ; Aen. 1, 174.
fessos oculos furare labor!, steal your weary eyes from toil; Aen. 5, 845.
evadere pugnae, to escape from the battle ; Aen. 11, 702.
Ethical2 Dative
372. A Personal Pronoun in the Dative may be loosely
attached to a sentence to suggest Concern or Interest on the
part of the person denoted.
1 Various compounds of ab, de, and ex, together with adimo, subripio, tollo, etc.
2 " Ethical " means " of feeling," and so might be used of many Datives. But its use
is confined in grammar to the Personal Pronouns, in this construction.
 Syntax [372

The effect is generally whimsical or ironical.

qui mihi accubantes in conviviis eructant caedem, and these men — bless
me ! — as they recline at their banquets, belch forth talk about
blood and murder; Cat. 2, 5, 10. Cf. Cat. 2, 2, 4. (Cf. "they
drank me two bottles," Fielding, Tom Jones.)
ecce tibi tellus, there lies the landyou wish to reach; Aen. 3, 477.

Dative of the Agent

373. The Dative is used to express the Agent :
1. Regularly with the Future Passive Participle.
Caesar! omnia uno tempore erant agenda, everything had to be attended
to by Caesar at one and the same time; B. G. 2, 20, I .
vSbis erit videndum, you will have to see to it; Cat. 3, 12, 28.
a. But the construction of the Agent with ab (406, 1) is occasionally used, either for
sharper contrast, or to avoid confusion with the Dative of the Person Concerned, etc.
aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis consulendum, the property of many
citizens is at stake, andfor this precautions must be taken by you ; Pomp. 2, 6.
2. Somewhat freely with the Perfect Passive Participle, and forms
compounded with it.
meis civibus suspectum, suspected by my fellow-citizens ; Cat. 1, 7, 17.
qui tibi ad caedem constitute fuerunt, who have been set apart for death
by you; Cat. t, 7, 16.
3. Occasionally, in the later writers, with any passive form.
neque cernitur ulli, and is not seen by any one; Aen. 1, 440.
a. The later writers sometimes used the construction with an adjective ofpassive
meaning.
multis bonis flebilis. by many a good man to be mourned ; Carm. 1 , 24, 9.
tolerabilis vobis eas fore creditis ? do you think they will be endurable to you
(possible to be endured by you) ? Liv. 34, 3, 2.

Dative of Possession
374. Possession may be expressed by the Dative with the
Verb sum.
erat ei consilium ad facinus aptum, he possessed an understanding
specially adapted for crime; Cat. 3, 7, 16.
sunt mihi bis septem Nymphae, / have twice seven Nymphs ; Aen. 1,71.
a. The Dative with sum asserts the fact of Possession. The Possessive Genitive (339)
involves the fact of possession, but this idea is only a subordinate one in the sentence.
For the attraction of the Name into the case of the Possessor, see 326, 3.
376] Dative 199

II. POETIC DATIVE OF DIRECTION IN SPACE

375. The poets use the Dative freely to express Direction in Space.
it clamor caelo, the shout rises to the heavens ; Aen. 5, 451.
caelo capita ferentes, raising their heads toward heaven ; Aen. 3, 678.
pelago dona praecipitare, hurl the gifts into the sea ; Aen. 2, 36.
a. The construction is sometimes used with great boldness of phrase.
stipat carinis argentum, packs silver into the ships (for packs the ships with
silver) ; Aen. 3, 465. Similarly Aen. 1, 195. The feeling is as in lateri
abdidit enseal (for in latus abdidit), Aen. 2, 553.
b. The prose construction is the Accusative with ad or in (385). Thus it ad aetbera
clamor, the shout rises to the sky ; Aen. 12, 409.

m. DATIVE IN A CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOSITE ORIGIN (FUSION)

Dative after Verbs compounded with certain Prepositions
376. The Dative of the Person or Thing Concerned may
be used after many Verbs compounded with the Prepositions
ad, ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, or super.1
adporto vobis Plautum, I bring (to) you Plautus ; Men. 3.
finitimls bellum inferre, to make war upon their neighbors; B. G. 1 , 2, 4.
virtiite omnibus praestarent, were above all in valor; B. G. 1, 2, 2.
a. If the verb of the compound is Transitive, it may of course take
a Direct Object (390), in addition to the Dative taken by the compound
as a whole. See finitimis bellum inferre, above.
b. Several compounds may take either this construction or an Accusative of the
object and an Ablative of means (423). Thus circumdo, circumfundo, aspergo, induo
(in later Latin, accingo, implied, etc.).
arma circumdat umeris, puts his armor about his shoulders ; Aen. 2, 509.
reliquos equitatu circumdederant, had surrounded the rest with cavalry ;
B. G. 4, 32, 5.
c. Several compounds may take either the Dative or the Accusative (391, 2, a).
Thus inludS,/'<rcr at, mock.
d. Several compounds expressing comparison, union, or agreement may take either
the Dative, or the Ablative with cum (419, 1, 3). Thus comparo, confero (cf. English
"compare to" and "compare with").
1 Adsentior, consentior, adversor, convenit, obsequor, officio, obsisto, obstd, obsum,
prosum. are generally placed here, but belong more properly under 362. Cf. the Dative
with the corresponding (or opposite) words adversus, consentaneus, oboedio, pared,
repugno, resists, desum, expedit. Yet oppono shows the impossibility of drawing fixed
lines. Excello, excel, follows the analogy of praesto, surpass.
200 Syntax [377

Remarks on the Dative after Compound Verbs

377. i . Compounds expressing literal motion only are regularly fol
lowed by the Accusative with ad or in. Thus ad eum adcurrit, runs up
to him, B. G. i , 22, 2 ; in gladium incubuerat, hadfallen upon his sword,
Inv. 2, si, 154.
2. For compounds capable of expressing both literal motion and a
figurative idea (like most under 376), no fixed rule can be laid down.
a. With some compounds both constructions are in use. Thus in mS incidit, he fell
in with me, Planc. 41, 99; and homini incidi, / fell in with the man, Verr. 2, 74, 182.
b. In general, it may be said that the preposition is regularly used // the literal side
of the meaning is to be brought out more strongly than usual. Thus bellum intulit pro-
vinciae Galliae, has made war upon the province of Gaul, Phil. 5, 9, 24 ; but de hello a
Parthis in provinciam Syriam inlato, with regard to the war which has been carried by
the Parthians into the province of Syria, Fam. 15, 2, 1.
c. Yet many compounds with purely figurative meanings regularly take a preposi
tion. Thus incumbite ad salutem rei pfiblicae, bend your energies to the welfare of the
state ; Cat. 4, 2, 4.
3. The poets and later prose writers love to vary the older construc
tion, whatever it may be, for the mere sake of variety. Thus Virgil,
Aen. 5, 15, says incumbere remis, to bend to the oars (compare Cicero,
under 2, c above) ; and Livy, 9, 22, 4, says adequitare vallo, rode up to
the rampart, where Caesar would have used ad (cf. ad nostros adequitare,
.were riding up to our men, B. G. 1, 46, 1).
4. The poets and later writers likewise use the Dative with com
pounds not employed at all in Ciceronian Latin. Thus with ingemino
(Aen. 5, 434), invergS (Aen. 6, 244).
5. The poets sometimes use the Dative with verbs resembling those
of 376 in meaning, but differently formed.
captae superavimus urbi, have survived the capture of the city ; Aen. 2,
643. (Supero like supersum.)

THE ACCUSATIVE
378. The Latin Accusative expresses three general classes
of ideas :
I. Space-Relation (not Separative or Locative).
II. Respect.
III. The Direct Object.
 380] Accusative 201

379. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Accusative

I
Accusative Accusative with Prepositions (380-384)
With Verbs compounded with trans or circum (386)
of Space- Regular expression of the Place Whither (385)
Relations Accusative of Names of Towns, etc., Whither, without a Preposition
(not Sepa (385, ,5, 450)
rative or Accusative of Extent, Duration, or Degree (387)
Locative)
II Accusative of Respect :
Accusative In Ciceronian prose in a few phrases only (388)
of Respect In freer use in later Latin (389)
Accusative of the Direct Object (390)
With Verbs ordinarily Intransitive (391, i)
With Compounds acquiring Transitive Force (391, 2)
Two Objects with Verbs :
III of making, choosing, having, regarding, calling, or showing (392)
Accusative of inquiring, requesting, teaching, or concealing (393)
of the Accusative of the Result Produced (394)
Direct Accusative in Apposition to a sentence (395)
Object Accusative of Kindred Meaning (396, 1)
Extended use of the Accusative of Kindred Meaning (396, 2)
Freer Neuter Accusative Modifiers (397)
Subject of an Infinitive (398)
Accusative of Exclamation (399)

I. ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE-RELATIONS (NOT SEPARATIVE OR LOCA

TIVE) AND OF CORRESPONDING FIGURATIVE RELATIONS
Accusative with Prepositions1
380. The Accusative is always used with the Prepositions
ad, adversus or adversum, ante, apud, circa, circiter, and circum, cis
and citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, iuxta, ob, penes, per,
pone and post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra
^(and uls), versus.
iuxta murum, close to the wall; B. C. I, 16, 4.
ante oppidum, in front of the town ; B. G. 2, 32, 4.
Hannibal erat ad portas, Hannibal was at the gates/'Phil. 1, 5, 11.
ad omnis nationes sanctum, sacred among allpeoples; B. G. 3, 9, 3.
ad castra contenderunt, hastened to the camp ; B. G. 2, 7, 3.
iter per provinciam, a passage through the province ; B. G. 1, 8, 3.
vestra erga me voluntas, your good will toward me; Cat. 4, 1, 1.
a. Versus follows its noun. Thus orientem versus, toward the east ; Plin. N. H. 5,
43. But this is generally preceded by a preposition, unless it denotes a Town or Small
Island (450). Thus ad meridiem versus, toward the south ; Plin. N. H. 5, 43.
1 For summarized statements for all Prepositions, see 455-458.
202 Syntax [380

b. The adverbs propius and proximS commonly, and the adjectives propior and proxi-
mus occasionally, take the Accusative of Space-Relation. (For the Dative with these
adjectives, see 362 ; for ab and the Ablative, 406, 2.)
proxirne deos accessit, has come very near the gods ; Mil. 22, 59.
qui proxinu Rhenum incolunt, who live next the Rhine; IS. G. 1, 54, 1.
c. Pridie and postridie, the day before and the day after, generally take the Accusa
tive (of Time-Relation), but sometimes the Genitive (of Connection ; 339).
pridie Kalendas, the day before the Calends ; Cat. 1, 6, 15.
postridie eius diel, the day after that day (on the after-day of that day) ; B. G. 1, 23, 1.
d. Per may be used to represent persons as the Means through Which, in contrast to
the Ablative with ab, which represents them as Agents (406, 1). Compare rS per specula-
tores cognita, the fact having been learned through spies, B. G. 2, n, 2, with cSnfir-
mata re ab exploratoribus, the report having been confirmed by scouts, B. G. 2, 11, 3.
381. The Accusative is used with in and sub to express the
Place Whither something moves.
cum in castra contenderent, when hurrying into camp ; B. G. 4, 37, 1.
sub nostram aciem successerunt, came up under our line; B. G. 1, 24, 5.
a. The Ablative is used to express the Place Where something is
or is done (433).
b. Sub regularly takes the Accusative when meaning/!**/ before,just after, or about.
sub occasum &o\i&, just before sunset ; B. G. 2, 11, 6.
sub vesperum, about evening; B. G. 7, 60, 1.
382. The Accusative is regularly used with subter, beneath.
iram in pectore, cupiditatem subter praecordia locavit, placed the seat of
anger in the breast, the seat of desire below the diaphragm ; Tusc.
1, 10, 20.
a. The Ablative may be used with subter in poetry to express the Place
beneath which something is or is done.
subter dSnsa testudine, under the close-packed roof of shields ; Aen. 9, 514.
383. The Accusative is regularly used with super in the
sense of upon, at, or in addition to (the Ablative in the sense
of concerning ; see 435).
saeva sedens super arma, sitting upon a pile of cruel arms ; Aen. 1, 295.
a. For the poetical Ablative with other senses than concerning, see 435, a.
384. The Accusative with a Preposition is used to express
a great variety of figurative ideas. Notice especially :
i . The Condition or Situation into Which, with in : ffliam suam in
matrimonium dat, gives his daughter in marriage (into that condition);
B. G. 1, 3, 5. Cf. 434, I; 406, 3.
386] Accusative 203

2. Figurative Direction, with ad, in, erga, etc. : loco ad aciem Instruen-
dam opportund, in a place suitable for drawing up a line of battle, B. G.
2, 8, 3 ; intent! ad pacem, eager for peace, B. C. 3, 19, 4; gratae in
vulgus, agreeable to the populace, Liv. 2, 8, 2 ; summo erga vos amore,
with the greatest love (toward) for you ; Cat. 3, 1, 1.
a. The construction is thus often an alternative for the Dative of Direction
after Adjectives and Participles signifying useful, suitable, or prcparcd (364,
and 6, 7, 8). Also for the Objective Genitive depending upon nouns (354, b).
b. Paratus takes the Dative also (362) in later Latin. Thus parata neci,
Aen. 2, 334; paci paratum, Liv. 1, 1, 8.
3. Purpose or Aim, with ad or in: eo ad conloquium venerunt, came
there for a conference, B. G. 1, 43, 1 ; convlvium in honorem victoriae,
a banquet to celebrate the victory, Quintil. 11, 2, 12.
a. Hence the use of ad with the Gerundive or Gerund to express Purpose
(612, III).
Regular Expression of the Place Whither
385. In accordance with 380 and 381,
Place Whither is regularly expressed by ad, in, or sub, with the
Accusative. The meaning may be either literal or figurative,
ut in Galliam venirent, to come into Gaul; B. G. 4, 16, 1.
ad ilia venio quae . . . , I come to the things which . . . ; Cat. 1,6, 14.
sub populi Romani imperium ceciderunt, fell under the dominion of the
Roman people; Font. 5, 12.
a. With names of Countries, in means into, ad, to the borders of.
b. With names of Towns or Small Islands, and with domus and riis, the
Place Whither is expressed by the Accusative without a Preposition (450).
c. The poets freely omit the Preposition with nouns of any kind.
Italiam vSnit, came to Italy ; Aen. 1, 2.
spSluncam deveniunt, come to the cave ; Aen. 4, 165.
Two Accusatives, after Verbs compounded with trans and circum
386. Transitive Verbs compounded with trans or circum
may take an Accusative depending upon the Preposition, as
well as a Direct Object (390) depending upon the Verb.1
ezercitum Ligerim traducit, he leads his army across the Loire (= exer-
citum trans Ligerim ducit) ; B. G. 7, 1 1 , 9.
quos Pompeius sua praesidia circumduxit, these men Pompiy led aroitnd
his intrenchments ; B. C. 3, 61, 1.
1 So especially tradfico, traicio, transporto, circumduct. The later writers extend the list.
204 Syntax [386

a. The Accusative is also found with the passive of these verbs, and
with praetervehor.
Rhenum traductos, brought acrossfhe Rhine ; B. G. 2, 4, 1.
praetervehor ostia, / am carried past the mouth ; Aen. 3, 688.
b. But the Preposition trans is often repeated.
ne quam multitudinem hominum amplius trans Rhenum traduceret, that he should
lead no more crowds of men across the Rhine ; B. G. 1, 35, 5.

r Accusative of Extent, Duration, or Degree

387. Extent of Space, Duration of Time, and Degree are
expressed by the Accusative.
I. Extent of Space.
oppidum aberat mflia passuum octo, the town was eight miles distant;
B. G. 2, 6, 1.
multa milia passuum prosecuti, after pursuing for many miles; B. G.
2, 11, 4.
II. Duration of Time.
tot annos bella gero, so many years have I been waging war; Aen. 1,47.
haec magnam partem aestatis faciebant, this they were engaged in doing
during a large part of the summer; B. G. 3, 12, 5.1
quinque et viginti natus annos, twenty-five years old (having been born
twenty-five years); Tusc. 5, 20, 57.
a. But per is sometimes used of Duration of Time, as in per hosce annos,
through (during) all these years ; Cat. 2, 4, 7.
b. With abhinc, ago, either the Accusative of Duration of Time or the Ablative
of the Degree of Difference (424) may be used. Thus abhinc triennium and
abhinc annis XV are used almost side by side in Rosc. Com. 13, 37 (ago to the
extent of three years, and ago by the amount of fifteen years).
c. For the occasional Ablative of Duration of Time, see 440.
III. Degree?
quid in bello possent, how strong they were in war (to what extent they
were powerful) ; B. G. 2, 4, 1.
multum sunt in venationibus, they are occupied to a large extent in hunt
ing; B. G. 4, 1, 8.
1 This construction of partem should be distinguished from that of 388.
2 So especially quid, aliquid, aliquantum, quicquam, multum, plus, plurimum, tantum,
quantum, nihil. The same use appears in ecquid, si quid, and ni quid.
390] Accusative 205

n. ACCUSATIVE OF RESPECT
388. In Ciceronian prose the Accusative of Respect is con
fined to vicem and partem with modifiers, and quid, in what respect.
et meam et aliorum vicem pertimescere," to fear both for myself and for
others (as touching my part and that of others) ; Dom. S. 4, 8.
et meam partem tacere, quom (= cum) alienast 0ratio, and to keep silent
on my side, when it is another man's turn to talk ; Mil. Gl. 646.
quid hoc differt? in what respect does this differ? Caecin. 14, 39.
a. In early Latin, the Neuter Accusative of several Pronouns (id, istuc, aliud, quod,
etc.) is still freely used as an Accusative of Respect.
id maesta est, that's what she's sad about (she is sad with regard to that) ; Rud. 397.
id nos ad te venimus, that's why we came to you (we came about this) ; Mil Gl. 1158.
quid venisti ? why did you come ? (with reference to what ?) ; Amph. 377.
Note. Hence arose the use of quid in the sense of why, and of quod in
phrases like quod si, 'but if (touching which matter, if).
b. The indeclinable modifiers id temporis, at that time, and id (hoc, etc.) aetatis, ofthat
age, are used like adverbs and adjectives respectively (originally Accusatives of Respect).
quos id temporis venturos esse praedixeram, who I had said would come at
that time ; Cat. 1, 4, 10.
cum id aetatis filio, with a son of that age; Clu. 51, 141.
389. Under the influence of Greek literature, in which the Accu
sative of Respect always remained common, the later Roman writers
revived its use in some degree, employing it especially with words
expressing birth, mind, or parts of the body.
Cressa genus, a Cretan in respect of birth ; Aen. 5, 285.
clari genus, men illustrious of race ; Tac. Ann. 6, 9.
mentem pressus, o'erwhelmed in mind ; Aen. 3, 47.
nflda genu, with bared knee (bare as to the knee) ; Aen. 1, 320.
adversum femur ictus, hit in the front of the thigh ; Liv. 21,7, 10.
a. The later writers use the construction also with cuncta, omnia, alia, reli-
qua, cetera, pleraque, and with frontem, terga, latus (front, rear, andflank).
cetera Grains, in other respects a Greek ; Aen. 3, 594.
iuvenem alia clarum, a youth famous in other respects ; Tac. Ann. 12, 3.
HI. ACCUSATIVE OF THE DIRECT OBJECT, AND ITS DERIVATIVES
Accusative of the Direct Object
390. The Direct Object of a Transitive Verb is put in the
Accusative.
duas legiones conscripsit, enrolled two legions; B. G. 2, 2, 1.
Remos cohortatus, after encouraging the Remi ; B. G. 2,5, 1 .
206 Syntax [390

a. Impersonal Verbs, if Transitive, take the Accusative of the Direct

Object, like any other Transitive Verb. Thus decet, it becomes, iurat
and delectat, it pleases, fallit, fugit, and praeterit, it escapes.
Similarly miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet.
si vos paenitet (if it repentetK you), if you repent ; 13. C. 2, 32, 14.
nisi me fallit, unless I am deceived ; Sest. 50, 106.
b. The poets often attach an Object to a passive form used reflexively (288, 3), and
even to a true passive.1
galeam induitur, puts on the helmet ; Aen. 2, 392. Cf. galeam induit, Aen. 9, 366.
tunsae pectora, beating their breasts ; Aen. 1,481.
manus post terga revinctum, with his hands bound behind his back ; Aen. 2, 57. (True
passive.)
c. The Subject of a dependent clause is sometimes attracted into the main clause,
becoming the Object of its Verb.
nosti Marcellum, quam tardus sit, you know Marccllus, how slow he is; Cael., Fam. 8, 10, 3.
Note. Corresponding passive constructions also occur, and various other
turns of expression.
quidam perspiciuntur quam sint levSs (some are found how inconstant they
are), wefind how inconstant some are; Am. 17, 63.
391. 1 . Several Verbs which also have an Intransitive use
may be used Transitively, with an Accusative :
So especially taceo, maneo, and the Verbs of Feeling despero, doleo,
fleo, gemo, queror, horreo, lugeo, maereo, rideo, and sitio.
multa tacui, many things I have passed by in silence; Cat. 4, 1, 2.
honores quos desperant, the honors ofwhich they despair; Cat. 2, 9, 19.
a. So also, rarely, iuro, swear by. Thus maria aspera iiiro, Aen. 6, 351.
b. The poets and later prose writers extend the list. Thus arded, love passionately,
pereo, be deadin love with, paved, shudder at, lateo, escape the knowledge of, ceno, dine upon .
ardSbat Alezim, passionately loved Alexis ; Ecl. 2, 1.
earum alteram perit, he is dead in love with one ofthem; Poen. 1095.
nec latuere doll fratrem Iunonis, nor didJuno's wiles escape her brother; Aen. 1, 130.
2. A compound made up of an Intransitive Verb and a
Preposition may, as a whole, have Transitive force, and so
take an Accusative.2
1 The Accusative with the true passive is very close in feeling to the Accusative of
Respect (cf. 388).
2 So especially (out of a large list) adeo, adscendo, adfor, adorior and adgredior, cir-
cumvenio, circumsisto and circumsto, circumeo, convenio (visit), increpo and increpito,
ineo, inrumpo, invenio, obeo, obsideo, oppugno, peragro, praesto (show, perform), praetereo,
subeo, subterfugid, traicio (pierce), transeo, transgredior. Passives also occur, e.g. cir-
cumveniretur, B. G. 1,42, 4, obsessis, B. G. 3, 24, 2. Other compounds, not so used in
Ciceronian prose, are found with an Accusative in poets and later prose writers. Thus
accedo, erumpo, Svado, inno, interluo, invado, praenato, praevertor, superemineo.
392] Accusative 207

These Prepositions are ad, ante, circum, con, in, ob, per, prae, praeter,
sub, subter, super, trans.
omnia obire, to accomplish everything; B. G. 5, 33, 3.
officium praestitero, I shall perform my duty; B. G. 4, 25, 3.
eos adgressus, attacking them; B. G. 1, 12, 3.
flutnen transgressi, having crossed the river; B. G. 2, 19, 4.
a. Several compounds similarly formed1 take either the Accusative or the Dative
(376). Thus antecedo (go before), surpass, governs the Accusative in cSteros antece-
dunt, B. G. 3, 8, 1, and the Dative in pecudibus antecedat, Off. 1, 30, 105.
3. A few phrases made up of a Noun and a Verb may as a whole have
Transitive force, and so take an Accusative. Thus animum adverto (turn
the mind upon), notice. (In the Passive the Accusative animum remains.)
postquam id animum advertit, upon noticing this ; B. G. 1, 24, 1.
qua re animum adversa, when thisfact was noticed ; B. C. 1, 80, 4.
4. Intransitive Verbs of Motion are sometimes used with Transitive
force. So ambulo, navigo, and, in poetry, curro, eo, erro, fugio (rarely
also in prose), and even passives like vehor.
ventis maria omnia vectl, swept by the winds o'er every sea ; Aen. 1, 524.

Two Objects
392. Verbs of making, choosing, having, regarding, calling,
or showing may take two Objects.2 The Second3 may be
either a Noun or an Adjective.
consules creat L. Papirium L. Sempronium, appointed Lucius Papirius
and Lucius Sempronius consuls ; Liv. 4, 7, 10.
illi me comitem misit, sent me as companion for him; Aen. 2, 86.
me severum praebeo, / show myself unrelenting; Cat. 4, 6, 1 2.
a. The Second Object is really in a kind of predicative relation
(" makes to be "), and may therefore be called a Predicate Accusative.
b. In the Passive construction, the First Object of the Active Voice
becomes the Subject, and the Second Object becomes the Predicate.
consules creantur Ifllius Caesar et P. Servilius, fidius Caesar and Publius
Servilius are appointed consuls ; B. C. 3, 1, 1.
1 Especially antecedo, anteeo, invado, praecurro. Similarly, in later Latin, incedo,
interfluo, interfaces, intervenio, praesto (surpass), succedo, approach, and many others.
2 Thus (making) facio, creo, reddo, redigo ; (choosing or deputing) Sligo, lego ;
(having) habeo; (regarding) habeo, duco, puto, existimo, iiidico, censeo; (calling)
appello, nomino, died, voco ; (showing) praebeo, praesto ; similarly verbs like profiteor,
adscisco, sumo, etc., which involve one of the meanings given above.
8 " First Object " means principal object, and " Second Object " means secondary
object, without regard to their order in the sentence.
208 Syntax [393

393. Many Verbs of inquiring, requesting, teaching, or

concealing1 may take two Objects, one of the Person, the
other of the Thing.
hos sententiam rogo, I ask them their opinion; Cat. 1, 4, 9.
iter omnis celat, he conceals his routefrom everybody; Nep. Eum. 8, 7.
a. In the Passive construction, the Person becomes the Subject, but
the Accusative of the Thing remains.
sententiam rogatus, having been asked his opinion ; Sail. Cat. 50, 4.
nosne hoc celatos tam diu ! the idea of our having been kept so long in the
dark about this ! Hec. 645.
b. Other turns of expression also occur. Thus :
1) Interrogo, doceo, and cSlo may take d5 of the Thing ("about," "con
cerning").
te de causa rogabo, / shall ask you about the case ; Vat. 16, 40.
2) Flagito, posco, and postulo may take ab of the Person asked (English
"of"). Postulo generally does so.
quod a me optiml cives flagitabant, which the best citizens were demand
ing of me; Sest. 17, 39. •
c. Peto takes only ab of the Person asked. Quaero takes only ab, de, or ex of the
Person asked, or the Accusative or de of the Thing asked about.
causam quaero, / ask the reason ; Leg. Agr. 3, 3, 12.
sin de causa quaeritis, but ifyou ask about the case ; Caecin. 36, 104.
haec cum a Caesare peteret, when he asked this of Caesar ; B. G. 1, 20, 5.
quorum dS mdribus cum quaereret, on asking about their customs ; B. G. 2, 15, 3.
Accusative of the Result Produced
394. The Result Produced by the action of the Verb may be
expressed by the Accusative.
scribere versus, to write verses ; Sat. 1, 9, 23.
rumpit vocem, breaks into utterance ; Aen. 2, 1 29.

Accusative in Apposition to a Sentence

395. An Accusative may stand in Apposition to a sentence as a whole.
audita mutatione principis immittere latronum globos, exscindere castella, causas
bello, upon hearing of the change of emperor he sent in bands of brigands,
and razedforts, —groundsfor declaring war ; Tac. Ann. 2, 64.
a. The construction is probably an extension of that of 394.
1 Thus {inquiring) interrogd, rogo ; (requesting) rogo, posco, reposco, oro, postulo,
flagito ; (teaching) doceo ; (concealing) celo. Also, in poetry and later Latin, percon-
tor, inquire strictly.
397] Accusative 209

Accusative of Kindred Meaning1

396. 1 . An Intransitive Verb may take an Accusative Noun
with a meaning kindred to its own.
longam ire viam, be going a long journey; Aen. 4, 467.
vivere eam vitam, to live that life; Sen. 21, 77.
2. Extended Use of the Accusative of Kindred Meaning. An Intransi
tive Verb may take an Accusative which, though not of a meaning
kindred to its own, modifies the idea of such a meaning.
This Accusative may be a Noun, a Pronoun, or an Adjective,
qui Bacchanalia vivunt, who live Bacchanalian lives ; Iuv. 2, 3.
pauca querar, /shall make a few complaints ; Phil. 1, 4, 11. Cf. Aen. 1, 385.
poetis pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum, to poets having a certain
heavy andforeign style ; Arch. 10, 26.
quae homines arant, men'sploughing (the ploughing that men do) ; Sail. Cat. 2, 7.
a. The poets like to make bold combinations of phrase.
nec mortale sonans, not sounding like a mortal; Aen. 6, 50.
vox hominem sonat, the voice sounds human ; Aen. 1, 328.
acerba tuens, with savage looks (looking savage looks) ; Aen. 9, 794.
dulce ridentem, sweetly smiling ; Carm. 1, 22, 23.2
b. The construction may be used in poetry with the true Passive and with
a Passive form used Reflexively (288, 2 and 3).
coronari Olympia, be crowned with the Olympic crown; Ep. 1, 1, 50.
Satyrum movetur, dances the Satyr dances; Ep. 2, 2, 125.

Freer Neuter Accusative Modifiers

397. Neuter Accusatives of Pronouns and of several Adjectives may
be used to modify Verbs which do not take the Accusative of a Noun.2
So especially with :
1 . Several Verbs of advising, urging, compelling, or accusing. Thus
with moneo and its compounds, hortor, iubeo, volo, arguo, accuso and incuso,
cogo, and adduco.
quod te iam dudum hortor, which Ihave long been urging (upon) you ; Cat. 1, 5, 12.
si quid ille se velit, if Caesar wanted anything of him ; B. G. 1, 34, 2.
eos hoc moneo, Igive them this advice (advise them this) ; Cat. 2, 9, 20.
id cogit omnia, forces everybody to this ; Rep. 1, 2, 3.
a. In the passive voice, the Accusative of the Thing remains,
ego hoc cogor, / am forced to this ; Rab. Post. 7, 17.
illud adduci vix possum, ut . . . , / can hardly beforced to the conclusion
that; Fin. 1, 5, 14.
1 Also called the Cognate Accusative.
2 In such examples with neuter adjectives, the Accusative is in effect adverbial.
2IO Syntax [397

2. Several Verbs of assenting, boasting, contending, striving, or

rejoicing. Thus with adsentior, gauded, glorior, laetor, pugno, studeo.
unum studetis, you have one common aim ; Phil. 6, 7, 18.
illud non adsentior tibi, I do not agree with you in this ; Rep. 3, 35, 47.
id pugnat, contendsfor this ; Phil. 8, 3, 8.

Accusative as Subject of an Infinitive

398. The Subject of an Infinitive is put in the Accusative.
liberSs ad se adduci iussit, ordered the children to be brought to him;
B. G. 2, 5, 1.
nuntiaverunt mantis cdgi, brought word that bands of men were gather
ing; B. G. 2, 2, 4.
a. The Historical Infinitive has a Nominative Subject (595).

Accusative of Exclamation
399. The Accusative is often used in Exclamations, to
express the Object of Feeling.
0 tempora, 0 mores ! O the times ! O the ways of men ! Cat. 1 , 1 , 2 .
me miseram : wretched woman that I am ! Eun. 197.
quo mihi fortunam! what's the use of fortune to me! Ep. 1, 5, 12.
a. The Nominative is occasionally used in Exclamations.
S fSstus dies ! O joyful day .' Eun. 560.
0 frustra suscepti labores ! O toils performed in vain .' Mil. 34, 94.

THE VOCATIVE
Vocative of Address
400. The Person or Thing Addressed is put in the Vocative,
quo usque abiitere, Catilina, patientia nostra? how long, Catiline, shall
you abuse our patience ? Cat. 1 , 1 , 1 .
401. In poetry and ceremonious prose, the Nominative is sometimes
used instead of the Vocative, or as an Appositive or Predicate to a Vocative,
audi tfl, populus Albanus, hear, people of Alba ; Liv. 1, 24, 7.
nate, meae vires, mea magna potentia solus, O son, my strength, my great power,
thou alone ; Aen. 1, 664.
salve, primus omnium parens patriae appellate, hail thou, namedfirst of all the
father of thy country ; Plin. N. H. 7, 117.
404] Ablative 2II

THE ABLATIVE
402. Introductory, 1. The Latin Ablative inherited (334, 2) three forces from
the parent speech, those of (1) Separation (Separative Ablative, orfrom-case), (2) Asso
ciation (Sociative Ablative, or a^'M-case), (3) Location (Locative Ablative, or *«-case).
2. These three forces gave rise to a number of constructions, most of which corre
spond fairly closely to our constructions with from, with, or in. In addition, several
constructions arose through Fusion (315, 3).
403. The Latin Ablative expresses four general classes of
ideas :
I. Separation {Separative Ablative).
II. Association (Sociative Ablative').
III. Location {Locative Ablative).
IV. Various ideas, in constructions of Composite
Origin (Fusion).

404. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Ablative

Ablative with the Separative Prepositions ab, de, ex, sine (405). Note
especially :
Agent of the Passive Voice, with ab (406, 1)
Point of View from Which, with ab or ex (406, 2)
Material of Which a thing is made, with ex (406, 4)
Regular expression of the Place Whence (409)
Separative Ablative with the Prepositions coram, palam, prae, pro (407)
Ablative Ablative with Verbs of Separation (408)
Ablative with Adjectives of Separation (41 1)
Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives of Difference or Aversion (412)
Ablative of Parentage or Origin (413)
Ablative of Accordance (414)
Ablative of the Standard (415)
Ablative with a Comparative (416, 417)
Ablative with the Sociative Preposition cum (418, 419)
Ablative of Accompaniment, with or without cum (420)
Ablative Absolute (421)
Ablative of Attendant Circumstances (422)
Ablative of Means or Instrument (423)
II Ablative of the Degree of Difference (424)
Sociative Ablative of Plenty or Want (425)
Ablative Ablative of the Route (426)
Ablative of Price or Value (427)
Ablative of the Penalty or Fine (428)
Ablative of the Object, with fltor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor
(429) ; Ablative with opus est and usus est (430)
Ablative with Verbs of exchanging, mixing, accustoming, or joining
(431) ; with fretus, contineor, comitatus, stipatus (432)
III Ablative with in, sub, etc. (Regular expression of the Place Where) (433)
Ablative of certain words with or without a Preposition (436)
Locative Ablative with fido and confido (437) ; with nitor, innixus, subnixus,
Ablative adquiesco, sto, consto, consists, contentus (438)
212 Syntax [404

' Ablative of the Time at or within Which (439)

Rarer Ablative of Duration of Time (440)
IV Ablative of Respect (441)
Of j Ablative with dignus and indignus (442)
Composite ' Descriptive Ablative (443)
Origin Ablative of Cause or Reason (444)
Ablative of the Way or Manner (445)
Ablative with Verbs meaning carry, hold, keep, receive, etc. (446)

I. THE SEPARATIVE ABLATIVE

Ablative with Separative Prepositions 1
405. The Ablative is always used with the Separative
Prepositions a, ab or abs, de, 6 or ex, sine.
iter ab Aran averterant, had turned away from the Arar; B. G. 1, 1 6, 3.
ab initio, from the beginning; Liv. 1, 5, 5.
de muro iacta, thrown down from the wall; B. G. 2, 32, 4.
sine exercitu, without an army ; B. G. 1, 34, 3.
a. A, ab, abs. — Ab is used before vowels and h, a before consonants.
But before most consonants ab may also be used. Abs is common
only in the phrase abs te (for which a te is also frequent).
ab Aquitanis, B. G. 1, 1, 2 ; a Belgis, 1,1,2; a dextro cornu, 1, 52, 1 ; and
also ab decumana porta, 3, 25, 2 ; abs te, 5, 30, 2.
b. E, ex. — Ex is used before vowels and h • both 5 and ex before
consonants, but more frequently ex. p
ex ei, B. G. 1, 6, 3 ; e fmibus, i, 5, 1 ; ex fmibus, 4, 1, 4.
c. Procul, far (always with ab in Ciceronian prose), may take the Ablative in poetry
and later prose ; thus procul negotiis, farfrom business cares; Epod. 2, 1.
406. The Separative Ablative with a Preposition is used to
express a variety of ideas. Notice especially :
1. The Agent of the Passive Voice, with ab (ci.John, I, 6, " there was
a man sent from God ") : quod ab Gallis sollicitarentur, because they 'were
being urged on (from) by the Gauls, B. G. 2, 1,3; ab elephantis obtritl,
trampled upon by the elephants, Liv. 21, 5, 15.
a. The Ablative with ab is sometimes used with an active verb, to suggest the
passive idea. Thus a tanto cecidisse viro, to have fallen (slain) by so great a man,
Ov. Met. 5, 192.
b. Agents are properly persons (or animals). But things may be personified ; thus
superari ab his virtfitibus, to be surpassed by these virtues, Cat. 2, n, 25 ; laesus fallaci
piscis ab hamo, thefish hurt by the deceitful hook, Ov. Pont. 2, 7, 9. Cf. Aen. 3, 533.
1 For summarized statements for all prepositions, see 455-468.
407] Ablative 213

2. The Point of View from Which, with ab or ex (our English con

ception is generally that of the place where). Thus :
a tergo, a novissimo agmine, etc., (from) ex (ab) hac parte, (from) on this side ;
on the rear ex (ab) utraque parte, on both sides,
a latere, (from) on the side etc., etc.
a fronte, (from) on thefront initium capit a, begins (from) a/,etc.,etc.
ex hac parte pudor pugnat, illinc petulantia ; hinc fides, illinc fraudatio, on this
side decency fights, on the other impudence ; here financialfaith, there
robbery ; Cat. 2, 11, 25. (Note the same conception in hinc, illinc.)
prope a meis aedibus, near (reckoned from) my house ; Pis. 11, 26.
" ain tfi te valere ? " " Pol ego haud perbene a pecflnia," " are you well, do
you say f" "Not so very excellently well in point of (from the point
of view of) money " ; Aul. 186.
3. The Condition or Situation from or out of Which, with de or ex :
ex vinculis causam dicere, to plead his cause in chains, B. G. 1, 4, 1
(speak from his position in chains) ; fies de rhetore consul, from pro
fessor, you shall become consul, Iuv. 7, 197 ; de templo carcerem fieri,
that a prison should be made out of a temple, Phil. 5, 7, 18. Compare
the expression of the Condition into Which, 384, 1, and of the Condition
in Which, 434, 1 .
4. The Material of Which a thing is made, with ex (also, in poetry,
with de) : factae ex robore, made of oak, B. G. 3, 13, 3 ; pocula ex auro,
cups of gold, Verr. 4, 27, 62 ; fuit de marmore templum, there was a
temple of marble, Aen. 4, 457. (Cf. the Genitive of Material, 349.)
a. The poets freely omit the preposition. Thus templa saxo structa vetusto,
the temple built of ancient stone ; Aen. 3, 84.
407. i . The Ablative is always used with the Prepositions 1
coram, palam, prae, and pro.2
legiones pro castris constituit, drew up the legions in front of the
camp; B. G. 4, 35, 1.
pro profuga venit, came as a deserter; B. G. 3, 18, 3.
cur pro isto pugnas? why do you fightfor him (in defence of him) ?
Verr. 4, 36, 79.
coram genero meo, in the presence of my son-in-law; Pis. 6, 12.
palam populo, in the presence of the people; Liv. 6, 14, 5.
a. Palam is generally an adverb, but after Cicero's time occasionally a preposition.
1 For summarized statements for all prepositions, see 455-458.
2 The original feeling was that of separation. Thus pro castris, in front, reckoning
from the camp. Coram, in face of, followed the analogy of pro, in front of. Palam
followed that of coram. Clam, as the opposite, did the same. The Accusative with clam
is due to the analogy of CS1S (393).
214 Syntax [407

2. Clam, secretly, is regularly an adverb in Ciceronian Latin. In

early and later Latin, it is either an adverb, or a preposition with the
Accusative (without the knowledge of).
3. Tenus, up to (postpositive), is rare till after Cicero. It generally
takes the Ablative, but sometimes the Genitive. Thus capulo tenus,
up to the hilt, Aen. 2, 553 ; genus tenus, up to the knee, Liv. 44, 40, 8.
4. Fini or fine, up to (prepositive or postpositive) is in rare use as a preposition,
with the Ablative or Genitive.
fine genus, to the knee ; Ov. Met. 10, 536.
, osse fini, to the bone ; Men. 859.

Ablative with Verbs of Separation

408. Verbs of Separation take an Ablative. The Preposi
tion, if employed, is ab, d6, or ex. The general usage in
Ciceronian prose is as follows :
1. The Preposition is freely omitted1 with Verbs of literal Separation,
if themselves containing a separative Preposition (ab, de, or ex).2
castris egressi, going outfrom the camp; B. G. 2, 1 1, 1.
e castris egressi, going out from the camp ; B. G. 1, 27, 4.
a. Otherwise a Preposition is regularly used in Ciceronian prose.8
procedit e praetorio, comes outfrom the general's quarters ; Verr. 5, 41, 106.
ab urbe proficisci, to set outfrom the city ; B. G. 1, 7, 1.
Exceptions are rare ; thus oppido fugit, B. C. 3, 29, 1 ; Italia cedit, Att. 9,
10, 4, and the fixed phrase manu mittere, as in Mil. 19, 56.
2. The Preposition is freely omitted with Verbs expressing either
literal or figurative Separation, if in very common use in both senses*
de mflro se deiecerunt, leaped from the wall (threw themselves down
from) ; B. C. 1, 18, 3.
muro deiecti, driven down from the wall; B. G. 7, 28, 1 .
ne de honore deicerer, that I should not be deprived of the honor (driven
from it) ; Verr. A. Pr. 9, 25.
ea spe deiecti, deprived of this hope ; B. G. 1, 8, 4.
Exception : dSfendo, fend off and defend, always takes ab.
1 The word "omitted" should not be taken as implying that the preposition oi4ght
properly to be present, but only as a shorter expression in place of " not employed."
2 So with exeo, egredior, emitto, erumpo. Aufero (in which the preposition is dis
guised) regularly takes a preposition.
8 So with venio, advenio, ' discedo, procedo, proficiscor, progredior, digredior, reded,
refero, revertor.
4 So arceo, keep off and prevcnt ; cedo, decedo, and excedo, go from and withdraw ;
moveo, move; pello, drive away and banish; expello, drive out and remove; solvo,
411] Ablative 215

a. Otherwise, a Preposition is regularly used in Ciceronian prose.1

ab officio discessurum, would departfrom his duty ; B. G. 1, 40, 2.
3. The Preposition is regularly omitted with Verbs expressingfigura
tive Separation only?
magistratu se abdicavit, abdicated (resigned from) his office; Cat.3, 6, 1 5.
proelio supersedere, to refrain from battle; B. G. 2, 8, 1.
Exceptions : 1. Temperd, refrain, and the passive of intermitto, leave off, take ab. Servd,
rescue, and vindicd, deliver, take ab or ex. Vaco, be free from, and
laxd, loose, either take or omit ab. Llberd, free, rarely takes ex.
temperaturos ab maleficid, would refrainfrom mischief; B. G. 1, 7, 5.
2. Caved, beware (of), takes ab in Ciceronian Latin, and either ab or the
bare Ablative in early Latin.
monuerunt a veneno ut caveret, warned him to beware ofpoison ;
Fin. 5, 22, 64. Cf. cave maid, beware of harm ; Pers. 835.
409. Regular Expression of the Place Whence. The Place Whence is
regularly expressed in Ciceronian prose as shown in 408, 1 and a, 2 and a.
410. Remarks on the Ablative with Verbs of Separation. 1. With
most Verbs of Separation, whether literal or figurative, a preposition is
used with words denoting persons.
manus a te abstinere, to keep their hands offfrom you ; Vat. 4, 10.
2. The poets freely use the Ablative without a preposition in any combination
expressing or suggesting separation. This is true even if no verb is employed, and
even if the word used denotes a person.
adsurgens flflctu, risingfrom the wave; Aen. 1, 535.
antro latrans, barking from the cave ; Aen. 6, 400.
mariti Tyro, suitors from Tyre ; Aen. 4, 36.
deiectam coniuge tanto, robbed of so great a spouse; Aen. 3, 317.
3. For the Place Whence with names of Towns, Small Islands, etc., see 451.

Ablative with Adjectives of Separation

411. Adjectives of Separation take the Ablative either with
or without ab.
loose and free ; abed, go away, depart from, resign ; abstineo, hold off and abstain ;
deicid, cast down ; desistd, stand aside and desist ; deturbo and proturbo, push offfrom
and deprive; excludo, shut out and prevent; intercludo, shut off and cut off; expedio,
get from under foot and release; prohibeo, hold off and prevent.
1 So with abducd and deduco, amoveo, demoveo and removeo, averto, demo, detraho,
discedo, Sicio, propulso, repello, secerno, tollo. Absum and depend generally take a prepo
sition (absum may also take a Dative of Reference, as in B. G. 1, 36, 5 ; 866). A few
words occur too seldom to admit of any statement.
2 Such are verbs meaning strip, despoil, defraud, grudge, deprive, bereave, interdict,
absolve, relieve, free, be free, relax, leave off, refrain, abdicate. Thus nudd, spolio, exuo,
fraudo, invideo, privo, orbo, interdico, absolvo, levd and relevo, libero, vaco, laxo and
relaxo, superseded, abdicd. Also, in poetry and later prose, vidud, exheredo, etc., etc.
2l6 Syntax [411

vacua ab omni periculo, free from all danger; Prov. Cons. 1 2, 30.
non vacua mortis periculo, notfree from mortal danger; Cat. 4, 1,2.
a. In Ciceronian prose, these adjectives are liber, free, purus, pure,
nudus, stripped, orbus, bereft, vacuus, empty}
b. In later poetry, and, to some extent, in later prose, the above adjectives may also
take the Genitive (348).
sceleris purus, free from guilt ; Carm. 1, 22, 1.

Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives of Difference or Aversion

412. Verbs of Difference or Aversion take the Ablative with
ab. Alienus, foreign, may either take or omit the Preposition,
ab eo dissentio, I differ from him; Pomp. 20, 59.
quod abhorret a meis moribus, which is foreign to my ways; Cat. 1,8, 20.
aliena a dignitate, inconsistent with your dignity ; Fam. 4, 7, 1.
alienum dignitate imperi, inconsistent with the dignity of the realm;
Prov. Cons. 8, 18.
a. Alius, else, other than, is regularly followed by atque (ac), or, if negatived,
by nisi, quam, or praeter ; but it may take the Ablative without a preposition,
as in alium sapiente, Ep. 1, 16, 20 (very rarely in prose).
Alienus may also take a Genitive (339, c) or Dative (362, III).
c. A few of these verbs (e.g. dissentio) may also take the construction of
Contention (Ablative with cum ; 419, 4).
d. The later writers freely employ the Dative with these verbs (363, 2, c).

Ablative of Parentage or Origin

413. Parentage or Origin2 is expressed by the "Ablative,
generally without a Preposition.
amplissimo genere natus, born of a very noble stock ; B. G. 4, 12, 4.
quo sanguine cretus? from what blood sprung? Aen. 2, 74.
a. A preposition (generally ex) is sometimes used with the noun, espe
cially if this denotes a parent. Before a pronoun, the preposition is regular.
b. Remoter origin is expressed by ortus with ab, or prognatus with ex.
Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, (he learned that) the Belgae were
descendedfrom the Germans; B. G. 2,4, 1 .
1 Also, in later poetry, cassus, siccus, viduus, and others.
Immunis, exempt (in Cicero with Objective Genitive; 354), after Cicero takes either
the Genitive or, as implying want, the Ablative, the latter with or without a preposition
(e.g. immunis militia, exempt from service ; Liv. 1, 43, 8).
2 The verb employed in Ciceronian Latin is nascor. The participles are natus, progna
tus, ortus ; also,in later Latin,genitus,generatus,crStus,satus,5ditus,oriundus,and others.
416] Ablative 217

Ablative of Accordance
414. That in Accordance with which one acts or judges
m'ay be expressed by the Ablative of certain words, regularly
without a Preposition.
consuetudine sua Caesar VI legiones expedites ducebat, according to his
custom, Caesar, as he marched, kept six legions in fighting order;
B. G. 2, 19, 2.
tuo consilio faciam, I will act in accordance with your plan ; Rud. 962.
munus mea sententia magnum, a great gift, in my opinion (according
to my way of thinking) ; Off. 3, 33, 121.
a. So especially, in Ciceronian Latin, more (moribus) and consuetudine,
according to custom, consilio, (according to) with a plan, sententia (mea,
etc.) (according to) in (my, etc.) opinion, lege, by law (these rarely with
a preposition) ; iudicio and animo, (according to) in the judgment (of),
iussii (iniussu by analogy), voluntate, rogatu, admonitu, arbitratu, or con
cessit, by the order, desire, request, advice, decision, or consent (of), accitu
or missu, by the summons or sending (of) (these without a preposition).1
b. In general, Accordance is expressed by de or ex with the Ablative,
quo ex senatus consults convenit . . . , in accordance with which decree of
the Senate it has all the time been proper ; Cat. 1, 2, 4.
Ablative of the Standard
415. The Standard from which one starts in measuring
or judging is regularly expressed by the Ablative without
a Preposition.
qui verbis controversies, non aequitate diiudicas, who decide controversies
according to (= by) words, not according to justice; Caecin. 17, 49.
magnos homines virtiite metimur non fortuna, we measure great men by
their high aims, not by their luck; Nep. Eum. 1,1.
a. But ex is sometimes used. Thus amicitias ex commodo aestimare,
tojudge friendships from the standard of advantage; Sall. Cat. 10, 5.
Ablative with a Comparative
416. A Comparative Adjective is often followed by the
Ablative.
1 The poets add other words. Thus imperio, by the order (of).
For lege meaning with the condition, see 436, b. For voluntate, voluntarily (origi
nally Ablative of Accordance, but in effect expressing Manner, see 445).
218 Syntax [416

But quam may always be used, and regularly is used if the

first of the two things compared is in any case except the
Nominative or Accusative,
vita carior, dearer than life; Cat. 1, 1 1, 27.
audacior quam Catilina, more overweening than Catiline ; Phil. 2, 1, 1.
tibi, multo maiori quam Africanus fuit, to you, a much greater man than
Africanus was; Fam. 5, 7, 3.
a. The relative pronoun with definite antecedent is regularly in the Ablative after a
Comparative.
Aeneas, quo iustior alter nec pietate fuit nec bello maior, Aeneas, than whom
no man was everjuster in piety or greater in war ; Aen. 1, 544.
b. Comparison may be expressed in poetry by the use of ante, praeter, etc.
ante alios immanior, more monstrous than (before) the rest : Aen. 1, 347.
c. One of the two things compared is often suppressed.
esse graviorem fortunam Sequanorum quam reliquorum, thefate ofthe Sequani
was harder than (the fate) of the rest ; B. G. 1, 32, 4.
d. Plus, minus, amplius, and longius may be used as Comparative
Adjectives with an Ablative, or as Adverbs, without effect upon the case,
uti non amplius quinis aut senis milibus passuura interesset, so that there was
not more than five or six miles between ; B. G. 1, 15, 5.
Sabim fiumen a castris suis non amplius milia passuum X abesse, that the
Sambre was not above ten miles distantfrom his camp ; B. G. 2, 16, 1.
e. Certain Ablatives are regularly used for brevity in place of clauses. Thus aequo,
ezspectatione, necessario, opinione.i The same usage holds with comparative adverbs.
nS plus aequo quid in amicitiam congeratur, lest more than (what is) right
should be heaped upon friendship ; Am. 16, 58.
longius necessario, farther than was necessary ; B. G. 7, 16, 3.
417. A Comparative Adverb is ordinarily followed by quam.
cum possit clarius dicere quam ipse, though he could speak louder than (the
leading character) himself; Caecil. 15, 48.
a. Nouns of time are regularly in the Ablative after comparative adverbs,
longius anno remanere, to remain more than a year ; B. G. 4, 1, 7.
b. The poets use the Ablative freely with comparative adverbs.
quam Iiino fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse, whichJuno is said to havefos
tered morethan all other lands (for magis quam terras omnis); Aen. 1, 15.
H. THE SOCIATIVE ABLATIVE
Ablative of Accompaniment, with cum2
418. The Ablative is always used with the Sociative Prepo
sition cum, with.
1 Also, in later Latin, dicto, fide, solito, spe, vero, and other words.
2 For summarized statements for all prepositions, see 455-458.
420] Ablative 219

cum legatis venit, came with the ambassadors; B. G. 4, 27, 2.

cum febri domum rediit, came home with a fever; De Or. 3, 2, 6.
desinant obsidere cum gladiis curiam, let them cease to invest the senate-
house with swords (in their hands); Cat. I, 13, 32.
a. Cum is regularly put after a personal, reflexive, or relative pronoun,
and forms one word with it ; thus mecum, secum, quibuscum.
b. In poetry and later prose, simul, together with, is sometimes used with the Abla
tive. Thus simul his dictis, (together) with these words ; Aen. 5, 357.
419. The Ablative with cum, with, is used to express a variety of
ideas. The most important are the following :
1. Union, Agreement, or Companionship: cum proximis civitatibus
pacem cdnfirmare, to make peace with the neighboring states, B. G. 1, 3, I ;
priidentiam cum eloquentia iungere, to join prudence with eloquence,
Tusc. 1, 4, 7.
2. Intercourse, Dealing, etc. : is ita cum Caesare egit, he pleaded with
Caesar as follows; B. G. 1, 13, 3.
3 . Comparison : neque hanc consuetudinem victiis cum ilia comparandam
(esse), and that this manner of living was not to be compared with the
other; B. G. 1, 31, I1.
4. Contention or Variance: cum Germams contendunt, they contend
with the Germans ; B. G. 1, 1, 4.

Ablative of Accompaniment, with or without cum

420. In military language, Accompaniment after Verbs of
coming or going may be expressed by an Ablative with or
without cum.
But cum must be used if the Noun stands without a modifier,
or with a Numeral.
cum iis cdpiis quas a Caesare acceperat pervenit, arrived with the forces
which he had receivedfrom Caesar; B. G. 3, 17, 1.
eo pedestribus copiis contendit, hurries thither with the infantry ; B. G.
3, 5.
uterque cum equitatu veniret, that both should come with cavalry :
B. G. 1, 42, 4.
cum his quinque legionibus ire, to go with these five legions; B. G.
1. !<>■ 3-
 220 Syntax [421

Ablative Absolute
421. An Ablative Noun or Pronoun, with a Predicate word
in the same case, may be used in loose connection with the
rest of the sentence.
The Predicate may be a Noun, a Participle, or an Adjective.
The Ablative Absolute is (like the English Nominative Absolute, as in
" this having been done ") strictly a neutral construction, telling nothing
about the real relation between the facts stated in it and the facts stated in
the rest of the sentence. In English, however, we must ordinarily translate
so as toshow these relations. Hence the following headings are convenient :
1. (Mere) Time: M. Messala M. Pisone consulibus, in the consul
ship of Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso (Messala and Piso being 1
consuls) ; B. G. i, 2, i.
2. (Mere) Situation : ea inscientibus ipsis fecisset, had done this
without their knowledge (they not knowing); B. G. i, 19, 1.
3. Situation and Time : omnibus rebus comparatis diem dicunt, every
thing being ready, they (then) appoint a day ; B. G. 1, 6, 4.
4. Situation and Cause : mercatoribus iniiiriosius tractatis bella gesse-
runt, waged war when (and because) our traders had been somewhat
' rudely treated; Pomp. 5, 11 .
5. Situation and Opposition : id paucis defendentibus expugnare non
potuit, he was unable to take this (town), though its defenders were
butfew ; B. G. 2, 12, 2.
6. Condition : semper existimabitis vivo P. Clodio nihil eorum vos
visuros fuisse, you will always think that, if Publius Clodius were
alive, you would never have seen any of these things; Mil. 28, 78.
a. Nisi, quasi, tamquam, velut, etc., may be used,
nisi mutritis castris, unless the camp were fortified; B. G. 2, 20, 3.
7. Means: id ratibus ac lintribus iunctis transibant, were crossing
this (river) by tying together rafts and boats; B. G. 1, 12, 1.
8. Manner: incitato equo se hostibus obtulit, rushed upon the enemy
at full speed (his horse being speeded) ; B. G. 4, 12, 6.
a. The later writers often use an Infinitive or a Subordinate Clause as
the principal member of an Ablative Absolute; and they also often use a
Participle impersonally.
impetrato ut manSrent, (leave) being obtained to remain ; Liv. 9, 30, 10.
libato, after a libation had been made ; Aen. 1, 737.
1 Note that Latin has no participle corresponding to English " being."
422] Ablative 221

b. In general, the Ablative Absolute is used only where its noun or pronoun
denotes a person or thing mentioned nowhere else in the same clause. Yet
exceptions sometimes occur, generally for the sake of clearness or emphasis,
vosne ego patiar cum mendicis nuptas me vivo viris ? shall I suffer
you to be the wives of beggar-men while I am alive? Stich. 132.
Similarly tunibus excitatis, tamen has, B. G. 3, 14, 4.
Ablative of Attendant Circumstances
422. An Ablative Noun with a modifier may be used to
express Situation, Circumstances, or Result.
The examples fall into two main classes :
I. Expressing Situation (English "with," "in," "under").
No Preposition is used.
Thus imperii) nostro, under our sovereignty; aestu magno, in great
heat; pari (magno, quo, etc.) intervallo, at an equal distance; nfillis
impedimentis, without baggage; magno comitatii, with a great retinue ;
frequentissimo senatu, in a crowded meeting of the senate ; tanto convents,
tanta frequentia, magno consessii, etc. ; hoc, hac, or his with various nouns,
minus facile eam rem imperio nostro consequi poterant, could less
easily attain this under our sovereignty; B. G. 2, 1 , 4.
hac contione, hoc populo non vererer, with an assemblage like this, with
a people like this, I should have no fear; Leg. Agr. 2, 37, 101.
dicit frequentissimo senatu consul, the consul says in a crowded meeting
of the senate; Leg. Agr. 1, 8, 26. Cf. Arch. 2, 3 ; Mil. 24, 66.
ubi fide publica dicere iussus est, when he hadbeen invitedto turn state's
evidence (speak with a pledge from the state); Sall. Cat. 47, 1.
a. To this class probably belong the following Ablatives accompanied
by a Genitive of the person, or a Possessive Pronoun : ductu, imperio,
auspicio, under the lead, authority, or auspices (of) ; contubernio, in associ
ation (with); voluntate or concessu, with the approval or consent (of).
b. Rarely, a noun is so used without a modifier. Thus intervallo restitflta, restored
after (with) an interval; Leg. Agr. 1, 9, 27. The use is less rare in poetry. Thus
servitio enixae, having borne a child in slavery ; Aen. 3,327.
c. The poets employ the construction in bold combinations. Thus paribus curis
vestigia figit, wrapped in like cares (with like cares) plants his footsteps ; Aen. 6, 159.
II. Expressing Circumstances or Result (English "with"
or "to "). The Preposition, if used, is cum. It is
1. Regularly omitted with the most common phrases. Thus omini-
bus, with . . . omens; clamore, with shouting; plausu, with applause;
222 Syntax [422

convicio, with abuse; silentid, in (with) silence ; pace or venia, with the
permission (of); commodo or incommodo, with advantage or disadvan
tage (to); damno or iactura, with the loss (of).
his ominibus, cum tua pernicie proficiscere ad impium bellum, with these
omens, and to your ruin, set out to wage your impious war;
Cat. i, 13, 33.
quod commodo rel publicae facere posset, as far as he could do so with
(resulting) advantage to the commonwealth; B. G. 1, 35, 4.
exercitum duarum cohortium damno deducit, leads his army back with a
loss of two cohorts; B. G. 6, 44, 1.
a. When used without a modifier, these words (except silentio) generally
take cum. Thus cum plausfi, Phil. 2, 34, 85 ; cum clamore, Verr. 5, 36, 93.
2. Used or omitted indifferently with phrases moderately common.
Thus (cum) periculo, with danger (to); (cum) dolore or aerumna, to
the grief or sorrow (of) ; (cum) gloria, to the glory (of) ; (cum) invidia,
to the unpopularity (of).
vidi quanto meo dolore, with what grief to myself did I see ... / Phil.
1, 4, 9. (Cf. Cat. 4, 1, 2, to my grief.)
quanto cum dolore vidi ! with what grief did I see ... / Marc. 6, 16.
3. Regularly used with the least common phrases.
magno cum luctu civitatis simulacrum tollendum locatur, to the great
grief of the state, a contract is made for the removal of the statue;
Verr. 4, 34, 76. Similarly cum tua pernicie under II, 1, above.
Note to 1-3. The poets and later writers vary the usage for the mere sake
of variety. Thus cum bonis ominibus, Liv. Praef. 13 ; maiore pernicie, 2I, 35, 1.

Ablative of Means or Instrument (Instrumental Ablative)

423. Means and Instrument may be expressed by the
Ablative.
gladiis pugnatum est, the battle was fought with swords; B. G. 1, 52, 4.
litteris certior fiebat, was informed by (means of) despatches ; B. G. 2, 1 , 1 .
id animo contemplate quod oculis non potes, contemplate in (with) your
mind what you cannot with your eyes ; Dei. 14, 40.
suo siimptu, at his own expense (by his expenditure) ; B. G. 1, 18, 5.
magno dolore adficiebantur, were greatly distressed (were affected with
great grief); B. G. 1, 2, 4.
Similarly with ornatus, equipped, praeditus, endowed, onustus, laden.
 425] Ablative 223

a. Persons are often thought of as Means.

ea legione militibusque qui ex provincia convenerant, murum perducit,
with this legion, and the soldiers who had assembled from the
province, he constructs a wall; B. G. 1, 8, 1.
iacent suis testibus, they are overthrown by means of their own wit
nesses; Mil. 18, 47.
b. The Ablative of Means probably appears in such phrases as quid
illo fiet? what will (be made with =) become of him? Att. 6, 1, 14 ;
si quid eo factum esset, if anything should happen to him, Pomp. 20, 59.
(By analogy, quid te futurust? what will become ofyou? Ph. 137, etc.)
With facio, the Dative of the Indirect Object (365) may also be used.
Thus quid huic homini facias ? what is one to do with (to) such a man ?
Caecin. 1 1, 30.
c. The poets often use the Ablative of Means to make the governing word imply
more than it strictly says ("forced" construction).
Aeacidae telo iacet Hector, Hector lies (slain) by Achilles' spear; Aen. 1, 99.
d. Means may also be expressed by per with the Accusative.
consuluisti me per litteras, yott consulted me by letter ; Phil. 2, 40, 102.

Ablative of Degree of Difference

424. Degree of Difference is expressed by the Ablative.
The construction is freely used with Comparatives and various
Adverbs, less freely with Superlatives.
mflibus passuum duobus ultra eum, two miles beyond him (beyond by two
miles); B. G. 1, 48, 2.
paucis ante diebus, a few days before ; Cat. 3, 1,3.
quo delictum maius est, eo poena est tardior, the greater the fault, the
slower the punishment (by how much greater . . . , by that much
slower . . . ) ; Caecin. 3, 7 ; cf. B. G. 1, 14, 1, and Pomp. 20, 59.
eo minus, quod memoria teneret, the less (so) because he remembered . . . ;
B. G. 1, 14, 1.
a. In such examples as eo minus, quod . . . , probably both Degree of
Difference (424) and Cause (444) were felt by the Romans (by so much the
less, because, and on that account, namely because).

Ablative of Plenty or Want

425. Certain Adjectives and Verbs of Plenty or Want
may take the Ablative.
erant plena laetitia omnia, everything wasfull ofjoy; B. C. 1, 74, 7.
224 Syntax [425

montem hominibus compleri iussit, ordered the mountain to befilled with

men ; B. G. i, 24, 3.
urbe eruditissimis hominibus adfluenti, a city overflowing with scholars;
Arch. 3, 4.
metu suppliciorum carere, to be free from the fear ofpenalties; Mil. 2, 5.
omnibus egere rebus, were in want of everything; B. C. 3, 32, 4.
a. So, in Ciceronian Latin, the adjectives 1 confertus, differtus, refertus,
opimus, inanis, rarely plenus and inops ; and the verbs abundo, redundo,
adfluo, circumfluo, careo, egeo and its compounds, and the compounds of -pled.
b. Some of these words may also take the Genitive of Plenty or Want
(plenus, inops, and indigeo regularly ; egeo, compleo, and impled rarely).
See 347, and b.

Ablative of the Route

426. The Route by Which may be expressed by the Abla
tive of certain words.
Aurelia via profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian road; Cat. 2, 4, 6.
terra Macedoniam petit, proceeded to Macedonia by land; Liv. 24, 40, 1 7.
Pado traiectus, crossing (by) the Po; Liv. 21, 56, 9. Cf. freto traiecit,
22, 31, 7-
a. These words are especially colle, fiumine, freto, itinere, iugo, mari,
ponte, porta,2 terra, vado, via, and the plurals of most of them. Adversus
or secundus is often added (e.g. B. G. 2, 19, 8, adverso colle, by the hill
opposing, = up the hill)?
b. In general, the Route is expressed by per and the Accusative,
sometimes even with the above words.
per angustias et finis Sequanorum suas cdpias traduxerant, had brought their
forces through thepass and the territory ofthe Sequani; B. G. 1, 1 1 , 1 .
c. The Ablative of Route often expresses the Space over Which, closely approaching
the Accusative of Extent of Space (387, I) in meaning.
tanto spatio secuti quantum efflcere potuerunt, following over as large a
space as they could accomplish ; B. G. 4, 35, 3.
1 Also, in later Latin, copiosus, creber, dives, fetus, frequens, opulentus, and others.
Similarly expers (with Genitive of Want in Ciceronian Latin ; 347) may take the Abla
tive in later writers (Sall. Cat. 33, 2) ; and exheres and immunis (with Objective Genitive
in Ciceronian Latin) may take the Ablative of Want.
2 With porta (portis), this construction, not that of separation, is regularly used with
verbs of motion ("by," not "from").
_ _ 3 Later writers use a larger list of words. Thus agro, angustiis, limite, finibus, Ktore,
ora, palude, pelago, Iipa, and names of rivers, mountains, countries, and city gates.
428] Ablative 225

d. The poets extend the construction to other words.

aere lapsa quieto, gliding through the quiet air ; Aen. 5, 216. Cf. volat per
aera magnum (the regular prose construction), Aen. 1, 300.
prospectum pelago petit, seeks an outlook over the deep ; Aen. 1, 181. Simi
larly alto prospiciens, looking out over the deep ; Aen. 1, 126.
Ablative of Price or Value
427. 1. Definite Price or Value must be expressed by the
Ablative ; also Indefinite Price or Value, if the word used is
a Substantive of serious meaning.
denariis m aestimavit, valued it at three denarii; Verr. 3, 92, 215.
parvo pretio redempta, bought at (with) a low price ; B. G. 1, 18, 3.
vendidit auro patriam, sold his country for gold; Aen. 6, 621.
2. Indefinite Price or Value may be expressed by either the
Genitive (356) or the Ablative of :
a) Certain Adjectives. Thus quant! or -o, magni or -d, parvi or -d,
minimi or -o.
V) Certain Substantives not used with serious meaning. Thus nihili
or -o, zero, nauci or -d, a peascod.
" quanti emptae? " " Parvo." " Quanti ergo ? " " Octussibus," " how much
did it cost?" "O, not much." "How much, then?" "Eight
pence"; Sat. 2, 3, 156.
magno emerat, had bought at a high price; Verr. 3, 30, 71.
non nihilo aestimandum, not to be reckoned as worthless; Fin. 4, 23, 62.
Remark. The Genitive construction (356) originally expressed Value,
and then was extended to express Price. The Ablative construction originally
expressed Price (means by which the purchase was made), and then was
extended to express Value. The two thus approach each other closely
(Genitive of Value or Price, Ablative of Price or Value).
Ablative of the Penalty or Fine
428. Verbs of punishing or fining may take an Ablative of
the Penalty or Fine.
tergo ac capite pumretur, bepunishedwith stripes anddeath; Liv. 3,55,14.
multatos agris, mulcted of theirfields ; B. G. 7, 54, 4.
a. This is the fixed construction for definite sums of money, for fractions,
and for expressions of the class of punishment (like chains, exile, death) .
b. Verbs of condemningregu\zrly take a Genitive of the Penaltyor Fine ; but,
by a natural confusion with verbs oipunishingoxfining, they also occasionally
take the Ablative capite, life, and the Ablative of multiples (" eightfold," etc.).
226 Syntax [429

Ablative of the Object, with Certain Verbs

429. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds
take their Object in the Ablative.
totlus Galliae imperii) potiri, to get control of all Gaul; B. G. 1, 2, 2.
frui vita, to enjoy life; Cat. 4, 4, 7.
a. A Second Object is sometimes used.
populo Romano disceptatore flti volo, / wish to employ the Roman people as
umpire; Leg. Agr. 1, 7, 23. Similarly Isdemducibus usus, B. G. 2, 7, 1.
b. In early and later Latin, utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor may take
the Accusative, like any other Verb of Transitive force.
c. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive in Ciceronian Latin. See 353.
d. Epulor,/c«.rf, may take the Ablative in poetry, on the analogy of vescor.
dapibus epulamur opimis, wefeast on a rich banquet ; Aen. 3, 224.

Ablative with opus est and Qsus est

430. 1. Opus est and Qsus est, there is need, may be followed
by an Ablative of the Thing Needed.
quid opus est tortore? what is the need of an inquisitor ? Mil. 21, 57.
nunc viribus usus (est), now there is need of strength; Aen. 8, 441.
a. The construction with Qsus est is rare after early Latin.
2. A Participle expressing the Leading Idea of its Phrase (333) is
often added to the Noun after opus est. A Participle may also be used
impersonally in this construction.
ne existumarent sibi perdita re publica opus esse, they must not think (said he)
that he had need of ruining the commonwealth (of the commonwealth
ruined) ; Sail. Cat. 31, 7.
erat nihil cur properato opus esset, there was no reason why there must be haste ;
Mil. 18, 49.
a. Opus is also used as a Predicate, especially if the thing needed is
expressed by a neuter pronoun or adjective.
quaecumque ad oppugnationem opus sunt, whatever things are necessary for
the siege (are a need) ; B. G. 5, 40, 5.
b. By a mixture of constructions, opus may stand in the Predicate, while
itself governing an Ablative Participle.
si quid opus facto esset, ifanything should be necessary to bedone; B. G. 1,42, 5.
c. For the Supine in -u with opus or flsus, see 619, 2 ; for the Infinitive, 585.

Ablative with Special Verbs and Participles

431. The Sociative Ablative without cum may be used with certain
verbs of exxhanging, mixing, accustoming, or joining.
433] Ablative 227

These are muto, commuto, and permuto, exchange ; misceo, commisceo,

and confundo, mix; adsuefacio and adsuesco, make (or be) familiar;
and the Participles iunctus and coniunctus, joined.
pace bellum mutavit, has exchanged war for (with) peace ; Sail. Cat. 58, 15.1
frusta commixta mero, bits offood mixed with wine ; Aen. 3, 633.
nullo officio adsuefacti, not trained in (familiarized with) any duties ; B. G. 4, 1, 9.
miseria dedecore coniuncta, miseryjoined with disgrace ; Phil. 3, 14, 35.
a. All of these words except muto, adsuefacio, and adsuesco may also
take cum.
b. Other constructions also occur. Thus muto and commuto sometimes take
pro with the Ablative ; misceo and commisceo sometimes the Dative in poetry ;
adsuefacio and adsuesco sometimes the Dative,orad with the Accusative; and the
Participles iunctus and coniunctus sometimes the Dative, especially of a person.
c. Other parts of the verbs iungo and coniungo regularly take cum with the
Ablative (419, 1), or, less frequently in prose, the Dative of Relation (362),
or ad with the Accusative. The poets use the Dative freely.
d. The poetic word suesco takes the Dative. See 363, 2, d).
432. The Ablative is used with fretus, depending upon, contineor, be
made up of, comitatus, attended, stipatus, surrounded.
fretus vdbis, depending upon you ; Pomp. 19, 58.
non vents et nervis et ossibus continental-, (the gods) are not made of veins and
sinews and bones ; N. D. 2, 23, 59.
alienis viris comitata, attended by other women's husbands ; Cael. 14, 34.
stipatus armatis. surrounded by armed men ; Phil. 2, 3, 6.
Remark. This construction is descended from an Ablative of Means,
fretus originally meaning supported (by), and contineor be held together (by).

m. THE LOCATIVE ABLATIVE

Locative Ablative with Prepositions 2
433. Regular Expression of the Place Where. The Ablative is
used with in and sub to express the Place Where something is
or is done.
The meaning may be either literal or figurative,
in silvis abditi latebant, were lying hidden in the woods; B. G. 2, 19, 6.
in spe victoriae, in the hope of'victory; B. G. 3, 26, 4.
te hortor ut maneas in sententia, I urge you to standby (remain \xi) your
proposition ; Pomp. 24, 69.
sub monte consedit, encamped under the mountain; B. G. 1, 48, 1.
1 The cases might be interchanged (pacem bello) with the same meaning. Only the
context can determine the sense.
2 For summarized statements for all prepositions, see 455-458.
228 Syntax [433

a. The poets freely omit the preposition in with any noun, and the
later prose-writers follow them to some extent.
bellum geret Italia, will wage war in Italy; Aen. 1, 263.
promissis maneas, stand by your promises; Aen. 2, 160.
sede regia sedens, sitting in the royal seat; Liv. 1 , 41, 6.
b. The Accusative is used with in and sub to express the Place
Whither something moves. See 381.
c. With a verb of placing, the emphasis may lie upon the resulting Place Where,
and in this case the Ablative is used with in and sub.
1 saxa in mfiro conlocabant, were placing stones on the wall; B. G. 2, 29, 3.
d. Sub regularly takes the Accusative when meaning just before,just after, or about
(381, b).
e. For the occasional Ablative with subter in poetry, see 382, a.
f. For the Place Where with names of Towns, Small Islands, etc., see 449.
434. The Ablative with in is used to express a variety of
figurative ideas. The most important are the following :
1 . The Condition or Situation in Which : magno in aere aliend, greatly
in debt, Cat. 2, 8, 18 ; Iugurtham in catenis habiturum, would ha've
fugurtha in chains, Sall. lug. 64, 5. (Cf. 384, 1, and 406, 3.)
2. The Field in Which (the idea is close to that of the Respect in
Which ; 441) : in omnibus vitae partibus honestus, honorable in every
department of life, Font. 18, 41 ; quid me in hac re facere voluisti?
what did you want me to do in this matter ? Ph. 291. So regularly
with the Gerundive or Gerund (612, IV).
3. The Person in Whose Case : quanto hoc magis in fortissimis civibus
facere debemus ! how much more ought we to do this in the case of our
bravest citizens ! Mil. 34, 92.
435. The Ablative is regularly used with super in the sense of con
cerning, — rarely in its other senses (upon, at, in addition to; 383).
hac super re scribam ad te, / will write you on this point; Att. 16, 6, 1.
a. In poetry the Ablative is sometimes used with super in other senses than concern
ing. Thus fronde super viridl, upon a pile of green leaves, Ecl. 1,80; super his, in
addition to these things, Sat. 2, 6, 3 ; nocte super media, at dead of night, Aen. 9, 61.
/.. With verbs of placing, super, upon, may take the Ablative. Cf. 433, c.

Locative Ablative with or without a Preposition

436. With a number of words in very common use, the
Place Where (literal or figurative) may be expressed by the
Ablative either with or without in.
438] Ablative 229

So especially with loco, parte, regione, spatio, litore, cornu, operibus,

parietibus, libro, numero, statu, initio, principio, vestigio, and any Noun
modified by medius, totus, omnis, cunctus, or universus ; also, in poetic
and later Latin, with medio used substantively,
eo loco, in that place, B. G. 6, 27, 4 ; and in eo loco, B. G. 5, 7, 3.
aperto ac piano litore, on the open and level shore, B. G. 4, 23, 6; and
in litore molli atque aperto, on the smooth and open shore, 5,9, 1.
tota Gallia, throughout Gaul, B. G. 5, 55, 3 ; and tota in Asia, Pomp. 2, 7.
a. In general, the preposition is more likely to be used when the
noun is accompanied by a pronoun or descriptive adjective. But with
medius, totus, etc., the preposition is not common.
Note. With a verb of motion, Ablatives of this class often in effect
express the space over which ; cf. 426, c. Thus tota Asia vagatur, wanders
(in =) through the whole of Asia, Phil. 11, 2, 6; impeditioribus locis secuti,
following over sonunvhat difficidt ground, B. G. 3, 28, 4.
b. The following Locative Ablatives are used without a preposition in Ciceronian
Latin : dextra, on the right, laeva and sinistra, on the left, corpore, on or in the body,
animo and animis, in mind (but in animo with est and habeo), memoria, in or within the
memory, lingua, in the language, nomine and specie, under the name or pretext, lege and
condicidne, under the condition (for lege, by law, see 414, a). Later, sub, under, is
sometimes added to nomine, specie, 1Sge, and condicione.
deus inclusus corpore humano, a god inclosed in a human body ; Div. 1, 31, 67.
patrum nostrorum memoria, within the memory of our fathers ; B. G. 1, 12, 5.
memoria tenetis, you remember (hold in memory) ; Cat. 3, 8, 19.
qui ipsorum lingua Celtae appellantur, who in their own language are called
Celts; B. G. 1, 1, 1.
obsidum nomine, under the name of hostages ; B. G. 3, 2, 5.
Locative Ablative with Certain Verbs and Participles
437. Fido and confido, trust, may take the Ablative.
multum natiira loci confidebant, they had great confidence in the nature
of the country; B. G. 3, 9, 3.
a. Fido and confido also take the Dative (362 ; so regularly of a
person in Ciceronian Latin).
b. Diffido, distrust, takes the Dative in Ciceronian Latin, and both
the Dative and the Ablative in later writers.
438. 1. The Ablative, generally without in, is used with nitor, rely
upon, and sto and consto, abide by.
dolo niterentur, rely upon treachery ; B. G. 1, 13, 6. (With in, Mil. 7, 19.)
si qui eorum decreto non stetit, if any one does not abide by their decree ; B. G. 6,
13,6. (With in, Fin. 1, 14, 47.)
230 Syntax [438

2. Adquiesco, take pleasure in, takes the Ablative with or without in

with about equal frequency.
aenes in aduleacentium caritate adquiescimus, in old age we take pleasure in being
liked by youngpeople ; Am. 27, 101. (Without in, Mil. 37, 102.)
a. The Participles innizus and subnixus, leaning or relying upon, take the
Ablative without a preposition.
scutis innixi, leaning upon their shields ; B. G, 2, 27, 1.
adrogantia subnixi, relying upon their pride ; De Or. 1, 58, 246.
b. In later Latin, the finite forms of innitor (not occurring in Ciceronian Latin),
as well as the form innixus, may take the Dative, on the principle of 376, or the
Ablative, as above. Thus innititur hastae, Ov. Met. 14, 665 ; incolumitiite inniti,
Tac. 15, 60 ; hasta innixus, Liv. 4, 19, 4; curae innixa, Quintil. 6, 1, 35.
c. Other verbs of like meaning take a preposition ; thus si in eo manSrent,
B. G. 1, 36, 5. But a poet may omit it, as in promissis maneas, Aen. 2, 160.
3. The Ablative, regularly with in, is used with consto and consists,
when meaning depend upon, and consisto when meaning consist in.
monuit victoriam in earum cohortium virtute conatare, pointed out that victory
depended upon the valor of these cohorts ; B. C. 3, 89, 3; cf. B. G. 7, 84, 4.
vita omnia in venationibus atque in atudiia rei militaris conaiatit, their whole life
consists in hunting and military pursuits ; B. G. 6, 21, 3.
a. But the Ablative without in also occurs.
cSterarum rerum studia et doctr!na et praeceptis et arte constare, that in
otherfields intellectual pursuits depend upon principles. precepts, and
art; Arch. 8, 18.
b. Consto, consist of, takes the construction of Material. See 406, 4-
4. The Ablative is used with contentus, content, satisfied.
contentus hac iniquitate non fuit, was not content with this iniquity ; Verr. 2, 38, 94.
a. Contentus originally meant self-restrained (in). Cf. in ilia cupiditate con-
tinebatur, restrained herself within that desire (was content with it) ; Clu. 5, 12.
5. Intentus is used with the Ablative (probably Locative) in aliqud negotio intentus,
deeply engaged in some occupation or other ; Sall. Cat. 2, 9. Commonly it takes the
Dative (stretched toward = intent ttpon ; see 376), or ad or in with the Accusative.

IV. ABLATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF COMPOSITE ORIGIN (FUSION)

Ablative of the Time at or within Which
439. The Time at or within Which anything is or is done
may be expressed by the Ablative without a Preposition,
die septimo pervenit, arrives on the seventh day ; 15. G. I, 10, 5.
superiore aestate cognoverat, had learned theprevious summer; B. G. 5,8,3.
bello vacationes valent, in time of war, exemptions hold; Phil. 8, 1,3.
441] Ablative 231

comitiis, at the election; Cat. 1, 5, 11. Similarly with words denoting

games or feasts, as ludis, gladiatoribus, epulis, pulvinaribus.
a. The Preposition in is regularly used :
1 ) With a word denoting a time of life, unless this is accom
panied by a modifier. Thus in pueritia, in boyhood, Verr. i, 18, 47 ;
but extrema pueritia, at the end of boyhood, Pomp. 10, 28.
2) With a word denoting an office, unless this is accompanied by
a numeral. Thus in consulatu nostro, in my consulship, Arch. 11,
28 ; but quarto consulatu, in his fourth consulship, Sen. 13, 43.
3) In phrases expressing situation. Thus in tali tempore, in
such a state of affairs, Sall. Cat. 48, 5 ; in civfli bello, in a civil
war, Phil. 2, 19, 47 (but secundo Punico bello, in the second Punic
war, Off. 1, 13, 40, because only the Tune at Which is meant).
4) With a numeral. Thus ter in anno, thrice ayear; Rose. Am.
46, 132.
b. The Time at Which is sometimes expressed by cum with the Ablative.
cum prima luce in campum currebat, with the first (streak of) light he vms
running into the forum ; Att. 4, 3, 4.
c. The Time at Which may also be expressed by ad or sub (in later Latin with circa
likewise), and the Time within Which by intra, with the Accusative.
sub occasum solis se receperunt, toward sunset they retired ; 'B. G. 2, 11 , 6.
intra annos XIHI, in fourteen years ; B. G. 1, 36, 7.

Rarer Ablative of Duration of Time

440. The Ablative is occasionally used to express Duration of Time.
tota nocte continenter ierunt, went without break all night ; B. G. 1, 26, 5.
qui viginti annis afuit, who was absent twenty years; Bacch. 2.

Ablative of the Respect in Which

441. The Respect in Which the meaning of a Verb or
Adjective is to be taken is expressed by the Ablative,
regularly without a Preposition.
This Ablative answers the question, In what ? Wherein ?
cum virtute omnibus praestarent, since they surpassed all in bravery;
B. G. 1, 2, 2.
numero ad duodecim, about twelve in number; B. G. 1, 5, 2.
altero oculo capitur, is blinded in one eye; Liv. 22, 2, 11.
maiores natii, the elders (greater in respect of birth) ; B. G. 2, 13, 2. Simi
larly with maximus, minor, and minimus, oldest, younger, youngest.
232 Syntax [441

a. The preposition in is occasionally used with abstract words. Thus

similem in fraude et malitia, alike in knavery and wickedness, Rose. Com.
7, 20. Cf. moribus similes, alike in character, Clu. 16, 46.
b. In is regularly used with a pronoun, unless this is a relative. Thus nos non modo non
vinci a Graecis verborum copia, sed esse in ea etiam superiores, that we are not only not
surpassed by the Greeks in wealth ofvocabulary, but arc even superior in this; Fin. 3, 2,5.
c. The Respect in Which the meaning of a noun is to be taken must in general be
expressed by the Genitive of Application (354), or the Ablative with in. Thus virtute
praestarent (in example above), but praestantiam virtutis (see 354) or in virtute.
Apparent Exceptions occur in a few combinations. Thus homines non re,
sed nomine, human beings ( = human) not infact, but in name ; Off. 1, 30, 105.
d. Respect may also be expressed by ad with the Accusative. Thus situ praeclaro
ad aspectum, with a site splendid in aspect ; Verr. 4, 52, 117.

Ablative with dignus and indignus

442. Dignus and indignus, worthy and unworthy, are followed
by the Ablative.
cognitione dignum, worthy of acquaintance; Arch. 3, 5.
supplicio digni, deserving punishment; Cat. 3, 9, 22.
indigna homine libero, unworthy of a free man; Rab. Perd. 5, 16.
a. The poets and later prose writers employ the same construction
with dignor, think worthy. Thus haud tali me dignor honore, / do not
deem myself worthy of such an honor; Aen. 1, 335.

Descriptive Ablative
443. Kind or External Aspect may be expressed by the
Ablative of a Noun accompanied by a modifier ; also, in a
few phrases, Situation or Mental Condition.
The construction may be either appositive or predicative.
C. Valerium Procillum, summa virtute adulescentem, Gains Valerius Pro-
cillus, a young man of the greatest courage; B. G. 1 , 47, 4.
C. Gracchus, clarissimo patre, avd, maioribus, Gains Gracchus, a man with
a distinguished father, grandfather, and ancestors in general;
Cat. 1, 2, 4.
" sed qua faciest ? " " dicam tibi : macilento ore, naso acuto, corpore albo, oculis
nigris," " but ofwhat appearance is he ? " " / V/ tellyou : he is a man
with a spareface, a sharp nose, white skin, andblack eyes"; Capt. 646.
reliquit quos viros ! quanto aere alieno ! what men he left behind him .'
how deep in debt (in how great debt) ! Cat. 2, 2, 4. (Situation.)
445] Ablative 233

equidem cum spe sum maxima, tum maiore etiam animo, /for my part
am in a state not only of the greatest hope, but of a still greater
determination; Q. Fr. 1, 2, 5, 16. (Mental Condition.)
a. In Ciceronian Latin this Ablative is generally attached to a tto-name in apposi
tion with the name of the person (as in the first example above). In later Latin, it is
more freely attached to the name of the person (as in the second example above).
b. Statura, forma, and corpus, as really expressing the idea of Kind, may be used
with either the Genitive or the Ablative. Thus homines tantulae staturae, men of such
diminutive stature (= such puny men), B. G. 2, 30, 4; qua facie, qua statura, of what
appearance, of what stature, Phil. 2, 16, 41.
c. Genus is not much used in the Ablative, modus never.
d. Groups containing adjectives in -is or the adjective par are almost always in the
Ablative. Thus constantia singular!, of exceptional steadfastness ; Pomp. 23, 68.

Ablative of Cause or Reason

444. Cause or Reason may be expressed by the Ablative
without a Preposition.
curis aeger, sick with anxiety ; Aen. 1, 208.
metu relictas urbis, cities abandoned because offear; Pomp. 11, 32.
mea restitutione laetatus est, rejoiced in my return; Plane. 10, 25.
a. The construction is especially frequent with verbs and adjectives
of taking pleasure, rejoicing, boasting, or the opposite.1
b. The prepositions de, ex, and in are occasionally used with one or another of these
words. Thus ex vulnere aeger, sick from a wound, Rep. 2, 21, 38; ex commutatidne
rerum doleant, suffer from a change of fortune, B. G. 1, 14, 5; ut in hoc sit laetatus,
quod . . . , so that he took pleasure in the fact that . . . , Phil. 11, 4, 9.
c. Cause may also be expressed by Ob, per, or propter with the Accusative. Thus ob
eas res, on account of these achievements, B. G. 2, 35, 4.
d. Causa and gratia, common with Genitives (339, d), were themselves originally
Ablatives of Cause.
Ablative of Way or Manner
445. Way or Manner may be expressed by the Ablative,
as follows :
1. With certain very common Nouns, by the Ablative without a
Preposition. These are especially : arte, (pari, etc.) certamine, consilio
(intentionally), casu, dolo, fraude, furto, iure, iniiiria, merito, (hoc, etc.)
modo or more, ope and opibus, ordine, (hoc, etc.) pacto, paucis, ratione,
ritu, sponte, vi and viribus, via, vitio, voluntate (voluntarily).
1 E.g. angor, bacchor, delector, doleo, exsilio, exsulto, gauded, glSrior, laetor, maereo,
me iacto ; and the adjectives beatus, felix, infelix, laetus, maestus, miser.
2 34 Syntax [445

sive casu slve consilio, accidentally or by intention; B. G. i, 12, 6.

iure an iniuria, rightly or wrongly ; Mil. 11, 31.
aliquo modo, some way or other; Arch. 5 , 10.
a. The poets extend the usage. Thus rimis, in chinks, Aen. 1, 123 ;
cumulo, in a heap, Aen. 1, 105; cursfi, on the run, Aen. 5, 265.
2. With other Nouns, if Concrete, by the Ablative without a Preposition,
niido corpora pugnare, tofight with the body unprotected; B. G. 1, 25, 4.
aequo animo moriar, I shall meet death with a calm mind; Cat. 4, 2, 3.
statuit non proeliis neque acie, sed alio more bellum gerundum, decided
that the war must be carried on, not with engagements or in
battle array, but in some other manner ; Sall. lug. 54, 5.
pedibus proeliantur, theyfight on foot; B. G. 4, 2, 3.
3. With other Nouns, if Abstract, by the Ablative with cum if no
Adjective is used, and either with or without cum if an Adjective is used,
si utrumque cum cfira fecerimus, if we do both things with care ; Quintil.
10, 7, 29.
magna cum cura suos finis tuentur, defend their boundaries with great
care; B. G. 7, 65, 3.
id summa ciira conquirimus, this we search for with the greatest care;
Ac. 2, 3, 7.
a. Occasionally, other turns of expression are used. Thus ad (or in) nunc
modum, in this way ; per vim, by violence ; per iocum, in jest.

Ablative with Verbs meaning carry, hold, keep, receive, pour, depend
446. 1. Verbs meaning carry, hold, keep, or receive,1 and Verbs
meaning pour,2 may be followed by the Ablative.
quam equis vexerat, which (legion) he had brought on horseback ; B. G. 1, 43, 2.
castris sese tenebat, was keeping himself in his camp ; B. G. 3, 17, 5.
oppidis recipere, receive them in their towns ; B. G. 2, 3, 3.
vina fundebat pateris, was pouring wine from the sacrificial bowls ; Aen. 5, 98.
a. 1n is occasionally used with some of these words. Thus equus in quo
vehebar, the horse on which I was riding, Div. 2, 68, 14 ; tempestates quae nos
tras in castris continerent, storms that kept our men in camp ; B. G. 4, 34, 4.
2. Pendeo, hang, depend, takes in or a separative Preposition when
used with literal force, and either a Preposition or the bare Ablative
when used with figurative force.
ex unius vita pendere, hung upon the life of one man ; Marc. 7, 22.
quae spe exigua pendet, (our safety), which hangs upon a slight hope ; Flacc. 2, 4.
1 Fero, porto, gero, veho, sustineo, gesto ; me teneo, me contineo ; accipiS, recipid.
The Ablatives most used are equo, nave, castris, valid, finibus, oppido, urbe, portu,
tecto (and their plurals). 2 Fundi) and libo.
449] Place-Constructions with Names of Towns, etc. 235

Two Ideas suggested by a Single Ablative

447. An Ablative may suggest two ideas at the same time,
superidribus proeliis exercitati, trained in (and by) preceding battles ;
B. G. 2, 20, 3. (Time and Means.)
quorum adventu Remis studium propugnandi accessit, at (and because of)
their coming, the Remifeltfresh energyfor the attack; B. G. 2, 7, 2.
(Time and Cause.)
tranquillo silet, in calm it lies silent; Aen. 5, 127. (Time and Situation.)

PLACE-CONSTRUCTIONS
WITH NAMES OF TOWNS, domus, rus, etc.
448. Introductory. A few classes of words were in such constant use to express
place-relations that the preposition never became regular with them. These are : Names
of Towns and Small Islands, the words for home and country, and a few others. Though
the constructions belong to three different cases, they will be best remembered together.
449. To express the Place Where, names of Towns and
Small Islands are put in the Locative, which in the Singular
Number of the First or Second Declension is identical with
the Genitive, and elsewhere with the Ablative.
Romae consules, Carthagine quotannis annul bini reges creabantur, at
Rome consuls were elected yearly, at Carthage two annual kings;
Nep. Hann. 7, 4.
natus Athenis, born at Athens ; Iuv. 3, 80.
Cypri visum, seen at Cyprus; B. C. 3, 106, 1.
a. Similarly domi, at home, humi, on the ground, belli and militiae,
in war, run or rure, in the country, foris, out of doors, mari, at sea.
Terra, on land (seldom standing alone) follows the apparent case of man.
illi domi remanent, the others remain at home ; B. G. 4, 1, 5.
run adsiduus fuit, he was constantly in the country ; Rose. Am. 29, 81.
tena marique, on land and sea ; Cat. 2, 5, 11.
b. A Locative terrae is also sometimes used in later Latin ; e.g. sacra terrae celavi-
mus, we hid the sacred objects in the earth ; Liv. 5, 51, 9. Similarly, probably, sternitur
terrae, stretches himself upon the earth ; Aen. it, 87.
c. Animi, in mind (in origin a Locative), and, by analogy, the Genitive mentis, are
used with verbs and adjectives of Mental Condition to express Respect. Thus furens animi,
raging in his heart, Aen. 5, 202; pendet animi, is uncertain in mind, Tusc. 4, 16, 35.
d. The poets and some later prose writers use the construction of 449 somewhat
boldly. Thus Cretae considere, to settle in Crete (a large island), Aen. j, 161 ; Romae
Numidiaeque, in Rome and Numidia ; Sail. lug. 33, 4.
236 Syntax [450

450. To express the Place Whither, names of Towns and

Small Islands are put in the Accusative without a Preposition.
Romara revertisse, returned to Rome; Mil. 23, 61.
Delum venit, came to Delos; Verr. 1, 17, 46.
a. So sometimes Greek geographical names (as Bosphorum, Mur. 1 6,
34), including Aegyptus, Egypt (N. D. 3, 22, 56).
b. Similarly domum, home,1 and rus, to the country.
domum reditidnis spe, hope of returning home ; B. G. 1, 5, 3.
domum redierunt, went home again ; B. G. 1 , 29, 3.
rus ibo, I am going to the country ; Eun. 216.
c. Latin expresses the relations of Place with exactness, no matter how many words
may be used.
rSs ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Volaterras defertur, the matter is
reported to Chrysogonus in the camp of Lucius Sulla at Volaterrae (in
the Latin, to . . . to . . . to . . . ) ; Rosc. Am. 7, 20.
451. To express the Place Whence, names of Towns and
Small Islands are put in the Ablative without a Preposition.
Roma profectus est, set outfrom Rome; Mil. to, 27.
Delo proficiscitur, sets out from Delos; Verr. 1, 18, 46.
a. Similarly domo, from home, nae,from the country.
domd duxerat, he had broughtfrovi home ; B. G. 1, 53, 4.
rure advenit, comes in from the country ; Ilea 190.
b. Letters are regularly dated from a place. Thus Non. Hot. Brundisid, (from)
Brindisi, November 5 ; Fam. 14, 12.

The Appositive with Names of Towns Where, Whither, or Whence

452. When an Appositive like urbs, oppidum, etc., is to be
added to the name of the Town Where, Whither, or Whence,
the full expression with the Preposition is regularly used.
Albae, in urbe opportuna, at Alba, a convenient city ; Phil. 4, 2, 6.
Tarquinios, in urbem florentissimam, to Tarquinii, a very prosperous
city; Rep. 2, 19, 34.
Tusculo, ex clarissimo municipio, from Tusculum, a very splendid town;
Font. 18, 41.
a. Exceptions occur. Thus Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Anttoch,
a once populous city, Arch. 3, 4 ; Capuam, urbem amplissimam, to Capua, a
veryflourishing city, Leg. Agr. 2, 28, 76.
1 Similarly we say in English "go home," not "go to home."
454] Prepositions with Names of Towns, etc. 237

Occasional Use of the Preposition with Names of Towns, etc.

453. A Preposition may be used with the Name of a
Town :
1 . To express the neighborhood in, to, or from which.
ad Cannas pugnam, the battle at (i.e. near) Cannae; Liv. 22, 58, 1.
ad Genavam pervenit, arrives before Geneva; B. G. 1,7, 1.
ab Zama discedit, withdraws from the neighborhood of Zama; Sall. lug.
61, 1.
a. With a noun, the Adjective is frequent to express the neighborhood
in which. Thus post Cannensem pugnam, after the battle at Cannae; Liv.
23, h 1-
2. To express the point reckonedfrom or toward.
a Bibracte ndn amplius milibus passuum XVIII aberat, was not more than
eighteen miles from Bibracte; B. G. 1, 23, 1.
3. Occasionally for sharper contrast.
ab Arimino Arretium mittit, sendsfrom Rimini to Arezzo ; B. C. 1, 11, 4.
a. But at times the preposition seems to be used simply for the sake of
variety (especially in poetry and later prose). Thus et ab Trallibus et
a Magnesia et ab Epheso ad dedendas urbis venSrunt, (ambassadors) came
from Tralles,from Magnesia, from Ephcsus, to surrender their cities, Liv.
37, 45, 1 ; ab domo, from home, Liv. 25, 31, 3.
Domi, domum, domo, etc., with Modifiers
454. 1. Domi, domum, and domo may be modified by a Possessive
Genitive or a Possessive Pronoun or Adjective. Thus domi Caesaris, domi
meae, domi alienae, at Caesar's house, at my house, at the house ofanother.
2. When domus means a house regarded simply as a building, a
Preposition is regularly used in the above constructions. Thus arma
omnia in domum Galloni contulit, packed all the arms into the house of
Gallonius; B. C. 2, 18, 2.
3. In the ordinary meaning of house or home, either the bare case or
the Preposition may be used, if the Noun is accompanied by a modifier.
Thus domi Caesaris and in domo Caesaris ; M. Laecae domum and in
M. Laecae domum (Cat. 1, 4, 8).
4. " At a person's house " may also be expressed by apud or ad with
the name of the person. Thus apud M. Laecam, at the house of Marcus
Laeca, Cat. 2,6, 12; ad M'. Lepidum, at the house of Manius Lepidus,
Cat. 1, 8, 19.
238 Syntax [455

SUMMARY OF THE USES OF CASES WITH

PREPOSITIONS
455. The Accusative is always used with the Prepositions
ad, adversus and adversum, ante, apud, circa, circiter and circum,
cis and citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, iuxta, ob, penes,
per, pdne and post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans,
ultra, versus (380).
a. Propius and proxime may, like prope, take the Accusative (380, b).
b. Versus follows its noun. But this is generally preceded by another
preposition (ad or in) unless it is the name of a Town or Small Island
(380, a).
456. The Ablative is always used with the Prepositions ab,
de, ex, and sine ; cdram, palam, prae, and pr5 ; cum (405, 407, 418).
a. Procul and simul may take the Ablative in poetry and later prose (405, c ;
418, t).
457. I. The Accusative is used with in and sub to express
the Place Whither something moves (381), the Ablative to
express the Place Where something is or is done (433).
2. The Accusative is regularly used with subter, beneath (382). In
poetry, the Ablative may also be used to express the Place beneath
Which something is or is done (382, a).
3. The Accusative is regularly used with super in the sense of upon,
at, or in addition, the Ablative in the sense of concerning (383, 435).
458. 1 . Pridie and postridie, the day before and the day after, gener
ally take the Accusative (of Time- Relation), but sometimes the Genitive
(of Connection, 380, c).
2. Clam, secretly, is regularly an Adverb in Cicero's time, but takes the Ablative -
once. In early Latin it is either an Adverb, or a Preposition with the Accusative
(407, 2).
3. Palam is generally an Adverb, but occasionally a Preposition with the Ablative
after Cicero's time (407, 1, a).
4. Tenus, up to (postpositive; rare in Cicero's time), generally takes the Ablative,
but sometimes the Genitive (407, 3).
461] General Forces of the Moods 2 39

GENERAL FORCES OF THE LATIN MOODS AND TENSES

459. General Introduction, 1. The Latin Subjunctive is made up of remains
of two moods which in the parent speech had different forms : the Subjunctive, express
ing the two distinct ideas of Will and Anticipation (I and II under 462), and the Optative,
expressing the five distinct ideas of Wish, Obligation or Propriety, Natural Likelihood,
Possibility, and Ideal Certainty (III-VII under 462).
The probable development of these forces of the two moods was as follows :
a) In its earliest use in the parent speech, the Subjunctive probably
expressed Will.1 Next, it was also used to express Anticipation (Expectation,
Futurity). Compare English "you will" and "he will," the regular form
for the Future, and the (unfortunately) growing use of " I will " in place of
" I shall " (the proper Future form), as in " I will be late, if I don't hurry."
b) In its earliest use in the parent speech, the Optative probably expressed
Wish (Desire, etc.).1 Next, it was also used to express something generally
desirable, i.e. an act that was obligatory or proper in a class ofcases (" should,"
" ought," as in " the priest should put on a white robe in sacrificing," the
original feeling being "it is desirable that the priest should," etc.). Next,
the use of the mood was extended to individual cases of obligation or pro
priety. Next, the mood was employed, just as English " should " and " ought "
may be, to express what was naturally likely to happen, as in " there should
be white violets next week." Next, in cases where there were difficulties in
the way, the force of natural likelihood was weakened to that of possibility
(" may perhaps "). And finally, in cases where the circumstances were strongly
favorable, this same force of natural likelihood was strengthened to that of a
certainty of the mind, i.e. an ideal certainty (" would certainly ").
2. The Latin Subjunctive inherited all these powers. In addition, several construc
tions (VIII-XII under 462) arose from two or more sources each (Composite Origin;
315, 3), and others (XIII and XIV under 462) through the influence of one or more
constructions upon another (Analogy; 315, 4).
460. Mood is the expression, through the form of the Verb,
of certain attitudes of mind toward an act or state. Thus :
adesto, let him be present (attitude of commanding)
adsit, may he be present ! (attitude of wishing)
ne adsit, lest he be present (attitude of fearing)
adest, he is present (attitude of recognizing a fact)
461. In English, mood-ideas are expressed mainly by auxiliaries.
Thus, "I will go," " you shall go," " he should go," "he may go," " he
ivould go," etc. In Latin, they are expressed mainly by the mere form
(mood) of the verb.
a. But many attitudes of mind can be expressed only by special words,
combined with an Infinitive, e.g. the attitude of Hesitation, as in dubito
adesse, / hesitate to be present ; the attitude of Suspicion, as in suspicor eum
adesse, / suspect that he is present; the attitude of Haste, as in propero
adesse, / hasten to be present.
b. Certain other ideas can be expressed either by the mood or by a special
word, combined with an Infinitive. Thus one may say either eat, let him go
(Volitive; 501, 3) or volo eum Ire, / want him to go (587). In the former,
the mood is volitive, in the latter, the meaning of the verb volo.
1 Will has regard to something felt by the speaker to lie within his control ; Wish,
to something felt to lie outside of his control.
240 Syntax [462

462. The Latin moods, with the principal ideas of which

they are the expression, are as follows :
Table of the Principal Forces of the Latin Moods
Imperative Of Peremptory Command (as in work hard, succeed).
I. Of Will (Volitive Subjunctive, as in / W1LL suc
Subjunctive ceed, he shall succeed).
II. Of Anticipation (Anticipatory Subjunctive, as in
until I shall succeed, he shall succeed, etc.).
III. Of Wish (Optative Subjunctive, as in may I suc
ceed! may he succeed!).
A. Simple IV. Of Obligation or Propriety (as in he should suc
ceed, meaning it is his duty to succeed).
V. Of Natural Likelihood (as in he should succeed,
meaning he is likely to succeed).
VI. Of Possibility (Potential Subjunctive, as in per
haps he may succeed).
VII. Of Ideal Certainty (as in he would succeed).
VIII. Of Actuality (Fact) in Consecutive Clauses (as in
so that he succeeds).
IX. Of Condition (as in if he should succeed).
B. Composite X. Of Proviso (as in let him only succeed, provided
(Fusion) he succeeds).
XI. Of Request or Entreaty (as in let him do this).
XII. Of Consent or Indifference (as in let him do it, he
may do it).
XIII. Of Indirect Discourse (generally no change in
C. By Analog)' English).
XIV. By Attraction (generally no change in English).
Indicative Of Actuality, i.e. Fact (as in he has succeeded, is
succeeding, etc.).
a. The Volitive Subjunctive is so named from volo, / will (cf. English "voli
tion"); the Anticipatory from the English word "anticipate," i.e. look forward
to, expect, foresee; the Optative from opto, / wish; the Potential from possum,
/ can or may. The Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty is so named because, though
it asserts just as much as the Indicative does, it does not, like that mood, assert a
fact, but only a mental certainty, — a certainty that something would be true, or
would have been true, under conditions that may be imagined.
463. In certain uses the Present and Future Indicative resemble
the Subjunctive (571, 572). In certain others, the Present Indicative
resembles the Future Indicative (571).
464] General Forces of the Moods 241

General Uses of the Negative Particles (for Reference)

464. 1 . The Sentence-Negative for Imperative, Volitive, or
Optative ideas is nS ; for other ideas,1 ndn.
For nS, the corresponding connective (and not, nor) is neve
or neu ; for ndn, it is neque or nec.
a. Ne . . . quidem, nihil, numquam, nemo, and nullus, not even,
nothing, never, etc., are used with all kinds of mood-ideas.
Thus, with a Volitive, nihil feceris, do nothing, Att. 7, 8, 2 ; numquam siris,
never permit, Liv. 1, 32, 7 ; with an Indicative, nihil fecit, he did nothing,
Verr. 5, 5, 1 1 ; numquam patietur, he will never allow (it), Phil. 6, 3, 6.
b. Exceptional Uses with Imperative, Volitive, or Optative ideas. In Ciceronian
Latin neque (for neve) occurs, though after positive expressions only, as follows : with the
Imperative once (habe . . . nec . . . existima, Att. 12, 22, 3) ; in independent Prohi
bitions (501, 3) often (moveor . . . nec . . . putaveris, Ac. 2, 46, 141); in independent
Requests (530, 1) occasionally (e.g. respuatur nec . . . haereat, Cael. 6, 14); independent
Volitive Clauses occasionally (e.g. in the clause of Purpose, ut . . . praetermittam neque
appellem, Verr. 3, 48, 115).
In poetic and later Latin neque is used more freely for neve, and even after negatives.
In double Prohibitions, neque . . . neque . . . , as well as ne . . . nSve . . . , are
occasionally employed in all periods (e.g. neque defiat neque supersit, Men. 221 ; neque
dedideris nec posueris, Rep. 6, 23, 25).
c. In poetry after Cicero's time, non is occasionally used in Wishes in the true Opta
tive (511, 1) without utinam (e.g. non intermisceat, Ecl. 10, 5), and even with the Impera
tive (e.g. non onerate, Ov. A. A. 3, 129).
d. Non is freely used in all periods to negative the meaning of a single word.
pauca nuntiate meae puellae non bona dicta, take a briefmessage, not a kindly
one, to my mistress ; Catull. n, 15.
2. But the Negative changed in certain constructions :
d) In consequence of the weakening of an original force.
Thus the feeling of Volition was weak in many Questions of Volitive origin
(503) and wholly disappeared in the Exclamation of Surprise. Hence non
came to be the negative in all these Questions or Exclamations.
b) In consequence of the change of an original force.
Thus the Optative and Volitive Subjunctives gave rise, in certain kinds of
' sentences, to the idea of Obligation (" ought," " should " ; see 512). But this
idea is one of statement, and, as such, naturally took the negative non or neque.
Similarly, the Subjunctive with utinam is of Potential descent, and must
originally have taken the negatives non and neque ; but it came to have the
meaning of a Wish and, in consequence, to take ne and neve (511, 1).
1 All these others (in the finite verb) are ideas of Statement (or corresponding Ques
tions), except the Anticipatory idea, which was originally one of Statement.
242 Syntax [464

3. On the other hand, an original Negative may survive in

occasional or even frequent use, alongside of'a new one.
Thus the original ne, as well as non, is found in Statements of Obligation or Pro
priety (513, 1), and the original ndn,aswell asne, in Wishes with utinam (5 1 1 , i).

GENERAL FORCES OF THE LATIN TENSES

A. ORDINARY FORCES
465. Tense is the expression, through the form of the
Verb, of ideas of time.
466. i . Tenses of the Stage. An act may be represented as
in a certain stage of advancement at a time which is in mind,
namely as completed, in progress,1 or yet to come. Thus :
aedificaveram, / had built (act completed)
aedificabam, / was building (act in progress)
aedificatunis eram, / was going to build (act yet to come)
a. The Tenses of the Stage may also be called Tenses ofthe Situation (State of
Affairs), or Descriptive Tenses, since they tell how things were, are or will be, at
the time which is in mind. These phrases will be used interchangeably.
2. Aoristic Tenses. Oi, an act may be represented in sum
mary (i.e. as a whole). Thus :
aedificavi, I built
467. i. An act is generally seen as in a certain stage
only when referred to some particular time which is in mind.
Hence the tenses of the stage are generally Relative (i.e. rela
tively present, relatively past, or relatively future).
a. The particular time with reference to which an act is seen as in a certain stage
may conveniently be called either the Point of Reference or the Point of View.
2. An act thought of as a whole (i.e. aoristically) may be
looked at either without, or with, reference to a particular '
time, i.e. either Absolutely or Relatively.
a. The aoristic tenses of the Indicative are always absolute (examples in 478).
The Subjunctive tenses, when used with aoristic force, are sometimes absolute
(examples in 478), sometimes relative (examples in 477, b).
1 The phrases in progress, progressive,going on, and incomplete all mean substantially
the same thing, and will be used interchangeably.
468] General Forces of the Tenses 243

MEANINGS OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE, IN DETAIL

468. The tenses of the Indicative are as follows .}
1. The Present Indicative represents an act as hi progress at the time
of speaking (Progressive Present). Thus aedificat, he is building.
a. The Present Indicative may also represent a present act seen aoristically.
Thus aediflcat, he builds.
b. The Present Indicative may express a permanent truth or aistom (Uni
versal Present). Thus libenter homines id quod volunt credunt, men readily
believe what they want to believe ; B. G. 3, 18, 6.
c. For the Historical use of the Present, see 491, 1.
2. The Imperfect Indicative represents an act as in progress at a past
time. Thus aedificabat, he was building.
3. The Future Indicative represents an act as in progress at a future
time. Thus aedificabit, he will be building.
a. The Future Indicative may also represent a future act seen aoristically.
Thus aedificabit, he will build.
4. The Perfect Indicative, in the sense of a Present Perfect? represents
an act as, at the time of speaking, completed. Thus aedificavit, he has
built. a. The Perfect Indicative, in the sense of a Past Aoristp represents zpast
act seen aoristically. Thus aedincavit, he built.
5. The Past Perfect Indicative (commonly called Pluperfect) repre
sents an act as, at a past tune, completed. Thus aedincaverat, he had
built.
6. The Future Perfect Indicative represents an act as, at afuture time,
completed. Thus aedificaverit, he will have built.
7. The Periphrastic Futures represent acts as, in the present, past,
or future respectively, yet to comet Thus aedificaturus est, erat, or erit,
he is, was, or will be, about to build.
Note. Notice that the Present Indicative serves for both the Present
Aorist and the Present Progressive (aedifico, build and am building) ; the
Future for the Future Aorist and the Future Progressive (aedificabo, shall
build and shall be building) ; and the Perfect for the Past Aorist and the
Present Perfect (aedificavi, built and have built).
1 The tenses of the Passive correspond, e.g. domus aedificabatur, aedificata erat,
aedificanda erat, the house was building, had been built, was going to be built.
2 Often called the Perfect Definite.
8 Often called the Perfect Indefinite, or the Historical Perfect.
* The periphrastic futures of the Active and Passive, taken together, may conven
iently be called the Tenses of Impending Action.
244 Syntax [469

MEANINGS OF THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, IN DETAIL

469. Each Subjunctive tense has the force of the Indica
tive tense of the same name ; and, in addition, each has a
future force. Accordingly,
470. 1. The Imperfect Subjunctive expresses an act as, at a certain
past time, (1) in progress, or (2) yet to come ; the Past Perfect expresses
an act as, at a certain past time, (1 ) already completed, or (2) yet to come
(and thought of as in a completed state *) ; the Present expresses an act as,
at the present time, (1) in progress, or (2) yet to come; and the Perfect
expresses an act as, at the present time, (1) already completed, or (2)
yet to come (and thought of as in a completed state 1).
The Subjunctive has no special tenses for the third great division of
time, — the Future, — but uses over again the tenses belonging to the
Present, namely, the so-called Present and Perfect.
Summary. The Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive are tenses
of a past point of view, while the Present and Perfect Subjunctive are
tenses of the present or future point of view.
a. In Wishes, Conditions, and Conclusions, the Imperfect and Past Perfect
Subjunctive refer to either the present or the past, and represent the act as
contrary to fact. See 510, a ; 581, a, remark.
2. The Subjunctive has its Aorists also, with the same names as the
Aorists of the Indicative, namely, the Perfect and the Present ; thus
rogas cur aedificaverim, you ask why I built ; rogas cur aedificem, you
ask why I build ; aes alienum facio, ut aedificem, I am borrowing money,
in order that I may build. The Imperfect, too, may be used with
aoristic meaning ; thus aes alienum feci, ut aedificarem, / borrowed
money, in order that I might build.
3. Like the Indicative tenses, the tenses of the Subjunctive have the
power of expressing an act or state relatively (i.e. as relatively past,
relatively present, or relatively future or subsequent*).
4. The Subjunctive possesses periphrastic forms, corresponding to
those of the Indicative, to express an act as, at a certain time, yet to
come, e.g. aedificaturus esset, or sit, he was, is, or will be, going to build.
1 Note that the Past Perfect Subjunctive thus fills the place of a Future Perfect
Subjunctive from a pastpoint ofview, and the Perfect Subjunctive the place of a Future
Perfect Subjunctive from a present or future point of view.
2 In Consecutive Clauses (519, 3, a ; 521, 1, e), the act mostly takes place after that
which brought it about, i.e. subsequently.
472] General Forces of the Tenses 245

a. These. Periphrastic Futures are used when the other forms would be ambiguous;
hence in Indirect Questions of Fact (537), Consecutive Clauses (521), Causal-Adversa
tive Clauses (523), and (generally) quin-CIauses after non dubito (521, 3, b). Thus:
rogavit "quid Jacturus essem, asked what I was going to do (past situation),
rogat " " sim, asks what I am going to do (present situation),
rogabit " " sim,will ask what lam (shall then be) going to do (future situation).
MEANINGS OF THE TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE
471. The so-called Present Imperative refers to the imme
diate future, the Future Imperative to the more remote future.
aedifica, build (now). cum redieris, aedificato, buildafteryou return.

MEANINGS OF THE TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE

472. The tenses of the Infinitive express an act as, at the
time of the verb on which they depend, completed (Perfect
Infinitive), in progress (Present Infinitive), or yet to come
(Future Infinitive). They cannot, of themselves alone, show
in which of the three divisions of time the act expressed by
them belongs. They are thus purely relative.
Present, aedificare, to be building aedificari, to be building (to be being
built)
Perfect, aedificavisse, to have built aedificatus esse, to have been built
Future, aedificaturus esse, to be go- aedificatum iri, to be going to be built
ing to (intending to) build
a. Like the Indicative and Subjunctive tenses, the tenses of the Infini
tive have the secondary power of expressing an act as prior, contempo
raneous, or future to the time which is in mind.
Thus dicit se aedificavisse, he says that he has built (he says aedificavi,
/ have built); dixit se aedificavisse, he said that he had built; dicit
aedificare, he says that he is building (he says aedifico) ; dixit se aedificare,
he said that he was building ; dicit se aedificaturum esse, he says that he
shall build (he says aedificabp, or aedificaturus sum); dixit se aedificaturum
esse, he said that he should build. . , .
b. These three tenses may also be used aoristically in dependence
upon the present tense of a verb of saying, thinking, or the like. Thus
dicit se aedificavisse, he says that he built (he says aedificavi, I built).
c. For verbs having no Future Infinitive, this form is replaced by fore
or futurum esse with ut and the Suhjunctive, in either voice ; and the
same equivalent may be used for the Future Infinitive of any verb.
246 Syntax [472

magnam in spem veniebat fore uti pertinacia desisteret, (Caesar) was coming to
have great hopes that (Ariovistus) would give up his obstinacy (that it
would be the case that he would . . . ) ; B. G. 1, 42, 3.
futurum uti totius Galliae animi a se averterentur, (he said) that the affections
of the whole of Gaul would be turned away from him ; B. G. 1, 20, 4.
d. The auxiliary posse with the Present Infinitive of any verb may form an equivalent
for the Future Infinitive.
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to master the whole of Gaul
(= sese potituros esse sperant, they hope that they will master . . . ) ; B. G. 1, 3, 8.

MEANINGS OF THE TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE

473. "The tenses of the Participle express an act as, at the
time of the main verb, completed (Perfect Passive Participle),
in progress (Present Active Participle), or yet to come (Future
Active and Future Passive Participle). They are thus, like
the tenses of the Infinitive (472), purely relative.
Present Active, aedificans, building
Perfect Passive, aedificatus, built
Future Active, aedificaturus, about to build
Future Passive, aedificandus, about to be built

USES OP INDICATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, AND IMPERATIVE TENSES

IN COMBINATIONS OF VERBS
474. Introductory, 1. The subordinate act generally belongs in the same tem
poral scene with the main act, and so necessarily in the same great division of time with
it (both in the past, both in the present, or both in the future). Naturally, it is gener
ally looked at as it was, is, or will be, at the time of that act, and so is expressed by a
relative tense. Hence the facts noted in 476-
2. But the subordinate act may belong in a different division of time from the main
act, or, though belonging in the same division of time, it may be looked at absolutely,
so far as tense is concerned. Hence the facts noted in 478.
3. Rarely, there is a purely mechanical harmony of tenses. See 480.
475. Any combination of tenses is possible for wjiich the
corresponding combination of meanings is possible. In addi
tion, combinations with purely mechanical harmony sometimes
occur. The possibilities may be tabulated as follows :
^ With true tense-force J I. Acts in Temporal Relation (476)
. (Indicative or Subjunctive) \ II. Acts not in Temporal Relation (478)
Without true tense-force
(Subjunctive only) Tenses in Mechanical Harmony (480)
477] Usual Combinations of Tenses {"Sequence ") 247

I. USUAL COMBINATIONS OF TENSES ("SEQUENCE OF TENSES")

(Acts in temporal relation)
476. A main1 tense of the past2 is generally accompanied
by a dependent Imperfect or Past Perfect, and a main tense
of the present or future by a dependent Present, Perfect,
Future, or Future Perfect.3
Indicative Subjunctive
Helvetia reliquds Gallos virtute praece- id autem difficile non est, cum tantum
dunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis equitatu valeamus, this, however, is
cum Germanis contendunt, the Hel not difficult, since we are so strong
vetians surpass the rest of the Gauls in cavalry ; B. C. 3, 86, 4.
in prowess, because they engage in
almost daily encounters with the
Germans ; B. G. 1, 1, 4.
Caesar alarios omnis in cdnspectu hos hi cum per se minus valerent, quod
tium constituit, quod minus multi- antiquitus summa auctoritas erat in
tudine militum legidnariorum pro Haeduis, Germanos atque Ariovistum
hostium numerS valebat, Caesar sibi adiunxerant, the latter, since they
placed all his auxiliaries in sight were not strong in themselves, because
of the enemy, because he was weak in early times the largest influence
in the number of his legionaries as lay with the Haeduans, had bound
compared with that of the enemy ; the Germans and Ariovistus to them
B. G. 1, 51, 1. selves ; B. G. 6, 12, 2.
477. These relations between main and subordinate verbs appear
not only when the latter are subordinate in form, but also when, though
subordinate in feeling, they are independent in form (paratactic ; 227) ;
for the relations are, in fact, relations of thought. And they hold for
Indicatives and Subjunctives alike.
relinquebatur una per Sequanos via, qua Sequanis invitis propter angustias
Ire non poterant. His cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legatos
ad Dumnorigem Haeduum mittunt, ut eo deprecatore a Sequanis impe-
trarent. Dumnorix apud Sequanos plurimum poterat, there WAS LEfT
only the way through the land of the Sequani ; and by this, on account of the
narrowness of the pass, they WERE UNAbLE to go without the consent of the
1 I.e. any tense on which another depends.
2 The tenses of the past, Indicative or Subjunctive (Perfect Aorist, Past Perfect, and
Imperfect), are often called "secondary" or "historical," and the tenses of the present
or future (Present, Future, Present Perfect, and Future Perfect), "primary."
» Since Periphrastic Futures contain an erat, est, etc., this statement includes them.
248 Syntax [477

Scquani. Failing (when they WERE UNABLE) to persuade the latter by

themselves, they send ( = sent) ambassadors to Dumnorix the haeduan,
in order that, through his intercession, they might obtain what they
•wanted of the Sequani. Dumnorix possessed great influence with the
Sequani ; B. G. 1, 9, 1-3. (The externally independent relinquebatur and
the dependent poterant and possent alike express a past situation, i.e. the
situation existing at the time when mittunt took place ; and poterat again
expresses situation for the next main act, to which the narrative moves
on. Poterant and possent differ only in mood, being identical in point
of tense-meaning. Impetrarent expresses an act belonging in the same
general temporal scene with the rest, but yet to come, — a past purpose).
quapropter decernite diligenter, ut instituistis, ac fortiter. Habetis euro
consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, therefore decide with care
ful thought, as you have begun, and boldly. You have a consul who HAS
no hesitation in following your decisions; Cat. 4, I1, 24. (Decernite
expresses a command looked at from the present ; instituistis, habetis,
and non dubitet express the present situation, under which the act of
decernite is to be performed.)
a. If the meaning is that of Contrariety to Fact (581) the Imperfect
and Past Perfect are necessarily employed after a main verb of any
time, except as shown in 581, b, 2).
moriar, si magis gauderem, si id mibi accidisset, may I die, if I should be
more pleased if it had happened to myself; Att. 8, 6, 3.
b. The relative tenses of the Indicative all express situation; the
aoristic tenses of the Indicative do not (467, 2, a).
The Subjunctive tenses, when used with relative force, may express
either the idea of situation, or the aoristic idea. Thus, either a situation,
or an act seen in summary, may be put as relatively future to a past time.
Thus ut suppeteret in B. G. 1, 3, 1 expresses a past-future situation ; ne
committeret, B. G. 1, 22, 3, a past-future act seen aoristically ; ut non possent,
B. G. 3, 15, 3, a subsequent situation in the past (in tense, possent = pote
rant) ; ut redintegrarent, B. G. 2, 27, 1, a result seen aoristically, but in
temporal relation (namely, as subsequent) to the time of the main verb.
With the last, compare the absolute tense in ut amiserit, 478, and the
explanation there given.
c. In any expression of thought, the most important acts or states are
selected for the principal statements, and expressed, by absolute tenses
(467, 2), which may therefore be called principal (or leading) tenses.
The side-lights upon these principal acts or states are expressed by
relative tenses (467, 1), which may therefore be called auxiliary (or
helping) tenses. Thus, in the first example above, mittunt is a principal
tense, while relinquebatur, poterant, and possent are auxiliary tenses.
478] Less Usual Combinations ("Exceptions to Sequence") 249

n. LESS USUAL COMBINATIONS OF TENSES ("Exceptions to the Sequence ")

(Acts not in temporal relation)
478. A main tense is sometimes accompanied by a tense
belonging to a different division of time, or by an absolute
tense belonging to the same division of time.
Indicative Subjunctive
id hoc facilius iis persuasit, quod undi- filius pertimuit ne ea res mihi noceret,
que loci natura Helvetii continentur, cum praesertim adhuc stili poenas
he found it easier to persuade them dem, my son feared that the affair
for the reason that the Helvetians, might do me harm, especially since
by the very character of the country, J am sti/J paying the penalty for
ARE hemmed in on all sides ; B. G. my writing ; Fam. 6, 7, 1. (Past
1, 2, 3. (Main act in past, while fear, with reason still present.)
the reason is an ever-present one.)
nunc incipiunt credere fuisse homines cuius rei tanta est vis ut Ithacam
Romanos hac quondam continentia, sapientissimus vir immortalitati
quod iam nationibus exteris incredi- anteponeret, so great 1S the power
bile videbatur; now they begin to of this (love of country) that the
believe that there once were Romans wisest of men preferred his Ithaca
possessed of this self-restraint, which to immortality ; De Or. 1, 44, 196.
thingwAS begin ning TO SEEM incre (In tense, anteponeret = antepone-
dible toforeign nations; Pomp. 14, 41. bat.)
ab senatQ impetratum (est) ; tantum ita est mulcatus ut vitam amiserit,
gfuit ut ex incommodo alieno occasio he was so maltreated that he lost
peteretur, the request W'ASgranted by his life ; Mil. 14, 37. (Amiserit is
the senate ; so far were they from in the same temporal scene with
taking advantage of another's dilem est mulcatus, but is looked at
ma ; Liv. 4, 58, 2. (Afuit is in the absolutely. Similarly ut defuerit,
same temporal scene with impetra B. G. 2, 21, 5.)
tum (est),but is looked at absolutely.)
superiora ilia, quamquam ferenda non cum ab hora septima ad vesperum pug-
fuerunt, tamen, ut' potui, tull, the natum sit, aversum hostem videre
earlier things, though they WERE nemo potuit, though the battle lasted
intolerable, I nevertheless bORE, from the seventh hour till evening,
as well as I could ; Cat. 1, 7, 18. nobody could catch sight of an
(The tense of fuerunt is absolute.) enemy's back; B. G. 1, 26, 2.
id fecit, quod noluit eum locum vacare, fuit miriflca vigilantia, qui suo toto
he did this because he D1D not wish consulate somnum non viderit, he
this territory to lie open ; B. G. 1, was a wonderfully wide-awake man,
28, 4. (The tense of noluit is abso for in his whole consulship he knew
lute.) no sleep ; Fam. 7, 30, 1.
250 Syntax [478

a. Unrelated tenses are less frequent in Subjunctive than in Indica

tive clauses, because the bond of thought is generally closer between a
Subjunctive clause and the main sentence.
Thus a Purpose necessarily exists at the time of the main act which is performed in
order to bring it about, and its tense will accordingly be a relative one.
479. The combination of a Present with a Past or Future
Aorist, or of these with each other, is natural and common.1
illi alienum, quia poeta fuit, post mortem etiam expetunt, they claim a
foreigner, even after his death, because he was a poet; Arch. 9, 19.
quid fecerim, narrabo, / V/ tellyou what I did; De Or. 2, 48, 198.
a. Such a Past Aorist may of course be accompanied by dependent
tenses of the Past. The Past Aorist thus often serves as a bridge of
passage from a past temporal scene to a present one, or vice versa.
Dependent Indicative Dependent Subjunctive
quaero cur bona quae possidebat non quaeramus quae tanta vitia fuerint
vendiderit, my question is why he inunico filio, quare is patri D1SPL1-
D1D not sell the goods of which he CERET, LET us 1NQU1RE what so
WAS possessed ; Quinct. 24, 76. great faults there were in this only
son, that he WAS obnoxious to his
father ; Rose. Am. 14, 41. Simi
larly Cat. 3, 9, 21, and often.

m. (RARE) MECHANICAL HARMONY OF SUBJUNCTIVE TENSES

480. A Subjunctive tense is sometimes put, without true
tense-meaning, into mechanical harmony with that of a Sub
junctive main verb.
This happens especially in the Subjunctive by (Mechanical) Attrac
tion (539), and in Indirect Questions depending upon constructions
Contrary to Fact.
responderem si, quem ad modum parati essemus, scirem, / should answer,
ifI knew in whatfashion we were (i.e. are) prepared; Att. 7, 18, 1.

Alternative Tense-Usages
481. Tenses in Clauses Dependent on a Present Perfect. The Present
Perfect covers both the past act and the present result. Hence an act
1 This is because it is the very nature of the aorists to express an act as it looks
from the present. The mind, standing at the present, looks easily in either direction.
482] Alternative Tense-Usages 251

dependent upon a Present Perfect may be seen either in connection with

the Paster in connection with the Present, and consequently either kind
of tense may be used.
Thought mainly concerned Thought mainly concerned
with the Present with the Past
haec tibi scrIpsI, quia de omnibus quae deinde. quod durum existimabam te
me vel delectant vel angunt tecum fraudare voluptate quam ipse capie-
loqui soleo, this J have written to bam, and, secondly, (I have written)
you, for the reason that I am in the because it seemed to me (reason of
habit (present reason) of talking the time of beginning the writing)
over with yon everything that gives unkind to cheat you of the pleasure
me pleasure or annoyance, (con which I myself was taking ; Plin.
tinued on the right.) Ep. 5, t, 12.
rerum natura nullam nobis dedit cogni- mentes enim hominum audacissimorum
tionem finium, ut ulla in re statuere sceleratae ac nefariae ne vdbis nocere
possimus, ' quatenus,' nature has POSSENT, ego PROV1D1, for I HAVE
not equipped us with power to draw taken precautions, to the end that the
the line so that we ARE in any wicked and abominable purposes of
matter able to determine ' how far ' ; abandoned men ShOULD do you no
Ac. 2, 29, 92. (Present Result ; harm ; Cat. 3, 12, 27. (Past Aim ;
that which nature has accomplished in what I have done, my purpose
it not that . . .) was . . .)
482. Permanent Truths in Clauses Dependent on a Verb of the Past.
1. That which is permanently true was of course true in the past,
and, if connected in thought with a past act, will generally be seen and
stated as it then was (i.e. by a tense of past situation).1
2. But a permanent truth will occasionally be seen and stated as such
(i.e. by a tense of present situation), in spite of its being connected in
thought with a past act.2
Indicative Subjunctive
(1) Permanent truth in its aspect at a past time (tenses of past situation)
mons altissimus impendebat, a lofty certior factus est montis qui impen-
mountain overhung; B. G. i, 6, derent a maxima multitudine teneri,
1. (It still does, of course, when he was informed that the mountains
Caesar writes ; but that fact is not which overhung were held by a
the important one.) very large body of men ; B. G.
3, 2, 1. (The fr««-meaning of
impenderent is the same as that of
impendebat opposite.)
1 E.g. you were a kind-hearted fellow: that's why you helped me.
3 E.g. you ARE a kind-hearted fellow : that 's why you helped me.
252 Syntax [482

(2) Permanent truth in its general aspect (present tenses)

Indicative SUBJ UNCT1VE
id (frumentum) erat perexiguum, quod hic, quantum in bello fortuna possit,
sunt loca aspera ac montuosa, the cognosci potuit, at this juncture it
grain was very scanty, because the was possible to recognize how great
district 1S rough and mountainous ; 1S the power of Fortune in war;
B. C. 3, 42, 5. B. G. 6, 35, 2. •
Note. Both the Romans and we of English speech more frequently
describe permanent facts of external nature by putting them in the same
temporal scene with the main act ; but we are more likely than the Romans
to put permanent facts of human nature as always true (present tense).

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDING UPON AN INFINITIVE

483. The Tenses of Subjunctive Clauses depending upon an Infini
tive express meaning in the same way as Subjunctive Clauses depending
upon Finite Verbs (475-482), and the combinations are accordingly the
same.
It should be borne in mind that the Perfect Infinitive, like the Perfect
Indicative, may be used either as a Past Aorist or as a Present Perfect,
dico patefactum esse Pontum, qui antea clausus fuisset, / say that Pontus was
laid open, which before that time had been closed ; Pomp. 8, 20. (The tense
of fuisset is relative, the point of view being that of the Past Aorist Infini
tive patefactum esse. Cf. hi cum valerent, 476.)
cuius adventu ipso, tametsi ille ad maritimum bellum venerit, tamen impetus
hostium repressos esse intellegunt, by whose mere arrival, though he came
for a war by sea, they know that none the less the attacks of (these) enemies
were checked ; Pomp. 5, 13. (The tense of venerit is absolute. Cf. cum
pugnatum sit, 478.)
id mihi instituisse videntur quod neque in vulgus disciplinam efferri velint, neque
. . . , this (custom) they seem to me to have established for the reason that
they do not wish their knowledge to be spread abroad, nor . . . ; B. G. 6, 14,
4. (Quod velint is put as a permanent truth in its general aspect. Cf.
482, (2).)

B. SPECIAL FORCES GAINED BY VARIOUS TENSES

484. Tenses of Habitual 1 Action, or of Attempted 2 Action. The tenses
expressing action as going on (Imperfect, Present, Future) gained also
the power of expressing habitual action or attempted action.
1 Also called " Repeated " or " Customary." 2 Also called " Conative."
489] Special Forces of Various Tenses 253
Carthagine quotannis binl reges creabantur, at Carthage two kings used to be
elected annually ; Nep. Hann. 7, 4. (Habitual action.)
qui poenam removet, who is for removing the penalty ; Cat. 4, 4, 7. (Attempted
action. Similarly faciebas, you were trying to do; Cat. 1, 5, 13.)
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Gallicum dividenti, resisted Gaius Flaminius, who was
trying to apportion the Gallic territory ; Sen. 4, 11. (Attempted action.)
a. But a past habit may be looked at aoristically, and so be expressed by
the Past Aorist (Perfect).
maiores sic habuerunt, our ancestors held this view; Cato Agr. Intr. 1.
485. Expressions of duration of time (e.g. iam diu, iam dudum.
or a noun of time), when added 'to a tense of action in progress (Imper
fect, Present, or Future) show the action to have been already going
on for the amount of time indicated..
te iam dudum hortor, I have long been urging you ; Cat. 1, 5, 12.
iam dudum flebam, I had long been weeping; Ov. Met. 3, C56.
cum iam amplius horis sex pugnaretur, when the battle had now been going
on for more than six hours ; B. G. 3, 5, 1.
secum ipse diu volvens, havingponderedfor a long time ; Sail. lug. 1 1 3, 1 .
486. 1. The Imperfect may be used to express the discovery of a
state of affairs existing before.
" quid agitur, Aeschine ? " " Ehem, pater mi, tu hie eras ? " " what 's going
on, Aeschinus ?" "Why, father, were you here?" Ad. 901.
2. The Future may be used to express the discovery of a state of
affairs now existing.
sic erit, you '.'/find it so (it will be so) ; Ph. 80 1 .
487. In several verbs the Present Perfect, Past Perfect, and Future
Perfect have come to express a present, past, or future state. Thus novi,
(have learned) know, consuevi, am accustomed, memini, remember, odi,
hate, coepi, begin, etc. Similarly, sometimes, in other verbs. Thus con-
stiterant, had taken their stand, = were standing; B. G. 1, 24, 3.
488. The Perfect of Experience 1 is sometimes used in the place of
a general present.
ludus enim genuit nam, for contests in sport beget hatred (have in the past
begotten); Ep. 1, 19, 48.
489. The Perfect is sometimes used to indicate an act or state as
no longer existing.
fuit Ilium, Ilium is no more (Ilium once was); Aen. 2, 324.
1 Also called the " Gnomic Perfect."
254 Syntax [490

490. Energetic or Emphatic Perfect. Tenses of completed action are

often employed instead of tenses of incomplete action, to express haste,
thoroughness, or positiveness. (Cf. English " begone" for "go.")
" rape me : quid cessas ? " " Fecero," " hurry me there : why areyou so slow ? "
"I'll do it at once" ; Ph. 882.
periimus, we are dead and buried; Trin. 515. (We have perished. Cf. perieris
in 511, 1.)
sit inscriptum in fronte finiuscuiusque, quid de re publica sentiat, be it written
oncefor all on every man'sforehead what are his sentiments with regard to
the Commonwealth ; Cat. 1, 13, 32.
illos monitos volo, I want them to understand well . . . ; Cat. 2, 12, 27.
te interfectum esse convenit, you ought to be killed and have done with it ; Cat. 1 ,
2, 4. (Interne! would have meant simply be killed. Cf. trucidari, 582, 3, a.)
neque ego ausim, nor should Ifor a moment venture ; Sat. 1, 10, 48.
ne dubitaris mittere, do not hesitate at all to send it ; Att. 1, 9, 2.
a. In dependent clauses and in the Future Perfect Indicative (except in
videro, vlderis, etc.) this tense-use mostly passes away, after early Latin. Else
where it remains common in Ciceronian and later prose; but in Prohibitions
(501,3) andSoftened Assertions (519, 1,b) the tense seems to have becomenearly
or quite stereotyped, and must thus have lost much of its original sharpness.
491. Picturesque Uses of the Tenses. By the use of tenses properly
belonging to the present point of view, a past scene may be brought
before the mind as now existing, with its events now taking place, its
purposes now entertained, etc., as follows :
1. A past event may be represented as now taking place, or a past
situation as now existing (Historical Present1 or Present Perfect).
quod iussi sunt, faciunt, they do as commanded (what they have been told to do,
they do); B. G. 3, 6, 1.
a. The Historical Present is often used, with less vividness, in the annal-
istic style, giving the effect of copying from records made from time to time
as the events occurred.
Silvius deinde rSgnat. 1s Aeneam Silvium creat, next Silvius reigns. He
begets Aeneas Silvius ; Liv. 1, 3, 6.
2. In subordinate clauses of any kind, attached to such picturesque
tenses, the same effect may be given 2 (e.g. a past purpose may be repre
sented as now entertained) ,or the sober tenses of the past may be employed,
quaecumque ad oppugnationem opus sunt, noctu comparantur, whatever is needed
(picturesque tense) for the siege 1S got together (picturesque tense) at
night ; B. G. 5, 40, 5.
1 This use might at any time arise through liveliness of imagination. But it more
probably is a survival from an early use (see page 303, footnote).
2 When the dependent clause precedes, the picturesque tense is less common.
494] Special Forces of Various Tenses 255

Dumnorigi custodes ponit, at quibuscum loquitur scire possit, he sets spies

(picturesque) over Dumnorix, that he may be able (picturesque) to learn
with whom he is communicating (picturesque) ; B. G. 1, 20, 6.
Helvetii cum id quod ipsi diebus viginti aegerrime confecerant, ilium find die
fecisse intellegerent, legatos ad eum mittunt, the Helvetians, when they
were aware (sober tense) that what they themselves hAD with the utmost
difficulty accomplished (sober tense) in twenty days, he had done in one
day, SEND ambassadors to him (picturesque tense); B. G. 1, 13, 12.
3. In poetry, a condition and conclusion which are really contrary to
fact are sometimes picturesquely presented as still undetermined (i.e. as
lying in thefuture).
volat Diores, spatia et si plura supersint, transeat prior, Diores flies along, and
were there to be more space, he would be first to cross ; Aen. 5, 325. Cf.
the sober cepissent praemia, ni ffidisset, 5, 232.
492. Tenses of Rapid Action. The Past Perfect and the picturesque
Present Perfect are occasionally used to indicate the rapid succession of
events, intervening acts being passed over.
vixdum dimidium dixeram, intellexerat, hardly had I said the half, he had
understood (=he understood in an instant); Ph. 594.
intonuere poli, instantly the heavens thunder ; Aen. 1, 90.
493. Epistolary Tenses. In letters, acts are sometimes put as they
will appear to the receiver. Hence the Imperfect or the Past Aorist
instead of the Present, and the Past Perfect instead of the Present Perfect.
haec ego scribebam hora noctis nona : Milo campum iam tenebat. Marcellus can-
didatus ita stertebat, ut ego vicinus audirem, / am writing (was writing)
this at the ninth hour of the night. Milo is already in the field. Mar
cellus, who is a candidate, is snoring so loud that I hear him next door ;
Att. 4, 3, 5. (= scribo, tenet, stertit, audiam.)
a. When the epistolary tenses are used, the expressions of time of course
change accordingly. "Yesterday" (heri) becomes "the day before" (pridie),
and "to-day" (hodie) becomes "that day" (ed die).
494. In general, Latin expresses relations of time more exactly than
English.
quibus ego si edictum praetoris ostendero, concident, if I show them the praetor's
edict, they will fall ; Cat. 2, 3, 5. (In Latin, more exactly, shall have
shown, because this act comes first.)
nihil est maius quam ut faveat oratori is qui audiet, nothing is more important
than that the man that hears shall befavorably disposed toward the speaker ;
De Or. 2, 42, 178. (In Latin, more exactly, the man that shall hear,
matching the real time of faveat.)
256 Syntax [495

THE IMPERATIVE
495. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Imperative
Command, Advice or Suggestion, Consent or Indifference,
Request or Entreaty, Prayer (496), Concession, Proviso, Condition (497).
496. The Imperative expresses Peremptory Command,
Advice or Suggestion, Consent or Indifference, Request or
Entreaty, or Prayer. The negative is ne.
The Present refers to the immediate future, the future to some dis
tinctly future time, or to future time in general (hence regularly used
in laws, treaties, and maxims).
lictor, conliga manus, lictor, bind his hands; Liv. 1, 26, 7. (Command.)
mihi crede, obliviscere caedis atque incendidrum, take my advice, put blood
shed and conflagration out of your mind; Cat. 1, 3, 6. (Advice.)
tibi permitto : posce, I give you permission : ask her in marriage ; Trin.
384. (Consent.)
dic sodes, tell me, please ; Ep. 1, 16, 31. (Request.)
audi Iuppiter, hear thou, Jupiter; Liv. 1, 32, 10. (Prayer.)
eras petito, dabitur, ask to-morrow, you shall have it; Merc. 770.
a. The Imperative is sometimes accompanied by age (agite), come.
vide age voca zephyros, come, go and call the breezes ; Aen. 4, 223.
b. Quin, pray do, is often prefixed to the Imperative in early Latin. The usage is rare
in Cicero, but revives in later Latin. (For the origin of the force of quin, see 545, a, remark.)
quin omitte mS, do let me alone ; Ph. 486. Similarly Aen. 4, 547.
quin sic attendite, pray look at the matter thus; Mil. 29, 79.
c. The Future Imperatives memento, bear in mind (e.g. Cat. 2, 3, 5), and scito,
know (e.g. Cat. 2, 10, 23), are used in place of the Presents, which are rare or lacking.
Habeto is used in the sense of you are to understand (e.g. Am. 2, 10).
d. The Imperative is not used in Prohibitions except in early Latin, legal Latin,
poetry, and (rarely) later prose.
497. The Imperative is often used :
1. As a Substantive Sentence (cf. 502, 3, f).
tu taceto : hoc optimum est, keep quiet: that is best ; Rud. 1029.
2. In Concessions, Provisos, or Conditions (cf. 532, 529, 504, 1).
esto : at certe . . . , be it so : yet at any rate . . . ; Heaut. 572. (Concession.)
specta, tum scies, look, and then you'll know; Bacch. 1023 (= if you look).
498. Since the Imperative expresses a Direct Command, it cannot
be used in Indirect Discourse, but must be replaced by the Volitive
Subjunctive (Subjunctive of Command, 501, 3, becoming dependent, 538).
499] Subjunctive 257

THE SUBJUNCTIVE
499. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Subjunctive
independent sentences dependent clauses
Volitive Subjunctive
Resolve (501, 1) Volitive Determinative Clause (502, 1)
Proposal, Suggestion, or Volitive Descriptive Clause (502, 1)
Exhortation (601, 2) Clause of Plan or Purpose (502, 2)
Command or Prohibi Dependent Clause of Clause
Volitive Substantive (502, 3)
Fear or Anxiety (502, 4)
tion (501, 3) L Commands and Prohibitions in Indirect Discourse (538)
Question of Delibera Dependent Question of Deliberation or Perplexity, etc. (503)
tion or Perplexity,
etc. (503)
Question or Exclama
tion of Surprise or
Indignation (503)
Volitive Condition Generalizing Clause in the Second Person Singular Indefi
(504, 1) nite (504, 2)
Clause of Imaginative Comparison with quasi, etc. (504, 3)
Subjunctive with ne-
dum, still less (505)
Anticipatory Subjunctive
Anticipatory Determinative Clause (507, 1)
Anticipatory Descriptive Clause (507, 1)
Anticipatory Substantive Clause with ut (507, 2)
Indirect Question of Anticipation (507, 3)
Clause of Anticipated Act with antequam or priusquam :
(No independent uses) Act anticipated and preparedfor (507, 4, a)
Act anticipated and.forestalled (507, 4, b)
Act anticipated and insisted upon (507, 4, e)
Act anticipated and deprecated (507, 4, d)
Clause of Anticipated Act with dum, donec, or quoad (507, 5)
Past-Future Clauses in general (508 ; 509)

Optative Subjunctive
Wish (511, 1) Optative Substantive Clause (511, 2)
Optative Condition (511, 1, b)

Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety

Dependent Question of Obligation or Propriety (513, 1)
Statement or Question Clause of Obligation or Propriety with quod, quire, etc. (513, 2)
of Obligation or Pro Relative Clause or ut-Clause after dignus, etc. (513, 3)
priety (513, 1) Clause with ut after tanti, etc. (513, 4)
Substantive Clause of Obligation or Propriety (513, 5)

Subjunctive of Natural Likelihood

Question of Natural ( Clause of Natural Likelihood with qui, quarS, etc. (515, 2)
Likelihood (515, 1) \ Substantive Clause of Natural Likelihood with ut (615, 3)
258 Syntax [499

INDEPENDENT SENTENCES DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Potential Subjunctive
~ ^ ,m» i), f Potential
Potential Statement or Question (517, Relative Clause
Potential Substantive (517,
Clause 2) 3)
(617,

Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty

("Determinative Clause of Ideal Certainty
Statement or Question of Ideal Certainty >\ (519 2)
(519, i) U Descriptive Clause of Ideal Certainty (51 9, 2)
Softened Statement or Question (519, i ciause 0f ideally Certain Result (519, 3)
,1,b) J [_ Substantive Clause of Ideal Certainty (51 9, 4)
Conclusions of Ideal Certainty :
Less Vivid Future (519, 1, a ; 580)
Contrary to Fact (519, 1, a; 581)
Subjunctive Constructions of Composite Origin
Descriptive Clause of Actuality (Fact) with
qui, etc., or cum (521, 1)
Clause of Actual Result (Fact) with ut, ut
non, or quin (521, 2)
Substantive Clause of Actuality (Fact) with
ut, ut non, or quin (521, 3, a and b)
Derivativesofthe DescriptiveClauseof Fact:
Restrictive qui-Clause (522)
(No independent uses) Causal or Adversative qui-Clause (523)
Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation
(524)
Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation,
with Accessory Causal or Adversa
tive Idea (525)
[ Purely Causal or Adversative cum-
L Clause (526)
Subjunctive Conditions :
Less Vivid Future (528 ; 580)
Contrary to Fact (528 ; 581)
Dependent Clause of Proviso (529)
Subjunctive of Request (630, 1) Substantive Clause of Request (530, 2)
Subjunctive of Consent or Indifference ( Substantive Clause of Consent or Indif-
(531, 1) J ference (531, 2)
Concession of Indifference (532, 1) j Concession of Indifference with quamvis or
quamlibet (532, 2)
Subjunctive Constructions due to the Influence of Other Constructions
Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses in Indi
rect Discourse in :
Statements of Fact (535)
Conditions of Fact (536)
Questions of Fact (537)
Commands and Prohibitions (538)
Subjunctive by Attraction to a Subjunctive
or Infinitive Clause (539)
Subjunctive of Repeated Action (540)
Generalizing Statement of Fact
in Second Singular Indefinite (542)
501] Volitive Subjunctive 259

I. THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

500. The Volitive Subjunctive represents an act or state as
willed or wanted. Hence it is used in expressions of Demand,
Intention, or Endeavor (English "/ will," "you shall," "you
are to," "I want you to," etc.). The negative is regularly ne.
a. In independent sentences, the Volitive Subjunctive expresses the
will of the speaker only. In dependent clauses, it regularly expresses
the will of the subject or agent of the principal clause.
b. The Present and Perfect generally express a present or future
demand, intention, or endeavor ; the Imperfect and Past Perfect a past
demand, intention, or endeavor.
Note. Theperformance of the act expressed by the Volitive Subjunctive in the literal
uses lies in time relativelyfuture. In the figurative uses (504-505) the act imaginatively
commanded may lie in time relatively past, relatively present, or relatively future.
501. The Volitive Subjunctive may be used in independent
declarative sentences :
1. To express a Resolve for the speaker's own action (rarely, and mainly with credo
or opinor).
maneam opinor, I'll stay, I think; Trin. 1136.
sed opinor quiescamus, but I think I HI stop ; Att. 9, 6, 2.
a. The regular construction is the Future Indicative (572).
2. To express a Proposal, Suggestion, or Exhortation.
vide si hoc iitibile magis deputes : ipsum adeam Lesbonicum, see if you
think this idea more practical: I will go to Lesbonicus himself;
Trin. 748. (Adeam is a Proposal or Suggestion.)
residamus, si placet, we will take seats, if you please (= let us take
seats); Fin. 3, 2, 9. (Residamus is an Exhortation.)
3. To express a Command or Prohibition.
secedant improbi, let the ill-disposed withdraw; Cat. 1, 13, 32.
ne transieris Hiberum ! ne quid rei tibi sit cum Saguntinis, do not cross
the Ebrof Let there be no interference on your part with the
Saguntines; Liv. 21, 44, 6.
a. In Ciceronian and later prose,
1) If addressed to a general second person, Commands and Pro
hibitions are expressed by the Present Subjunctive.
isto bono fitare, dum adsit ; com absit, ne requires, use this blessing while
you have it; when it is gone, do not mourn for it; Sen. io, 33.
260 Syntax [501

2) If addressed to an individual second person (or persons), Com

mands are expressed by the Imperative ; while Prohibitions may be
expressed by the Perfect Subjunctive, or, in a roundabout way, by cave
with a dependent Subjunctive (602, 3, b), vide with a dependent ne-clause
(502, 3, a), or noli with the Infinitive (586). The Perfect Subjunctive
is the most peremptory or emphatic form, and noli the most courteous.
hoc facito, hoc ne feceris, this do, this do not do; Div. 2, 61, 127.
ne dubitaris mittere, do not hesitate to send ; Att. 1, 9, 2.
cave ignoscas, cave te misereat, beware offorgiving, beware offeelingpity ;
Lig- 5, '4-
cave audiam istuc ex te, don't let me hear that from you (= don't say it) ;
Stich. 37.
nolite dubitare, do not hesitate (be unwilling to); Pomp. 23, 68.
b. In early Latin, and in the poetical style, both Imperative and Sub
junctive are freely used in any kind of command or prohibition. Cf. 496, d.
502. The Volitive Subjunctive may be used in dependent
clauses :
1. In Relative Clauses, determinative1 or descriptive.2
" cave." ... " Quid est quod caveam ? " " look out." " What is it
that I am to look out for?" Rud. 828. (Determinative.)
Mago locum monstrabit quem insideatis, Mago will show you the place
which you are to take for an ambuscade ; Liv. 21, 54, 3. (Deter
minative.)
saepe stilum vertas, iterum quae digna leg! sint scripturus, use the eraser
often, if you mean to write things that shall be worth reading a
second time; Sat. 1, 10, 72. (Descriptive.)
2. In Clauses of Plan or Purpose,3 with qui, etc.,4 quO, ut, or n6.
equitatum qui sustineret impetum misit, he sent cavalry who were to
check the attack (= to check) ; B. G. 1, 24, 1. (Past Purpose.)
id quo maiore faciant animo, that they may do it with greater courage ;
B. G. 7, 66, 6. (Purpose, picturesquely represented as Present.)
mihitimoremeripe ; si est verus, ne opprimar ; sin falsus, ut timere desinam,
free me offear; if it is well-founded, that I may not be crushed, but
iffalse, that I may cease to fear; Cat. 1 , 7, 1 8. (Present Purpose.)
1 That is, telling what person or thing is meant.
3 That is, telling what kind of person or thing is meant (also called " characterizing "
clauses).
• Such clauses are often called "final." * Any relative may be used. Thus ubi, unde.
502] Volitive Subjunctive 261

a. A Clause of Purpose may be preceded by an adverb of manner or degree,

or by eo consilio, ea causa, idcirco, etc.
librum peto a te ita corrigas ne mihi noceat, / beg of you to correct the book
in such a way that it shall not do me harm ; Fam. 6, 7, 6.
eo cSnsilio, ut expugnarent, with theplan that they should storm ; B. G. 2, 9, 4.
b. Quo is generally used with a comparative, as in B. G. 7, 66, 6 above.
c. A Clause of Purpose is sometimes used parenthetically.
ac ne longum sit, . . . iussimus, and, to be brief, we ordered ... (in order
to be brief, I say at once, we ordered) ; Cat. 3, 5, 10.
3. In Substantive Clauses :
a) With verbs of will or endeavor} The connective, if one is used,
is ut 2 or ne.
ne filii quidem hoc nostri resciscant volo, / want not even our sons to
hear of this; Ph. 819. Cf. volo ut facias, Bacch. 989, a.
te hortor ut maneas in sententia, neve vim pertimescas, / urge you to stand
by your opinion, and not to fear violence; Pomp. 24, 69.
efficiemus ne nimis acies vobis cordi sint, we'll see to it that you shall not
like the battle-line too well; Liv. 8, 7, 6.3
vide ne pecces, see thatyou don't do a wrong; Ph. 803.
Note 1. The original Volitive force is often lost, so that the clause
becomes a mere verb-noun.
poenam sequi oportebat, ut igni cremaretur, the punishment of being burned
alive wouldfollow ; B. G. 1, 4, 1.
Note 2. A nS-Clause with video or viso may suggest a Possibility.
vide ne tuum fuerit, (see to it that it was not your duty) consider whether it was
not your duty ( = possibly it was) ; Fin. 3, 3, 10. Similarly Pomp. 22, 63.
b) With verbs of hindrance, prevention, or check.* The connective
is ne, quin, or quominus.
1 Such verbs (or phrases) express: (1) Will in its simplest form, e.g. volo, nolo, malo;
(2) Demand, Command, or Direction, e.g. fleigito, postulo, posco, impero, mando, moneo
and its compounds, hortor and its compounds, edico, dico, respondeo, scribo, mitto (send
instructions), certiorem facio, pronuntio, rarely iubeo and veto; (3) Intention, Plan,
Purpose, or Agreement, e.g. dScerno, in animum inducd, animus or consilium est, seised,
statuo, censeo, paciscor, convenit (it is agreed), placet (it is decided; in its original mean
ing is pleasing, this belongs under c), ius est belli; (4) Endeavor on One's Own Part,
e.g. laboro and its compounds, insto, certo, nitor and its compounds, video and provides,
curo, consulo, tendo and its compounds, facio and its compounds, consequor and adse-
quor, ago, operam do, committo, teneo (insist) and obtineo, est in manS (it is in one's
power) ; (5) The Giving of an Impulse to Another, e.g. moveo, incito, suadeo and
persuaded, impeUo, adduco, indiico, cogo, and subigo.
2 Ut, when used in substantive clauses, is purely formal, having come in, merely as
the opposite of nfi, from Clauses of Purpose, where it- originated. By a natural second
step, it was sometimes added to ne itself (likewise in clauses of purpose).
s Facio, efncio, and perflcio may be followed by either a Volitive or a Consecutive
Clause (521, 3, a), according as the act is presented as aimed at, or as accomplished.
* (1) Hindrance, Prevention, Check, or Falling Short, e.g. impedio, prohibeo, obsto,
obsisto, officio, dSterreo, teneo, facere non possum, or non possum alone, non est in ma1m,
paulum, non longS, etc. with abest (quin) ; (2) Avoidance, e.g. caveo, vito, tempera, mS
262 Syntax [502

Quin is used only after a negative, quominus after either a negative or

a positive, ne generally only after a positive.1
quis umquam hoc senator recusavit ne putaret? what senator ever refused
to think this ? Clu. 55, 1 50. The same verb recfiso, negatived, is used
with quin in B. G. 4, 7, 3, and with quominus in B. G. 1, 31, 7.
cave ne neges, beware of refusing; Catull. 61, 152.
deterrere ne frumentum conferant, were deterring them from collecting
grain; B. G. 1, 17, 2.
quin dicant, non est : merito ut ne dicant, id est, that they shall not say it,
is not (in my power) : that they shall not say it with reason, that
is (in my power) ; Trin. 105. (Ut ne shows that the parallel clause
with quin must be Volitive in feeling.)
quin loquar, numquam me potes deterrere, you can never prevent mefrom
speaking (that I shall not speak) ; Amph. 559.
paulum afuit quin Varum interficeret, it lacked but little of I. s
Farus (= he was on the point of . . . )/ B. C. 2, 35, 2. _ . _ .j
longius abesse quin Sabinus educat, B. G. 3, 18, 4.
Note 1. These uses came originally from combinations like recuso : neputem. /
refuse: I'will not believe , deterred: ne conferant, I am deterring them: they shall
not collect ; etc. They were then extended to combinations like non longe abest quin.
Note 2. Cave, as itself suggesting a negative idea, can be used without ne.
Thus cavS mentiaris, beware of lying , Mil. 22, 60.
c) With adjectives, and verbs or phrases of adjective force.2 The
connective, if one is used, is ut3 or ne.
ius valeat necesse est, law must prevail; Sest. 42, 92. (Let law prevail :
it is necessary. Cf. taceto : optimum est, 497, 1 .)
reliquum est ut de felicitate dicamus, it remainsfor me to discuss the subject
ofgoodfortune; Pomp. 16, 47. (It remains that I am to discuss . . . )
Note. These are best called, not Substantive Volitive Clauses, but Substantive
Clauses of Volitive Origin ; for with most of them the Volitive feeling has faded out.
contineo, me eripio, resists, repugno, non cunctandum est, haud dubia res videtur, nulla
mora est (these last with quin) ; (3) Refusal or Hesitation, e.g. recuso, dubito.
1 The conjunction quin (qui, whereby, + ne) meant originally whereby not. Quominus
likewise meant whereby the less, whereby not (minus being only a weakened negative).
In all its uses as a conjunction, quin is employed only after a negative idea, expressed
or implied.
2 Such verbs and phrases represent an action as (1) good or bad, e.g. melius est,
optimum est : (2) necessary, seasonable, advantageous, sufficient, remaining to be done.
or lacking, e.g. necessarium est or necesse est, opus est. tempus est, refert, interest,
satis est, sufficit (but these two mostly with infinitive; 585), reliquum est, relinquitur.
restat, sequitur (when meaning the next thing to do is), superest, abest ; (3) customary,
usitatum est, mos (moris) est, consuetudo (consuetudinis) est. Many of these take the
Infinitive also (585), some more frequently than the Subjunctive.
s Formal ut. See footnote 2, p. 261.
503] Volitive Subjunctive 263

4. In Clauses of Fear or Anxiety. The connectives are ne, lest

or that, and ut (less frequently ne nSn), lest not, that not.
ne eius supplicio Diviciaci animum offenderet verebatur, he feared that by
punishing him he should offend Diviciacus; B. G. 1, 19, 2. (Past
fear about the future.)
yereor ne id fecerint, / am afraid that they have done it; Caecin. 2, 4.
(Present fear about the past.)
vereri videntur ut habeam satis praesidi, seem to fear that I have not a
sufficient guard; Cat. 4, 7, 14. (Present fear about the present.)
timeo ne non impetrem, /fear I may not get what I ask for; Att. 9, 6, 6.
(Present fear about the future.)
a. NS, lest, was originally a mere negative adverb (as in nS suscSnseat : timeo,
he must not be angry : I am afraid, i.e. / am afraid that he will be angry).
NS non, lest not, is the natural opposite of nS. Ut, which means the same as
ne non. probably came into use as the formal opposite of ne (footnote 2, p. 261).
b. The original volitive feeling has entirely faded out from the construction.
503. The Volitive Subjunctive may be used in Ques
tions of Deliberation or Perplexity ; in Questions asking for
Instructions ; and in Questions or Exclamations of Surprise
or Indignation. The negative is nOn.
The Questions may be independent or dependent,
eloquar, an sileam? shall I speak, or shall I keep silence? Aen. 3, 39.
est certum quid respondeam, what I shall answer is clear; Arch. 7, 15.
quid Romae faciam? what shall I do in Rome (= can I)? Iuv. 3, 41.
"scribe." " Quid scribam ? " "write." "What shall I write ?" Bacch.
731.
quid faciam imperii, command me what to do; Ph. 223.
"tunarra." "Scelus! Tibinarret?" "you tell him." "You rascal!
he tell the story under your orders?" Ph. 1000.
tii rebus omnibus copiosus sis, et dubites ! you a man provided with every
thing, — andyou hesitate ! Cat. 2, 8, 18.
a. The last example represents the extreme point of development reached
by the construction, in which nothing remains either of the interrogative idea
or of the original idea of Will.
b. The construction is sometimes introduced by ut or utin 1 (ut! plus the
interrogative -ne), as in tfl ut umquam te corrigas, the idea of your ever
reforming ! Cat. 1, 9, 22.
1 This type has probably arisen from a Question of Perplexity ("how shall?").
But it may have arisen from a Potential Question (" how can ? ") or through an ellipsis
(e.g. " is it possible that ? ").
264 Syntax [504

504. The Volitive Subjunctive may be used figuratively

(negative non):
1 . In Independent Conditions (cf. the Imperative, 497, 2).
experiatur : tecto recipiet nemo, let him try : no one will admit him to his
house; Verr. 2, 10, 26. Similarly sineret dolor, Aen. 6, 31. (Indi
vidual Condition, Less Vivid Future.)
merses profundo, pulchrior evenit, sink it in the depths, it comes forth
fairer; Carm. 4, 4, 65. (Generalizing Condition, in any time.)
• 2. In Generalizing Clauses in the Second Person Singular Indefinite,
after si or a relative of any kind.
haec quo die feceris necessaria, eadem, si cotidiefecissete reputes, inaniayiden-
tur, multo magis cum secesseris, these things seem necessary on the day
on whichyou have done them, andyet, ifyou reflect thatyou have been
doing them day after day, they appearfrivolous, andmuch moreso when
you have retired into the country ; Plin. Ep. 1 , 9, 3. (Feceris, reputes,
and secesseris are all examples. "You" is in each case "anybody.")
a. This Subjunctive originally expressed a command of the imagination
("let"), but it became a mere sign of indefiniteness.
3. In Imaginative Comparisons, with words meaning "as if."1
est obstandum,' velut si ante Romana moenia pugnemus, we must make our
stand, as iffighting before the walls of Rome ; Liv. 21, 41, 15.
metus cepit, velut si iam ad portas hostis esset, fear seized upon them,
as if the enemy were already at their gates ; Liv. 21, 16, 2.
a. The tenses of the present (Present and Perfect) are used if the
imagined act is placed in the present or future, the tenses of the past
(Imperfect and Past Perfect) if it is placed in the past.
b. The construction probably in the beginning expressed a command of the imagina
tion ("imagine us to be fighting," etc.), without any question about the fact; and the
usage, once established, remained fairly constant.
c. Still it would often be felt that the imagined act was really contrary to the actual
fact (see Conditions, 581) ; and accordingly the Imperfect and Past Perfect occur.
proinde habebo ac si scripsisses . . . , / shall regard it as if you had
written . . . ; Att. 3, 13, 1. Similarly quasi non nosses, Ph. 388.
505. The Subjunctive is used with nedum (rarely ne), still less.2
vix intellegere potui : nedum satis sciam quS modo me tuear, / was scarcely able
to understand ; still less do I know how to defend mysetf; Liv. 40, 15, 14.
Similarly ne illi temperarent, Sail. Cat. 11,8.
1 Quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut si, and (less frequently) ac si and ut si. Also,
In poetic and later Latin, ceu, non aliter quam si, sicutl, velut, perinde ac, etc.
2 The construction is probably of Volitive origin, but its exact history is not clear.
507] Anticipatory Subjunctive 265

H. THE ANTICIPATORY SUBJUNCTIVE

506. The Anticipatory Subjunctive represents an act as
foreseen, expected, looked forward to (English " shall " in all
persons). The negative is non. . .
This use of the Subjunctive had died out in independent
sentences before the beginnings of the literature.
a. The Present and Perfect express a present or future anticipation,
the Imperfect and Past Perfect a. past anticipation.
The Perfect is thus a Future Perfect for the present or future, the
Past Perfect a Future Perfect for the past.
507. The Anticipatory Subjunctive is used in dependent
clauses as follows :
1. In Relative Clauses, determinative or descriptive.
exspectandus erit qui lites incohet annus totius populi, / shall have to waitfor
the year that shall (= will) start afresh upon the suits of the whole people ;
Iuv. 16, 41 (= the coming year. Determinative clause),
nunc est ille dies quom (= cum1) gloria maxuma sese nobis ostendat, this is the
day when the supreme glory is to (= will) manifest itself to us ; Enn. Ann.
414, 4. (This is that expected day. Determinative clause.)
nascetur Troianus, famam qui terminet astris, there will be born a Trojan, who
shall (prophetic, = will) make the stars the boundary of his fame ; Aen. 1,
286. (A Trojan of what kind ? A Trojan that shall. ... Cf. quae
verteret, expressing a past Anticipation, Aen. 1, 20.)
a. The Future Indicative has driven the Anticipatory Subjunctive almost completely out
of the determinative clause, and tends to drive it out of the descriptive clause, as in veniet
aetas cum premet, Aen. 1 , 283. Cf. also qui . . . ferant quorumque . . . vidSbunt, Aen. 7, 98.
2. In Substantive Clauses of Anticipation:
a) With ut after verbs of expecting?
nemo exspectet ut alieno labore sit disertus, let no man expect that he will
become eloquent through the labor of others; Quintil. 7, 10, 14.
mea lenitas hoc exspectavit, ut id quod latebat erumperet, my clemency has
waitedfor that which was concealed to break out; Cat. 2, 12, 27.
b) With quin after verbs of doubt, if these are negatived.
haec si eniintiata Ariovisto sint, non dubitare quin gravissimum supplicium
sumat, (says) he does not doubt that, if this be told to Ariovistus, he
will inflict the severest punishment; B. G. 1, 31, 15.
1 Cum, as a relative referring to an antecedent of time, of course has the same con
structions as any other relative. 2 Exspecto, opperior (and, rarely, spero).
266 Syntax [507

3. In Indirect Questions, after verbs of expecting, knowing,

fearing, or anxiety}
quid hostes consili caperent exspectabat, (Crassus) was waiting (to see)
whatplan the enemy wouldform; B. G. 3, 24, 1 . (Past Expectancy.)
nescis quid vesper serus vehat, you know not what the shades of evening
shall bringforth; Varro, Sat. Men. 333. (Present Expectancy.)
sin (eritis secuti) illam alteram nescio an amplius mihi negoti contrahatur,
but if (you follow) the other proposal, I am inclined to think that
more trouble will be brought upon me; Cat. 4, 5, 9. (For the
translation, see 537, f)
a. With exspecto quam mox, the construction is frequent, even in Cicero.
4. In Clauses with antequam,2 priusquam, citius quam, potius
quam, and the like, to' represent an act as :
a) Anticipated and preparedfor.
medico diligent!, priusquam conetur aegro adhibere medicinam, natura cor
poris cognoscenda est, a careful physician, before attempting to pre
scribe medicine for a patient, must look into his general constitution;
De Or. 2, 44, 186.
priusquam educeret in aciem, orationem est exorsus, before leading out his
men into line of battle, (he) began a harangue; Liv. 21, 39, 1.
Note 1. The formula became a fixed one, and was then used of the reg
ular anticipation of one event by another in the operations of nature, although
there is in this case no true looking forward.
huius folia priusquam decidant, sanguined colore mutantur, its leaves turn
red before falling; Plin. N. H. 14, 37.
Note 2. For the Indicative of an actual event looked back upon, see 550,
Note 3. After Cicero's time the distinction of mood broke down, and the
Subjunctive was frequently used of an actual event.
ducentis annis antequam Rdmam caperent, in Italiam Gall! transcendSrunt,
two hundred years before they were to take (took) Rome, the Gauls
crossed into Italy; Liv. 5, 33, 5.
b) Anticipated and forestalled.
Romanus, priusquam fores portarum obicerentur, velut agmine Qno inrumpit,
the Romans, before the gates could be closed, rushed in as in a single
mass; Liv. I, 14, II.
Note. Since an event forestalled is generally one which the main actor tries
to make impossible, the Anticipatory Subjunctive of possum, (with the Infinitive)
is sometimes used (as in B. G. 6, 3, 2, priusquam convenire possent) in place of
the simple verb in the Subjunctive (priusquam convenirent).
1 Bxspcctlt, nescio, timeo ; also the phrases mihi cfirae est, sollicitus sum, etc.
2 Ante and prius are often separated from quam. (See examples under c.)
508] Anticipatory Subjunctive 267

c) Anticipated and insisted upon.

non prius duces ex concilid dimittunt quam sit concessum, they do not
(= will not) let the leaders leave the council until the concession is
tnade; B. G. 3, 18,7. Cf. nec prius absistit quam fundat, Aen. 1 , 1 92.
Note. To give this meaning the main verb must be negatived.
d) Anticipated and deprecated.
animam omittunt prius quam loco demigrent, they die sooner than
(= rather than) leave their post; Amph. 240.
potius quam id non fiat, ego dabo, rather than not have it come off, I'll
give the money myself; Pseud. 554. Cf. prius quam ut, Lig. 12, 34.
Note to a)-d). The Future Perfect Indicative is also used in these con
structions (as in antequam cognovero, Sen. 6, 18), the Future Indicative only
very rarely in Ciceronian prose (thus citius quam extorquSbit, Lig. 5, I6; in
poetry more commonly, e.g. ante quam dabitur, Aen. 9, 1 15). For the frequent
Present Indicative in the same general sense, see 571.
5. In Clauses with dum, donec, or quoad, until, to represent
an act as looked forward to.
mansurus patruom pater est dum adveniat, your father is going to wait
tillyour uncle shall arrive ; Ph. 480. (Present Expectation.)
dum reliquae naves eo convenirent exspectavit, he waited till the other
ships should arrive; B. G. 4, 23, 4. (Past Expectation.)
a. The Future Perfect Indicative is also used in this sense, the Future
Indicative not in Ciceronian prose (poetical example donec dabit, Aen. 1, 273).
For the frequent Present Indicative in the same general sense, see 571.
b. For the Indicative of an actual event looked back upon, see 550, b.
c. After Cicero's time the distinction broke down, and the Subjunctive was
frequently used of an actual event. Cf. 507, 4, n. 3.
hoc pluribus (diebus), donec hominSs subiret timendi pudor, this (took place)
on a number of (days), until men began to be ashamed of being
afraid; Plin. Ep. 9, 33, 6.
d. Dum, donec, and quoad, meaning so long as, take the Indicative (550, b).
508. In general,1 all past-future ideas must, if expressed
by a Finite Verb, be in the Anticipatory Subjunctive ; for
no other means of expression exists.
a. There are thus three possible ways of expressing Futurity to the
Present, and only one way of expressing Futurity to the Past :
1 The only exceptions are assertions and conditions expressing an actual past inten
tion (periphrastic forms, as in they were going to ... ; if they were going to).
268 Syntax [508

Point of View Past Point of View Present

Anticipatory Subjunctive, f 1. Indicative Future or Future Perfect
Imperfect or Past -J 2. Present Indicative with future force (see 571)
(Future) Perfect ( 3. Anticipatory Subjunctive, Present or (Future) Perfect
509. Accordingly, the Anticipatory Subjunctive of the past
is extremely common in constructions 1 in which it would not
be used, or need not be used, if the point of view were present
or future. Thus :
. Past-Future Determinative Clauses :
aderat iam annus quo proconsulatum Africae sortiretur, the year was now
at hand, in which he should draw the proconsulate of Africa as his
lot; Tac. Agric. 42.
omnmo biduum supererat, cum exercitui frumentum metiri oporteret, two
days in all were left (before the time) when rations would have to
be issued to the army; B. G. 1, 23, 1.
Past-Future Conditions :
nostri, si ab illis initium transeundi fieret, parati erant, our men were ready,
if they should begin to cross; B. G. 2, 9, I .
erat iinum iter, Ilerdam si reverti vellent, alterum, si Tarraconem peterent,
there was one way if they should choose to return to Lerida, another
if they should make for Tarragona ; B. C. 1, 73, 2.
a. It often happens that such past anticipations are indirect expressions
of some one's speech or thought, — i.e. are in Indirect Discourse (534, 2).
ubi intellexit diem instare quo die frumentum mllitibus metiri oporteret, when
he saw that the day was at hand on whick rations would have to be
given out to the soldiers ; B. G. 1, 16, 5. (Diem quo oporteret is to the
past what dies quo oportebit would be to the present.)
Xerxes praemium proposuit qui invenisset novam voluptatem, Xerxes offered
a reward to the man who should invent a new pleasure ; Tusc. 5, 7, 20.

IH. THE OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

510. The Optative Subjunctive represents an act as wished
or desired (English "may," "would that," etc.).
a. The Present and Perfect deal with the future, and so express a
wish that may be realized. The Imperfect and Past Perfect deal with
the present and past, and so express a wish contrary to fact.
1 With any relative pronoun, or relative or conditional conjunction.
511] Optative Subjunctive 269

The Imperfect generally refers to the present, and the Past Perfect to
the past. But occasionally the Imperfect (especially in poetry) expresses
a past act, and the Past Perfect an act completed in the present.
Remark. The Imperfect and Past Perfect originally expressed a wish
in time future to a past time. This is still generally the case in dependent
clauses. Thus optabam ut adesset, / wished that he might be present,
b. The Perfect may express a hope that something has been done.
511. The Optative Subjunctive is used :
1. In Wishes. These may be introduced by utinam, and
generally are so introduced, if in the Imperfect or Past Perfect.
The negative is regularly n6, but with utinam sometimes non.1
sint beat!, may they be happy ! Mil. 34, 93.
perieris, may you perish utterly ! Men. 295. (Emphatic Perfect.)
utinam spem impleverim, / hope I may have fulfilled his expectation ;
Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 3. (Present Perfect.)
utinam ille omnis secum suas copias eduxisset ! would that he had led out
all hisforces with him ! Cat. 2, 2, 4.
obruerent Rutuli telis ! would that the Rutuli had laid (me) low with
their darts ! Aen. 11, 162.
utinam fflii ne degenerassent ! would that the sons had not degenerated !
Prov. Cons. 8, 18.
utinam susceptus non essem ! would that I had not been allowed to live at
birth! Att. 1 1, 9, 3.
a. In poetry, especially in early Latin, ut and qui 1 may also be used, the
latter in Imprecations (Curses) only.
qui ilium di omnSs perduint ! may all the gods confound him .' Ph. 12-
b. A Wish may be used to express an independent condition.
me quoque, qua fratrem, mactasses, improbe, clava ! Esset, quam dederas,
morte soluta fides, would that you had killed me, wretch, with the same
club with which you killed my brother ! The promise you had given
would then have been annulled by death ; Ov. Her. 10, 77.
2. In Substantive Clauses, after verbs of wishing, desiring,
etc.2 The connective, if one is used, is ut or ne\
optemus ut eat in exilium, let us hope that he is going into exile; Cat. 2,
7, 16. (Present Wish.)
fuit optandum Caecinae ut controversiae nihil haberet, it was desirablefor
Caecina to have no controversy ; Caecin. 9, 23. (Past Wish.)
1 Wishes with utinam, ut, and qui were originally Potential Questions (" how might
. . . ? "). Hence the original negative was non.
4 The commonest of these are opto, and, in poetry and later prose, Cupid, votum est
270 Syntax [513

IV. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF OBLIGATION OR PROPRIETY

512. The Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety represents an
3.cta.sobligatory,proper,orreasonable(En^ish."o\i^a.tl'''s\Yovi].d'').
a. The original negative, ne, is sometimes still found in statements
(513, 1), not elsewhere. But, even here, non became more common, since
this is thenegative that regularly belongs to statements (464, 1 , and footnote).
b. The Present expresses a present obligation or propriety, the Imper
fect and Past Perfect a. past obligation or propriety, unfulfilled.
513. The Subjunctive of Obligation or Propriety is used :
1. In Statements and Questions.
The interrogative words, if used, are quid, quidni, quarg,
quamobrem, or cur.1
quid facere debuisti ? frumentum ne emisses, what ought you to have done ?
You ought not to have bought the grain ; Verr. 3, 84, 195.
" non ego illi argentum redderem ? " " Non redderes," " oughtn't I to have
paid in the money to him?" " You ought not'' ; Trin. 133.
a legibus non recedamus, we shouldnot swervefrom the laws; CIu. 57, 155.
non eo sis consilio, you should not adopt this opinion; Fam. 9, 16, 7.
hunc ego non admirer ? ought I not to admire a man like this ? Arch. 8,18.
quid ego te invitem, why should I urge you? Cat. 1, 9, 24. (Direct
Question of Present Obligation.)
non video cur non audeam, / don't see why I should not venture; Sen.
21, 77. (Indirect Question of Present Obligation.)
cur desperarent, why (he asked) should they despair? B. G. 1, 40, 4.
(Indirect Question of Past Obligation.)
a. In Statements, this construction seems to be less frequent in tenses of
the present than in tenses of the past.
2. In Dependent Clauses, with quod, quare, quamobrem, cur, or
quin (the last only after a negative idea, expressed or implied),
nihil est quod pocula laudes, there is no reason whyyou shouldpraise the
cups (nothing with reference to which you ought . . .); Eel. 3, 48.
satis esse causae arbitrabatur quare in eum animadverteret, he thought
there was reason enough why he shouldpunish him; B. G. 1, 19, 1.
quid est quamobrem pute3 . . . ? what reason is there why you should
think . . . ? Verr. 2, 20, 49.
1 Quin, as in quin rogem ? why should n't I ask ? Mil. Gl. 426, is rarely used in ques
tions of obligation or propriety. In dependent clauses, it is frequent.
514] Subjunctive of Natural Likelihood 271

3- In Relative Clauses (rarely in clauses with ut) after dignus,

indignus, aptus, or idSneus.
erit dignior locus films qui hanc virtutem excipiat? will there be any
place more worthy to harbor such virtue ? (any place worthier that
it should harbor ...?); Mil. 37, 101. Similarly idoneus qui, Pomp.
19. 57-
non sum dignus ut figam palum in parietem, / am notfit to drive a spike
into a wall (not fit that I should drive); Mil. Gl. 1 140.
a. Quare, quamobrem, and cur are also occasionally used with dignus, etc.
nihil enim dignum faciebat, quarS eius fugae comitem mS adiungerem, for he
was doing nothing worthy to make me add myself as an associate in his
flight (no worthy thing, on account of which I should . . . ) ; Att. 9, 10, 2.
4. In Clauses with ut or ut ndn after tanti, worth so much, and
similar expressions.
est ergo ulla res tanti aut commodum fillum tam expetendum, ut viri boni
et splendorem et nomen amittas ? is anything then worth so much, or
is any advantage so desirable, that one should (= ought to) give up
the proud distinction of the name of'"good man"? Off. 3, 20, 82.
nulla studia tanti ut amicitiae officium deseratur, no studies are so impor
tant that friendship 's due ought to be withheld; Plin. Ep. 8, 9, 2.
5. In Substantive Clauses, without connective, or with n6
(rare) or quin (the latter after a negative idea only).1
multa oportet discat, he ought to learn many things; Quinct. 1 7, 56.
nfillo modo aequom videtur quin quod peccarim potissimum mihi id obsit,
it doesn't seem at all just that my wrongdoing should not damage
me rather than any one else; Trin. 588.
quare meditere censeo, wherefore I think that you should consider; Phil.
2i 37, 95- Similarly (in irony) vereamini censeo, Cat. 4, 6, 13.

V. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF NATURAL LIKELIHOOD

514. The Subjunctive of Natural Likelihood represents an
act as likely to take place (English "should," "might well,"
"naturally would," etc.). The negative is nOn.
a. The Present and Perfect express a natural likelihood in the present
orfuture; the Imperfect and Past Perfect, a natural likelihood in thepast.
1 So with oportet, aequum, iustum or ius est, mereor, decet, dedecet.
272 Syntax [515

515. The Subjunctive of Natural Likelihood is used :

1. In Questions, with quid, quidni, qui {how?), quar6, quam-
obrem, or cur.
quid enim odisset Clodium Milo, segetem ac materiem suae gloriae ? why
should Milo have hated Clodius, who furnished him the field and
the occasion of his glory? Mil. 13, 35.
quare desinat esse macer? why (under such circumstances) should he
cease to be lean ? Catull. 89, 4. (= naturally he would remain lean.)
" inepta, nescis quid sit actum?" "Qui sciam?" "you stupid, don't you
know what has taken place ? " " How should I know ? " And. 79 1 .
2. In Dependent Clauses, with qui, quar6, quamobrem, cur, quiu,
or ut.
video causas esse permultas quae istum impellerent, / recognize the exist
ence of a great many causes that would naturally be impelling him;
Rose. Am. 33, 92. (Natural working in the past.)
quantumvis quare sit macer invenies, you'llfind every reason in the world
why he should be lean; Catull. 89, 6. Cf. quare desinat, 515, 1 .
ille erat ut odisset acciisatorem suum, there was (reason) that he should
(naturally) hale his accuser; Mil. 13, 35.
3. In Substantive Clauses with ut.
veri simile non est, ut ille homo religioni suae pecuniam anteponeret, it is
not likely that such a man would set money above his conscience ;
Verr. 4, 6, 11.

VI. THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE

516. The Potential Subjunctive expresses Possibility or
Capacity (English "may," "might," "can," "could"). The
negative is non.
a. The Present and Perfect express a present or future possibility or
capacity, the Imperfect and Past Perfect a past possibility or capacity.
517. The Potential Subjunctive is used especially :
1. In Independent Sentences, but only where a negative is
implied, or in the Second Person Singular Indefinite, or with
quis, aliquis, viz, facile, or forsitan.
quis cladem illius noctis fando explicet ? who could setforth in words the
ruin ofthat night ? Aen.2,361. (Present Capacity ;= no one could.)
518] Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty 273

cuneo hoc agmen disicias, with a wedge, one could split this line; Liv.
22, 50, 9. (Present Capacity.)
ea peritis amnis eius vix fidem fecerint, this could scarcely gain any
credence at all among those who know this river; Liv. 21, 47, 5.
(Present Capacity, emphatic tense.)
Servius, frater tuus, facile diceret, hic versus Plauti non est, hic est, your
brother Servius could easily say ' That verse is n't Plautus's, this
one is' ; Fam. 9, 16, 4. (Past Capacity.)
aliquis dicat mihi, some one may say to me; Sat. 1, 3, 19. (Possibility.)
a. But the Future Indicative is much more common with quis and aliquis,
as in dicet aliquis, some one will say, Pis. 28, 68.
2. In Relative Clauses, after expressions of existence or non
existence}
est unde haec fiant, / have means with which it can be done; Ad. 122.
nihil erat quo famem tolerarent, there was no means by which they could
relieve their starvation ; B. G. 1, 28, 3.
unum angustum et difficile, vix qua singuli carri ducerentur ; one (way
was) narrow and difficult, by which carls could hardly be hauled
one at a time; B. G. 1, 6, 1.
a. The potential feeling of the clause is clearly shown by its parallelism
with clauses with possum in the Subjunctive of Actuality (521, 1) with a
dependent Infinitive. Thus unde agger comportari posset (instead of com-
portaretur), nihil eraf reliquum, there was nothing left from which a rampart
could be got together; B. C. 2, 15, 1 ; cf. B. G. 2, 25, 1 ; 4, 29, 4.
3. In Substantive Clauses after fieri potest.
fieri potest ut recte quis sentiat, et id quod sentit polite eloqul non possit,
it may happen that a man may think correctly, andyet be unable to
express his thoughts in a finished manner; Tusc. 1, 3, 6.
a. This is the only way in Latin of saying " may " or " can," except with
possum used personally, or as shown under 517, 1.

VH. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF IDEAL CERTAINTY 2

518. The Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty declares that, under
imagined or imaginable circumstances, something would take
place (or would have taken place), or asks a corresponding
1 Thus after est, habeo, ndn est, non habeo. etc.
These clauses are really descriptive, expressing that of which the antecedent is capa
ble, or for which it is available or suitable.
2 Possibility, Natural Likelihood, and Ideal Certainty (act possible, probable, or
ideally certain) often lie close together, so that a given exumple may seem to belong to
 Syntax [518

question (English "I should," "you would," "he would,"

etc.). The negative is non.
a. The Present and Perfect express an Ideal Certainty in time future
to the present, the Imperfect and Past Perfect an Ideal Certainty in time
future to a past time. The Perfect is accordingly a Future Perfect lor
the present, the Past Perfect a Future Perfect for the past. Thus, ille
id faciat, he would do this (e.g. if he should be called upon); ille id
fecerit, he would assuredly do this (emphatic Perfect).
b. New Force developed by the Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunc
tive. In addition, the Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive gained
the power of expressing an ideal certainty contrary to fact, the Imperfect
referring generally to present time, and the Past Perfect to either past or
present time. Thus ille id faceret, he would be doing this (e.g. if he
had been called upon) ; ille id fecisset, he would have done this, now or
in the past (e.g. if he had been called upon). For the origin of this
force of the tenses, see 581, a, rem.

519. The Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty is used :

I. In Statements and Questions,
ecquis id dixerit ? Certe nemo, would anybody dream of saying this ?
Surely nobody would; Tusc. 1, 36, 87. (Emphatic Perfect. Act
future.)
ire per ignis et gladios ausim, / should have courage to go through fire
and sword; Ov. Met. 8, 76.
ndn ille nobis Saturnalia constituisset, he would not have appointed the
Saturnalia for us, not he; Cat. 3, 7, 1 7. (Contrary to fact ; for
they have been appointed.)
a. A frequent use is in Subjunctive Conclusions. See 574, 580, 581.
b. This Subjunctive is often used merely to soften a statement.
ego quae in rem tuam sint ea velim facias, / should like you to do that
which is for your interest; Ph. 449. (Compare the unsoftened
Syro ignoscas void, / want/d« to forgive Syrus; Heaut. 1066.)
velitis iubeatisne naec sic fieri? would it be your wish and command
that this course be taken? Liv. 22, 10, 2. (Softened Question.)
any or all of the three forces. Thus nemo crSdat might mean either no one could believe,
no one would be likely to believe, or no one would believe.
At the extremes of their forces, on the other hand, Possibility and Ideal Certainty are
widely separated. Thus in non ille nobis under 519, 1, the meaning is not possibly he
would not have appointed . . . , but he certainly would not have appointed . . . , not he.
 S19] Subjunctive of Ideal Certainty 275
c. Virtual Wishes. The Softened Statements velim, vellem, malim, mallem, with an
Infinitive or Volitive Clause attached, are equivalent to a Subjunctive of Wish.
virum me natam vellem, / should like to have been born a man ( = would that
I had been bom a man) ; Ph. 792. Similarly mallem eduxisset, Cat. 2, 3, 5.
2. In Relative Clauses, determinative or descriptive.
uno verbo dic, quid est quod me velis, tell me in a word what the thing is
which you would like of me - And. 45. (Determinative.)
fecerunt id servi Milonis quod suos quisque servos in tali re facere voluisset,
MiMs slaves didjust that which, in similar circumstances, any one
would have wished his slaves to do; Mil. 10, 29. (Determinative.)
nil est aeque quod faciam lubens, there is nothing that I should do with
so much pleasure; Ph. 565. (Descriptive.)
profectus id temporis, cum iamClodius, si quidem eo die Romam venturuserat,
redire potuisset, he set out at an hour when Clodius, if he really
meant on that day to come to Rome, might already have been (would
have been able to be) on his way back; Mil. 10, 28. (Descriptive.)
3. In Clauses of Ideally Certain Result, with ut or ut ndn.
adeo variant auctores ut vix quicquam adfirmare ausus sim, authorities
differ so much that I should hardly dare to make any statement at
all; Liv. 22, 36, 1. (Present Ideal Certainty about the future.)
res tamen ab Afranianis hue erat deducta, ut, si pridres montis attigissent,
ipsi periculum vitarent, impedimenta servare non possent, things,
however, had been brought to such a pass by Afranius and his men,
that, if they should be the first to reach the hills, they themselves
would escape from danger, but would be unable to save their bag
gage; B. C. 1, 70, 2. (Past-future Ideal Certainty.)
a. The Descriptive Clause and the Result Clause both express some
thing that would naturally follow from the character of the antecedent.
Hence they may be called Consecutive Clauses.
b. In modern English we have to use the Conjunction " that " (after " such," " so,"
etc.) to express the full consecutive idea. In Shakespeare's time, the bare Relative " who ;'
or " that " could do this. A comparison will make the feeling of the Latin plainer.
" Who is here so base that would be a bondman ? " Shakespeare, Jul. Caes. 3, 2.
quis est tam impius qui non fateatur? who is so impious that (he) would not
admit . . . ? Har. Resp. 10, 20.
4. In Substantive Clauses of Ideal Certainty :
a) With ut or ut non, after verbs of bringing about or of existence.
unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis, whence it results that I should
prefer to be the little brother of a son of the soil; Iuv. 4, 98.
276 Syntax [519

b) With quin after verbs or phrases of doubt or ignorance, if these

are negatived, or imply a negative.1
quod ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei vis esset adlata? if he had
refused, do you doubt that violence would have been offered him ?
Sest. 29, 62. (Here dubitatis = dubitare non potestis.)

SUBJUNCTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF COMPOSITE

ORIGIN (FUSION)
THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF ACTUALITY (FACT)
520. The Subjunctive of Actuality represents an act or state
as a fact. The negative is non.
a. In Subjunctive Clauses of Actuality, the Present expresses either
a present or future situation or a present or future act seen aoristically,
the Imperfect either a past situation or a past act seen aoristically, but
in temporal relation to the main act. The Past Aorist (Perfect), on the
other hand, expresses a past act, etc., seen absolutely.
The Present Perfect and Past Perfect express an act as in a com
pleted state at a present or past time respectively.

521. The Subjunctive of Actuality is used only in dependent

clauses of consecutive nature (521, i, e), as follows :
1. In Descriptive Clauses of Actuality (Fact). ,
Any relative may be used (e.g. qui, cum, ubi, unde). Quin,2
who . . . not, that . . . not, may be employed in place of qui
ndn, etc., but only after a negative idea, expressed or implied.
si quis est talis qui me accuset, if there is any one of such a disposition
that he blames me; Cat. 2, 2, 3. (Present state of affairs.)
at sunt qui dicant, but there are men that say ; Cat. 2, 6, 12.
num quis est tam demens qui arbitretur ? is there any one so mad (who
thinks) as to think? Mil. 28, 78.
1 So especially after non dubito, non dubium est, quis dubitat (implies " no one
doubts "), num dubium est, ndn igndro, quis ignorat.
After an affirmative the Infinitive is used (example in 589), and the later writers
often use it even after a negative.
2 This quin is of the same origin as the conjunction quin, that not (footnote i, p. 262),
but is used in place of the declined relatives qui non, quae non, or quad non. It may be
employed in any construction in which qui non is possible, e.g. in 519, 2.
521] Subjunctive of Actuality 277

is sum, qui istos plausus semper contempserim, / am one that has always
despised such applause (I am such that I have . . . ) ; Phil. 1, 15, 37.
(Present Perfect.)
nemo fuit quin viderit, there was no one that did not see; Verr. 5, 54,
140. (Past Aorist, expressing the time absolutely.)
fuit tempus cum Germands Galli virtute superarent, there was a time when
the Gauls surpassed the Germans in courage; B. G. 6, 24, 1.
in ea tempora natus es, quibus firmare animum expediat constantibus exem-
plis, your life hasfallen upon times in which it is well to fortify the
mind through examples offirmness (times such that in them . . . ) ;
Tac. Ann. 16, 35. (Present state of affairs.)
in id saeculum Romuli cecidit aetas, cum iam minor fabulis haberetur fides,
the life of Romulus fell upon an age when less credence was given
to fables; Rep. 2, 10, 18. (Past state of affairs.)
erit illud profecto tempus cum tu amicissimi benevolentiam desideres, there
will surely come a time when you will miss the kindness of a devoted
friend; Mil. 26, 69. (Future state of affairs.)
a. These clauses follow incomplete descriptive words,1 or negative or
indefinite expressions, or questions implying a negative.
Note. Because of the kind of words or phrases after which the subjunc
tive descriptive clause is used, it is essential, i.e. it cannot be left out without
making the sentence incomplete. Cf. the free descriptive clause, 569.
b. The Subjunctive in such descriptive clauses is always necessary
after a negative, and after words meaning such or so.1
After indefinite positive antecedents,2 the Indicative (which was the
original mood) never was wholly driven out, though the Subjunctive
became more common. Thus sunt multi qui Graecas non ament litteras,
Ac. 2, 2, 5, but sunt multi qui eripiunt . . . , Off. 1, 14, 43.
c. These clauses all tell what kind of a person or thing is meant ;
i.e., they are really complex adjectives. For the contrasting Determi
native Clauses (Indicative), which tell what person or thing is meant,
see 550.
Note. Notice (in 'the last four examples) that a time may be described,
as well as anything else, and that the mechanism is the same, except that the
temporal relative cum may be used, as well as a form of qui, for such an
antecedent. Thus one may say in id saeculum quo, or in id saeculum cum.
d. For maior quam qui, etc., with the Subjunctive, see 2, c, below.
1 Talis, such, tantus, so great, hic, ille, is, or iste, such, unus or solus, the only one,
or tam, adeo, or ita, so, with an adjective.
2 E.g. sunt qui, multi sunt qui, quidam sunt qui.
278 Syntax [521

e. The Descriptive Clause of Actuality, the Clause of Actual Result

(see 2, below), and the Substantive Clause of Actuality (see 3, below)
all express something that followsfrom the character of the antecedent.
Hence these clauses and the clauses derived from them may be called
Consecutive Clauses. But in the Descriptive Clause of Actuality the
original consecutive feeling is often faint, or even non-existent. (So
in sunt qui dicant, above.)
f. Quod sciam, etc. The Subjunctive is used in phrases meaning
so far as I know, so far as I have heard, etc. (quod or quantum sciam,
quod exstet, quod quidem senserim, quod audierim, etc.), since these phrases
generally follow negative or indefinite words.
numquam dictum ab illo, quod sciam, never, so far as I know, has it
been said by him ; Fin. 2, 26, 82.
2. In Clauses of Actual Result (Fact), with ut, ut ndn, or quin.
Quin is used only after a negative idea, expressed or implied,
neque enim is es, Catilina, ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine revocarit, you
are not such a man, Catiline, that shame has ever held you back
from dishonor; Cat. 1, 9, 22. (Present Perfect.)
nec tam sum demens ut nesciam quid sentiatis, nor am I so mad as not to
know what you think ; Mil. 27, 72.
nostrum tam paratus (fuit) ad dimicandum animus, ut etiam ad galeas
induendas tempus defuerit, the spirit of the enemy was so ready for
battle that time failed even for putting on the helmets; B. G. 2,
21, 5. (Tense aoristic, and absolute.)
tanta rerum commutatio est facta ut nostri proelium redintegrarent, so great
a change was made that our men renewed the fight; B. G. 2, 27, 1.
(Tense aoristic, but relative to that of facta est.)
mons altissimus impendebat, ut perpauci prohibere possent, a high moun
tain overhung, so that even a very small number were able to stop
the way ; B. G. 1,6, 1. (Tense of past situation.)
numquam tam .male est Siculis quin aliquid facete dicant, things never go
so badly with the Sicilians that they have n't some witty thing to
say; Verr. 4, 43, 95.
eiusmodi tempus erat ut homines impune occiderentur, the time was such
that men were being killed with impunity ; Rose. Am. 29, 80.
iis temporibus fuerunt ut eorum liictum ipsorum dignitas consolaretur,
(Paullus and Cato) lived in such times that their high position con
soled their grief; Fam. 4, 6, 1.
521] Subjunctive of Actuality 279

a. These clauses generally follow incomplete descriptive words 1 ; but

they may also follow a verb having no modifier, as in the example mons
impendebat, ut . . . above.
b. There is no essential difference between the Descriptive Clause of
Actuality and the Clause of Actual Result, when both express the char
acter of a person, thing, or time. E.g. is sum qui contempserim of
521, 1, and is es ut revocarit of 521, 2, correspond exactly in meaning;
as also do tam demens qui of 521, 1, and tam demens ut of 521, 2.
c. A Comparative with quam may be followed by a Consecutive qui-
or ut-Clause of Actuality, with the meaning of more . . . than such as to ... ,
too . . . to, etc.
maior sum quam cui possit fortuna nocere, / am too great for fortune to have
power to harm me (greater than onesuch that fortune is able); Ov. Met.6, 195.
Similarly res est visa maior quam ut, Liv. 22, 51, 3:
non lOngius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset, the enemy was not
farther away than a javelin could be thrown (than a point such that to
it . . . ) ; B. G. 2, 21, 3.
d. Ita ut with the Subjunctive may express a Limitation. Ita ut may also express
the Way by Which, and (ita) ut non, or quin, an Act not Accompanying the main act.
qui ita concedunt, ut vobiscum de amore re! publicae certent, who yield only to the extent
of vying (so that they vie) with you in love for the Commonwealth ; Cat. 4, 7, 15.
ita eludit ut contendat . . . , he escapes by urging ... (in such a way that he urges) ;
Plin. Ep. 1, 20, 6.
ingenium ita laudo ut non pertimescam, /praise his ability without being overawed by
it (in such a way that I am not overawed) ; Caecil. 13, 44. Similarly Pomp. 7, 19.
3. In Substantive Clauses of Actuality (Fact):
a') With ut or ut non, after verbs of bringing about or of existence?
sed ut possim facit acta vita, but my past life makes me able (makes that
I am able); Sen. 11, 38. (Present state of affairs. In tense,
possim = possum.)
1 Talis, such, tantus, so great, hic, ille, is, or iste, such, or tam, adeo, sic, or ita, so,
with an adjective or adverb.
When following an incomplete adverbial modifier, or a verb without modifier, these
clauses describe the character of the act or state expressed by that verb.
2 Such verbs (or phrases) express: (1) the Bringing About of something, e.g. facid,
efflcio, conflcio, perflcio, cogo, persuadeo ; (2) a Conclusion Brought About (i.e. proved), e.g.
efflcitur, sequitur, relinquitur, restat ; (3) a Fact Occurring or Existing, e.g. fit (it is
brought about, the result is), accidit, contingit, obtingit, evenit (it happens), est (it
is the case that), accSdit (it is the case in addition that), rarum, novum, and the like with
est (it is rarely the case that, etc.), tantum abest ut (it is so far from being the case
that), verum, falsum, and the like with est (it is true orfalse that) ; (4) Existing Custom,
e.g. mos or moris est, consuetudo or consuetudinis est, commune est.
Verbs like facid, efflcio, or cogo, may be followed by either the Volitive Subjunctive
(502, 3, a),ox the Subjunctive of Actuality, according as the writer or speaker is thinking of
an act as to be brought out, or as actually brought about. (Cf. efflciSmus nS, under 502, 3, a.)
28o Syntax [521

his rebus fiebat,1 ut minus late vagarentur, the result of this was that
their wanderings were over a narrower territory ; B. G. 1, 2, 4.
(Past state of affairs. In tense, vagarentur = vagabantur.)
populi Romani hanc esse consuetudinem, ut socios gratia, dignitate, honore
auctiores vellet esse, it was (said he) the way of the Roman people to
desire (that it desired) its allies to be magnified in influence, dignity,
and honor; B. G. 1, 43, 8.
Note. The Substantive ut-Clause of Actuality is often a mere verb-noun.
id quod ipsi diebus XX aegerrime confScerant, ut flumen translrent, what they
p themselves had with difficulty accomplished in twenty days, namely, the
crossing of the river ; Ii. G. 1, 13, 2.
b) With quin, after verbs or phrases of doubt or ignorance? if these
are negatived, or imply a negative.
non dubitat quin brevi sit Troia peritiira, he does not doubt that Troy will
soon fall; Sen. 10, 31. (Periphrastic Future ; see 470, 4, a.)
neque abest suspicio, quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit, nor is suspicion
lacking that he took his own life; B. G. 1, 4, 4. (Past Aorist.)
Note. The Infinitive also may be used (589), and, after verbs not nega
tived, always is used until after Cicero's time.

New Meanings developed by the Consecutive qui-CLAUSE

Restrictive Relative Clause
522. A Subjunctive Relative Clause may be used to restrict the
application of the antecedent.
omnium oratorum, quos quidem ego cognoverim, acutissimum, the keenest of all
orators, at least of such as I have known ; Brut. 48, 180. (So generally
with quidem.)
M. Antoni, omnium eloquentissimi quos ego audierim, Marcus Antonius, the
most eloquent of all whom I have heard ; Tusc. 5, 19, 55.
a. Without quidem, the Determinative Indicative is much more common ; see 550.

Causal or Adversative Relative Clause

523. A Relative Clause in the Subjunctive may be used to
express Cause or Opposition?
1 The rise of the meaning of Fact out of Effect (Result) is due to such phrases as
effectum est ut, it has been brought about that, = it is now the fact that . . .
2 So especially after non dubito. non dubium est, non ignOrd, quis dubitat, num
dubium est, quis ignorat, non abest suspicio.
8 The word " cause " is used for brevity (here and in 525 and 526) in place of " cause
or reason," and the word " opposition " in place of " opposition or contrast."
524] Subjunctive of Actuality

ferrei sumus, qui quicquam huic negemus, we are hard-hearted, that we

deny him anything)- Phil. 8, 8, 25 (Causal ; = I say hard-hearted
because . . . ).
illi autem, qui omnia de re publica praeclara sentirent, negotium susce-
perunt, and they, since they had only the noblest sentiments toward
the state, undertook the task ; Cat. 3, 2, 5. (Causal.)
tum Cethegus, qui paulo ante aliquid de gladiis ac sicis respondisset, repente
conticuit, then Cethegus, although a little before he had made some
reply about the swords and daggers, suddenly became silent; Cat. 3,
5, 10. (Adversative.)
a. As compared with the Tacit Causal or Adversative Clause (Indicative ;
569, a) which merely suggests the idea of cause or opposition without call
ing attention to it, the Subjunctive Clause may be called the Explicit Causal
or Adversative Clause.
b. The Causal qui-Clause is often introduced by ut (utpote), quippe, or
praesertim (as, in fact, especially, etc.).
magna pars Fidenatium, ut qui colon! additi Romanis essent, Latine scie-
bant, a good many of the people of Fidenae, inasmuch as they had been
annexed to the Romans as colonists, understood Latin ; Liv. 1, 27, 9.

New Meanings developed bv the Consecutive cum-CLAusE

Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation
524. A Subjunctive cum-Clause may be used to describe
the Situation under Which the main act took place.
The tenses are necessarily those of past situation (Imper
fect or Past Perfect).
Original type}
accepit agrum temporibus its cum iacerent pretia praediorum, he got the
land at a time when prices were down ; Rose. Com. 12, 33.
epistolae tum datae sunt cum ego me non belle haberem, the letters were
sent at a time when I was not feeling well; Att. 5, 11, 7.
Narrative type?
ipsi ad me, cum iam dflficesceret, deducuntur, the men themselves were
brought to me as day was breaking ; Cat. 3, 3, 6. (Duucesceret is
narrated, just as much as dSducuntur is.)
1 These examples are simply additional instances of the kind seen in 521, 1.
2 Essentially the same thing as the original type, but employed in a new way, namely
in narrating.
282 Syntax [524

a. The Descriptive cnm-Clause of Situation is often equivalent to a

Participle. •
pro castris fortissime pugnans occidi- in secundo proelio cecidit Critias cum
tur, he is killed fighting bravely in fortissime pugnaret, in the second
front of the camp ; B. G. 5, 37, 5. battle Critias fell fighting bravely ;
Nep. Thras. 2, 7.
Antiochum saepe disputantem audie- L. Flaccum audivi cum diceret (= dicen-
bam, / used often to hear Antiochus tem) . . . , I have heard Lucius Flac-
arguing; Ac. 2, 4, 11. cus (saying) say ... ; Div. 1, 46, 104.
b. The Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation in its Lightest Form. The
construction, as the examples under a indicate, may at the extreme of its
development show the feeling of Situation but faintly.
c. The Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation stands in sharp contrast with the
Determinative cum-Clause (550, a) which simply defines the time of the main act.
d. In the future the cum-Clause of Situation, unless clearly consecutive as in erit
illud tempus cum (521, 1), takes the Indicative. Thus cum potent, Cat. 1, 2, 5.
e. For the Indicative in cum-Clauses of Situation in the present, see 669, note 1.

Cum-Clause of Situation, with Accessory Causal or Adversative Idea

525. The Descriptive cum-Clause of Situation may be used
with an accessory idea of Cause or Opposition.
his cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legatos ad Dumnorigem mittunt,
when (and because) they could not persuade them by their own
efforts, they sent (send) ambassadors to Dumnorix; B. G. 1, 9, 2.
nam cum id posset infitiari, repente praeter opinionem omnium confessus
est, for when (and in spite of the fact that) it was in his power to
deny, suddenly, contrary to what everybody was lookingfor, he con
fessed; Cat. 3,5,11.
a. Since the idea of Situation is the original one, the preference should
always be given to it in explaining instances where it is still present. Thus
the above should not be explained merely as causal or adversative clauses.

The Purely Causal or Adversative cum-Clause

526. A Subjunctive cum-Clause may be used, in any tense,
to express Cause or Opposition}
1 The construction arose in that of Situation, as in 525. The use of it in cases where
the idea of Situation was weak, and that of Cause or Opposition strong, led to this last
type in which the latter idea alone is emphasized. The same cause led to the complete
freedom of the tense.
630] Subjunctive of Request or Entreaty 283

quae cum ita sint, Catilina, perge, since this is so, Catiline, proceed; Cat.
1, 5, 10. (Causal.)
cum ea ita sint, tamen sese pacem esse facturum, though this is so, yet (he
says) he will make peace; B. G. 1, 14, 6. (Adversative.)
a. The Causal cum-Clause, like the Causal qux-Clause, may be introduced by utpote,
quippe, or praesertim (as, in fact, especially, etc.). Praesertim sometimes follows cum.
cum praesertim videam . . . , especially since I see . . .; Cat. 3, 12, 28.
Cum-Clauses in Early Latin
527. In early Latin, all cum-Clauses, whether narrative, causal, or
adversative, still took the Indicative. Occasional examples are to be
found even in Cicero's time and later. Thus Virgil uses the older con
struction, for its old-fashioned effect, in several places, as :
postera cum stellas fugarat dies, socios in coetum advocat Aeneas, when the
next dawn had chased away the stars, Aeneas called (calls) his
comrades to an assembly ; Aen. 5, 42. (In Cicero, this would
naturally have been fugasset ; compare cum dilucesceret, in 524.)
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONDITIONS
528. Conditions and Conclusions of all kinds are treated
together, for convenience, in 573-582.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PROVISO

529. The Subjunctive may be used with modo, dum, or dum
modo, only, so long as, so long as only, to express a Proviso.
The negative is ne (sometimes, in later Latin, non).
id Romam, modo ne quid moverent, aequd satis animo (ferebant), the
Romans were well enough satisfied with this, provided only they
might remain inactive; Liv. 21, 52, 4.
magno me metu liberabis, dum modo inter me atque te murus intersit, you
willfree me from greatfear, if only there shall be a wall between
you and me; Cat. 1, 5, 10.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF REQUEST OR ENTREATY
530. The Subjunctive may be used to express Request or
Entreaty (negative ne) :
I . In Independent Sentences,
iam accipiat, hanc ducat, do let him have the money at once, and marry
the girl; Ph. 677.
284 Syntax [530

a. The Second Person is almost wholly confined to poetry,

sis felix, be thou propitious ; Aen. 1, 330.
si tibi videtur, des ei filiam tuam nuptum, if you approve, give him your
daughter in marriage; Nep. Paus. 2, 3. (Written to a king.)
2. In Substantive Clauses, after verbs or phrases of Requesting,
Begging, Imploring, etc.1
Diviciacus Caesarem obsecrare coepit ne quid gravius in fratrem statueret,
Diviciacus began to entreat Caesar not to pass too severe judgment
upon his brother; B. G. 1, 20, 1.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CONSENT OR INDIFFERENCE

531. The Subjunctive may be used to express Consent,
Acquiescence, or Indifference (negative ne) :
1 . In Independent Sentences.
vin me credere? Fiat, do you wish me to believe it? So be it; Ph. 8ro.
moriar ni puto te malle a Caesare consuli quam inaurari, may I die ( = I
am willing to die) if I don't believe you would rather have Caesar
ask your advice titan make you a millionaire ; Fam. 7, 13, 1.
(Compare the boys' phrase " I hope to die if it is n't true.")
sibi habeant arma, they may have their arms; Sen. 16, 58.
2. In Substantive Clauses, after verbs of Consent, Acquiescence,
or Indifference?
huic permisit uti in his locis legionem conlocaret, he gave him permission
to station his legion in those parts; B. G. 3, 1, 3. .
quae iam mecum licet recogndscas, and these things you may now recall
with me (it is permitted that you recall) ; Cat. 1, 3, 6.
532. The Subjunctive may be used to express a Concession
of Indifference ("Concessive" Subjunctive):
1. In Independent Sentences (negative n6).
ne sit sane summum malum dolor ; malum certe est, grant that pain is
not the greatest evil ; an evil at any rate it is; Tusc. 2, 5, 14.
a. This construction, and the dependent form of it in 2, generally express
a concession made merely for the sake of the argument, and are thus the
opposite of the concession of fact (Indicative ; 556, a).
1 The most common of the verbs are rogd, oro, precor, obsecro, impetro, quaero, peto.
It is often hard to determine whether in a given Substantive Clause the idea of Request
is uppermost, or that of Will (502, 3). The distinction is unimportant, since with verbs of
weaker meaning the idea of Will would always tend to shade into that of Request.
2 The most common of these are concedo, Bind, permitto, licet.
588] Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 28 5

2. In Dependent Concessions of Indifference, with quamvis or

quamlibet, as much as you please, even though (negative non).
ilia quamvis ridicula essent, sicut erant, tamen risum non moverunt, no
matter how amusing this may have been, as in fact it was, never
theless it didn't raise a laugh; Fam. 7, 32, 3. (Concession of a
state of things in the past.)
senectus quamvis non sit gravis, tamen aufert eam viriditatem in qua
etiam nunc erat Scipio, old age, no matter though it be not burden
some, nevertheless takes pway the freshness which Scipio still pos
sessed; Am. 3, 11. (Concession in the general present.)
a. Concession of Indifference with licet. Licet, it ispermitted, is often used
as a Conjunction, in a Concession of Indifference.
fremant omnes licet, dicam quod sentio, the whole world may storm at me, still
I will say the thing I think (though the whole world should storm ) ; De
Or. 1, 44, 195.
b. A Subjunctive Clause with ut, even though, may express a Concession of
Indifference.1
ac 1am ut omnia contra opinionem acciderent, tamen s5 plurimum navibus posse,
then, too, even though everything should turn out contrary to their expec
tation, (they felt) that they were very powerful in ships ; B. G. 3, 9, 6.
c. For the Concession of Fact with quamquam, see 556, a. For the same
with etsi, tametsi, etc., see 582, 8. For the breakdown of the distinction
between quamvis and quamquam, see 541.

SUBJUNCTIVE CONSTRUCTIONS DUE TO THE INFLU

ENCE OF OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS (ANALOGY)
THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE
533. When the words or thoughts of any one are reported
exactly as spoken or thought, they are said to be in Direct
Discourse.2 When they are made to depend on a verb of say
ing, thinking, etc. (expressed or implied), they are said to be in
Indirect Discourse.3
a. In Indirect Discourse, the first and second persons generally
change to the third (ego to se, meus to suus, hic and iste to ille, etc.).
The same applies to subordinate clauses.
1 This ut is probably merely the formal opposite of ne (cf. p. 261, footnote 2) ; but the
clause may originally have been dependent ("granting that").
2 Also called Oratio Recta. » Also called Oratio Obliqua.
286 Syntax [534

534. i. As explained in 689,

Principal Statements in Indirect Discourse are expressed
by the Infinitive, regularly with a Subject Accusative.1
Dumnorigem designari sentiebat, (Caesar) was aware that Dumnorix
was meant; B. G. 1, 18, 1. (What Caesar thought was : Dumnorix
designatur, Dumnorix is meant.)
a. The Infinitive of Indirect Discourse often follows a verb
which does not suggest this idea. The Infinitive itself is, in
such a case, the sign of the idea.
sese oranes flentes Caesar! ad pedes proiecerunt ; non minus se con
tendere . . . , all threw themselves, in tears, at Caesar's feet :
they were not less urgent (they said) . . . ; B. G. 1, 31, 2.
b. All Conclusions (being Statements) must go into the Infinitive in Indirect
Discourse. See especially 581, b, 1).
2. Subordinate Clauses representing Indicatives or Imper
atives are put in the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse.
These are :
I. Subordinate Statements of Fact, including Clauses of
Reason with quod, quia, quoniam, or quando(535).
II. Conditions of Fact (536).
III. Questions of Fact (537).
IV. Commands or Prohibitions (538).
a. The negative is the same as in corresponding clauses or sentences
in Direct Discourse, i.e. ne for commands or prohibitions, and non for
all other clauses. (Cf. 464.)
b. For comparison, the corresponding Indicative or Imperative forms
of Direct Discourse will be given for each of the Subjunctive examples.
535. 1. Subordinate Statements of Fact in Indirect Discourse
Indirect Discourse Direct Discourse
vehementer eos incusavit ; se cum sola cum sola decima legione ibo, de qua
decimS legione iturum, de qua non non dubito, / will go with the Tenth
dubitaret, he rebuked them roundly, Legion alone, about which I have no
(and said) that he would go with the doubt.
Tenth Legion alone, about which he
had no doubt ; B. G. 1, 40, 15.
1 The construction is mentioned here for convenience ; but the principle is simply
that of 589-593, which see for details and a list of governing verbs.
535] Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 287

a. Informal Indirect Discourse. The fact that a statement is quoted

may be shown by the mood alone, even if there is no verb of saying or
thinking in the main sentence.
cotidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum quod frumentum quod estis polliciti, (give
essent polliciti flagitare, Caesar was me) the grain which you have
dunning the Haedui daily for the promised,
grain which (as he reminded them)
they hadpromised; B. G. 1, 16, 1.
b. Forward-Moving and Parenthetical Relative Clauses of Fact (566 and 567), since
they are additional statements of fact, may be expressed in Indirect Discourse by the
Infinitive. In the majority of cases, however, the general mould of the sentence throws
such a clause into the Subjunctive. An example of each kind follows:
non sustinere deserere officii sui partis, in quo tamen suo dolori modutn impdnere,
(Cornutus said) that he could not endure to desert the duties of his office; in
which, however ( = but in this) he set bounds to his 'own grief; Plin. Ep. 9, 13, 16.
scire se ilia esse vera, nec quemquam ex eo plus doloris capere, propterea quod per se
crevisset; quibus opibus ad minuendam gratiam uteretur, (said) that he knew
this to be true, and that no one suffered more grieffrom the fact, for the reason
that {his brother) had grown through his help ; which resources he was using to
lessen his influence ; B. G. 1, 20, 2. (Might have been written quibus uti, which
he was using.) Similarly the parenthetical qui dies futurus esset; Cat. 1, 3, 7.
c. An Infinitive construction is often kept up after a Relative or quam depending
upon an Infinitive. In such a case, the Infinitive is often expressed but once.
te suspicor isdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri, / suspect that you are troubled by
the same things by which I myself am ; Sen. 1, 1.
d. Clauses expressing statements inserted by the narrator himself are really not a
part of the Indirect Discourse, and therefore are expressed by the Indicative,
nuntiatum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontidnem, quod est oppidum maximum
Sequanorum, contendere, it was announced that Ariovistus was hurrying to take
possession of Besancon, which is the largest town of the Sequani ; B. G. 1, 38, 1.
2. Clauses of Reason with quod, quia, quoniam, or quando, in
Indirect Discourse
These are mostly only a particular kind of statement of fact,
distinguished from the others for convenience.
Indirect Discourse Direct Discourse
Caesar respondit eo sibi minus dubita- mihi minus dubitationis datur, quod
tionis dari, quod memoria teneret memoria teneo . . . , I feel less
. . . , Caesar answered that he felt hesitation, because I remember . . .
less hesitation, because he remem
bered . . . ; B. G. 1, 14, 1.
gratularis mihi quod acceperim augu- gratulor tibi quod auguratum accepisti,
ratum,_i'0» congratulate me on having I congratulate you on having been
been made an augur; Plin. Ep. 4, 8, 1 . made an augur.
288 Syntax

a. Subjunctive of Quoted Reason. By a kind of informal Indirect Dis

course, the Subjunctive is used with quod, quia, quoniam, or quando to
express a reason given by another than the speaker.
supplicatio decreta est, quod Italiam bello Uberassem, a thanksgiving was decreed
because I had saved Italy from war; Cat. 3, 6, 15. (This was what the
senate said, in passing the decree.)
Note 1. To give the speaker's reason, the Indicative is used. See 555.
Note 2. The speaker may quote a reason as given or felt by himself at
auother time, and will then use the Subjunctive.
Note 3. By a natural confusion, died and ezistimo are sometimes put in
the Subjunctive in a quod-Clause of Reason.
rediit quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret, he came back, because he said he had
forgotten something (properly quod oblitus esset, because, as he said, he
hadforgotten); Off. i, 13,40. Similarly quod existimarent, B. G. 1, 23, 3.
b. Subjunctive of Rejected Reason. The Subjunctive is used with non
quod, non quia, non quoniam, non quo, non quin, etc., to express a reason
imagined as possibly given by some one, but rejected by the speaker.1
The true reason is then sometimes added in the Indicative.
non idcirco eorum flsum dimiseram, quod iis suscenserem, sed quod edrum me
suppudebat, / had given up my intercourse with them (my books) ; not
that I was angry at them, but because Ifelt somewhat ashamed of myself
in their presence ; Fam. 9, 1, 2.
536. Conditions of Fact in Indirect Discourse
Indirect Discourse Direct Discourse
respondit si obsides ab iis sibi dentur, si obsides a vobis mihi dabuntur, vobis-
sese 2 cum iis 2 pacem esse facturum, cum pacem faciam, if hostages are
he answers that if hostages shall be (shall be) given me by you, I will
given him by them, he will make make peace with you. (More Vivid
peace with them; B. G. 1, 14, 6. Future Condition; 579, a.)
(Condition really future to a past
time, but picturesquely put as future
to the present.)
eos incusavit : ... si quos adversum si quos adversum proelium commovet,
proelium commoveret, hos reperire hi reperire possunt, if the defeat dis
posse, he rebuked them : . . . (say heartens any among you, they can
ing) that, if the defeat disheartened ascertain. (Condition of Fact in the
any among them, these could ascer present; 579.)
tain . . . ; B. G. 1, 40, 8. (Condition
of Fact, in time relatively present to
the past point of view.)
1 This construction, though no longer a Subordinate Statement of Fact, has arisen out of
such a statement. 2 Compare with example to the right, and note the changes of person.
537] Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 289

a. Informal Indirect Discourse. The expression is often informal, the

indirectness of the Condition being shown only by the Subjunctive itself.
81 quid dicere vellet, feci potestatem, si quid dicere vis, potestatem babes,
/ gave him an opportunity, if he if you wish to say anything, you
wanted to say anything; Cat. 3, 5, have an opportunity. (Condition of
11. Cf. qui velint; Aen. 5, 291. Fact in the Present.)

537. Questions of Fact in Indirect Discourse

Indirect Discourse Direct Discourse
Ariovistus respondit . . . ; quid sibi quid tibi vis ? quid in meas posses-
vellet ? cflr in suas possessions siones venis ? what do you want ?
veniret? Ariovistus answered . . . ; why do you come into my posses-
(asking) what he (Caesar) wanted ; sions?
why he (Caesar) came into his pos
sessions ; B. G. 1, 44, 8.
a. For Rhetorical Questions of Fact in Indirect Discourse, see 591, a.
b. The Indirect Question of Fact in the Subjunctive may be used
with any verb or expression capable of suggesting the interrogative idea.
The underlying principle is the same as in the above.
quaesiri quid dubitaret, I asked why he hesitated ; Cat. 2, 6, 13.
incerti, quo fata ferant, uncertain whither thefates are carryingus ; Aen . 3, 7 .
c. Indirect Questions are of substantive nature. See the example.
d. Note the following usages in Indirect Questions :
1) The Future Indicative is represented by the Periphrastic Future
(470, 4, a).
antequam, ista quo evasura sint, videro, before I see where this is going
to turn out; Att. 14, 19, 6. (The question is, quo evadent?)
2) Num does not differ from -ne in meaning.
quaero num existimes, I ask whether you think ; Clu. 23, 62.
3) Ut, how, is freely used.1
docebat ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Baedui tenuissent,
(Caesar) informed him how the Haedui had constantly held the
chiefposition in all Gaul ; B. G. 1, 43, 6.
e. Several interrogative phrases may be used as indefinites, without effect upon the
mood. So especially, in Ciceronian Latin, nescio quis (quo pacto, etc.), mire quam, etc.
nescid quo pacto Srupit, has in some way or other burst forth ; Cat. 1, 13, 31.
/ Nescio an in Ciceronian Latin generally implies " I rather think that ..." (cf.
English " I don't know but " ; example under 507, 3). In later Latin, it has its original
neutral meaning (" I don't know whether . . . ").
1 Ut is used also in direct Exclamations, but not in direct Questions, except in early
Latin and imitations of it.
290 Syntax [537

g. The original Indicative is still sometimes found in Indirect Questions or Exclama

tions in poetry (especially in early Latin), and in late colloquial prose,
scio quid dicturas ( = dictura es), I know what you are going to say ; Aul. 174.
viden ut geminae stant vertice cristae, see how upon his head the double plumes stand
up; Aen. 6, 779.

538. Commands and Prohibitions in Indirect Discourse

Indirect Discourse Direct Discourse
respondit . . . ; cum vellet, congredere- cum voles, congredere, when you want
t;ur, he answered . . . ; when hewanted, (shall want), come on.
let him come on ; B. G. 1, 36, 7.
nuntius venit bellum Atheniensis indi- Athenienses bellum indlxerunt : quire
xisse : quare venire ne dubitaret, a venire noli dubitare, the Athenians
message came that the Athenians had have declared war : wherefore do not
declared war : wherefore he should hesitate to come. (For the usage in
not hesitate to come ; Nep. Ages. 4, 1. direct prohibitions, see 501, 3, a.)
a. Verbs of saying like dico and respondeo may take a Volitive Clause,
on the principle of 502, 3, a).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION

539. A Dependent Clause attached to a Subjunctive or
Infinitive Clause, and conceived as forming an essential part
of the thought conveyed by it, is put in the Subjunctive.
cum ita balbus esset, ut eius ipsius artis, cui studeret, primam litteram
non posset dicere, though he stammered so much, that he could not
pronounce the first letter of the very art that he was studying •
De Or. 1, 61, 260.
mos est Syracfisis, ut, si qua de re ad senatum referatur, dicat sententiam
qui velit, it is the custom at Syracuse that, when any matter is taken
up in the senate, any one that desires speaks; Verr. 4, 64, 142.
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is
the custom at Athens to pronounce a public eulogy over those who
have fallen in battle ; Or. 44, 151.
quicquid increpuerit, Catilinam timer!, non est ferendum, it is intolerable that,
whateversound is heard,Catiline shouldhave to befeared; Cat. 1,7, 18.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF REPEATED ACTION

540. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in subordinate
clauses, to express Repeated Action.
542] Subjunctive Generalizing Statement 291

Any Relative or Conjunction may be used ; but the earliest examples

are mostly with cum.
vexillum proponendum, quod erat Insigne cum ad arma concurri oporteret,
the flag had to be displayed, which was the signal, when (ever) the
soldiers must gather to arms; B. G. 2, 20, 1. Cf. 5, 19, 2.
saepe, cum ipse te cSnfirmasses, subito ipse te retinebas, often, whenyou had
nervedyourself, you would suddenly check yourself Quinct. 11, 39.
quod ubi dixisset, hastam in finis emittebat, after saying which, (the
priest) used to cast a spear into their territory; Liv. 1, 32, 13.
est vulgus cupiens voluptatum, et, si eodem princeps trahat, laetum, the
populace is fond of pleasure, and delighted if the chief ruler leads
in that direction ; Tac. Ann. 14, 14.
a. In Cicero's time, the older construction (Indicative ; 579) is much
more common than the Subjunctive. After Cicero, the Subjunctive
became equally common in tenses of the past, but remained less com
mon in tenses of the present.

THE LATER SUBJUNCTIVE WITH QUAMQUAM AND

INDICATIVE WITH QUAMVIS
541. After Cicero, quamquam and quamvis are used with either
Indicative or Subjunctive, often without distinction of meaning.
quamquam moveretur, although he was moved ; Liv. 36, 34, 6.
quamvis infesto animo perveneras, no matter in how hostile a spirit you had
arrived; Liv. 2, 40, 7. Similarly quamvis deiecit, Aen. 5, 541.
a. For the regular Ciceronian constructions (quamquam Indicative, quamvis Sub
junctive), see 556; 532, 2.
b. Quamvis and, after Cicero, quamquam are often used with other parts of speech
than verbs, as in quamvis retentus, Plin. Ep. 10, 15 ; quamquam parcissimus, 10, 9.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE GENERALIZING STATEMENT OF FACT
IN THE SECOND SINGULAR INDEFINITE
542. A General Statement of Fact is sometimes expressed by a
Subjunctive in the Second Person Singular Indefinite.
ubi mortuus sis, ita sis ut nomen cluet, when you 're dead, dead you are in the
true sense of the word; Trin. 496. (The second sis has the force of es.)
qui hostes patriae semel esse coeperunt, eos cum a pernicie rei pflblicae reppuleris,
nec vi coercere nec beneficio placare possis, if men have once begun to be
enemies of their country, then, when you have stopped them from destroying
the state, you can neither constrain them by force nor reconcile them by
kindness ; Cat. 4, 10, 22. (Possis has the force of potes.)
a. The Indicative is also used in this sense.
292 Syntax [543

THE INDICATIVE
543. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Indicative

INDEPENDENT SENTENCES DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Essential Clauses, and others derived from them
Determinative Clause of Fact: determining the
person or thing, with qui, etc.. (550 and footnote 2)
kind or amount, with qualis, quantus (550 and ftn.)
manner or degree, with ut or quam (550 and ftn.)
time at which, with qui or cum (550 and a)
time before which, with antcquam or priusquam
(550 and /.)
time after which, with postquam (550 and ftn.)
time from which, with ex quo or ut (550 and ftn.)
time up towhich, with dum,donec, orquoad (550and A)
time during which, with dum, donec, quoad, or quam
diu (550 and b)
time included in the reckoning, with cum or quod
(550 and ftn.)
Clause of Equivalent Action, with qui, cum, etc. (551)
! Substantive quod-Clause of Fact (552, 1)
Quod-Clause of Respect (552, 2)
Substantive cum-Clause (553)
Statement or Ques
tion of Fact (545) Clauses Less Closely Attached
(Including Conclusions
of Fact ; 546,579) Clause of Cause or Reason, with quod, quia, etc. (555)
Adversative Clause of Fact, with quamquam (556)
Aoristic Narrative Clause, with ubi, ut, postquam, simul atque,
etc. (557)
Narrative Clause of Situation, with ubi, ut, or postquam (558)
Dum-Clause of Situation (559)
Narrative Clause, with dum, donec, or quoad (560)
Narrative Clause, with antequam or priusquam (561)
Ut-Clause of Accordance or Reason (562)
Ut-Clause of Harmony or Contrast (563)
Parallel cum . . tum . . (not only . . but also . .) (564)
Free Clauses
Forward-moving Relative Clause, with qui, cum, etc. (566)
" Cum inversum " (566, a)
Parenthetical Clause and " Asides " (567)
Loosely Attached Descriptive Clause (568)
Free Descriptive Clause (569)
Tacit Causal or Adversative Clause (669, a)
Independent Conditions Conditions of Fact (570, 579)
of Fact (545, i)
544. The Indicative mood represents an act or state as a
fact. It may accordingly be used to state a fact, to assume a
fact, or to inquire whether something is a fact (negative nOn).
 548] Indicative 293

venit, he has come (Declarative)

si venit, if he has come (Conditional)
venit? has he come ? (Interrogative)
a. The Indicative may also be used in Exclamations (cf. 228, 3, a).

THE INDICATIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES

545. The Indicative may be used in independent sentences
to declare something to be a fact, to inquire whether some
thing is a fact, or to exclaim about a fact.
fuisti apud Laecam, you were at Laeca's house; Cat. 1, 4, 9.
quid taces? why are you silent? Cat. 1, 4, 8.
a. A Virtual Command or Exhortation may be expressed by an Indicative question
with cur non or quin, why not ?
quin conscendimus equos ? why donH we mount our horses ? ( = let 's mount our horses);
Liv. 1, 57, 7. Similarly quin exercemus, Aen. 4, 99.
Remark. From such uses, quin gets the force of urgency, and is then
used with the Imperative also. See 496, b.
b. An apparently independent statement or question sometimes forms a Condition,
negat quis : nego, somebody says " no" : so do I ( = if somebody says " no ") ; Eun. 252.
546. A Statement or Question of Fact to which a Condition
is attached is called a Conclusion of Fact. See 573, 579.

THE INDICATIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES

547. The Indicative may be used in dependent clauses to
declare (state) something as a fact, or to assume something as
a fact (cf. 228, 3, b).
A. DEPENDENT STATEMENTS 1 OF FACT
548. Dependent Statements of Fact may be subdivided as
follows :
I. Determinative Clauses of Fact, and constructions derived from
them. These, in their very nature, are closely attached to the
main sentence (essential).
II. Clauses of Fact less closely attached, but still dependent.
III. Clauses of Fact loosely attached ; in reality dependent only in form.
1 An indicative declarative clause may either convey information of a fact not hithertn
known to the hearer (or reader), or may make use of a fact supposed to be already known
by him. The word "statement" covers both these possibilities.
2Q4 Syntax [549

I. Determinative Clauses of Fact, and Derived

Constructions
549. The Indicative is used in closely attached (essential)
clauses in the following constructions :
550. Determinative Clauses of Fact, determining1 an antecedent
idea of any kind.2
ea legione quam secum habebat, with the legion (what legion ? The one)
which he had with him ; B. G. 1,8, I.
et vives ita ut vivis, and you shall live as you are living now (= in that
way in which); Cat. 1, 2, 6.
qui fuit in Italia temporibus isdem quibus L. Brutus patriam liberavit, who
was in Italy at the time at which Lucius Brutus freed his country ;
Tusc. 4, i, 2.
haec Crassi cum edita oratio est quattuor et triginta tum habebat annos,
at the time when this oration of his was published, Crassus was
thirty-four years old; Brut. 43, 161. Similarly cum Caesar in
Galliam venit, B. G. 6, 12, 1.
si tum cum lex ferebatur in Italia domicilium habuissent, if at the time
when the law was being passed, they had had their domicile in
Italy; Arch. 4, 7.
sex annis ante quam ego natus sum, sixyears before I was born; Sen. 1 4, 50 .
anno postquam ego natus sum, one year after I was born ; Sen. 4, 10.
mansit in pacto usque ad eum finem, dum iudices reiecti sunt, he stood
by the agreement until the judges were rejected (up to that limit,
namely until . . . ) ; Verr. A. Pr. 6, 16.
ex eo tempore quo pons institui coeptus est,from the time when the bridge
began to be built; B. G. 4, 18, 4. Cf. ut erflpit, Cat. 3, 1,3.
quoad potuit, restitit, as long as he could, he resisted; B. G. 4, 1 2, 6.
vicensimus annus est, cum omnes scelerati me petunt, it is now the twen
tieth year (in which) that all malefactors have been attacking me;
Phil. 12, 10, 24. Cf. septima vertitur aetas cum, Aen. 5, 626.
1 That is, telling what person, thing, time, etc., is meant. The Determinative Clause
pieces out an incomplete pronominal word. It is therefore pronominal in its nature, as
against the Descriptive Clause, which has the force of an adjective.
1 Thus a person or thing (qui), kind or amount (qualis, quantus), manner or degree
(ut, quam, as), time which (qui or cum), time at which (ablative of qui, or. cum), time
before which (antequam or priusquam), time after which (postquam), time from or since
which (ex quo or ut), time up to which (dum, donec, quoad, until), time during which
(dum, donec, quoad, quam diu, so long as), time included in the reckoning (cum or quod).
550] Indicative 29 S
a. Among the more important constructions of this class is the Deter
minative cum-Clause, as in the fourth and fifth examples.
The majority of the Determinative cum-Clauses have their verb in
the Perfect (Past Aorist), as in the fourth example. But clauses with
the Imperfect or Past Perfect are also found, forming a Determinative
Clause of Situation, as in the fifth example. (See also 524, d.)
Note 1. This very common construction stands in sharp contrast to the Descrip
tive cum-Clause of Situation (Subjunctive; 524). The Indicative cum-Clause defines
(dates) the time at which the main act took place ; the Subjunctive cum-Clause describes
the time (gives its character).
Note 2. A qui-clause or cum-clause may sometimes, though primarily determinative,
convey an accessory idea of description, or cause, or opposition, and v1ce versa.
in eo librd qui est de tuenda re familiar!, in that book which deals with the man
agement of the household; Sen. 17, 59. (The speaker primarily tells which'
of his books he means ; but incidentally he describes it.)
an tibi tum imperium hoc esse videbatur, cum populi Roman! legati capiebantur ?
did this seem to you at that time to be an empire, when ambassadors of the
Roman people were being taken captive? Pomp. 17, 53.
Note 3. Rhetorical Determinative Clause. The Determinative qui- or cum-Clause
is sometimes deliberately chosen, for rhetorical effect, where a descriptive, or causal, or
adversative clause would be equally natural, or more natural.
This clause is often used to introduce a sentence in a non-committal manner, the
relation between it and the main verb being left to be discovered when the latter is
reached. It may then be called the Introductory Neutral qui- or cum-Clause.
This latter use is more common with qui than with cum.
ego sum ille consul cui non curia umquam vacua mortis periculo fuit, I am that con
sulfor whom the senate-house has never beenfreefrom mortalperil; Cat.4, 1,2.
(Rhetorical, in place of a descriptive clause, with fuerit, I am onefor whom.)
etenim, cum mediocribus multis gratuito civitatem in Graecia homines imper-
tiebant, Reginos credo, quod scaenicis artiflcibus largiri solebant, id huic
summa ingeni praedito gloria noluisse, for, when in Greece men were freely
granting citizenship to many ordinary persons, the people of Regium, 1
suppose, were unwilling to bestow upon this man, the possessor of the highest
intellectual distinction, that which theymwere in the habit of bestowing upon
stage performers ; Arch. 5, 10. (Both the cum-clause and the quod-clause
are introductory and neutral.)
*. Other especially important Clauses of this class are the Determinative Clauses
with antequam or priusquam, before, and dum, donec, or quoad, until or so long as, as in
examples six, seven, eight, and ten under 550. In these, the verb states an actual event
looked back upon, before which, or until which, etc., the main act took place. They thus
stand in sharp contrast to the anticipatory subjunctive clauses with these connectives
(507, 4 and 5), which represent acts, not as actual, but as lookedforward to.1
1 In the sense of so long as, dum, donec, and quoad, together with quamdiu, take an
Indicative when referring to future time, unless (509) the main verb is in the past.
Thus quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vlves, so long as there shall be
any one who shall dare to defend you, you shall live ; Cat. I, 2, 6.
296 Syntax [550

c. In the construction of the Time after Which, the post of postquam sometimes
governs a noun. The same idea may also be expressed by an ablative noun of time, with
a relative in the same case.
post diem quartum quam est in Britanniam ventum, three days after they came
to England; B. G. 4, 28, 1.
diebus decem, quibus materia coepta est comportari, within ten days after the
material began to be brought together (within the ten days within which) ;
B. G. 4, 18, 1.
551. Clause of Equivalent Action, with qui, quod, cum, or ubi.
errastis qui sperastis, you were mistaken in hoping; Leg. Agr. 1, 7, 23.
(Your hoping was a mistake.)
cum quiescunt, probant, in acquiescing, they approve; Cat. 1, 8, 2.
(Their acquiescence is equivalent to approval.)
bene fecisti quod libertum in animum recepisti, you have done well in
takingyourfreedman intoyourgoodgraces again; Plin. Ep. 9, 24, 1 .

552. I. Substantive quod-Clause.

illud mihi occurrit, quod uxor a Dolabella discessit, this (fact) occurs to
me, (namely) that Dolabella's wife has left him; Fam. 8, 6, i.1
adde quod ingenuas didicisse fideliter artis emollit mores, nec sinit esse
feros, add that to have learnedfaithfully the liberal arts refines the
manners, nor suffers them to be boorish; Ov. Pont. 2, 9, 49. Simi
larly accedebat quod dolebant, B. G. 3, 2, 5.
a. A frequent form of the quod-Clause is the condensed expression quid
quod . . . ? what (of the fact) that . . .?
quid quod tS ipse in custodiam dedisti ? what of your giving yourself into
custody (what of the fact that . . . ) ? Cat. 1, 8, 19.
2. Quod-Clause2 of Respect ("as to the fact that ").
quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile dictu est de
singulis, as to your desiring to know what loyalty and good will
this and that man have, toward you, it is difficult to say this of
individuals (as to this, namely, that you desire) ; Fam. 1, 7, 2.
Similarly quod petiere, Aen. 2, 180, and (in Indirect Discourse)
quod gloriarentur, B/ G. 1, 14, 4.
a. This clause is only a special form of the one given in 1 above.
1 When it explains a substantive, as in this example (illud quod), the clause is often
called " Explicative."
2 The quod of this construction and of 552, 1 was originally a Relative Pronoun.
As regards case, it stood in no tangible relation to the verb of its clause. Accordingly it
echoed the prevailing case of its antecedent, namely the Nominative-Accusative form.
556] Indicative

553. Substantive cum-Clause1 (cum meaning that).

hoc me beat, quom perduellis vicit, this gives me pleasure, (namely) that
he has conquered his enemies; Amph. 644.
a. In Ciceronian Latin, this clause is as regular as the quod-Clause (555)
with verbs and phrases of thanking, congratulating, rejoicing, praising, and
the like (cf. English " rejoice that").
tg, cum isto animo es, satis laudare non possum, / cannot praise you enough
for having such resolution ; Mil. 36, 99.

II. Clauses of Fact less closely attached, but still

REALLY DEPENDENT
554. The Indicative is used, in clauses less closely attached,
in the following constructions :
555. Clause of Cause or Reason, with quod, quia, quoniam, quando,
because, since?
Caesar, quod memoria tenebat L. Cassium consulem occisum ab Helvetiis,
concedendum non putabat, Caesar, because he remembered that Lucius
Cassius the consul had been killed by the Helvetians, thought that
the request should not be granted; B. G. 1, 7, 4.
a. The Subjunctive is used with these words to express a Quoted or Rejected
Reason. (Informal Indirect Discourse ; see 535, 2, a and b.)
556. Adversative Clause of Fact, with quamquam (" although in
fact ")•
illos, quamquam sunt hostes, tamen monitos void, although they are
enemies, yet I wish them to be well warned; Cat. 2, 12, 27.
a. When this Clause concedes an objection made by an adversary, it
becomes a Concession of Fact (although it is true that). The con
struction is thus in contrast with that of the Concession of Indifference
(Concession for the Sake of the Argument) with quamvis (532, 2), which
means no matter how much, even though, and does not deal with the
question whether the thing conceded is true or not.
b. For "corrective" quamquam, etsi, tametsi, see 310, 7.
1 This construction has come down from a time when cum (earlier form quom; cf.
quod) had not yet gained its temporal force.
2 The construction with, quod arose out of the one in 552, 1, through examples like
laetae id quod mS aspexerant, glad with reference to this, namely, that they had seen
me (i.e. because) ; Hec. 368 (cf.id maesta est, 388, a).
298 Syntax [557

557. Aoristic Narrative Clause, with ubi, ut, postquam,1 or simul

atque, and an aorist tense.
ubi de eius adventfi Helvetii certiores facti sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt,
when the Helvetians were informed of his coming, they sent (send)
ambassadors to him; B. G. 1, 7, 3.
id ubi vident, mutant consilium, when they see this, they change their
plan ; B. C. 2, 11, 2. (Vident is an Historical Present.)
a. Less common introductory words or phrases for this clause are ut
primum, ut semel, ubi primum, simul, cum primum (primus, prima, etc.).
558. Narrative Clause of Situation, with ubi, ut, postquam, or
simul atque, and a tense of past situation (less common),
postquam res eorum satis prospera videbatur, when now their affairs
seemed in a prosperous condition; Sall. Cat. 6, 3. Cf. B. G. 7, 87, 5.

559. Dum-Clause of Situation. The tense is regularly the

Present, no matter what the tense of the main Verb may be.
dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, while these things were going
on, word was brought to Caesar . . . ; B. G. 1, 46, 1.
a. Out of the dum-Clause of Situation arises the dum-Clause of the Way
by Which. Thus hi dum aediflcant, in aes alienum inciderunt, while ( = by)
building houses, these men havefallen into debt ; Cat. 2, 9, 20.
b. A dum-Clause is often used to express a Situation of which Advantage
is to be taken. Thus abite, dum est facultas, escape while there is oppor
tunity ; B. G. 7, 50, 6.
c. In later Latin, the Imperfect is sometimes used in the dum-Clause of
Situation. Thus dum cdnflciebatur, Nep. Hann. 2, 4.

560. Narrative Clause with dum, donec, or quoad, until. The

tense is regularly the Perfect (past aorist).
neque finem sequendi fecerunt, quoad equites praecipites hostis egerunt,
nor did they stop the pursuit, until the cavalry drove the enemy
headlong (= they pursued, and finally . . . ) ; B. G. 5, 17, 3.
a. In such a clause, the verb tells a new fact in the narration just as much
as the main verb does. The construction is more common than that of 650, b.
561. Narrative Clause with antequam or priusquam. The tense
is regularly the Perfect (past aorist).
1 The form postea quam is more frequent in Cicero, postquam in Caesar.
564] Indicative 299

neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen Rhenum pervenerunt, nor

did they cease to flee until they came to the Rhine ( = they kept on
fleeing, and finally they came . . . ) ; B. G. 1, 53, 1.
a. In such a clause the verb tells a new fact in the narration just as much
as the main verb does. The force is possible only when the main verb is
negatived.

562. Ut-Clause of Accordance or Reason (English"as" ="for").

haec ex oppido videbantur, ut erat a Gergovia despectus in castra, these things
were seen from the town, as there was a prospect from Gergovia into the
camp ; B. G. 7, 45, 4.
horum auctoritate flnitimi adducti (ut sunt Gallorum subita consilia), Trebium
retinent, led by their influence (for the resolutions of the Gauls are quickly
taken), their neighbors detain Trebius ; B. G. 3, 8, 3.

563. Ut-Clause of Harmony or Contrast (ut . . . ita or sic . . ,

as ... so or while . . . yet . . . ).
ut magistratibus leges, ita populo praesunt magistratus, as the laws are
superior to the magistrates, so the magistrates are superior to the
people; Leg. 3, 1,2.
ut ad bella suscipienda Gallorum alacer est animus, sic mollis ad calami-
tates perferendas mens eorum est, while the spirit of the Gauls is
quick to undertake war, yet their mind is not sturdy for enduring
reverses ; B. G. 3, 19, 6.

564. Parallel cum and tum (while . . . at the same time . . . ,

not only . . . , but also . . . ).
cum omnis iuventus eo convenerant, tum navium quod ubique fuerat coege-
rant, not only had all the young men gathered there, but they had
got together all the ships there had been anywhere; B. G. 3, 16, 2.
(Originally when . . . at the same time . . . )
a. A slight emphasis is thrown upon the second member.
b. The presence of the idea of Contrast (a sort of Opposition) sometimes
brings about the use of the Subjunctive (526).
c. When the same verb is meant in both clauses, it is expressed but once.
Sometimes no verb at all is used (Adverbial cum . . . tum).
cum ilia certissima visa sunt argflmenta, tum multo certiora ilia, not only
did these evidences seem very sure, but still surer the foliowing; Cat.
3.5.13-
cum carum, tum dulce, not only dear, but sweet; Cat. 4, 7, 16.
3oo Syntax [565

III. Clauses of Fact loosely attached; in reality

DEPENDENT ONLY IN FORM (FREE CLAUSES)
565. The Indicative is used in clauses very loosely attached
(in reality completely independent), in the following construc
tions :
566. Forward-moving Relative Clause, with qui, cum, ut (as), etc.
Such a clause advances the thought, just as an independent
sentence beginning with et is, et tum, et sic, etc., would do.
nec hercule, inquit, si ego Seriphius essem, nec tu si Atheniensis, clarus
umquam fuisses ; quod eodem modo de senectute dici potest, / should
never have been renowned, said he, if I were a Seriphian, nor,
by Jove, would you have been, if you were an Athenian. Which
(= and this) may be said in like manner of old age; Sen. 3, 8.
sperans Pompeium intercludi posse ; ut accidit . . . , hoping that Pompey
could be cut off; as (= and this) happened; B. C. 3, 41, 3.
litteras recitasti, quas tibi a C. Caesare missas diceres ; cum etiam es argu-
mentatus, you read a letter, which you said had been sent you by
Gaius Caesar; whereupon ( = and then) you went so far as to argue
. . . ; Dom. S. 9, 22.
a. Out of this use arises the common use in which the cum-Clause
follows the main clause (hence called " cum inversum "), and expresses an
act that comes in upon an existing state of affairs.
iam montani conveniebant, cum repente conspiciunt hostis, already
the mountaineers were gathering, when suddenly they see the
enemy; Liv. 21, 33, 2. Similarly cum cognoscunt, B. G. 6, 7, 2;
cum reddit, Aen. 2, 323.
567. Parenthetical Clauses, and "Asides." A Parenthetical
Clause with qui, cum, ut, etc., may be used to insert into a
sentence some fact which is of interest by the way. Such
clauses are really independent sentences.
Or, a clause with qui, cum, etc., may insert between sentences
something which for the moment carries the mind away from
the direct progress of the thought. Such " Asides " are really
independent sentences.
568] Indicative 30 1

interea a lacu Lemanno, qui in flumen Rhodanum influit, ad montem

Iuram, qui finis Sequanorum ab Helvetiis dividit, murum perducit,
meanwhile he builds a wall running from Lake Leman, which
empties into the Rhone, to Mount Jura, which separates the lands
of the Sequani from the Helvetians; B. G. 1, 8, 1. (In place of
the two words qui we might have had hic lacus and hic mons.)
Gallia sub septentrionibus, ut ante dictum est, posita est, Gaul, as has
been said above, lies to the north; B. G. 1, 16, 2. (Parenthetical
Clause. In place of ut, we might have had id.)
quaestor deinde quadriennio post factus sum, quem magistratum gessi
consulibus Tuditano et Cethego, cum quidem ille admodum senex
suasor legis Cinciae de donis et muneribus fuit, then four years later
I was made quaestor, — which office, by the way, I held in the con
sulship of Tuditanus and Cethegus, — at which time, by the way,
he, though very old, was an active promoter of the Cincian law
about gifts and bribes ; Sen. 4, 10. (Two successive " Asides.")
Note. The forward-moving Clause advances the thought: the Paren
thetical Clause and the " Aside " delay it for the moment.

568. Loosely Attached Descriptive Clause, with qui or cum. A

Descriptive Clause that might have been in the Subjunctive
(521, 1) is sometimes purposely attacked loosely, with the feel
ing of a forward-moving statement.
non nulli sunt in hoc ordine, qui aut ea quae imminent non videant, aut
ea quae vident dissimulent ; qui spem Catilinae mollibus sententiis
aluerunt, there are a number of men in this body, who either do
not see that which is hanging over our heads, or conceal that which
they do see; who (= and these) by their halfhearted expressions
of opinion have fed the hopes of Catiline; Cat. 1, 12, 30. (The
first clause is closely attached, the second loosely.) Similarly erat
alia vehemens opinio, quae animos pervaserat, Pomp. 9, 23.
unus et alter dies intercesserat, cum res parum certa videbatur, a couple of
days had passed, in which (= and in this time) the matter seemed
rather indefinite; Clu. 26, 72.
a. Similar loosely attached Causal or Adversative Clauses occur.
b. This Loosely Attached Descriptive Clause, which might be replaced by
the Subjunctive, must be distinguished from the following, in which the Sub
junctive could not be used, unless an independent sentence with the same
meaning would take this mood.
302 Syntax [569

569. Free* Descriptive Clause. After an antecedent complete

in itself, a relative clause (with qui, cum, etc.) is really an
independent statement, and accordingly takes whatever mood
the statement in itself requires, — generally the Indicative,
imago avi tui, clarissimi viri, qui amavit patriam, the likeness of your
grandfather, a most eminent man, who loved his country; Cat.
3, 5, 10.
relinquebatur una per Sequanos via, qua Sequanis invitis ire non poterant,
there remained only the way through the country of the Sequani,
by which ( = and by this) they could not pass without the consent of
the Sequani; B. G. 1, 9, 1.
donee ad haec tempora, quibus nec vitia nostra nec remedia pati possumus,
perventum est, until we reached the present time, in which we can
endure neither our defects nor the remedies applied to them; Liv. 1,
Praef. 9. (Cum might have been used, in place of quibus.)
Note 1. A Descriptive Clause is necessarily a free one when it refers
immediately to an antecedent complete in itself, e.g. a word denoting a per
son (as Cicero, ego, tu); a noun with a determinative or possessive pronoun
(as hie homo, hoc tempore), or the adverb nunc. Hence the mood is Indica
tive in clauses of present situation (nunc cum, etc.), unless the idea of cause
or opposition is to be brought out, in which case the Subjunctive is used.
Note 2. After an antecedent not complete in itself, a Descriptive Clause
of Fact must be in the Subjunctive (unless it expresses a Condition ; 579).
The reason for this difference is that the Subjunctive Descriptive Clause
of Fact is of consecutive origin (521, 1, e), and gets its mood in that way;
while the Free Descriptive Clause is not of consecutive origin.
a. These free descriptive clauses often suggest the causal or adversa
tive idea, and may then be called Tacit Causal or Adversative Clauses, in
opposition to Explicit Causal or Adversative Clauses (523) in which the
mood calls attention to the relation.
0 te ferreum, qui illius periculis non moveris ! O you hard-hearted man,
who are not moved by his dangers ! Att. 13, 30, 1. (Might have
been qui non movearis. Cf. ferrei sumus, qui negemus under 523.)
nisi vero ego vobis cessare nunc videor, cum bella non gero, unless indeed
I seem to you to be a laggard in these days, in which I am not
carrying on war; Sen. 6, 18. (Might have been cum bella non
geram, since I am not carrying on war.)
1 Free clauses are clauses that can be left out without making the sentence grammati
cally incomplete. They are opposed to essential (i.e. necessary) clauses of various kinds.
57l] Indicative: Special Uses of Present and Future 303

B. DEPENDENT CONDITIONS OF FACT

570. The Indicative may be used in Conditions which assume
something to be a fact.
Conditions and Conclusions of all kinds are, for convenience,
treated together in 573-882.

SPECIAL USES OF THE PRESENT, PERFECT, AND

FUTURE INDICATIVE
571. The Freer Present Indicative may be used to express
a number of ideas which are usually, or sometimes, expressed
by other moods or tenses. The negative is non.1
These are especially the ideas of Resolve, Deliberation, Perplexity,
etc., Anticipation (with dum, donee, quoad, antequam, priusquam, etc.),
Consent, Future Condition (with si, etc.), or Vivid Statement about the
future or the past (the latter is called the Historical Present; 491, 1).
quid ago ? Rursusne procos inrisa priores experiar ? what am I to do ? Am I
now, insulted (by Aeneas), to try once more my former suitors i Aen.
4,534. (Perplexity ; cf. 503.)
nunc, antequam ad sententiam reded, de me pauca dicam, now, before I return to
the voting, I wish to say a few words about myself; Cat. 4, 10, 20. (Act
anticipated and prepared for; cf. 507, 4, a.)
sed mihi vel tellus optem prius ima debiscat, ante, Pudor, quam te violo, but J
should wish the depths of earth to yawn for me, before I wrong thee,
Modesty! Aen. 4, 24. (Act deprecated; cf. 507, 4, d.)
si in eadem mente permanent, ea quae merentur exspectent, if they remain of the
same mind, let them expect that which they deserve ; Cat. 2, 5, 1 1. (Future
condition ; cf. the equivalent si permanebunt, Cat. 2, 8, 18.)
a. Under the influence of the Present, the Present Perfect is sometimes
used to express the same ideas, but with greater energy or emphasis (490).
si eundem mox in aestimanda fortuna vestra habueritis, vicimus, milites,
if you have the same (spirit) presently in judging of your own fate,
we have already conquered, soldiers; Liv. 21, 43, 2. (Vicimus is
energetic.)
b. In Cicero, the Present Indicative is more common than the Subjunctive
after antequam and priusquam.
1 These uses have probably come down from a time when only a single set of verb-
forms existed, expressing distinctions of person and number, but none of mood or tense.
Compare the use of the English verb by a foreigner who has learned only one form.
304 Syntax [571

c. As in the case of the Anticipatory Subjunctive (507, 4, note 1), the

formula that came into use in cases of true anticipation was naturally used
for the operations of nature as well, as in the following :
membris fitimur priusquam didicimus cuius ea causa utilitatis habeamus, we
use our limbs before we have learned for what use we possess them;
Fin. 3, 20, 66.
572. The Future Indicative may be used to express a
number of ideas which are generally, or sometimes, expressed
by the Subjunctive. The negative is nOn.
.These are especially the ideas of Resolve, Exhortation, Command
or Prohibition, Deliberation or Perplexity, Surprise or Indignation,
Consent or Acquiescence.
non feram, / shall not ( = will not) bear it ; Cat. 1, 5, 10.
sinite instaurata revisam proelia ; nunquam omnes hodie moriemur inulti, let me
go back and see the conflict set on foot again. We shall not all die
unavenged to-day, ah no ; Aen. 2, 668. (Hortatory; = let us not.)
referes ergo haec et nuntius ibis Pelidae, you will ( = shall) report this, then, and
.will go as a messenger to the son of Peleus ; Aen. 2, 546. (Command.)
quos Sidonia vix urbe revelli riirsus ventis dare vela iubebd? shall /( = can I),
who have with difficulty torn my men from the Sidonian city, again bid
them give their sails to the wind? Aen. 4, 545. (Perplexity.)
dedemus ergo Hannibalem ? shall we, then, give up Hannibal? Liv. 21, 10, 11.
(Indignation ; = surely you don't mean this !) Cf. patiere ? Cat. 1, 1 1, 27.
a. In many of these uses, the Future may conveniently be called the
Volitive Future Indicative (so in the first three examples).

SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Indicative and Subjunctive
573. A Conclusion is a conditioned statement.
The Condition (Assumption1) assumes something as true
(or realized), and the Conclusion asserts something as true
(or realized) only if the thing assumed is true (or realized).
574. Conclusions may be either Statements of Fact (Indic
ative) or Statements of an Ideal Certainty (Subjunctive).
The corresponding Conditions will be either Assumptions of
Fact (Indicative) or Ideal Assumptions (Subjunctive).
1 The word " condition " is convenient, as being in common use. The word assump
tion would more exactly fit the mental operation, would balance the verb assume, and
would perfectly express the character of the first type (assumption of fact).
678] Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 305

575. Table of Conditions and Conclusions

A. Conditions and Conclusions of Fact. { In any time" Indicative, in
L any tense.
In future, and so realizable.
Present or Perfect Sub
junctive.
B. Ideal Conditions and Conclusions. In Present or Past, and so
unrealized (contrary to
fact). Imperfect or Past
Perfect Subjunctive.
576. Any kind of Condition and Conclusion may be used either (j)
with individual1 Meaning, or (2) with generalizing Meaning. The form
is in general the same.
a. The only exceptions to this rule are: the Generalizing Condition in
the Second Person Singular Indefinite (always Subjunctive; 504,2), and the
Subjunctive of Repeated Action (not yet common in Cicero, and never
common in tenses of the present ; 540).
577. Conditions may be introduced by a Relative2 or an
equivalent3 (Conditional or Assumptive Clauses; 228, 2), or
by si, nisi, ni, or sin. The negative is nOn.
a. The.tense of the Condition often expresses the act as in afinished state
at the time of the tense of the Conclusion. (Cf. 494.)

Si, si non, nisi, ni, and sin. Meanings and Uses.

578. 1. Si means in case, (cf. si-c, in that case).
2. The negative of si is si non, if not, if a single word is especially
negatived, or nisi, unless, if the whole condition is negatived.
si stare non possunt, corruant, if {these men) are unable to stand, let them
fall ; Cat. 2, io, 21. (Non possunt = nequeunt.)
desilite, inquit, commilitones, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere, "leap
down, fellow soldiers," he said, " unless you wish to betray the eagle to
the enemy " ; B. G. 4, 25, 3.
3. When a second Condition is opposed to the first, it is introduced,
if positive, by sin, but if (Cat. 1, 7, 18) ; if negative, by si non, if not
1 Often called "particular."
2 The oldest way of expressing a Condition was doubtless by the use of the Relative
(the simplest of all connectives), not by si.
8 Connectives like cum, dum, antequam, postquam, quotiens, quotienscumque, etc
3o6 Syntax [578

(B. G. i, 35, 4), or si minus, if not, otherwise (B. G. 2, 9, 4 ; Cat. 1, 5,

10), the latter being regular where the verb is omitted.
a. Nisi is often used ironically of an afterthought. Thus nisi forte, unless
perhaps (Cat. 4, 10, 21) ; nisi v5ro, unless indeed (Cat. 4, 6, 13).
b. Nisi often means merely except, but.
nihil cogitant nisi caedem, they think of nothing but bloodshed ; Cat. 2, 5, 10.
4. Ni, unless, is sometimes used in place of nisi, mainly in the poetical
or later style.
5. A Condition may be introduced by ita, ea condicione, etc.
ita senectus honesta est, si s5 ipsa defendit, old age is honorable (on these terms,
namely) if it defends itself; Sen. 11, 38.
6. A Condition is often contained in a Noun, an Adjective, a Participle, an Adverb,
an 'Ablative Absolute, etc.
nulla alia gens non obruta esset, no other race would have failed to be crushed;
Liv. 22, 54, 10. (If it had been any other race, it would have been crushed.)

Conditions and Conclusions, in Detail

First Class: Conditions and Conclusions of Fact, in Any Time
579. Conditions and Conclusions of Fact are expressed by
the Indicative. They may be in any time, and so in any
tense; and the two parts may also differ in tense.
si occidi, recte feci ; sed non occidi, if I killed him, I killed him justly ;
but I did not kill him; Quintil. 4, 5, 13. (Time the same in both.)
vindicabitis vds, si me potius quam fortunam meam fovebatis, you will
avenge me, if it was I, rather than my fortunes, that you 'were
courting; Tac. Ann. 2, 71. (Time differing in the two.)
quotienscumque me petisti, per me tibi obstiti, as often as your attack has
been aimed at me, I have resisted you with my own resources ;
Cat. 1, 5, 11. (Generalizing; present perfect tense.1)
neque, cum aliquid mandarat, confectum putabat, nor, when he had
given a commission, did he regard it as executed; Cat. 3, 7, 16.
(Generalizing in a tense of the past.)
beatus est nemo, qui ea lege vivit, no man is happy who lives on such
terms; Phil. 1, 14, 35.
nam cum hostium copiae non longe absunt, etiamsi inruptio nulla facta est,
agri cultura deseritur, for when an enemy's force is notfar off, agri
culture is abandoned, even ifno incursion has been made; Pomp. 6, 1 5.
1 In order to be generalizing, a sentence needs only to be true of every case in a given
class, not necessarily of every case everywhere and always.
580] Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 307

Note 1. In the generalizing clause, the idea of condition (the assuming of

something as true) is necessarily always present. This idea regularly takes pre
cedence of all other ideas, — whether descriptive, or causal, or adversative. The
real meaning in the last example but one is : if any man lives on such terms,
then that man is not happy ; in the last example, if an enemys force is not far
off. (Note the parallelism of cum and etiamsi.) , „.
Note 2. Yet the habit of using the Subjunctive after negative or indefinite
antecedents (621, 1, b) is so strong that the Romans occasionally did employ it,
even in a Generalizing Clause, after such antecedents. So especially with qui
quidem and qui modo.
qui rei publicae sit stis, felix esse nemo potest, no man can be happy who is an
enemy to th commonwealth ; Phil. 2, 26, 64. Similarly quem inretisses. Cat.
>, 6, 13i 1!ui molo sit, Cat. 4, 8, 16 (contrast qui modo audivit, Dei. 6, 16).
d. The More Vivid Future Condition and Conclusion is simply one
particular form of the Condition and Conclusion of Fact, in which both
are in the future, as in the examples following :
si accelerare volent, consequentur, if they (shall choose to) will make
haste, they will overtake him ; Cat. 2, 4, 6.
qui sibi fidet, dux reget examen, the man that shall trust himself will
lead andrule the swarm ; Ep. 1,19, 22. (Generalizing in the future.)

Second Class: Less Vivid Future Conditions and Conclusions

580. Less Vivid Future Conditions and Conclusions are
expressed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive (really
Future and Future Perfect in meaning).
quibus ego si me restitisse dicam, nimium mihi sumam, if I should say
that it was I that withstood them, I should be claiming too much;
Cat. 3, 9, 22.
qui dicat pro illd 'ne feceris,' 'non feceris,' in idem incidat vitium, a man
who should say ' non feceris ' instead of ' ne feceris ' would fall into
the same error; Quintil. 1, 5, 50. (Generalizing, = any man who
. . . , if any man . . . )
nihil enim proficiant, nisi admodum mentiantur, for if they (namely,
traders) should fail to lie roundly, they would make nothing;
Off. 1, 42, 150. (Generalizing.)
a. There are thus (counting in the Present Indicative; 571) three
ways of expressing a future Condition and Conclusion :
Less Vivid : si veniat, gaudeam, if he should come, I should be glad.
More Vivid : si veniet, gaudebo, if he shall come, I shall be glad.
With the Freer Present : si venit, gaudebo, if he comes, I shall beglad.
3o8 Syntax [580

b. Past-Future Condition and Conclusion. When the point of view is

in the past, the tenses of the Subjunctive are of course the Imperfect and
Past Perfect (really Future and Future Perfect to the past ; see 470).
at tum si dicerem, non audirer, but at that time (it was certain that) / should not
be listened to, if I were to speak; Clu. 29, 80. (For the tense-feeling,
compare the N. Y. Evening Post, June 16, 1891 : "But it was now nearly
six o'clock, and it would surely be dark before we could scale the heights
of Demetrias and return to Volo.")
habebat Tigellius hoc .". . si conlibuisset, ab ovo usque ad mala citaret '1S Bacche,'
Tigellius had this habit . . . ; if the fancy were to take him, he would sing
1Ho Bacchus' from soup to pudding ; Sat. 1, 3, 3. (Generalizing.)
Note. No distinction of the degree of vividness can be made in Past Future
Conditions and Conclusions, since only the Subjunctive is here possible (508).
c. A Past-Future Conclusion may also be expressed by the use of a
Past Periphrastic Future form of the Indicative.
quia, si armentum in speluncam compulisset, vestigia dominum eo deductura erant,
boves caudis in speluncam traxit, because, if he should drive the herd into
the cave, their tracks would (were going to) lead their master thither,
(Cacus) dragged them into the cave by their tails ; Liv. 1, 7, 5.
quem si tenerent nostri, pabulatione prohibituri hostis videbantur, and if our men
should hold this hill, it seemed that they would keep the enemy from forag
ing (they seemed to be going to keep . . . ) ; B. G. 7, 36, 5.

Third Class : Conditions and Conclusions Contrary to Fact, in the

Present or Past
581. Conditions and Conclusions Contrary to Fact are
expressed by the Imperfect or Past Perfect Subjunctive.
The Imperfect expresses an act or state in the present or
past (generally in the present), and the Past Perfect a com
pleted act, in the present or past.
servi mei si me isto pacto metuerent, domum meam relinquendam putarem,
if even my slaves feared me in this fashion, I should think that I
ought to leave my home ; Cat. 1, 7, 17. (Present.)
si hoc optimum factu iudicarem, unius usuram horae gladiator! isti ad
vivendum non dedissem, if I thought this the best course to take, I
should not have granted this cutthroat the enjoyment of one hour
of life; Cat. 1, 12, 29. (Si iudicarem refers both to the past and
to the present.)
58i] Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 309

neque diutius Numidae resistere quivissent, ni pedites magnam cladem

facerent, nor would the Numidians have been able to hold out any
longer, had not the infantry effected a great slaughter; Sall. lug.
59, 3. (Facerent refers to the past.)
praeterita aetas quamvis longa cum effluxisset, nulla consolatio permulcere
posset stultam senectutem, when the past, — no matter how long,
— was over, no consolation could comfort a fool's (= any fool's)
old age; Sen. 3, 4. (Generalizing : " when " = " in any case in
which.")
a. A Conclusion Contrary to Fact may also be expressed by the use of
a Past Periphrastic Future form of the Indicative (-turus ful, eram, etc.).
quos ego, si tribunl me triumphare probiberent, testis citaturus fui, whom, in
case the tribunes had opposed my celebrating a triumph, J should have
summoned as witnesses ; Liv. 38, 47, 4.
Remark. This construction has arisen out of the true Past-Future con
struction (was going to should; see 580, c).
The use of the Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive in the more com
mon construction arose in the same way out of the past-future force.
Compare tum si dicerem, non audirer (under 680, b), originally meaning
if I were at that time to speak, I should not be heard, but easily suggesting
the meaning if I had at that time spoken, I should not have been heard.
b. The Periphrastic Future form supplies a means of expression where
the Subjunctive cannot be used, or where a different tense is wanted :
1) A Conclusion Contrary to Fact in Indirect Discourse is expressed by
fuisse (very rarely esse) with the Future Participle, active or passive.
Ariovistus respondit: si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum ventu-
rum fuisse, Ariovistus replied: ifhe himselfwanted anything of Caesar,
he (Ariovistus) would have come to him; B. G. 1, 34, 2. (In Direct
Discourse, si quid mihi a Caesare opus esset, ego ad eum venissem.)
2) A Conclusion Contrary to Fact, where a Subordinate Clause in the
Perfect Subjunctive is desired, is expressed by fuerim, etc., with a Future
Participle, active or passive.1
die quidnam factflrus fueris, si eo tempore censor fuisses, tell me what you
would have done, if you had been censor at that time ; Liv. 9, 33, 7.
The Past Perfect may be retained; cf. the tense in 519, 4, b).
Note. The tense of the Condition Contrary to Fact is
never changed under any circumstances. See the examples
above.
1 The growing fondness for the aorist in result clauses makes this construction com
mon in later Latin in Conclusions Contrary to Fact (e.g. ut, nisi . . . fuisset, repeti-
tiirus fuerit, Liv. 22, 32, 3).
310 Syntax [581

c. Highly Improbable Conclusion. The Imperfect or Past Perfect is

sometimes used to express a Conclusion which, since the Condition is
contrary to fact, is very unlikely to be realized.
quod ego si verbo adsequi possem, istos ipsos eicerem, if I had it in my power to
accomplish this by a word, I should drive out these very men ; Cat. 2, 6, 12.
This the speaker does not mean to do. (Not / should have driven out
nor / should now be driving out, but I shouldproceed to drive out)
d. Early and Poetic Conditions and Conclusions Contrary to Fact. In early Latin,
Conditions and Conclusions Contrary to Fact may be expressed by the Present and
Perfect ; and the poets sometimes employ the construction at a later period.
si Scastor nunc habeas quod des, alia verba praehibeas : nunc quia nihil babes
. . . . , good gracious ! if you had anything to give, your language would
be different. As it is, since you have n't anything . . . ; As. 188.
delicias tuas, ni sint inSlegantes, velles dicere, you would wish to tell of your
pleasures, if they were not discreditable ; Catull. 6, 1.
Remark. This construction is a survival of the earliest type, in use
before the Imperfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive came into existence.
This earliest type could make no distinction of time.
e. The Indicative Past Perfect, or Imperfect, is sometimes used to represent an act
as sure to have taken place, except for a certain condition, expressed or implied.
praeclarS viceramus, nisi Lepidus recepisset Antonium, wc had won a splendid
victory, had not Lepidus given Antony shelter (the victory was already
won, but . . .); Fam. 12, 10, 3.
iam tflta tenSbam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset, / should surely have laid
hold upon safety (was already laying hold), had not the cruel race attacked
me with the sword; Aen. 6, 358.

General Notes on Conditions and Conclusions

582. 1. Mixed Conditions and Conclusions. Any thinkable combina
tion of types may be employed ; or the Conclusion may take the form
of a Command, a Wish, a Statement of Obligation, etc.
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris supplicationlbus conferatur, hoc interest, if this
thanksgiving should be compared with the rest, there is this difference ;
Cat. 3, 6, 1 5. (Condensed for " there is this difference, as would be
found, if the comparison should be made.")
si deferantur et arguantur, puniendi sunt, if they should be reported and con
victed, they are to be punished ; Plin. Ep. 10, 97.
vincite, si vultis, have your way, ifyou will ; B. G. 5, 30, 1.
si amabat, adservaret dies noctisque, if he really was in love with her, he should
have watched over her day and night ; Rud. 379.
a. The mixed form is especially common where the inherent meaning of the main
verb suggests the future idea, as with debeo, possum, studeo, volo, etc.
intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, / mean, if I should be successful, to
enter the camp ofthe enemy (= I shall . . . , if . . .) ; Liv. 2, 12, 5.
582] Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 311

2. Loosely Attached Conditions. A Less Vivid Future Condition may

be loosely attached to the main clause.
ausculto, si quid dicas, / am listening, in case you should have anything to say;
Trin. 148. (Future to the present.)
hanc si nostri transirent, hostes exspectabant, the enemy were waiting, in case
our men should cross this (swamp); B. G. 2, 9, 1. (Future to the past.)
a. Such Conditions often suggest the idea " to see whether," or " in the hope that."
b. Out of examples like the last arises the true Indirect Question of Fact with si.
vide si quid opis potes adferre, see ifyou can help ; Ph. 553. (For the mood, see 537, g.)
incerta si Iuppiter velit, uncertain whether it is the will ofJove ; Aen. 4, no.
quaesisse si equitSs evasissent, asked ifthe cavalry had escaped; Liv. 39, 50, 7.
3. Special Idioms with Verbs or Phrases expressing Obligation, Pos
sibility, and the like, and certain other Phrases made up of a neuter
Adjective with est, or equivalents
a) An actually existing Obligation, Possibility, etc., in whatever time,
is expressed by an Indicative of the appropriate tense ; 2 an Obligation,
Possibility, etc., which, in some imagined case, would exist, or would
have existed, by a Subjunctive of the appropriate tense.
In such uses, the Imperfect Indicative expresses an actually existing present Obliga
tion or Possibility not fulfilled, the Perfect an actual past Obligation or Possibility not
fulfilled, the Past Perfect an Obligation or Possibility actually existing in past time, and
prior to a point which is in mind. The tenses of the Subjunctive, when used with these
expressions, are simply those of the regular Subjunctive Conclusion (Less Vivid Future,
or Contrary to Fact, as the case may be). Compare the contrasting forms in the
following table:
Examples of Contrasting Uses :
Indicative Subjunctive
possum persequi permulta oblectamenta si scieris, scisse te quis arguere possit ?
rerum rfisticarum, sed . . . , I might supposing you to have known, who
treat of a great many pleasures of could prove that you had known ?
farm life ; but . . . ; Sen. 16, 55. (I Fin. 2, 18, 59. (Who, in that case,
have 1T in my power to treat.) would have it in his power ?)
1 So e.g. with debeo, decet, oportet, convenit, possum, licet ; aequum, melius, opti
mum, iustum, par est ; longum, facile, grave est ; the Future Passive Participle with
est ; and est with the Descriptive Genitive. Similarly, in poetry, with tempus est, etc.
2 In corresponding expressions in English we inflect the Infinitive to make varia
tions of tense ("I ought to do it," "to have done it," etc.). The Romans inflected the
main verb (" it is my duty to do it," " it was my duty to do it," etc.). Thus id facere
dSbui, / ought to have done it.
But of course the Infinitive may be used in an emphatic tense (490), or iam pridem
may be added (485), or both, as in quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit, which ought
long ago to have been done and done with ; Cat. 1, 2, 5.
312 Syntax [582

Indicative Subjunctive
quibus vos absentibus consulere debetis, haec si tecum patria loquitur, nonne
for whose interests you ought to con impetrare debeat ? if your country
sult in their absence ; Pomp. 7, 18. should thus speak with you, ought
(It is an actual obligation, open to she not to prevail? Cat. 1, 8, 19.
fulfilment.) (Thus English. The Latin idea is,
Would it not in that case be an
obligation ?)
quos ferro trucidari oportebat, who ought quae si diceret, tamen ignosci non opor-
to be butchered with the sword ; Cat. teret, if he said this, still it would
1, 4, 9. (It is an actual obligation, not be right to forgive ; Verr. 1, 27,
unfulfilled.) 70. (It would in that case still be
an obligation.)
melius fuerat promissum paths non esse nonne melius multo fuisset quietam
servatum, it would have been better aetatem traducere, would it not have
that the father's promise should not been much better to spend my life in
be kept ; Off. 3, 25, 94. (It actually quiet? Sen. 23, 82. (It would have
was, before the time thought of, been better, in the case supposed in
the better thing.) the previous sentence.)
deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugien- nisi labore milites essent defessl, omnes
tes persecuti victores essent, the en hostium copiae deleri potuissent, if
tire army might have been destroyed, the soldiers had not been tired out,
if the victors had followed up the the entire force of the enemy might
fugitives; Liv. 32, 12, 6. (It was have been destroyed ; B. G. 7, 88, 6.
possible to destroy them, but it was (It would in that case have been
not done.) possible to destroy them.)
Note 1. The Indicative may be used, even when accompanied by a Condition Con
trary to Fact, if the Conclusion is true independently of the Condition,
quods! Romae Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen is erat deligendus, now if Gnaeus
Pompey were in Rome, and a private citizen, still he would be the right person to
choose; Pomp. 17, 50. (Is the right person as it is, and would be even in the
supposed case.)
Note 2. Constructions corresponding to the above Indicative types of course occur
in Indirect Discourse also.
si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse difficile cavSre, (he said that) if he
had been conscious of any wrongdoing, it would have been easy to be on his guard .
B. G. 1, 14, 2. (He said: " si conscius fuissem, non fuit difficile." Cf. facile fuit
quattuor duplicare, it would have been easy to double the four ; Div. 2, 18, 42.)
Note 3. The poets occasionally force the Indicative' construction, using it as the
equivalent of a Conclusion (sometimes even of a Condition) Contrary to Fact,
si non alium iactaret odorem^ laurus erat, if it did not cast a different perfume, it were
(would be) a laurel tree; Georg. 2, 132. Similarly Castor eras, Mart. 5, 38, 6.
 582] Summary of Conditions and Conclusions 313

b) With certain adjectives with est (or sunt),1 the Present Indicative
is the fixed idiom in Ciceronian Latin, as against the Present Subjunc
tive, which is not used.
difficile est hoc de omnibus confirmare, sed tamen est certum quid respon-
deam, it would be difficult to maintain this in the case of all
(Latin, " it is difficult "), but still it is clear what I am to answer;
Arch. 7, 1 5.
4. A Condition may itself form a Conclusion for another Condition,
moriar si magis gaudeam, si id mihi accidisset, may I die if I should take more
pleasure if it had happened to myself; Att. 8, 6, 3.
5. A Condition with si or 0 si may express a Virtual Wish.2
si nunc se ille aureus ramus ostendat, if now that golden branch would show
itself ( = would that . . . ) ; Aen. 6, 187.
6. A Condition with si modo, if only, is equivalent to a Proviso (529).
Either mood may be used, according to the feeling.
opprimi dico patientia, si modo est aliqua patientia, / assert that (pain) is over
come by endurance, if only there is some endurance ; Tusc. 2, 14, 33.
7. Si is sometimes used with the force of etsi, even if (concessive),
non possum, si cupiam, I cannot, even if I should desire ; Verr. 4, 40, 88.
8. Etsi, tametsi, and etiamsi, even if, are often equivalent to although
(Virtual Adversative Clause). Either mood may be used, according to
the feeling.
etsi nondum eSrum consilium cognoverat, tamen suspicabatur, though (even if) he
did not yet know their plan, still he was suspicious ; B. G. 4, 31, 1.
9. Si quidem,3 if indeed, gains the force of for or since (Virtual
Clause of Reason).
in agris erant tum senatores, si quidem aranti L. Quinctio Cincinnato nuntiatum
est eum dictatorem esse factum, there were senators living in the country
at that time ; for (if indeed) the news that he had been appointed dictator
was brought to Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus whileploughing; Sen. 15, 56.
10. A Definition may be expressed by an Indicative Clause with qui or cum (origi
nally simply a generalizing clause ; see 576-579).
vir bonus est is qui prodest quibus potest, nocet nemini, the good man is the one who
helps whom he can, and harms nobody ; Off. 3, 15, 64.
is est triumphus verus, cum bene de re publics meritis testimonium a consensu civitatis
datur, that is the true triumph, when those who have deserved well of the state
receive evidence of this from the unanimous feeling of its citizens; Phil. 14, 5, 13.
1 Thus longum est, facile est. 2 That is, a wish in force, though not in form.
8 Also written siquidem. (In later poetry, sometimes siquidem.)
3M Syntax [583

THE INFINITIVE
583. Synopsis of the Principal Uses of the Infinitive
I. With Adjectives with est, and Verbs or Phrases of similar force, as in " it is base
to ... " (585).
II. With Verbs or Phrases expressing attitude or position with reference to perform
ing an act, as in " I wish to " (586).
III. With Verbs or Phrases expressing attitude or position toward the performing of
an act by another, as in " I wish you to " (587).
IV. With Verbs or Phrases of perceiving, saying, thinking, or knowing, as in " I see
that you . . . " (589).
V. With Verbs or Phrases of feeling, as in " I am glad that you ..." (594).
VI. Historical Infinitive (595).
VII. Exclamatory Infinitive (596).
VIII. As Subject, Predicate, or Object of certain Verbs, or as an Appositive (597, i).

584. The Infinitive is in effect a Verbal Noun, capable of

standing in various case-relations.
As a Noun, it may have a Neuter Adjective or Pronoun
agreeing with it (58, 3; example under 597, 1, b).
As a Verb, it may govern Cases, and may itself be modified
by an Adverb.
a. The negative is non.
b. For the general forces of the tenses, see 472.
c. According to the sense intended, the Infinitive may be Active or
Passive ; it may, or may not, be attended by a Subject Accusative ; 1
and, if Passive, it may, or may not, be attended by a Predicate Noun
or Adjective.
d. In most of its uses, the Infinitive stands to the verb or phrase on
which it depends in the Relation of Subject, or Object, or Accusative
of Respect. In such examples, it is of Substantive nature (cf. 238).
e. In the Future Active and the Perfect Passive Indicative, the
auxiliary esse is often omitted (164, 7).
1 A classification of the Infinitive on the basis of its having or not having a Subject
Accusative is unserviceable, since many verbs may take either construction without
essential difference of meaning. Thus one may say either cupio Clemens esse or cupid
me esse clementem.
685] Infinitive 315

A. PROSE USES OF THE INFINITIVE IN ALL PERIODS

I
585. The Infinitive is used with Adjectives with est, and
Verbs and Phrases of similar force.1
These expressions represent an action as (1) advantageous or impor
tant; (2) necessary or obligatory ; (3) customary or permissible; (4)
seemly or shameful, pleasant or tiresome, easy or difficult? etc., etc.
commodissimum visum est mittere, it seemed most advantageous to
send; B. G. 1, 47, 4.
tempus est abire me, it is time that I shouldgo (to go is seasonable);
Tusc. 1, 41, 99.
a. In many phrases, this Infinitive may either have, or not have, a
Subject Accusative ; thus tempus est abire or tempus est nos abire.
b. When the Subject of the Infinitive is indefinite (one, a man, people),
it is not expressed. But a Predicate Noun or Adjective may nevertheless
be used, belonging in thought to the indefinite Subject.
non esse cupidum pecunia est, not to be covetous is wealth ; Par. 6, 3, 51.
c. When licet, expedit, etc., are followed by a Dative and Infinitive,
the Predicate of the Infinitive may be in the Accusative, or it may be
attracted into the Dative.
civi Romano licet esse GaditSnum, it is permitted to a Roman citizen to be
a citizen of Cadiz ; Balb. 12, 20.
mihi neglegenti esse non licet, I am not allowed to be careless ; Att. 1, 17, 6.
d. Such an Infinitive sometimes has a Neuter Adjective or Pronoun
in agreement (cf. 58, 3).
cum vivere ipsum turpe sit, when merely to be aliveis disgraceful; Att. 1 3, 28, 2.
e. Verbs or phrases of this class suggesting that the action is wanted or urged may
also take a Subjunctive Substantive Clause. So especially interest, refert, oportet, licet,
necesse, opus, Qsus, or tempus est, melius or optimum est. Thus one may say either
tempus est nos abire or tempus est ut abeamus.
/. Many verbs and phrases of this class shade into meanings belonging to the second
or the third class. So tempus est abire suggests the meaning / am inclined to go.
1 Thus nefas est, it is wrong, has the same force as nefastum est ; mos est, it is cus
tomary, as usitatum est ; tempus est, it is time, as tempestivum est.
2 E.g. (1) iuvat, expedit, utile est, condficit, prodest, rSfert, interest ; (2) necesse or
necessarium est, opus or iisus est, tempus est (it is seasonable to, it is high time that),
oportet, convenit, ius or iustum est, fas, nefas, or nefarium est, par, rSctum, aequum,
iniquum, etc., est ; (3) mos (moris) or consuStudo (consuetudinis) or usitatum est, meum
(tuum, etc.) est, licet ; (4) decet or dSdecet, convenit, laus est, turpe or praeclarum est,
scelusor facinus est.displicet (is disagreeable),Allectet,t&t&et, paenitet, pudet, piget.refert,
interest, iucundum, gratum, grave, molestum, miserum, longum est, facile or difficile est,
satis or satius est, optabile, bonum or malum est, vidStur (seems best), praestat (is better),
est or rSs est with the Genitive (is the part of), proprium est (is peculiar to), etc.
Similarly other words in later Latin. Thus vincit (is better).
3i6 Syntax [886

II
586. The Infinitive is used with Verbs or Phrases express
ing attitude or position with reference to performing an act.
The personal verbs of this class express the ideas of (1) wishing or
not wishing; (2) determining, planning, or endeavoring; (3) begin
ning or omitting, persevering or ceasing; (4) hastening or delaying ;
(5) daring, hesitating, fearing; (6) knowing how or learning how;
(7) remembering to or seeming to; (8) accustomed to, having the
power to, or being under obligation to.1
The impersonal verbs or phrases express determination, inclination,
or whim.2
maiori parti placuit castra defendere, the majority wanted to defend the
camp (to defend it was pleasing to them) ; B. G. 3, 3, 4.
ad hunc legatos mitti placet ? do we want ambassadors to be sent to such
a man as this? ( = mittere placet?) Phil. 5, 9, 25.
eas nationes adire volebat, he wished to visit those tribes ; B. G. 3, 7, 1.
nolite dubitare, pray, do not hesitate (be unwilling to . . . ) ; Pomp. 23,
68. (Courteous Prohibition. See 501, a, 2.)
maturat proficisci, he makes haste to set out; B. G. 1, 7, 1.
debere se suspicari, he was bound (he said) to suspect; B. G. 1, 44, 10.
a. With most of the personal verbs of this class, the Infinitive com
pletely fills out the meaning (as in volo ire, / wish to go). Hence it is
called the Complementary Infinitive.
b. Some of these verbs may either have, or not have, the Reflexive
Pronoun as Subject Accusative.
If such a Subject Accusative is used, a Predicate Noun or Adjec
tive must of course be in the Accusative ; if not, it must go back to

1 E.g. (1) volo, mJlo, nolo, cupio, opto, dSsidero, sustineo, recuso; (2) statuo, con-
stituo, institud, decerns, animum indued, consilium capio, cogito, meditor, studeo, in
animo habeo, dSstino, paro, conor, nitor, molior, laboro, tempto; (3) coepi, incipio, mind
and omitto, neglego, pergo, persevero, Insto, dSsino, desisto, cessS ; (4) festlno, propero,
maturo, contends, moror, cunctor ; (0 audco, dubito, vereor, metuo. timeo ; (6) scio, nescio,
disco; (7) memini, recordor, obliviscor, videor (seem); (8) soled, adsuSsco, consuesco.
possum, queo, nequeo, dSbeo.
Also, in poetic and later I.atin (1) ardeo, dignor, gaudeo, laetor; (2) posco: (3) sumo;
(4) praecipito; (5) horreo; (8) sufficio, valeo, etc.
2 E.g. certum, destinatum, consilium or in animo est, venit in mentem. placet, iuvat,
libet.
Also, in poetic and later I.atin, ciira or curae est, est animus, fert animus, amor or
eupido est, subit ira, mens est, spes est accensa, etc.
587] Infinitive

the Subject of the main verb for its agreement (generally therefore in
the Nominative).
gratum se videri studet, aims to seem grateful ; Off. 2, 20, 70.
fieri studebam doctior, I aimed to become wiser ; Am. 1, 1.
c. Impersonal verbs or phrases of this class suggesting that the action is wanted or
urged may also take a Volitive Substantive Clause (502, 3, a). Thus one may say either
placuit ei legatos mittere or placuit el ut legatos mitteret (B. G. 1, 34, 1).
d. Most verbs of wishing or not wishing, when used to express attitude toward per
forming an act oneself, take only the Infinitive (thus voio). But recuso may also take
the Subjunctive with nS or quominus, or, if negatived, with quominus or quin ; see
502, 3, b). (In Cicero's time only the negative form ndn recuso, etc., takes the Infinitive.)
e. Several verbs of determining, planning, or endeavoring take either the Infinitive
or the Volitive Subjunctive (502, 3, a). So constituo, labdrd.
/. The Participle paratus may take an Infinitive (thus in B. G. I, 44, 4) just as any
other part of pard may do. Later, the Participles of suesco, adsuescd, adsuefacid, and
soled (suetus, adsuetus, adsuefactus, solitus) came to be used similarly with the Infinitive.
For the large extension of this usage, see 598, 2, c).
g. Several verbs belong both to this class and to the following one ; e.g. placet, volo,
Cupid, opto, studeo (thus " I wish to do a thing," and " I wish you to do a thing ").

Ill
587. The Infinitive is used with certain Verbs expressing
attitude or position toward the performing of an act by
another.
Verbs of this class express the ideas of (1) wishing or not wishing;
(2) commanding or impelling; (3) permitting, prohibiting, or prevent
ing; (4) teaching or accustoming}
iter patefieri volebat, he wished the road to be opened; B. G. 3, 1, 3.
Pompeius rem ad arma deduci studebat, Pompey 'j aim was that the matter
should be brought to the settlement of arms ; B. C. 1, 4, 4.
Diviciacum vocari iubet, he orders Diviciacus to be summoned; B. G.
1, 19. 3-
si hic ordo placere decreverit te Ire in exsilium, if this body should decide
it to be its pleasure that you shouldgo into exile ; Cat. 1, 8, 20.
1 E.g. (1) volo, maid, nolo, cupio, opto, dSsideriS, studeo, placet ; (2) iubeo, cogo ; (3)
patior, permitto (oftener with ut-clause), sino, prohibed, impedio ; (4) doceo, adsuSfacio.
Other verbs also are so used by Cicero or Caesar, but rarely, though freely by the
poets; thus expeto, moneo, admoneo, hortor, facio (cause or force}, suadeo, deterred (in
passive), Sdoceo.
Others are so used only in poetry and later prose ; e.g. (2) stimuld, posco, tendo, foveo,
invito, impello, suadeo, subigo ; (3) patior ; (4) monstro (show how), erudio.
3i8 Syntax [587

a. Since verbs used with this meaning imply that something is wanted or desired,
many may also take a Volitive or Optative Substantive Clause (502, 3 and 611, 2).
b. Imperii, command, regularly takes a Volitive Substantive Clause; but in a few
places (as Cat. 1, 11, 27 ; B. G. 7, 60, 3) it takes an Infinitive of passive form (either true
passive or deponent).
Iubed, order, and veto, forbid, regularly take the Infinitive; but in a few places (as
Verr. 2, 67, 16) they take a Volitive Substantive Clause.
c. Many other verbs, of the same general force as those of Class 3, take only the
Volitive Substantive Clause (502, 3).
588. The Infinitive may also be used with the Passive of many
verbs of this class, e.g. with iubeor, prohibeor, vetor.
anna tradere iussi, being ordered to give up their arms ; B. G. 3, 2 1 , 3.

IV
589. The Infinitive is used to express a Statement after
Verbs or Phrases of perceiving, saying, thinking, knowing,
and the like.
These express or imply the ideas of (1) seeing, feeling, or hearing;
(2) saying, proving, conceding, or denying; (3) accusing or acquitting;
(4) thinking, believing, suspecting, or doubting; (5) remembering or
knowing; (6) learning or informing; (7) confessing or pretending ; (8)
swearing, threatening, hoping, ox promising}
biennium satis esse duxerunt, thought two years to be enough; B. G.
1, 3. 2-
Caesar sese eos conservaturum (esse) dixit, Caesar said that he would
leave them unharmed; B. G. 2, 15, 1.
memoria tenebat L. Cassium occisum (esse) ab Helvetiis, he remembered
that Lucius Cassius had been slain by the Helvetians; B. G. 1, 7, 4.
quis ignorabat Q. Pompeium fecisse foedus ? who was ignorant that
Quintus Pompey had made the treaty? Rep. 3, 18, 28.
1 E.g. (1) video, sentio, audio, manifestum est, non mS fallit ; (2) dico, declare, nSrrfi,
adflrmo, fama est, dSmonstro, probo, verum or falsum est, constat, concedo, nego, convenit,
it is agreed that, sequitur, efflcitur, it is made out that; (3) arguo, incuso, insimulo,
defendo ; (4) puto, arbitror, opinor, statuo and constituS (with Infinitive and Future
Passive Participle), cSnsed, existimo, iudico, credo, dSco, fido, diffido, suspicor, habeo (in
the sense of understand), dubito, minim est, veri simile est ; (5) recordor, memini, etc.,
memoria teneo, intellego, scio, nescio, ignoro ; (6) disco, invenio, cognosco, igndro, reperio,
certior fio, certiorem facio. nuntio and its compounds, moneo (inform that), suadeo and
persuadeo (persuade that); (7) fateor, conflteor, flngo, simulo; (8) ifiro, minor, spero,
spem habeo, etc., confido, conflrmo, polliceor, promitto.
Other verbs are found in poetry and later Latin, as prospicio, repeto, monstrd.
592] Infinitive 319
a. A number of verbs or phrases may take the Infinitive, if the idea of saying or
thinking is implied, or the Subjunctive, if the idea of resolving or directing is implied
(502, 3) ; and the two constructions may even be used together. Thus :
constituerunt optimum esse domum suam quemque reverti, et . . . undique
convenirent, determined that it was best that all should return to their
homes, and . . . should assemble from all sides ; B. G. 2, 10, 4.
590. 1. The Infinitive may also be used with the Passive of many
verbs of this class, e.g. with arguor, dicor, existimor, ifidicor, putor, videor.
centum pagos habere dicuntur, are said to have a hundred cantons ; B. G. 4, 1, 4.
a. Passive forms compounded with a Participle are generally in the impersonal con
struction. Similarly creditur, it is believed. But videor is preferred to videtur.
cui Apuliam attributam esse erat indicatum, to whom it had been shown
that Apulia had been assigned; Cat. 3, 6, 14.
2. When the main verb is personal, all predicate forms must of course
be in the Nominative, if the Subject is.
non minorem laudem exercitus meritus (esse) videbatur, the army seemed
to have earned no less praise ; B. G. 1, 40, 5.
591. Such Statements, because made indirectly (see 533,
534, i), are said to be in Indirect Discourse. Every Principal
Statement in Indirect Discourse is expressed by the Infinitive.
a. A Rhetorical Question of Fact (235), since it is equivalent to a
Statement of Fact, is expressed in Indirect Discourse by an Infinitive,
num etiam recentium iniuriarum memoriam deponere posse ? could he (he asked)
put aside the memory of recent wrongs also ? B. G. 1, 14, 3. (The original
num possum? can I? really meant non possum, I cannot.)
Note. This usage is confined to questions which originally were in the
first or third person.
b. For the Conclusion Contrary to Fact in Indirect Discourse, see 581, b, 1).
c. For the occasional Infinitive in a subordinate Indirect Statement, see 535, 1, b.
d. For the Infinitive after a Relative or quam, see 535, 1, c.
e. For the Infinitive (instead of a Participle) with verbs of seeing or representing,
see 605, 1.
592. The Infinitive in Indirect Discourse regularly has a Subject ;
but this is sometimes omitted, especially if it is a Reflexive Pronoun.
The omission of is is rare.
ignoscere impriidentiae dixit, said that heforgave their indiscretion ; B. G. 4, 27, 5.
a. When the Subject is thus omitted, the poets sometimes make a Predicate
Adjective or Participle agree with the Subject of the main verb.
sBnFit medios delapsus in hostis, saw that he had fallen into the midst
of the enemy ; Aen. 2, 377.
320 Syntax [593

593. Tenses. The tenses in Indirect Discourse have their regular

meanings, as explained in 472, the Perfect Infinitive representing a rela
tively past time, the Present a relatively present time, the Future a
relatively future time. For examples, see 472, a and b.
a. Verbs or phrases of promising, hophig, swearing, or threatening
look forward to the future, and therefore generally take the Future
Infinitive or posse, with a Subject Accusative. Yet they sometimes
take the Present Infinitive, without a Subject (as generally in English).
sperat adulescens diu se victurum, the young man hopes to live a long life
(hopes that he will live . . . ); Sen. 19, 6S.
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, they hope to be able to master the
whole of Gaul ; B. G. 1, 3, 8.
legati veniunt qui polliceantur obsides dare, ambassadors come, to promise to
give hostages ; B. G. 4, 21, 5.
b. Verbs of remembering may take the Present Infinitive of a personal
experience (mere act, without tense-force).
meministine me dicere . . . ? do you remember my saying . . . ? Cat. 1, 3, 7.

V
594. The Infinitive is used with Verbs or Phrases of
feeling}
These convey the ideas of (1) pride or wonder; (2) joy or grief;
(3) indignation, complaint, or resignation?
mlrabar credi, / was surprised that it was believed; Mil. 24, 65.
exercitum hiemare in Gallia moleste ferebant, took it ill that the army
was wintering in Gaul; B. G. 2, 1, 3.
a. The poets and later prose writers apply the construction also to adjec
tives of feeling, e.g. laetus, maestus, contentus.
b. With most of these verbs and phrases the Infinitive is in origin an
Accusative of Respect (e.g. with doled, mourn with reference to the fact
that; cf. id maesta est, 388, a). With others, it is a direct Object or
Subject (e.g. it is an Object with moleste ferd).
c. Most of these verbs and phrases may also take a Substantive quod-
Clause (555).
1 Such statements are often said to be in Indirect Discourse.
2 E.g. (1) glorior, miror, admlror, demiror; (2) laetor, gaudeo, doleo, l&geo, maereo:
acerbe, graviter, moleste, etc., with fero; (i) indignor, expostulo, fremo, queror, facile
patior.
(3) Also,
tolers in(put
poetry and later
up with), etc. prose, (1) laudor (be /"'ajr^f^''?mi)
Jur), ^ gemo, dSlector;

1
697] Infinitive 321

VI. Historical Infinitive

595. In lively narration, the Infinitive may be used in place
of an Indicative, Perfect^ or Imperfect. Its Subject is in the
Nominative.
hostes ex omnibus partibus signo dato decurrere, at a given signal the
enemy rushed down from every side; B. G. 3, 4, 1. (Aoristic.)
interim cotidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar was
dunning the Haedui daily for the corn; B. G. 1, 16, 1. (Situation.)
solam nam perfidus ille te colere, for the traitor used to care for you
alone; Aen. 4, 421. (Habitual Action.)

VII. Exclamatory Infinitive

596. The Infinitive, generally with a Subject Accusative, may be
used in Exclamations of surprise, indignation, or regret. The particle
-ne is sometimes attached to the emphatic word.
hoc non videre ! the idea of not seeing this! Fin. 4, 27, 76.
mene incepto desistere ! I to give up my purpose! Aen. 1, 37.

VIII. As Subject, Predicate, or Object, of Certain Verbs

597. 1. The Infinitive is also used, in all periods,
a) As the Subject, Predicate, or Object of Verbs meaning (1) to be,
(2) to befall, or (3) to place?
vivere est cogitare, to live is to think; Tusc. 5, 38, 1 1 1. ( = a definition.)
non cadit invidere in sapientem, it does not happen to the wise man to feel envy ;
Tusc. 3, 10, 21.
beate vivere vos in voluptate ponitis, you base the happy life on pleasure; Fin.
2, 27, 86.
b) As an Appositive.
si hoc optimum factu iiidicarem, Catilinam morte multari, if I thought this the best
course to take, (namely) that Catiline should be put to death ; Cat. 1, 12, 29.
c) After inter in the phrase interest inter,
inter valere et aegrotare nihil interesse, (said) that there was no difference between
beingwell and being ill ; Fin. 2, 13, 43.
2. The Infinitive is occasionally used with habeo.
habeo dicere quem deiecerit, / can tell whom he cast down ; Rose. Am. 33, 100.
nihil habeo scribere, / have nothing to write; Att. 2, 22, 6.
1 With aoristic force.
2 E.g. (1) est ; (2) cadit, accidit, contingit ; (3) poao, positum or situm est
322 Syntax [598

B. POETICAL AND LATER PROSE USES OP THE INFINITIVE

598. 1. The poets of all periods use the Infinitive freely to express
Purpose :
a) With Verbs of motion.1
non Libycos populare penatis venimus, we have not come to sack the homes of
Libya; Aen. 1, 527. (Populare = ut populemus.)
i) With Verbs of giving or undertaking?
loricam donat habere viro, he gave to the hero a breastplate to possess ; Aen.
5, 260. (Habere = habendam, 60S, 2.)

2. The later poets use the Infinitive freely :

a) As the Object of Verbs of granting or taking away?
tfl das epulis«accumbere divom, thou grantest to recline at the banquets of the
gods; Aen. 1, 79.
V) In place of a Subjunctive Substantive Clause,
celerare fugam suadet (for ut celeret suadet), urges her to speed her flight;
Aen. 1, 357.
duel intra mfiros hortatur, urges that it be brought within the walls ; Aen. 2, 33.
c) With Adjectives, or Participles of adjective force.4 The later
prose-writers follow to a large extent.
certa mori, determined to die ; Aen. 4, 564.
81 credere dignum est, if the story is worthy of belief; Aen. 6, 173.
leg! dignus, worthy to be read ; Quintil. 10, 1, 96.
praestantior ciere, more skilful in arousing; Aen. 6, 165.
d) With Nouns denoting attention or opportunity.
dum praecipitare potestas, while there is opportunityforflight; Aen. 4, 565.
3. The later writers, especially the poets, use the Infinitive occasionally as a mere
Substantive depending upon a Verb, or in the Accusative after certain prepositions.
postquam sapere urbl vSnit nostrum, after this philosophizing of ours came
to town; Persius 6, 38. Cf. habere edocuit, Sail. Cat. 10, 4.
Tltyon cernere erat, one could see Tityos (it was possible to see); Aen. 6, 595.
nil praeter plorare, nothing except to weep ; Sat. 2, 5, 69.
1 E.g. eo, venio, abigo.
2 E4*. do, dono, trado, ministro, sumo.
3 E.g. do, tribuo, concedo, reddo, adimo, SripiS, perdS.
* E.g. doctus, doctior, indoctus, docilis, indocilis ; callidus, sollers, sagSx, cautus,
prudens, per!tus, blandus ; patiens, impatiens ; solitus, insolitus ; audax, timidus ;
cupidus, certus, sciens, nescius; dignus, aptus, idoneus; impiger, piger, celer, segnis:
bonus, efflcax, utilis, par, minor ; potens, impotens.
600J Participle 323

THE PARTICIPLE
599. The Participle is a Verbal Adjective.
a. As an Adjective, it belongs to a Substantive, and agrees with
it (320).
b. As a Verb, it expresses Voice, governs Cases, and may be modi
fied by an Adverb. It also expresses tense-ideas, but only those of
completion, progress, or futurity (action prior, contemporaneous, or yet
to come; see 473 and 600).
c. The negative is non.

Ordinary Tense-Meanings of the Participles

600. The ordinary Tense-Meanings of the Participles are
as follows :
1. The Present Active Participle represents an act as going on at the
time of the main verb.
Cotta pugnans occiditur, Cotta is killed (while) fighting; B. G. 5, 37, 5.
Sp. Jtaelium novis rebus studentem occidit, killed Spurius Maelius (who
was) plotting revolution ; Cat. 1, 1,3.
a. For the use to express attempted action, and the use to express action
already for some time in progress, see 484 and 485.
2. The Future Active Participle represents an act as intended or
impending at the time of the main verb.
sed ndn est iturus, but he does not intend to go (is not intending to go) ;
Cat, 2, 7, 15.
a. In Ciceronian prose, the Future Active Participle is almost wholly
confined to the Periphrastic Conjugation, as above.
Note. The only exceptions are the occasional use of venturus and faturus
as Adjectives (248), and a single example expressing Purpose.
3. The Future Passive Participle represents an act as, at the time of
the main verb, necessary, proper, or intended.
acies erat instruenda, the line of battle had to be fonned (was to be
formed) ; B. G. 2, 20, 1.
quod multo magis est admlrandum, which is much more to be wondered
at; Cat. 1, 3, 7.
324 Syntax [600

a. The Impersonal Future Passive Participle with est is very common. It

governs a Dative or Ablative, if other parts of the verb .do.
mllitibus de navibus desiliendum erat, the soldiers had to leap down from
the ships ; B. G. 4, 24, 2.
resistendum senectuti est, one must resist old age ; Sen. 1 1, 35.
b. In a few examples, the Future Passive Participle has the force of a
present passive.1
volvenda dies, time rolling on (being rolled on) ; Aen. 9, 7 ; cf. 1, 269.
4. The Perfect Passive Participle represents an act as already com
pleted at the time of the main verb.
quo proelio sublati audacius subsistere coeperunt, (Jiaving been) cheered
up by this engagement, they began to resist with more spirit; B. G.
1. 15. 3-

Occasional Tense-Meanings of the Participles

601. The tense-meaning is sometimes shifted, as follows :
1. The Perfect Passive Participles of a few Deponent or Semi-
Deponent Verbs gain naturally a present meaning; e.g. arbitratus,
having come to think, — and so thinkiiig. The use is then extended
to other verbs.2
isdem ducibus fisus Numidas subsidid oppidanis mittit, employing the sime men
as guides, he sends the Numidians to the relief of the inhabitants of t/u
town; B. G. 2, 7, 1. Similarly complex!, Cat. 2, 5, 10.
2. The later writers, especially the poets, extend the usage to passive
verbs used reflexively8 (288, 3), and from these to true passive verbs,
tristes et tunsae pectora palmis, sad, and beating their breasts with their hands ;
Aen. 1, 481. (Reflexive use of verb.) Similarly protect!, Aen. 2, 444.
portam converso cardine torquet, turns the gate upon its revolving hinge ; Aen. 9,
724. (True passive verb.) Similarly vectos, 6, 33 5 ; invectus, 1, 155.
servum caesum medio egerat Circo, had driven a slave under the lash (being
beaten) through the midst of the Circus ; Liv. 2, 36, 1. (Caesum = being
beaten, instead of having been beaten!)
1 Probably this was the original force. So, e.g., vir honorandus may have meant
originally a man honored, next a man honorable, and finally a man to be honored.
2 The most important participles of the kind with which the use arose are arbitra
tus and ratus, confisus. diffisus. gavisus, solitus, veritus. The most important to which
the use was extended later are amplexus, ausus, conatus, complexus, SmSnsus, imitatus,
locutus, palStus, secfitus, solatus, usus. The poets use the idiom with great freedom.
8 Thus with abscissas, circumfusus, conversus, effSsus, percussus, protectus, tfinsus.
604] Participle 325

Forms Lacking, and how they are Supplied

602. 1. Latin has no Perfect A ctive Participle. It therefore cannot
directly express such an idea as having done so and so.
Indirectly, the idea may be expressed by a clause with ubi, etc.,
or cum, by an Ablative Absolute, or by a Perfect Passive Participle
attached to the Object of the main verb.
a. But the Perfect Passive Participle of Dcponent or Semi-Deponent Verbs has
of course the perfect active meaning (291, a). Thus conspicatus, having seen.
2. Latin has no Present Passive Participle. The place of this is sup
plied by a relative clause, a clause with ubi, etc., or cum, or dum.

A. COMMON USES OF THE PARTICIPLE IN ALL PERIODS

603. Introductory. Since the Participle can be attached, directly or indirectly,
to any verb, the combination of the two affords a means by which the speaker or writer
can present two acts (or states) together to his hearer or reader, without in any way
indicating what the actual relation of the two acts to each other is. That relation,
if any exists, is left for the hearer or reader to feel.
Because of this adaptability to easy and condensed expression, the Participle has a
wide use in Latin.
604. In its most common uses, the Participle is employed :
1. For compactness, in place of a coordinate clause.
Germani hostis loco depellunt ; fugientis persequuntur, the Germans dislodge
the enemyfrom theirposition, and, as theseflee, pursue them; B. G. 7,
67, 5. (= illi fugiunt ; Germani persequuntur. The enemy flee, and
the Germans pursue them. A new fact is narrated by fugientis.)
a. The Participle is often used to repeat something already stated in a Finite Verb.
exercitum fundit, ffisum persequitur, he routs the army, and, after routing
it, pursues (pursues it, routed) ; Liv. 1, 10, 4.
2. To express Situation? with or without a causal or adversative
suggestion.
occisus est a cena rediens, was killed on his way back from dinner ; Rose. Am.
34, 97. (No relation suggested.)
stantem urbem reliquit, he left the city still standing ; Cat. 2, 1, 2. (No relation
suggested.)
ilium exercitum contemno, conlectum ex senibus desperatis . . . , I think little
of that army, patched up as it is of desperate old men . . . ; Cat. 2, 3, 5.
(Causal relation suggested. Conlectum = quia conlectus est.)
lit eum cupientes tenere nequeamus, so that, though we wish to restrain it (namely,
laughter), we cannot ; De Or. 2, 58, 235. (Adversative relation suggested.
Cupientes = quamquam cupimus or quamvis cupiamus.)
1 The Participle never expresses the mere idea of time.
326 Syntax [604

Note. The Participle is used abundantly, in either of the above ways

(i and 2), to narrate an Event or a Situation, as preparation for the nar
ration of the main event. It may then be called the Narrative Participle.
Thus used, it forms an equivalent for either an Aoristic Narrative Clause
with ubi, etc. (557) or a Narrative cum-Clause of Situation (524). (There may
of course be an accessory causal or adversative idea, as in cam-Clauses ; 525.)
a quo non receptus ad me venire ausus es, and when he did not take you in,
you had the hardihood to come to me; Cat. 1, 8, 19. (Non receptus
= ubi non receptus es, or cum non receptus esses.)
3. To express a Condition.
damnatum poenam sequi oportebat, ut igni cremaretur, the punishment of being
burned alive must follow his conviction ; B. G. 1, 4, 1. (Must follow, if
he should be convicted. Damnatum = si damnatus esset.)
quis potest, mortem metuens, esse non miser? what man, fearing death (= i.e.
tfhe fears death) can help being wretched? Tusc. 5, 6, 15. (Metuens =
qui metuit, or si metuit. Generalizing Condition ; 579-)
4. To express the Way by Which (Means).
facit amicitia adversas (res) partiens leviores, friendship makes misfortune
lighter by dividing it; Am. 6, 22.
5. To express Manner.
flentes implorabant, they begged with tears ; B. G. 1, 51, 2.
6. To express an Act Not Accompanying the main act (English
"without ing")- A negative must be added.
miserum est nihil proficientem angi, it is a wretched thing to suffer without
accomplishing anything ; N. D. 3, 6, 14.
7. In place of a Relative Clause, as follows :
a) In place of a Determinative Clause (550).
sepulturam occisorum, the burial of those who had been slain (occisorum = eorum
qui occisi erant) ; B. G. 1 , 26, 5.
b) In place of a Descriptive Clause (521, 1; 569).
de bene mentis civibus, regarding citizens who have served you well ; Mil. 2, 4.
c) In place of a Parenthetical Clause (567).
mortem igitur omnibus horis impendentem timens qui poterit animo consistere ?
if a man fears death, — which at every moment hangs 'over us, — how can
he be steady in mind? Sen. 20, 74. (Impendentem = quae impendet.)

B. SPECIAL IDIOMS OF THE PARTICIPLE IN ALL PERIODS

605. The Romans were fond of the use of the Participles
with certain kinds of Verbs, as follows :
606] Participle 327

1. The Present Active Participle with verbs of seeing, hearing, or

representing.1
videre hanc urbem concidentem, to see this city falling ; Cat. 4, 6, 11.
Note. The Infinitive also may be used with these verbs. In the Passive
Voice the Infinitive alone is possible, since there is no present passive participle,
quos video volitare in foro, whom I seeflitting about in the forum; Cat. 2, 3, 5.
construi a deo atque aedificari raundum facit, (Plato) represents the world as
being constructed and built by God; N. D. 1, 8, 19.
2. The Future Passive Participle to express Purpose with verbs of
giving, leaving, or marking (and many others in poetry).2
hos Haeduis custodiendos tradit, these he hands over to the Haedui to be
guarded ; B. G. 6, 4, 4.
3. The Perfect Passive Participle (emphatic or energetic ; 490) with
verbs of wishing.
se probatum voluit, he wished himself well approved ; Caecin. 36, 103.
4. The Perfect Passive Participle with certain verbs of giving or
making? to represent something as put into a completed condition
(emphatic or energetic).
si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant honSres, people who are led by
pleasure must give the honors oflife a complete dismissal; Sest. 66, 138.
5. The Perfect Passive Participle with verbs of having, holding, or
possessing,* to represent something as ready or kept in a completed
condition.
duces comprehensos tenetis, you hold the leaders under arrest ; Cat. 3,7, 16.
certos homines delectos ac descriptos habebat, he had certain men selected
and appointed (= he had selected, etc.) ; Cat. 3, 7, 16.
a. With habeo, the construction approaches closely to that of our English
perfect with have, which is descended from it.

NEW USES OF THE PARTICIPLES IN LATER LATIN

606. In later Latin, the Present Participle may be used to express
Purpose.
legatl missi (sunt) auxilium orantes, ambassadors were sent (asking) to ask
for help ; Liv. 21, 6, 2. Similarly scitantem, Aen. 2, 114.
a. This use is an extension of a true present use, as in venBrunt auxilium
orantes, they came asking (and, of course, to ask) help.
1 The most common are video, audio, facio, flngd, inducd (bring upon the stage).
2 The most common are do, defero, trado, praebeo, concedo, relinqud, denoto.
8 The most common are do, reddo, facio, euro.
* The most common are habeo, teneo, possideo.
328 Syntax [607

607. After Cicero's time, the Future Participle, Active or Passive,

gains a wide use.
In addition to its older use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, it is
employed to express something as destined, anticipated, or purposed,
or to take the place of a condition, a conclusion, or a relative clause.
sese medium iniecit periturus in agmen, and flung himself into their ranks
— to die (destined to die) ; Aen. 2, 408.
si periturus abis, ifyou are going away to perish ; Aen. 2, 675.
da mansuram urbem, grant a city that shall abide ; Aen. 3, 85.

THE PARTICIPLE AS EXPRESSING THE LEADING IDEA OF ITS PHRASE

608. The Participle originally expressed the less important
idea of the phrase to which it belongs, as in the examples
above.
But in three uses the Participle came to express the lead
ing idea of the phrase (cf. 333). The English equivalent for it
is then a Verbal Noun, governing an Object. These uses are :
1. The Perfect Passive Participle with a Noun, depending on opus
est. See 430, 2.
2. The Perfect Passive or Present Active Participle with a Noun,
depending upon a Preposition, or in the Genitive, or, less frequently, in
the Nominative.
cum de nomine occiso ( = de hominis caede) quaeratur, when there is an inves
tigation about a man killed, i.e. about the killing of a man ; Mil. 3, 8.
post hanc urbem conditam, since thefounding of this city ; Cat. 3, 6, 15.
ob iram interfecti domini, through anger at the killing of his master ; Liv.
21, 2, 6. (Interfecti domini = caedis domini.) Cf. Aen. 2, 413.
fugiens Pompeius mirabiliter homines movet, Pompey's flight is stirring
people up extraordinarily ; Att. 7, 11, 4.
a. The construction is sometimes found in English, mainly in poetry.
Cf. Oliver Wendell Holmes : " Our midnight is Thy smile withdrawn."
3. The Future Passive Participle with a Noun.
The Future Passive Participle with a Noun, when used to convey
the leading idea in its phrase, receives a new name, that of the " Gerun
dive," and will therefore be treated under that heading. The related
construction of the Gerund will be treated at the same time.
612] Gerundive and Gerund 329

THE GERUNDIVE AND THE GERUND

609. The Gerundive is the Future Passive Participle, after it
hasgained thepower of conveying the leading idea in its phrase.
in iis libellis quos de contemnenda gloria scribunt, in the essays which
they write about despising glory (about glory being despised) ; 1
Arch. 1 1, 26. (De contemnenda gloria = de contemptidne gloriae.)
exercendae memoriae gratia, for the sake of exercising the memory (for
the sake of memory to be exercised); Sen. 11, 38. (Exercendae
memoriae = exercitationis memoriae.)
610. The Gerundive is thus nearly the equivalent of a Verbal Noun.
But it is not yet a complete Verbal Noun. Instead of depending directly
on the word which governs the phrase, and itself governing the other word
of the phrase, as in the English " about despising glory," it is still subor
dinate to that other word, and has to agree with it (as in de contemnenda
gloria). It is in thought the leading word, but not yet grammatically so.
Naturally, it came in time to take this one step further, and became
a complete Verbal Noun, in the Neuter Gender.
611. The Gerund is a complete verbal noun.
As a Verb, it has the power, if transitive, of governing a
Noun or Pronoun ; as a Noun, it is itself governed in case.
Note. The Gerundive and Gerund differ from the true Future
Passive Participle 2 in four ways :
1. They express the leading idea of their phrase.
2. They convey no idea of necessity or obligation.
3. They are active in feeling, not passive.3
4. They accordingly cannot take any construction of the agent.

COMMON USES OF THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND IN ALL PERIODS

612. The Gerundive and Gerund exist only in the Geni
tive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative cases. The case-uses,
so far as they go, are in general the same as those of Nouns.
1 See 600, 3, b. and footnote.
2 The traditional usage, by which the name " Gerundive " is employed instead of the
name "Future Passive Participle" is confusing. Obviously, the word Gerundive should
be restricted to uses which have exact p-irallels in uses of the Gerund.
8 Thus Carthago delenda est means Carthage must be destroyed (passive), while spSs
Carthaginis delendae (Gerundive) means the hope of destroying Carthage (active).
330 Syntax

In Ciceronian Latin, the principal uses are as follows :

I. Genitive. After any Noun or Adjective that can govern
a Genitive Noun.
II. Dative. After any Adjective or Phrase that can govern
a Dative Noun; also after certain official phrases, and after
sum or adsum.
III. Accusative. After Prepositions, mainly ad ; 1 and after
Verbs of arranging, contracting, or giving a contract?
i IV. Ablative. To express Means, Circumstances, or Cause,
and after Prepositions, mainly de, ex, in.3
Examples of the four case-uses :
GERUNDIVE GERUND
I. Genitive
cupiditas belli gerendi, desire of carry homines bellandi cupidi, men desirous
ing on war ; B. G. i, 41, 1. (Objec offighting; B. G. 1, 2, 4. (Objective
tive Genitive ; 354.) Genitive; 354.)
neque consili habendi (continued on neque anna capiendi spatio dato, time
right) beinggiven neitherfor taking counsel
nor for seizing their arms ; B. G.
4, 14, 2.
difficultates bell! gerendi, difficulties in difficultas navigandi, difficulty in navi
carrying on the war ; B. G. 3, 10, 1. gating ; B. G. 3, 12, 5. (Genitive
(Genitive of Connection ; cf. diffl of Connection ; 339.)
cultates belli, 339.)
praedae ( = praedandi) ac belli inferendi praedandi causa, for the sake of plun
causa, for the sake of plunder and dering; B. G. 2, 17, 4.
making war ; B. G. 5, 12, 2.
II. Dative
locum oppido condendo ceperunt, they quem quisque pugnando locum ceperat,
chose a place for founding a town ; the place that each had taken for
Liv. 39, 22, 6. (Dative of Object fighting; Sail. Cat. 61, 2. (Dative
for Which ; cf. 361.) of Object for Which; cf. 361.)
sunt non nfilli acuendis puerorum aqua fitilis bibendo, water good for
ingeniis non infitiles lfisus, there are drinking; Plin. N. H. 31, 59.
certain games that are not bad for (Dative of Direction; 362.)
sharpening the wits ofboys ; Quintil.
1,3,11. (Dative of Direction; 362.)
1 Rarely with ante, circa, erga, in, inter, ob, propter, super.
2 euro = have a thing done, conduco = take a contract, loco = give a contract, etc.
8 Rarely with cam, pro, super.
612] Gerundive and Gerund 331
GERUNDIVE GERUND
consul placandis dis dat operam, the is censendo finis factus est, this was
consul devotes his attention to appeas made the ending of (for) the taking
ing thegods ; Liv. 22, 2, 1. (Dative of the census; Liv. 1,44, 2. (Dative
of Indirect Object; 365.) of Indirect Object; 365.)
(consul) comitia conlegae subrogando cum solvendo civitates non essent,
habuit, the consul held an election since the states were not equal to
for the appointing of a colleague ; paying (not solvent) ; Fam. 3, 8, 2.
Liv. 2, 8, 3. (Dative after an official (Special idiom, after sum or adsum,
phrase; 612, II.) 612, II.)
III. Accusative
ad has res conficiendas sibi tridul spa- nullum sibi ad cognoscendum spatium
tium daret, that he should give them relinquunt, leave themselves no time
three days' time for accomplishing for investigating ; B. G. 7, 42, 1.
this ; B. G. 4, 11, 3. (Purpose; cf. (Purpose ; cf. 384, 3.)
384, 3.)
ad bella suscipienda Gallorura alacer est cum hostes nostros milites alacriores
animus, the temper of the Gauls is ad pugnandum effecissent, when the
keen for undertaking wars ; B. G. enemy had made our soldiers keener
3, 19, 6. (Figurative Direction; cf. for fighting ; B. G. 3, 24, 5. (Figu
384, 2.) rative Direction; cf. 384, 2.)
pontem in Aran faciendum curat, he
sees to the building of a bridge over
the SaSne; B. G. 1, 13, 1.1
IV. Ablative
loquendi elegantia augetur legendis (memoria) excolendo augetur, memory
oratSribus et poetis, distinction in is built up by using it; Quintil. 11,
speech is increased by reading the 2,1. (Means, 423 ; cf. B. G.4, 13, 5.)
orators and poets ; De Or. 3, 10, 39.
(Means, 423; cf. B. G. 3, 25, 1.)
cum plausum meo nomine recitando imperando sociis in tantum adductus
dedisset, when (the people) had ap periculum, brought into such danger
plauded at the reading ofmy name ; in (by) directing the allies ; Verr. 1,
Att.4, 1,6. (Circumstances; 422, 1.) 27, 70. (Means, becoming Circum
stances ; 422, 1.)
in ea (voluptate) spernenda virtus max- industria in agendo, energy in action
ime cernitur, manliness is best seen in (in acting); Pomp. 11,29. (Field in
the despising ofpleasure ; Leg- 1, 19, Which, with in; 434, 2.)
52. (Field in Which, with in; 434,2.)
1 True Gerundive construction ; for the leading idea is carried by the grammatically
subordinate word faciendum. Compare the contrasting Participial use in 605, 2.
332 Syntax [612

Note 1. The Gerundive or Gerund in the Ablative of Means or Circumstances

sometimes approaches the force of a Participle. In later Latin, the Gerund is frequent
with this force.
aliis fructum libidinum ndn modo impellendo verum etiam adiuvando pollicebatur,
to others he promised the enjoyment of their lusts, not only urging them but
also aiding them ; Cat. 2, 4, 8. Cf. fando, Aen. 2, 6; tuendo, Aen. 1, 713.
Note 2. Rarely, the Gerund is used as an appositive, as in res diversissimas, paren-
dum atque imperandum, two very different things, obeying and commanding; Liv. 21, 4, 3.
613. Where the phrase contains a Noun or Pronoun, the Ge
rundive is more common than the Gerund in Ciceronian Latin.
But either construction may be employed, except as follows :
1. The Gerundive alone is employed in the Dative or after a Prepo
sition. Hence one must say, e.g.: placandis dis dat operam, ad eas res
conficiendas, in voluptate spernenda, etc., as above.
2. The Gerund alone is employed :
a) With a Neuter Adjective used substantively,
artem vera ac falsa diiudicandi, the art of distinguishing true things from false
things; De Or. 2, 38, 157. (Not verorum ac falsorum duudicandorcm,
which might be taken to mean of distinguishing true men front false men.)
fi) If the verb used is Intransitive,
homini cupido satisfaciendi re! publicae, a man desirous of doing his duty to the
commonwealth; Fam. 10, 18, 1.
Note. The Deponent Verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, being
really transitive in meaning (429, b), can take either construction.
spem potiundorum castrorum, hope of taking the camp; B. G. 3, 6, 2.
quarum potiendi spe, by the hope ofgaining which; Fin. 1, 18, 60.
614. The Reflexive Genitives mei, tul, sui, nostri, and vestri throw
an accompanying Gerundive into the same form, without regard to the
actual gender or number of the person or persons meant.
sui opprimendi causa, for the sake of crushing them ; B. G. 1, 44, 10.
Remark. Mei, nostri, etc., were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives
used substantively. Hence the usage.

RARER CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE GERUND OR GERUNDIVE

Objective Genitive with the Gerund
615. Occasionally, though rarely in Cicero, the Gerund takes an
Objective Genitive, just as an ordinary Verbal Noun may do.
exemplorum eligendi potestas, a chance for the selecting of examples ; Inv. 2, 2, 5.
(= exemplorum electionis potestas. Cf. electio verborum, Or. 20, 68.)
619] Supine 333

The Genitive of the Gerundive in Expressions of Purpose

616. A Gerundive in the Descriptive Genitive, while strictly depend
ing upon a Noun, may suggest the purpose of an act.
paucos post dies quam ad bellum renovandum miserant legatos, pacis petendae
SratSres miserunt, a few days after they had sent commanders to renew the
war, they sent (ambassadors of the peace-asking kind) ambassadors to ask
for peace ; Liv. 36, 27, 2.1
cetera in XII minuend! sumptus sunt, the remaining provisions in the Twelve
Tables are for the lessening of expense ; Leg. 2, 23, 59 (same Genitive, in
the predicate). Similarly conservandae libertatis, Sail. Cat. 6, 7.

THE SUPINE
617. Introductory. The Supine is a Verbal Noun of the Fourth Declension.
It has but two forms in common use, one in -um and one in -u. The form in -um is an
Accusative, expressing an action thought of as the End of Motion (cf. 450). The form
in -u is an Ablative, generally expressing Respect (441).

The Supine in -um

618. The Supine in -um is used to express Purpose after
Verbs of motion, and a few others implying motion, real or
figurative.2
legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send ambassadors t/,
Caesar to ask help; B. G. 1, 11, 3.
non Graiis servitum matribus fbo, / shall not go to play the slave to Gre
cian dames; Aen. 2, 786.
a. The Supine in -um may itself be followed by any construction whicl-
any other part of the Verb may take, e.g. a Direct Object, a Dative, a Sub
stantive Clause, an Indirect Question, etc.

The Supine in -u
619. The Supine in -u is used :
1. To express Respect with Adjectives,3 and with fas or nefas.
1 Similarly, naves dSiciendl operis (the reading of the better family of manuscripts)
will be found in many texts in B. G. 4, 17, 10. Cf. sui commodl, B. G. 5, 8, 6 (the
reading of the same family).
2 These others are voco and revoco, dare and conlocare with nuptum (give or place to
marry, i.e. in marriage) and recipio with sessum (receive to sit, i.e. help to a seat).
Virgil employs the construction with poetic boldness after fortuna uti (use our
opportunity to) in Aen. 9, 241.
s Most frequently with facilis, difflcilis, gravis, mirabilis, incredibilis, honestus,
turpis, utilis, iiicundus, optimus.
The Supines most commonly occurring are dictfl, factfi, audita, visu, cognitu.
334 Syntax [619

perfacile factu, a very easy thing to do (in the doing) ; B. G. 1, 3, 6.

si hoc fas est dictu, if this is right to say ; Tusc. 5, 13, 38.
a. Some of these Adjectives may also take the Gerund with ad, as in
facile ad credendum, Tusc. i, 33, 78.
2. Occasionally after opus est, dignus or indignus.
quod scitu opus est, which it is necessary to know (which there is need of
knowing) ; Inv. 1, 20, 28.
nihil dignum dictu, nothing worth mentioning; Liv. 4, 30, 4.
a. Ordinarily, opus est takes the Perfect Passive Participle (430, 2) and
dignus or indignus a Subjunctive qui- or ut-Clause (513, 3).
Note 1. The Supine in -u cannot take a Direct Object ; for the thing which is to be
done is the Subject of the statement. — But an Infinitive of Statement or an Indirect Ques
tion sometimes forms an apparent Object of the Supine(really the Subject of the main verb),
difficile est dictu quanto in odio simus apud ezteras nationSs, it is difficult to say how
foreign nations hate us (how much they hate us is difficult to say) ; Pomp. 22, 65.

WORD-ORDER
620. Introductory. In English, in which there is little inflection, word-order is
largely fixed. Thus the idea " Caesar conquered Pompey " can be expressed only in this
order ("Pompey conquered Caesar" would mean the opposite). In Latin, in which
relations are largely expressed by inflection, there is in the main no necessary order.
Thus Caesar Pompeium superavit, Pompeium Caesar superavit, and superavit Pompeium
Caesar all tell the same fact, and differ only with regard to the emphasis placed upon
one part or another.
Emphasis is expressed also by stress and by pitch. But the written sentence cannot
indicate these means.
621. Emphasis may be obtained either by putting an
important thing before the hearer immediately, or by holding
it back for a time, to stimulate his curiosity. Hence,
The most emphatic places in a sentence, clause, or group, are
the first and the last. The places next these are relatively
next in emphasis, and so on.
622. If no special emphasis is to be given to any part, the subject
and the act are the most important things. Hence they stand first and
last respectively. Their modifiers naturally stand near them.

NORMAL ORDER
623. Accordingly, the normal^ order of the sentence is :
Subject, modifiers of the subject, modifiers of the verb, verb.
1 The words " regular " and " regularly," " general " and " generally " are avoided in
most of the following statements ; for the actual majority of cases under a given class
may perfectly well be on the side of the rhetorical order. Cf. 625.
624] Normal Word-Order 335
L. Flaccus et C. Pomptinus praetores merito laudantur, Lucius Flaccus and
Gaius Pomptinus, the praetors, are deservedly praised; Cat. 3 , 6, 1 4.
a. The normal order of the modifiers of the verb and the verb itself is :
1. Remoter modifiers (time, place, situation, cause, means, etc.).
2. Indirect object.
3. Direct object.
4. Adverb.
5. Verb.
b. But this exact order is not common, since there is almost always
some special shade of emphasis to disturb it. Cf. 625.
624. 1. Adjectives and genitives normally follow their nouns.1
aetas puerilis, the age of boyhood (the boyish age) ; Arch. 1, 3, 4.
dllatidnem comitiorum, the postponement of the election ; Pomp. 1, 1,2.
a. Ullus and nullus normally precede their nouns. Thus nullum malum,
no evil; Cat. 4, 7, 15.
b. Certain combinations have settled into a stereotyped order. Thus civis
Romanus, pontile* maximus, res piiblica ; senatiis consultum, plebis scitum,
tribunus plebis. The genitive regularly precedes causa and gratia, for the
sake of.
2. Determinative and intensive pronouns, and adjectives of quantity
or precision, normally precede their nouns.
So hic, is, iste, ille ; ipse ; iinus, duo, etc. ; omnis, totus, universus,
cunctus, multus, tantus ; proximus, superior,2 etc.
hie locus, this place ; Pomp. 1, 2.
omnis hie locus, this entire place ; Cat. 3, 10, 24.
universus senatus censuit . . . , the whole senate voted . . . ; Sull. 49, 136.
a. rile meaning " the famous " normally follows its noun ; but it regularly
goes with an adjective or appositive, wherever this may stand.
Medea ilia, thefamous Medea ; Pomp. 9, 22.
Cato ille sapiens, Calo, thefamous sage; Div. 1, 15, 28.
sapient! illi Catoni, the famous sage Cato ; Leg. 2, 2, 5.
3. Possessive and indefinite pronouns, and ordinal numerals, normally
follow their nouns.
avi tui, ofyour grandfather ; Cat. 3, 5, 10.
casu aliquo, by some chance ; Cat. 1, 6, 16.
hora quarta, at the fourth hour ; B. G. 4, 23, 2.
1 The general idea is given first, and this is then narrowed by a descriptive concep
tion. The same usage has come down in French.
2 Some of these, e.g. hic, is, etc., form a constituent part of the thought, and so are
not easily held in suspense. Others, like multus and tantus, are naturally emphatic.
The same usage has come down in French.
336 Syntax [624

4. Words depending upon a modifier of a noun, or upon a noun

accompanied by a modifier, are generally put between the two, the
whole being thus tied into a single mass (like an algebraic quantity
within brackets).
infestam rei publicae pestem, a plague dangerous to the state ; Cat. 1, 5, 11.
duas urbis huic imperio infestissimas, two cities most dangerous to this realm ;
Cat. 4, 10, 21.
complures eiusdem amentiae socids, many associates in the same madness; Cat. 1 ,4,8.
5. Appositive nouns and appositive adjectives normally follow their
substantives.
Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus, Ennius, wise and brave and a
second Homer ; Ep. 2, 1, 50.
6. Vocatives normally stand after one or more words,
quid est, Catilina? How is this, Catiline ? Cat. 1, 5, 13.
7. Interrogative words normally stand first in their clauses.
quem ignorare arbitraris . . . ? who, think you, is ignorant . . .? Cat. 1, 1, 1.
8. Relative pronouns and conjunctions normally stand first in their
clauses.
proximi sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, they are next to the Germans,
who live beyond the Rhine ; B. G. 1, 1, 4.
si te comprehend! iussero, if I have you arrested ; Cat. 1, 2, 5.
a. The conjunctions -que and -ve, being enclitics, cannot stand first. See
307, 1, b.
b. Autem, enim, and vero follow the first word or phrase. So, generally,
does igitur, though it sometimes stands first. Tamen stands either first, or
after an emphatic word.
9. Determinative words referring to something in the preceding sen
tence stand, like relatives, at the beginning(first word,or in the firstphrase).
ad eas res conficiendas Orgetorix deligitur. Is sibi legatidnem ad civitatis sus-
cepit. In eo itinere . . . , Orgetorix is chosen to carry out these plans. He
(this man) undertook an embassy to the various states. Upon thisjourney
... ; B.C. 1, 3, 3.
10. Relative clauses generally follow the phrase containing the ante
cedent ; but often they are inserted into that phrase.
ad ea castra quae supra demonstravimus contendit, hastens to the camp which I
have mentioned above ; B. G. 7, 83, 8.
ad eas quas diximus munitiones pervenerunt, arrived at the fortifications which
I have mentioned ; B. G. 3, 26, 2.
a. For the relative clause preceding its antecedent, see 284, 5.
625] Rhetorical Word-Order 337
1 1 . Conditions and conditional relative clauses generally precede the
main clause, or are inserted in it. They rarely follow.
12. Prepositions regularly precede the words which they govern.
a. Exceptions occur mainly in poetry, mostly with dissyllabic prepositions.
Thus te propter, Aen. 4, 320.
b. For mecum, quibuscum, etc., see 418, a.
c. For -que with monosyllabic prepositions, see 307, I, b.
13. Most adverbs normally stand just before the words they modify.
tam improbus, so worthless ; Cat. 1,2, 5.
a. Quidem, quoque, denique, and demum follow the word they modify. So,
generally, do fere, ferme, paene, and prope ; potius and potissimum ; and
tantum in the sense of only.
aequo fere spatio, at about an equal distance ; B, G. 1, 43, 1.
14. Non regularly stands just before the word it modifies.
15. The first person precedes the other two, and the second the third.
si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valemus, ifyou and Tullia are
well, so are my dear boy and I (in Latin, I and my boy) ; Fam. 14, 5, 1.
16. Inquam, inquit, etc., stand after one or more of the quoted words,
"est vero," inquam, "notum quidem signum," "it is indeed," said I, "a well-
known seal" ; Cat. 3, 5, 10.

RHETORICAL ORDER
625. But the so-called normal arrangement is really rare,
since the speaker or writer generally has some special empha
sis to put upon some part of the sentence (rhetorical order).
This may be effected :
I. By reversing the normal order.
II. By the juxtaposition of like or contrasting words.
III. By postponement to produce suspense.
Examples (contrast those in 624, 1-7) :
lis haec, this particular suit; Clu. 41, 116.
non est ista mea culpa sed temporum, it is not my fault, but that of the
times; Cat. 2, 2, 3.
senatus universus iudicavit, the senate judged, to a man ; Clu. 49, 136.
iacet ille, he lies prostrate (prostrate he lies) ; Cat. 2, 1,2.
latroni quae potest inferri iniusta nex? upon a brigand what death can
be inflicted that is not deserved? Mil. 5, \o.
33« Syntax [625

ndn est saepius in fino homine summa salus periclitanda rel publicae, it is
not right that a single person should repeatedly be allowed to
endanger the highest welfare of the commonwealth; Cat. 1, 5, I1.
M.Tulli, quidagis? Marcus Tullius, what areyou doing ? Cat. 1,11,27.
Q. Maximum senem adulescens dflexi, / loved Quintus Maximus, in his
old age and my youth ; Sen. 4, 10.
magna dis immortalibus habenda est gratia, great gratitude is due to
the immortal gods; Cat. 1, 5, 11.
a. A double emphasis is of course possible.
cupio me esse clementem, my desire is to be merciful; Cat. 1, 2, 4.
b. On the other hand, the putting of a word into an emphatic position
often throws another into an unusual place without special emphasis
upon that other.
vives, et vives ita ut vivis, you shall live, and live in the same way as now;
Cat. 1, 2, 6. (Ita is emphatic, but the vives immediately preceding it
merely repeats the first vives, without emphasis.)
c. In the compound tenses, the auxiliary sum may, according to the
needs of the sentence, be placed anywhere, without emphasis upon itself.
626. An emphatic word is often taken out of a dependent clause and
put before the connective, especially if it belongs in thought to both the
dependent and the main clause.
servi mehercule mei si me isto pactS metuerent, domum meam relinqnendam
putarem, good heavens! if EVEN MY slaves feared me in this fashion, I
should think I ought to leave my home ; Cat. 1, 7, 17.
Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proflcisci, when this had been
announced to Caesar, he made (makes) haste to set outfrom the city ; B. G.
1, 7, 1. Contrast 1, 50, 4, in which the emphasis does not lie upon the actor.
a. Sometimes many words of the dependent clause precede the connective,
per omnia nive oppleta cum segniter agmen incSderet, as the army was march
ing sluggisJily through a country covered with snow ; Liv. 21, 35, 7.
627. 1. The Romans liked to separate a group of words consisting
of a noun and modifier, by inserting the governing word. The effect is
to throw a little more emphasis upon the modifier, by leaving it for the
moment in suspense.
eodem usi consilio, following the same plan ; B. G. 1, 5, 4.
propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum, since other way they had none j
B. G. 1, 7, 3. Double emphasis; for nullum is not only put after iter
instead of preceding it (624, 1, a), but is held longer in suspense by the
insertion of baberent.
629] Rhetorical Word-Order 339
2. The Romans liked to put pronouns early in a clause, to group them
together, and even to insert them into groups with which they have no
direct connection.
huic ego me bello ducem profiteor, for this war I announce myself as leader ;
Cat. 2, 5, i1.
magno me metu liberabis, you will relieve me ofgreatfear ; Cat. 1, 5, 10.
a. In Adjurations, per is often separated from its object by a pronoun,
per ego has lacrimas te oro, by these tears I beseech you; Aen. 4, 314.
b. The groups suus quisque and sibi quisque always take this order.
3. After neuters and adverbs, the Genitive of the Whole is usually
held back for several words.
dixisti paulum tibi esse etiam nunc morae, you said that you were still suffering
a little delay ; Cat. 1, 4, 9.
4. An adjective or pronoun belonging to a noun governed by a mono
syllabic preposition is often placed before the preposition.
quem ad finem? to what limit? Cat. 1, 1, 1.
magno cum dolore, with great grief; Phil. 1, 12, 31.
628. When two pairs of words are in contrast with each other, the
members may be arranged either in Parallel Order or in Cross Order.1
puerfli speci&sed senili prudentia, of boyish appearance, but of an old man's
wTniiim ,DiV. 2, 23, 50. (Parallel Order.)
pro vi^ hominis nisihominis vita reddatur, unless for the life ofa man a man's
lifeti p!fni^—Br-GT^i6, 3. (Cross Order.)
629. In English the general tendency is to complete the thought, as
far as possible, as each part of the sentence is spoken or written.
In Latin, on the contrary, the general tendency is to hold first one
thing and then another in temporary suspense as the sentence moves
from part to part.3 Accordingly,
1. Most kinds of clauses normally precede that which they modify.
Alco, precibus aliquid moturum ratus, cum ad Hannibalem noctu transisset, post-
quam nihil lacrimae movebant, apud hostem mansit, Alco, thinking that he
could accomplish something by entreaties, after going to Hannibal by night,
and finding that tears did not move him, remained with the enemy ; Liv.
21, 12, 4.
1 Called chiasmus, from the Greek letter X, in which the lines are crossed.
2 It is all-important to bear this in mind in reading. The student should remember
that the chances are that a given word, phrase, or clause is not explained by anything he
has yet reached, but by something that is yet to come.
340 Syntax [629

a. But when two clauses of a different character modify the same verb, one generally
precedes this, and the other follows it.
his cum sua sponte persuadere non possent, legatos ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut eo
deprecatore impetrarent, when they found themselves unable to persuade these
people by their own influence, they sent (send) ambassadors to Dumnorix, in order
to obtain their wish through his mediation; B. G. I, 9, 2.
2. Substantive and consecutive clauses normally follow the word on
which they depend.
persuasit ut exirent, persuaded them to emigrate ; B. G. 1, 2, 1.
his rebus fiebat ut . . . , the result was, that . . . ; B. G. 1, 2, 4.
630. A carefully constructed sentence of some length, with suspense
kept up until the end, is called a Period, and the style is called the Periodic
Style. See, for example, the sentence Alco, etc., 629, 1; Caesar — uti
possent, B. G. 2, 25, 1-2 ; and the first two sentences of Cat. 3, 1.
a. Such a sentence generally requires to be broken up into two or more sentences in
English.

FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC1

A. FIGURES OF SYNTAX
631. 1 . Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words.
Aeolus haec contra, thus Aeolus (spoke) in reply ; Aen. 1, 76.
a. The words most commonly omitted are dico, loquor, ago, facio. See
example under 222, a.
2. Brachylogy is brevity of expression.
vir bonus die! delector ego ac tu (delectaris), / like to be called a good
man, just as you (do); Ep. 1, 16, 32.
3. Condensed Comparison is a form of brachylogy in which a thing is
compared with a characteristic, or a characteristic with a thing.
harum est consimilis capris figura, their shape is like (that of) goats ;
B. G. 6, 27, 1.
4. Pleonasm is the use of unnecessary words.
Sic ore locuta est, thus she spoke with her lips ; Aen. 1, 614.
5. Hendiadys2 is the expression of one complex idea through the use
of two nouns connected by a conjunction.
molem et montis altos, a mass of lofty mountains ; Aen. 1, 61.
1 A sharp distinction between the two classes is often impossible.
2 "Ey 5id hxioiv, "one thing through two."
631] Figures of Syntax 341

6. Synesis (" sense ") is construction according to sense, not accord

ing to form. (See 325.)
pars in fugam effusi, a part were scattered in flight ; Liv. 27, 1, 12.
7. Zeugma ("joining") is the government of two words by a word
which strictly applies to only one of them.
Danads et laxat claustra Sinon, Sinon unbars the doors and (sets free) the
Greeks ; Aen. 2, 258.
8. Anacoluthon (" lack of sequence ") is a change of construction in
a sentence, by which the first part is left without government.
nos omnes, quibus est aliquis obiectus labos, omne quod est interea tempus
lucrost, all of us before whom trouble lies, — (for us) the time between is
gain ; Hec. 286. (The nominative construction is not followed out.)
9. Enallage is the exchange of one part of speech for another, or of
one gender, number, etc., for another.
populum late regem, a people sovereign far and wide (regem for regnantem) ;
Aen. 1, 21.
10. Hypallage is an exchange of grammatical relations.
dare classibus austros, to give the winds to the fleet (instead of give the fleet to
the winds); Aen. 3, 61.
1 1 . Prolepsis 1 is the use of a word in advance of that which explains it.
submersas obrue puppis, (o'erwhelm the sunken ships) overwhelm the ships so
that they sink ; Aen. 1,69.
12. Hysteron Pr6teron2 is the reversing of the logical order.
moriamnr et in media arma ruamus, let us die and rush into the, midst of arms ;
Aen. 2, 353.
13. Hyperbaton is a change in the natural order of words,
per omnis te deos oro, Ipray you by all the gods ; Carm. 1,8, 1.
14. Anastrophe (" turning around ") is the placing of a preposition
after its case. See 624, 12, a.
15. Tmesis ("cutting") is the separating of the parts of a compound
word.
quae me cumque vocant terrae, what lands soever bid me come ; Aen. 1, 610.
1 Ilp6\7]^ts, " taking in advance."
2"t<tTepov Trpbrtpov, " the last first."
342 Syntax [632

B. FIGURES OF RHETORIC
632. i. Litotes is the rhetorical softening of an expression by the
denial of the opposite idea. The effect is increased emphasis.
non ignara mail, not ignorant of suffering ; Aen. 1, 630.
2. Hyperbole is exaggeration.
ventis ocior, swifter than the winds ; Aen. 5, 319.
3. Oxym6ron is the putting together of two apparently contradictory
ideas.
insanientis sapientiae, of a mad wisdom ; Carm. 1, 34, 2.
4. Irony is the intentional saying of the opposite of what is really
meant.
bone custos, excellent guardian (for bad guardian) ; Ph. 287.
5. Andphora is the use of the same or closely similar words in the
same place in successive clauses.
tu flectis annus, te vidit insons Cerberus, thou turnest torrentsfrom their course,
on thee Cerberus looked and did no harm ; Carm. 2, 19, 17.
6. Chiasmus is the arranging of pairs of words in the opposite or
See example in 628.
7. Antithesis is the setting of contrasting things against each oth er
specie blanda, reapse repudianda, in aspect charming, in reality objection*." ,'e ;
Am. 13, 47.
8. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole.
mu crone corusco, with flashing sword (strictly point) ; Aen. 2, 333.
9. Metonymy (" shift of name ") is the use of a name in place o]
another to which it is related.
furit Volcanus, Vulcan (i.e. the. fire) rages ; Aen. 5, 662.
tremit puppis, the stern (i.e. the ship) trembles ; Aen. 5, 198. (Partfor the wh<. ie.'i
aere, with the bronze (i.e. with the bronze prow) ; Aen. 1, 35. (Material for tht
thing made of it.)
10. A Transferred Epithet is an epithet not strictly belonging to rhat
to which it is attached, but transferred from something connected vnth
this in thought.
mare velivolum, the sail-flying sea (for sail-covered); Aen. 1, 224 (" sail-flyiug ' '
really applies to the ships, not to the sea).
632] Figures of Rhetoric .343
1 1 . Climax (" a ladder ") is a steady rise of force.
nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas, quod non ego non modo aadiam sed etiam
videam planeque sentiam, you do nothing, you attempt nothing, you
THINK of nothing, that Ifail, I will not merely say to hear of, but even
to see, and to UNDERSTAND COMPLETELY ; Cat. i, 3, 8.
12. Euphemism is the use of a less disagreeable expression in place of
a more disagreeable one.
si quid accidat Romania, if anything should happen to the Romans (instead of
if they should be defeated) ; B. G. 1, 18, 9.
13. Metaphor is the figurative use of words,
sentina rei publicae, the dregs of the state ; Cat. 1 , 5, 12.
14. Allegory is continued metaphor.
S navis, referent in mare te novi fluctus . . . ; fortiter occupa portum, O ship, yet
other billows will carry thee out to sea . . . ; be brave and make the port ;
Carm. 1, 14, 1. (The ship is the state, the billows the civil wars, etc.)
15. Simile is illustration by comparison.
ac veluti magno in populo cum coorta est seditio, gravem si forte virum quem
conspexere, silent, sic pelagi cecidit fragor, and as, when a riot has broken'
out among a great rabble, if they chance to see some man. of weight, they
are hushed, so ceased the tumult of the waters^ Aen. 1, 148.
16. Aposiopesis ("silence ") is a breaking off in a sentence.
quos ego — , sed motos praestat componere fluctus, whom I— , but it is better to
calm the angry waves ; Aen. 1, 135.
17. Apostrophe is an impassioned turning aside from the previous
form of thought, to address some person or thing.
citae Mettum in diversa quadrigae distulerant (at tu dictis, Albane, maneres), the
swift chariots had torn Mettus asunder (but thou, O Alban, shouldst have
kept thy word) ; Aen. 8, 643.
»- 18. Personification is the treating of inanimate things as persons,
haec si tecum patria loquStur, if your country should thus plead with you ;
Cat. 1, 8, 19.
19. Alliteration is the repetition of single sounds, generally consonants,
vi victa vis, force has been foiled byforce ; Mil. n, 30.
20. Onomatopoeia is the matching of sound to sense.
magno cummurmuremontis,zf/M a mighty murmuringofthe mountain; Aen. 1, 55.
21. The Figura EtymologicaA combines words of kindred origin but
different meanings.
sSnsim sine sensu, gradually and imperceptibly ; Sen. 11, 38.
 Part V

VERSIFICATION

633. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of sound-groups

that take the same amount of time (quantity1)
634. Ictus (from Latin ictus, a blow) is the natural stress or
pulse-beat which, whenever there is such a regular recurrence
of groups of sound, is given to the same place in each group.
a. Ictus is simply stress of voice. It does not differ in character from word-
accent or sense-stress, but is due to a different cause
635. A rhythmical sound-group is called a Foot.
636. A succession of feet arranged according to a fixed
scheme is called a Verse.
637. The two kinds of feet which the student meets in his
earlier reading in Latin are :
The Dactyl, or _w w (J J J), as in desuper.
The Spondee, or _ ( J J ), as in Irae.
a. These two kinds of feet take the same time in pronunciation
(namely four units);2 for the two short syllables in the Dactyl, together,
occupy as much time in pronunciation as the long syllable. In beating
time, accordingly, one would give four beats to either of these feet.
t. Two other feet of which the student will need to know the names early are the
Trochee, or w, as in inde or primus, and the Iambus, or \j , as in amo or dolens.
In beating time one would give three beats to either of these feet.
1 In Latin, as in languages spoken to-day, the poet, using in the main the pronuncia
tion of daily speech, so arranged his words that, for any reader, they made rhythm.
Quantity is accordingly not a matter of verse alone, but a matter of Pronunciation
in general, and is so treated in this grammar (16-40).
2 The shortest unit of pronunciation is technically called mora, delay. The ancient
Roman grammarians tell us that a long syllable contained two morae, and this state
ment is consistent with what we find in Latin poetry. The same of course holds, in a
general way, for prose, though the proportion must have been less exact.
344
639] Dactylic Hexameter 345

638. The word Metre strictly means a measure in the com

position of a verse. But it is more generally used for a kind
of metrical system, whatever this may be. Thus we might
say of a given system "this metre is dactylic."
a. The two kinds of metre which the student meets in his earlier read
ing in Latin are the Dactylic Hexameter and the Dactylic Pentameter.

The Dactylic Hexameter

639. The Dactylic Hexameter is made up of six Dactyls or
Spondees.
multa | mole do|cendus a|prico | parcere | prato; Ep. i, 14, 30.
a. The last foot must be a Spondee. The fifth foot generally is a
Dactyl. The other feet may be either Dactyls or Spondees.
The length of the final syllable of the verse is of no consequence,1
since there is regularly a slight pause at the end (see 641, n. 3).
The scheme may be thus indicated (the second form showing the
relative length of the syllables in musical notation) :

I SJ \J I . v w 1 \j \j 1 Kj \j 1 .

JJJ JJJ jjj jjj jj

r r r r r r r r en rr
Observe that there arefour beats to the measure, not, as in the English hexameter, three.
b. Verses with a spondee in the fifth foot (" spondaic verses ") are rare,
constitit [ atque ocu|lis Phrygi|a agmina | circum[spexit ; Aen. 2, 68.
c. Variety of Effect is produced by the more skilful poets (in this
respect Virgil is first) by varying the proportion of dactyls to spon
dees. An accumulation of dactyls gives an effect of rapidity of action,
or of excitement of feeling; while an accumulation of spondees gives
the effect of slow or difficult motion, of depression, of fear, etc., etc.
Examples of extreme cases follow, the first describing the swift galloping
of horses, the second the fearful aspect of the monster Polyphemus:
Quadrupe'dante pu|trem soni|tu quatit | ungula | campum; Aen. 8, 596.
Monstrum hor|rendum, in|fonne in|gens, cui | lumen ad|emptum ; Aen. 3, 658.
1 The last foot, therefore, though it is convenient to call it a Spondee, will often be
made up of a long syllable plus a short ( i.e. will strictly be a Trochee.
346 Versification [639

d. The best poets aim not to let many words end with the end of a
foot. But in the fifth foot this is not avoided.
urbs an tiqua fu|it, Tyri|I tenu[ere co|1Sni; Aen. 1,13.
640. 1 . Caesura (" cutting ") is the ending of a word before the end
of the foot.
a. The word which thus cuts the foot by its ending may be of any length ;
see urbs, fuit, antiqua, and tenfiere in the verse above.
There may be a caesura in every foot, as in the verse above.
2. Diaeresis ("dividing") is the ending of a word with the end of the
foot (marked tt). Thus in the first foot of
et sororjj et con|iunx, u[na cum | gente tot | annos; Aen. 1, 47.
a. Diaeresis is thus the opposite of Caesura.
641. The Principal Caesura (marked || ) commonly called sim
ply the Caesura, is a caesura which falls at a natural pause in
the verse, not far from the middle.
This natural pause may be for the sake of the sense as
well as the sound, or merely for the sound (i.e. for an agree
able breaking of the long verse into parts).1
a. The Caesura is called Masculine, when it falls after the first sylla
ble of the foot, Feminine (from the softer effect), when it falls after the
second syllable of the foot. See the principal caesuras under b, below.
b. The Principal Caesura is generally in the third foot,3 less frequently
in the fourth.3
In the Third Foot:
turbine | corripu[it || scopu loque m|flxit a cuto ; Aen. 1, 45.
(The caesura here is masculine.)
0 pas|si gravi|ora || da[bit deus | his quoque | finem ; Aen. 1, 199.
(The caesura here is feminine.)
In the Fourth Foot :
Tydi^de, m5[ne Ilia|cis || oc|cumbere | campis ; Aen. 1, 97.
(The caesura here is masculine.)
1 Cf. the following verses from Longfellow's Evangeline, Part I. In the first, the
caesura is for the sense as well as the sound. In the second it is for the sound only.
Columns of pale blue smoke, [| like clouds of incense arising.
Sweet was her breath as the breath || of kine that feed in the meadows.
2 Technically called penthcmimeral, i.e. after thefifth half.
3 Technically called hephthemimcral, i.e. after the seventh half.
642] Dactylic Pentameter 347
c. Sometimes there are two or even three Caesuras. And it may be
impossible to say which is the most important one.
exper|tl ; || revo|cate ani|mos, || maes|tumque timorem ; Aen. i, 202.
Insig|nem || pie|tate || vi|rum || tot ad|ire la bores; Aen. 1, 10.
Note 1. In order not to leave the parts of the verse unbalanced, a caesura in the
fourth foot is often accompanied by another in the second foot,l as above, or by a diaer
esis, with natural pause of sense,2 in the first or second foot, as in
ast ego Q quae di|vurifincS|do || re|glna Io|visque; Aen. 1, 46.
in pup|pim ferit ; $ excuti|tur, || pro|nusque ma|gister; Aen. 1, 115.
Note 2. When a diaeresis with sense-pause falls at the end of the fourth foot, it is
called the Bucolic Diaeresis.s
die mihi, | Damoe|ta, || cu|ium * pecus ? Q An Meli|boei? Eel. 3, t.
Note 3. The Romans regularly made a slight pause at the end of a verse, as is
shown by the fact that a vowel in that place was ordinarily not slurred (646) into an
initial vowel in the next verse.
Carthajgo Itali|am con|tra || Tibe|rinaque | longS
Ostia, I dives olpum || studi|isque'as[perrima | belli; Aen. 1, 12 and 13.
Note 4. Hypermetric (i.e. over-measure) Verses. Occasionally a poet puts an extra
syllable at the end of a verse, slurring it into a vowel beginning the next verse. The
slurring is in this case called Synapheia ("joining").
iacte|mur, doce|as: || ig|nari homi numque lo|c9rumqne
erra|mus; Aen. 1, 332.

The Dactylic Pentameter

642. The Dactylic Pentameter 6 is an hexameter with a pause
replacing the second long syllable of the spondee in the third
and sixth feet.
a. The Pentameter is regularly used in alternation with the Hexameter.
The two together form the Elegiac Stanza."
b. In the first half of the Dactylic Pentameter, spondees may be used
in place of Dactyls. In the second, only Dactyls are possible.
c. The first half always ends with a long syllable, and this syllable
always ends a word.
1 Technically called trithemimeral, i.e. after the third half.
2 Though the words Caesura and Diaeresis may apply to any foot (see 640, 1, a),
they are ordinarily used of verse-pauses only, as in the present section.
8 Because especially used by the bucolic (i.e. pastoral) poets.
* The first syllable of cuium is long, though the vowel is not. (Pronounce cui-ium ;
see 29, 2, a.)
6 The name, which is ancient, is wrong. The verse is really a twice-clipped Hexameter.
6 Also called Elegiac Distich (" distich " means " containing two verses ").
348 Versification [642

d. The scheme of the Elegiac Stanza is therefore as follows :

f Hexameter: _cc|_oc|_v7o|_oc|_t^|_ii
{ Pentameter: _o-o|_r^|_ A |_^|_^|^A
Hexameter: sponte su|a car[men nume|ros veni|ebat ad | aptos
Pentameter : et quod | tempta|bam A | scribere | versus e|rat A ; Ov.
Trist. 4, io, 25-26.
e. Variety of effect is sought, and division of words between feet is made, in the
Pentameter, as in the Hexameter (639, ct d).
/. In Ovid, the last word of the Pentameter is generally one of two syllables.
g. In Ovid, the sense is usually complete at the end of each stanza.
643. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into feet in reading, without
reference to word-accent or sense, as in 645, 1.

Relation of Ictus to Accent

644. The writers of the Dactylic Hexameter generally made accent
and ictus fall together in the last two feet, as in conderet j urbem ; Aen. 1, 5.
I / /1 /
a. A monosyllabic ending like prae|ruptus a|quae mons, Aen. 1, 105, is rare,
and is meant always to produce an unexpected and striking effect.
645. With regard to the Roman way of reading the feet in which
the ictus fell upon syllables that did not have the accent, there are two
opinions, and consequently two systems of reading.
1 . First System. When accent and ictus fell upon different syllables,
the former was completely lost. Thus, in the two following verses from
Ennius and Horace, the words ordinarily pronounced antiquis, austerum,
and studio are, upon this system, to be pronounced antiquis, austerum,
and studio :
moribus I anti'quis res | stat Ro|mana vi risque ; Enn. Ann. 425.
molliter | auste rum studijo fal|lente la|borem; Sat. 2, 2, 12.
a. This system of reading (" scanning ") was until recently almost universal,
and is still the one generally used.
2. Second System.1 When accent and ictus fell upon different sylla
bles, both were heard, the latter being, however, the lighter of the two,
so that the essential character of the word was not changed.
a. Similarly sense-stress may fall upon a syllable that does not have
the ictus.
1 The one preferred by the authors of this grammar.
645] Ictus and Accent 349
b. In the following examples, ictus is represented by a circle (or, if
lighter, by a point), while accent and sense-stress are represented by
dasKes (thus / or ' , the shorter ones indicating lighter stress). Where
ictus and accent fall together, only one sign is used.
o I . /I • / I I O Io
moribus | anti|quis res | stat Ro mana vi|risque; Enn. Ann. 425.
o 1 . /[ . / 1. 10 10
molliter | auste|rum studi|o fal lente la|borem; Sat. 2, 2, 12.
c. The effect of this separation of accent (as well as of sense-stress)
from ictus may be illustrated from modern poetry, in which it is fairly
frequent, and occasions no trouble to any reader. Examples will be seen
in all but the first, second, and fifth of the following verses (in these
three, accent and ictus fall together) :
Somewhat | back from the | village | street,
O t Or O t .
Stands | the old-fa|shioned coun [ try-seat ;
Ol t ' O t .
Across I its an|tique por|tico ;
Longfellow, Old Clock on the Stairs.
O t . / t o I O tO
Only an | unseen | presence | filled the | air ;
Longfellow, Hawthorne.
O I O t • tO
So it I is ; yet | let us | sing
O t . 1 / I
Honor | to the | old bow-|string ; Keats, Robin Hood.

/ . t r . t .1/ O t
Well hath | he done | who hath | seized hap|piness

/ . 1 ' O t Oi/Ol o
He doth I well too, | who keeps | that law | the mild
/ - | .1 . 1 / o 1 ' o
Birth-god|dess and | the aus|tere fates | first gave ;
Matthew Arnold, Fragment of an Antigone.
d. As a practical matter in using this system, it is best at first to give a strong word-
accent, and to try to avoid giving verse-ictus. Our mental constitution being what it is,
a light verse-pulse (as upon " and " in the last verse from Arnold) will almost inevitably
be given ; and this is all that ought ever to be given in such a case.
If the pronunciation is truly quantitative (see 36, 37), it will be comparatively easy to
keep word-accent as in prose. To this end, it will be a help to the student to read slowly
and very tranquilly, until he has become familiar with the flow of the verse.
350 Versification [646

PRONUNCIATIONS TO BE NOTICED, THOUGH NOT

PECULIAR TO POETRY
646. Slurring.1 As in daily speech (34, i), a final vowel or diph
thong followed by a word beginning with a vowel or h was slurred or
run into the vowel of the following word.2
This was done so completely that no appreciable extra time was
taken, even in the case of a long vowel or diphthong. Only the quality
of the sound was clearly heard. The resulting quantity was entirely
that of the initial vowel of the following word.
647. Hiatus ^having the mouth open") is the opposite of slurring,
i.e. it is the giving of a vowel sound in full at the end of a word, before
an initial vowel or h. (It may be marked thus : X .)
1. It is regularly used in the case of the Interjections o, ah, heu, pro.
0 pater, | S X homi|num re|rumque ae[terna pojtestas; Aen. 10, 18.
2. It is occasionally used in other words after the principal caesura, or
before a stop, or anywhere before Greek words (rarely otherwise).
et ve|ra inces|su patu|it dea. X | nie ubi | matrem; Aen. 1, 405.
quid strait? | aut qua [ spe X ini|mica in | gente mo|ratur ? Aen. 4, 235.
tune il le Aene|as, quem | Dardani|d X An|chisae; Aen. 1, 617.
648. Semihiatus, or Half Hiatus, is the giving of half of a long vowel
sound (namely a corresponding short sound), instead of slurring com
pletely, at the end of a word before an initial vowel, or vowel with h.
victor a|pud rapi|dum Simo|enta sut [ Hid [ alto ; Aen. 5, 261.
a. Ae is the only diphthong that admits Hiatus or Half Hiatus.
649. Iambic Shortening. The poets, especially the comic, satiric,
and epigrammatic poets, often availed themselves of the tendency in
popular speech to shorten a long syllable after an accented short syllable
(change of kj to ww. See 28, 5, note).
til cavf I ne minu|as; tu, | ne ma|ius faci]as id; Sat. 2, 3, 177. (CavS for cave.)
650. Syncope ("cutting-out") is the omission of a short unaccented
vowel.
excide|rant ani|md; manet | alta | mente re|postum (for repositum) ; Aen. 1, 26.
1 Technically called by the Greeks and Romans Synaloepha, or smearing together.
The word Elision (Elisio) is used only by the later Roman Grammarians.
2 The final vowel, or vowel with m, was not cut out.
654] Pronunciations Peculiar to Poetry

PRONUNCIATIONS PECULIAR TO POETRY

651. Unconscious Compression of Syllables of Extra Length. It often
happens that a syllable, besides containing a long vowel, contains a
consonant, or even two consonants, at the end, as in ac-tus, sanc-tus.
A similar thing may happen at the end of a word before another begin
ning with a consonant, as in deos Latid, Aen. 1, 6. In daily speech,
there was additional length in such cases. In verse, there must have
been (as in modern verse in similar cases) an unconscious compression
of each sound, which would bring the whole into the time belonging to
the syllable in the regular march of the verse. This, however, would
still leave the vowel perceptibly different from a short vowel.
652. Occasional Use of Old-fashioned Pronunciations. The Roman
poet occasionally employed pronunciations which, though once in regular
use, had passed away in daily speech :
1. In place of the pronunciations mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, the old
pronunciations mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, might be used (28, 3).
musa mi|hj cau|sas memo|ra, quo ] numine | laeso; Aen. 1, 8.
2. In place of such regular pronunciations as arat, videt, erat, peteret,
ferar, amor, etc., the old pronunciations arat, videt, erat,1 peteret, ferar,
amor,2 pater, etc., might be used (26, note), especially in the caesura.3
qui tene|ant, nam in|culta vi|det, homi|nesne fe|raene; Aen. i, 308.
Pergama | cum pete|ret in|conces|sosque hyme|naeos ; Aen. 1, 651.
et dis I cara fe|rar et | vertice | sidera | tangam ; Met. 7, 61.
omnia | vincit A[m§r: et | nos ce[damus A|mori ; Eel. 10, 69.
3. In the Third Person Plural of the Perfect Indicative Active an old
penult with short e (-grunt) is occasionally used by the poets.4
obstipu|I, stetf|runtque co|mae et vox | faucibus | haesit; Aen. 2, 774.
653. Employment of Pronunciations Coming into Use in Daily Speech.
Common speech tended to shorten the i before -us in Pronominal Genitives
(21, note). The poets sometimes take advantage of this pronunciation,
unlus [ ob no|xam et furi|as A|iaci9 0|ilei; Aen. 1, 41.
654. Lengthening of Syllables Short in Daily Speech.3 In the first
place (" thesis ")5 of any foot, a syllable which had never regularly been
1 Similarly subilt, Aen. 8, 363, but for a different reason (152, 3, note). Virgil uses
these long forms in -t only in the first syllable (" thesis ") of the second, third, or fourth foot.
2 Puer of Ecl. 9, 66, which never had the long e in speech, is to be explained by 654.
8 This usage is technically called Diastole, or " drawing out."
* Technically called " Systole," or " dra-wing together? i.e. shortening.
6 The accented part of the foot. The remainder is called the " arsis."
 352 Versification [654

long in daily speech might be lengthened.1 This happens especially

with the enclitic -que, and the endings -a, -er, -is, -us, and -ur.2
limina|qug lau|iusque de|i, to|tusque mo|veri; Aen. 3, 91.
dona de|hinc au|io gravi|a sec|toque ele|phanto ; Aen. 3, 464.
per ter|ram, et ver|sa pul[v|s in|scribitur | hasta; Aen. 1, 478.
et di|repta do|mus et | parvi | casus I|uli; Aen. 2, 563.
litora I iacte tur odi|is Iu|nSnis a|cerbae ; Aen. 1, 668.
655. SeparationofaMutefromaFollowingLiquid. The mute may be pro
nounced with the preceding vowel, adding a unit to the time, instead of be
ing pronounced, as usually, in the same impulse with the liquid (14, 2, note).
aut tere|brare ca|vas ute|ri et temp|tare la|teb-ras ; Aen. 2, 38. (Contrast
tum levis | haut ul|tra late[bras iam | quaerit i|mago; Aen. 10, 663.)
656. 1. Consonantal i and u Pronounced as Vowels. Consonantal i
and u may be pronounced more fully, becoming vowels (2).
nunc mare | nunc silu|ae ( ww| A); Epod. 13, 2. (Siluae for silvae.)
2. Vowels i and u Pronounced as Consonants. The vowels i and u may
be compressed, thus becoming consonants (2). This pronunciation throws
the preceding consonant back into the preceding syllable, and makes that
syllable long, even if in ordinary pronunciation it is short.
aedifi|cant sec|taque in|texunt | ab-iete | costas ; Aen. 2, 16. (Pronounce ab-yete.)
conub|io iun|gam stabi|li propri|amque di|cabo; Aen. 1, 73. (Pronounce
conub|yo.)
657. Inventions of New Pronunciations. For a few words that had
to be used in poetry, but were difficult or impossible in their ordinary
pronunciation, a new one might be devised. Thus Virgil has Asiae in
Aen. 3, 1, but Asia in 7, 701; Italiam in 1, 2, but Kali in 1, 109; Pria-
miden in 6, 494, but Prlameia in 2, 403.
658. Contraction of Vowels.3 Difficult words are sometimes made
possible to use through the contraction of two vowels. Thus iUonei
in Aen. 1, 120; alveo in 6, 412 ; scio in 3, 602 ; dehinc in 1, 131 (contrast
dona de|hinc in 3, 464).
659. Tmesis (" cutting in two "). A poet often obtains variety, and
sometimes can employ a word not otherwise possible to use, by cutting
a compound into two parts. Thus hac celebrata tenus (hactenus cele-
brata), Aen. 5, 603 ; super unus eram (supereram would be impossible in
the Dactylic Hexameter); Aen. 2, 567.
1 Most of the syllables so lengthened come before a natural pause, generally the caesura.
2 Occasionally also with -ul, -ut, -it, as in prociil, Aen. 8, 98 ; caput, 10, 394 ; facit,
Ed- 7, 23- 8 Technically called Synizesis, or Synaeresis, a taking-together.
 Part VI

APPENDIX

THE ROMAN CALENDAR

660. The Romans divided time, as we do, by years, months, days,
and hours.
661. A given year as date was indicated either:
1. By the names of the consuls in the Ablative Absolute with cdn-
mlibus (see first example in 421); or, less commonly
2. By the number of the year as reckoned from the supposed date of
the founding of the city (753 b.C.).
r.nno trecentensimo quinquagensimo post Romam conditam, in the three hundred
andfiftieth year after thefounding of Rome ; Rep. 1, 16, 25.
a. To convert to our reckoning, subtract from 754 (upon the principle explained in
f-x>tnote 4 below). Thus the date in the example above is 754 — 350 = 404.
662. The months were Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius,
[uniua, Iulius, Augustus, September, October, November, December.1
a. The names Iulius, July, and Augustus, August, were first given under
Augustus, in honor respectively of Julius Caesar and Augustus himself.
Before this time these months were called respectively Quinctilis and Sextilis.2
663. After the reform of the Calendar by Julius Caesar in 46 b.C., the
number of days assigned to the various months was as now.
664. Days were reckoned from three fixed points in the month : the
Kalends, or first day, and the Nones and Ides, respectively the seventh and
tifteenth days in March, May, July, and October, the fifth and thirteenth in
r i - e other months 3 (Kalendae, Nonae,4 fdus, abbreviated K. or Kal., Kon., Id.) .
1 Originally adjectives. Thus (mensis) Ianuarius.
2 The Roman year originally began with March. Hence the old names of Quinctilis
(fifth month), and Sextilis (sixth), and the names of the remaining months (September,
the seventh month, October, the eighth, November, the ninth, December, the tenth).
8 Before the reform of the calendar, March, May, July, and October were reckoned as of
3 1 days each, February of 28, and the rest of 29. The greater length of the first-mentioned
months is the reason why the Nones and the Ides were put correspondingly later in them.
4 So called because it was the ninth day, by the Roman way of reckoning (which
includes the day reckoned to), before the Ides. Thus the 7th is the ninth day back in
the row 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.
353
354 Appendix [665

665. The various days of the month are reckoned as such and such
a day before one of these fixed points. The day immediately before the
fixed points was so named, namely pridie (Kalendas, Nonas, or Idiis),
the day before (the Kalends, etc.). Other days were designated by their
number before the fixed points, both days being counted in the reckoning.
Thus, while January 31 was pridie Kal. Feb. (the day before the first of
February), January 30 was dies tertius ante Kal. Feb. (the third day
back in the row — 30, 31, 1). The case is similar with the days before
the Nones or Ides.
Hence the rule for changing a modern date (except the day immedi
ately before a fixed point, or pridie) is :
1. For days before the Nones or Ides, add one to the date of the
Nones or Ides in the given month, and subtract the given number.
Thus Jan. 2 = 5 (date of Nones in Jan.) + 1 — 2 = the 4th day
before Non. Ian.
2. For days before the Kalends, add two 1 to the number of days in
the month concerned, and subtract the given number.
Thus Jan. 28 equals 31 + 2 — 28 = the 5th day before Kal. Feb.
666. The grammatical form for the Kalends, Nones, and Ides as
dates is the Ablative of the Time at Which (439). Thus Kalendis
Februarys, (on) February 1st.
667. For the other days two forms are in common use. Thus :
Jan. 29 = quarto (die ante) Kal. Feb. = IV Kal. Feb., or
Jan. 29 = ante diem quartum Kal. Feb. = a. d. IV Kal. Feb.
a. The second way is perhaps descended from an original ante (diS quarto)
Kalendas Februarias, before {namely on the fourth day) the Kalends of Feb
ruary. The Ablative would easily pass over to the Accusative, in consequence
of its position immediately after ante.
668. The second of these forms is the more common. It is thought
of as one word, so that ex, in, or ad may be used before it. Thus " from
January 29 to November 3 " = ex a. d. IV Kal. Feb. usque ad a. d. Ill
Non. Nov.
669. In leap year an extra day was inserted after Feb. 24 (a. d. VI
Kal. Mart.), which was called the sixth day over again, i.e. a. d. bissextum
Kal. Mart. Hence leap year was called annus bissextflis. After this
day the reckoning went on as usual.
1 This is because one has to reckon in not only the last day of the month, but also
the first of the next (Kalendae). Hence the days reckoned are 28, 29, 30, 31, 1, so that
28 is the fifth day back.
671] Calendar 355
a. Before the reform, the year (35 5 days) was short of the true year. To
make up for the difference, an extra month (mensis intercalaris) of varying
length (27 or 28 days), was inserted by the Pontifices after the 23d of
February, the rest of February being then omitted.
670. 1 . The day was divided into two sets of twelve hours each, one
running from sunrise to sunset, the other from sunset to sunrise. Thus
the first hour is hora prima (at night hora prima noctis), the second, hora
secunda, the third, hora tertia, etc. But it is often impossible for us to
tell whether, for a given hour, the Romans meant at the end of that
hour (hora prima = seven o'clock), or within that hour (hora prima =
between six and seven).
a. The hours differed greatly in length at different times in the year.
2. In camp the night was divided into four watches of three Roman
hours each (vigilia prima, secunda, tertia, quarta).

671. Calendar
DAYS OF MARCH. MAY, JULY, JANUARY, AUGUST, APRIL, JUNE, FEBRUARY
OURMONTH OCTOBER DECEMBER SEPTEMBER, NOVEMBER
1 Kal. Kal. Kal. Kal.
2 a.d. VI Non. a.d. IV Non. a.d. IV Non. a.d. IV Non.
3 a.d. V u a.d. III itu a.d. Ill 11a a.d. Ill
4 a.d. IV prid. prid. prid. 11
5 a.d. III Non. Non. Non.
6 prid. a.d. VIII Id. a.d. VIII Id. a.d. VIII Id.
7 Non. a.d. VII a.d. VII ua a.d. VII U
8 a.d. VIII Id. 11
a.d. VI a.d. VI u a.d. VI u
9 a.d. VII a.d. V a.d. V a.d. V u
10 a.d. VI tt" a.d. IV Utt a.d. IV uit a.d. IV au
X1 a.d. V " a.d. III U a.d. 111 u a.d. III "
12 a.d. IV prid. prid. prid.
13 a.d. III 11 Id. Id. Id.
M prid. a.d. XIX KaL a.d. XVIII Kal. a.d. XVI KaL
15 Id. a.d. XVIII "11 a.d. XVII 11if a.d. XV tt
16 a.d. XVII KaL a.d. XVII a.d. XVI « a.d. XIV a
I7 a.d. XVI » a.d. XVI a.d. XV a.d. XIII a
a a.d. XV a.d. XV 1111 a.d. XIV u a.d. XII tt
19 a.d. XIV u a.d. XIV a.d. XIII u a.d. XI
20 a.d. XIII U a.d. XIII a.d. XII a.d. X tt
21 a.d. XII a.d. XII a.d. XI a.d. IX it
22 a.d. XI a.d. XI ti a.d. X a.d. VIII »tt
23 a.d. X tf a.d. X a.d. IX 11tt a.d. VII tt
24 a.d. IX " a.d. IX " a.d. VIII a.d. VI
35 a.d. VIII a.d. VIII u a.d. VII tt" a.d. V[VI
26 a.d. VII tt a.d. VII tt a.d. VI tt a.O. ivrv
27 a.d. VI 11u a.d. VI a a.d. V a.d. III[IV »
28 a.d. V " a.d. V a.d. IV tttt prid.Kal.ril
29 a.d. IV ft a.d. IV a.d. III tt [prid. Kal.]
30 a.d. III tf a.d. III " prid. Theforms in brackeis
31 prid. prid. are for leafyear.)
356 Appendix [672

ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES

Roman Measures of Money and Weight
672. The original unit of weight and value was the as, a mass of
copper, weighing nearly one pound, or libra. This was divided into
twelve ounces (unciae).
The following table shows the more important fractions :
Ounces Ounces
i semiuncia (semis = a half) 7 septunx (septem unciae)
1 uncia 8 bessis or bes
2 sextans (a sixth) 9 dodrans (dequadrans, a fourth off)
3 quadrans (a fourth) ; also terfincius io dextans (desextans, a sixth off)
4 triens (a third) n deunx (deuncia, an ounce off)
5 quincunx (quinque unciae) 12 as (of money, libra of weight)
6 semis or semissis (a half)
673. 1. For any kind of thing, these terms may be used to express fractions having
12 for a denominator. Thus \ = sextans, = quincunx, | = dodrans.
2. Fractions having 1 for a numerator may be indicated by an ordinal with or without
pars. Thus 4 = dimidia or dimidia pars (also dimidium), J = tertia or tertia pars.i
3. Fractions having a denominator greater by 1 than the numerator may be indicated
by a cardinal number with partes. Thus § = duae partes.
4. Other fractions are indicated by the cardinal for a numerator and the ordinal for
a denominator. Thus f = duae quintae.
5. Fractions may also be indicated by addition. Thus § = dimidia et quarta (J + 1).
6. Proportions in inheritances are indicated by any of these forms, with ex. Thus
heres ex asse (Plin. Ep. 5, 1, 9), heir to the whole; heres ex parte quarta (ibid.), heir to
a fourth; her5s ex triente, heir to a third, etc.
674. The as was reduced till, at the close of the Second Punic War,
it weighed but one ounce. Its value was then a little less than two cents
(or about \d. English).
675. 1 . Other coins were the sestertius, a small silver coin, the denarius,
a larger silver coin, and the aureus or gold piece. The sum of a thousand
sesterces was called sestertium (originally a Genitive Plural," of sesterces").
The word nummus (" coin ") is often attached to sestertius or aureus. When
used alone, nummus stands for sestertius. The table is as follows : 1
i\ asses = 1 sestertius2 (a little more than 4 cents, or 2d. English money).
4 sestertii = 1 denarius8 (a little more than 16 cents, or id. English money).
25 denarii = 1 aureus (about ?4,or 17J. English money),
iooo sestertii = 1 sestertium (about $42.50, or ^8 10s. English money).
1 Since values frequently changed, a table can be only approximate.
2 Semis tertius, the third part a half i.e. two whole numbers + ^.
> Denarius, a piece of money containing ten asses (deni) ; cf. " tenpence."
677] Weights and Measures 357
2. The reckoning of money was by the sesterce and its multiples, as
follows :
a) Up to 2000, by sesterces. Thus triginta sestertii, 30 sesterces; trecentl
sestertii, 300 sesterces.
b) From 2000 to 1,000,000, by thousands of sesterces, i.e. by sestertia. The
numeral used was generally the distributive (sometimes the ordinal). Thus :
bina (duo) sestertia, 2000 sesterces.
c) From 1,000,000 upwards, by hundreds of thousands of sesterces, i.e. by
centena milia sestertium.i The numeral used was the adverb. Thus deciens
centena milia sestertium = ten times 100,000, = I,ooo,ooo.
But the words centena milia are generally omitted, and sometimes even the
word sestertium. Thus deciens sestertium, or simply deciens, = 1,000,000.
3. The sign HS was used for either a sestertius or a sestertium, the difference being
ordinarily shown by the use of cardinal and distributive numerals respectively. With an
abbreviation in Roman numerals, a straight mark drawn above means sestertia. Thus :
HS XXX = triginta sestertii, 30 sesterces
HS XXX = tricesima sestertia, 30,000 sesterces

676. Roman Measures of Length

4 digit! (" finger-breadths ") = 1 palmus (" palm ")
4 palm! = 1 pes (n.6 inches)
2J pedes = 1 gradus (" step ")
2 gradus = 1 passus (" pace ") 2
1000 passus = mille passus or mflle passuum (" mile ")
a. A stadium (from a Greek word) was an eighth of a Roman mile (a little less than
our furlong).
b. The unit of measure of land was a iugerum (translated acre, but really a little lesn
than § of an acre), an area of 240 by 120 feet.

677. Roman Measures of Capacity

Liquid Measure Dry Measure
1 \ cyathi 8 =1 acetabulum 1\ cyathi = 1 acetabulum
2 acetabula = 1 quartarius 2 acetabula = 1 quartarius
2 quartan! = 1 hemina 2 quartan! = 1 hemina
2 hemlnae = 1 sextarius (about a pint) 2 hemlnae = 1 sextarius
6 sextan! = 1 congius 8 sextarii = 1 semodius
4 congii = 1 urna 2 semodi! = 1 modius (about a peck)
2 urnae = 1 amphora
20 amphorae = 1 culleus
a. A sextarius (pint) thus contained 12 cyathi (f x 2 x 2 x 2).
1 Sestertium is here a true genitive plural.
2 One double pace, that is, one easy step with each foot, or a little less than 5 feet.
Hence mille passus, or mille passuum = a little less than one English mile. (The Roman
mile has been estimated at 4851 feet. The English mile = 5280 feet.)
a Cyathus meant originally small ladle.
358 Appendix [678

ROMAN NAMES
678. 1. The Roman regularly had three names: the praenomen, or
first name (our " given name "), the nomen, or principal name, and the
cognomen, or additional name. Thus :
praenomen ndmen cognSmen
Marcus Tullius Cicero
a) The praendmen indicates the individual, the nomen the gens,
or largest unit of related persons (our " last name "), the cogno
men, the family, or smaller unit of related persons.
b) The nomen always ends in -ius. Thus Tullius, Cornelius, Iulius.
c) The cognomen originally indicated some personal peculiarity. Thus Scaevola,
left-handed, Cicero, chick-pea, or wart, Balbus, lisping. But of course these names
lost all personal application as they were passed down, just as have our names
White, Brown, Armstrong, etc.
2. A second cognomen was sometimes added to commemorate an
achievement. Thus Cornelius Scipid Africanus (conqueror of Africa),
a. From the Fourth Century, this was often called an agnomen.
3. The praenomina, with their abbreviations, are :
A. Aulus L. Lucius Q- Quintal
App. Appius M. Marcus Sex. Sextus
C. Gaius M'. Manius Ser. Servius
Cn. Gnaeus Mam. Mamercus Sp. Spurius
D. Decimus N. Numerius T. Titus
K. Kaeso P. Publius Ti(b). Tiberius
4. An adopted son took the name of the adoptive father, adding his
own gentile name in the form of an adjective in -anus. Thus L. Aemilius
Paulus, being adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, became P. Cornelius Scipid
Aemilianus.
a. But irregular methods ultimately came into fashion. Thus when Pliny
the Younger, whose name had been P. Caecilius Secundus, was adopted by his
uncle C. Plinius Secundus, instead of taking the name C. Plinius Secundus
Caecilianus (as by the older usage he would have done), he took the name
C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus.
5. Women had no praenomina, but were called by the feminine form
of the name of the gens. Thus the daughter of Marcus Tullius Cicero
was called Tullia. If there were two daughters, they were distinguished
as the "elder" and the "younger" (thus Tullia Maior, Tullia Minor).
If there were other daughters, the later-born were called "third"
(Tertia), "fourth" (Quarta), etc.
679] Hidden Quantity 359

HIDDEN QUANTITY
679. List of words containing a long vowel before two or more con
sonants. Omitted are :
1) Words containing ns, nf, nx, net, before which the vowel is always long. See 18.
2) Verbs in -sco, in all but three of which the vowel before the suffix is long. See 23, 4.
3) Shortened Perfect forms in -asse, -Ssse, -isse, -asti, -esti, -Isti, etc., in which the
vowel before s is always long. See 168, 1, and footnote 1.
4) Nominatives in -x, -ps, -bs, before which the vowel is long if long in the other cases,
as lex, Gen. legis ; Cyclops, Gen. Cyclopia ; plebs, Gen. plgbis.
5) Derivatives in -atrum, -abrum, etc. See 23, 2.
6) Compounds, derivatives, and parallel formations of words containing a long vowel.
See 22, 24. Thus orno implies ornamentum, luxus implies luxuria, actum
implies actus (-us), actio, actor, etc.
7) Proper names and rare words.
But several words belonging under 5), 6), or 7) are, for greater con
venience, included in the list.
actum, actio, etc. crabro furtim, furtum lemna
Adrastus Cressa fustis lemniscus
Africa Afri, etc. crlbrum Lemnos
Alcestis crispus geographia lentiscus
Alecto crusta, crustum georgicus libra
aliptes glossarium lictor
Amazon delubrum lubricus
anguilla demptum Hellespontus luctus
Aqulllius dextans hibiscum lustrum, expiation
aratrum Diespiter hillae lustro
ardeo, arsl, etc. digladior hornus lfixl
athla dlgredior horsum luxus, luxury
athletes dodrans Hymettus Lycurgus
atrium dolabra
Atrius Illyria malle, etc.
ebrius inlustris Manlius
b5rdus emptum, etc. introrsum MSrcellus
Bedriacum esca involucrum Marcus
bestia Esquiliae Iolcus Mars
bimestris Etriiscus istorsum Mars!
bovillus existimo iuglans massa
Buthrotum iurgo mercennarius
fastus, court-day iustus Metrodorus
candelabrum favilla iuxta metropolis
catella, chain festus mllle
catillus fix!, fixum labrum, basin mllvus
chlriirgus flabrum lamna Mostellaria
cicatrix -fllxi, -flictum lapsus mucro
Clncius fluctus lardum muscus
clatri fluxf, fluxus Lars
Clytem(n)estra forma larva Narnia
Cnossus fractum, fragmen latrina narro
comestum -frixl latro, bark nasturclum
cdmptum, etc. fructus lavabrum nefastus
cQntio frustra lavacrum nixus
corolla frustum lSctum (from legO) nOlle, etc.
360 Appendix [679

nondum plostellum rixa actum, etc.

nongenti Pollio roscidus Tartessus
nonne Polymestor Roscius Tecmessa
Norba posca rostrum tectum, etc.
nullus pragmaticus Roxane Telmessus
nundinae Praxiteles ructo, ructus, etc. Temnos
nuntio, nuntius prendo rursum texi
nuptum, nuptiae primordium rusticus theltrum
nutrio, nutrix princeps Thressa
priscus Sarsina Tillius
Oenotria pristinus sceptruta traxi
olla Procrustes segnis tristis
Onchestus promptum, etc. semestris
Opusr Opuntis prorsum semuncia ullus
orca pr5sper, prosperus sescOncia fincia
orchestra prostibulum Ses5stris undecim
ordior Publicola sesqui- usurpo
ordo publicus sestertius
orno Publius Sestius vallum, vallus
oscitans pulvillus Sestos vasculum
osculum, osculor purgo simulacrum vastus
Ostia pustuhi sinistrorsus Vectis
ostium sistrum vegrandis
oylllus quartus sSbrius Velabrum
Oxus quincunx Socrates Venafrum
quindecim solstitium vendo
pactum (from pango) quinquatrus sospes vernus
palimpsestus qulnque, quintus sospita vestibulum
paluster Qulntilianus, Quin stagnum vestigium
pastillus tus stilla vlxi, victus
pastum, pastor, etc. quorsum striixi, structum, etc. villa
pegma sublustris villum
periclitor rastrum suillus vindemia
Permessus reapse sumptum, etc. Vipsanius
Phoenissa rectum, rector, etc. surculus viscus
pistum, pistor, etc. regnum sursum
plectrum rex! Sutrium Xenophon, -ontis
 CATALOGUE OF VERBS

Most verbs of the First and Fourth Conjugations with principal parts of the usual
type are omitted ; and of the Denominatives of the Second Conjugation and the Incho
atives only a few are given. Compounds are not noted unless they present some
irregularity in formation, or a change in the form of the root-syllable (see 41, 42). In
such cases the variation is shown under the simple verb. Some compounds are also
given separately with cross references to the simple verb, but generally only at the begin
ning of the list (compounds of ad and con), by way of illustration. A prefixed hyphen
indicates that the form occurs only in compounds (not necessarily in all compounds).
Forms which are unusual and may well be omitted by a student in memorizing
the principal parts are inclosed in ( ). Some very rare forms are omitted entirely.
Perfect forms in -ii beside -ivi are not ordinarily noted. For the forms making up
the Principal Parts, especially the fourth, see 150. When the Future Active Participle
does not follow the formation of the Perfect Passive Participle (182), it is added in ( ).
Forms inclosed in [ ] indicate the derivation or formation. The abbreviations Dep.,
Def., Impers., Irreg. are used for Deponent, Defective, Impersonal, and Irregular.
abdo, see do. adlicio, see -licio.
abicid, see iacio. adluo, see -luo.
abigo, see ago. adnuo, see -nuo.
abluo, see -luo. adolesco, see alescd.
abnuo, see -nuo. adquird, see quaero.
aboled, destroy, abolere, abolevl, abo- adsided, see sedeo.
litum. agndsco, see nosco.
abolesco, vanish, abolescere, abolevi. ago, move, agere, egi, actum. So
abripio, see rapio. circum-ago, per-ago, praeter-ago,
abacido, see caedo. sat-ago. But ab-igo, ab-igere, ab-
abstineo, see teneS. egl, ab-actum ; so ad-igo, amb-igo,
accendo, see -cendo. ex-igo, prod-igo, red-igo, sub-igo,
accido, see cado. trans-igo. Note also cog5, cogere,
accido, see caedo. coegl, co-actum ; dego, degere.
accipio, see capio. aio, say. Def. 198, 1.
accumbo, see -cumbo. albeo, be white, albere [albus].
actio, sharpen, acuere, acui, acutum. albesco, become white, albescere.
addo, see do. alescd, grow up, alescere. co-alesco,
adficio, see facio. co-alescere, co-alui (old colesco,
adfligo, see -fligo. colescere, colu!) ; ad-olesco, grow
adgredior, see gradior. up, ad-olescere, ad-olevi, ad-ultum ;
adhibeo, see habeo. ex-olesco, ex-olescere, ex-olevl, ex-
adicio, see iacio oletum ; in-olesco, sub-olesco in
adigo, see ago. Pres. Syst. only. See also obsolesco.
adimo, see emo. algeo, be cold, algere, alsi.
adipiscor, see apiscor. algesco, get cold, algescere, alsi.
361
362 Catalogue of Verbs

aid, nourish, alere, alui, altum (alitum caleo, be warm, calere, calui, caliturus.
mostly late), calesco, grow warm, calescere, -calui.
ambid, see ed. candeo, be bright, candere, candui.
amicid, wrap about, amicire, amictum. candesco, grow bright, candescere,
(Perf. rare, amicul, amixi.) -candui.
amd, love, -are, -avi, -Stum, caneo, be gray, canere [canus].
amplector, see -plector. canesco, grow gray, canescere, canui.
angd, choke, angere. CanS, sing, canere, cecini (Partic. sup
aperio, open, aperire, aperui, apertum. plied by cantatum from canto).
apiscor, attain, apisci, aptus sum. Dep. Cpds. -cino, -cinere, -cinui (rarely
ad-ipiscor, ad-ipisci, ad-eptus sum ; -cecini).
so ind-ipiscor, red-ipiscor. capesso, seize eagerly, capessere, capes-
arced, confine, arcere, arcui. Cpds. sivl, capessitum [capio, 212, 4].
-erceo, -ercere, -ercul, -ercitum. capio, take, capere, cepi, captum. So
arcessd (sometimes zccersb), sendafter, ante-capio. But in other cpds.
arcessere, arcessivi, arcessitum. -cipio, -cipere, -cepi, -ceptum.
aided, blaze, ardere, arsi, arsurus. cared, be without, carere, carui, caritu-
ardescd, blaze up, ardescere, arsi, (ex)- rus.
arsurus. carpd, pluck, carpere, carpsi, carptum.
ared, be dry, arere. Cpds. -cerpo, -cerpere, -cerpsi, -cerp-
aresco, become dry, arescere, (ex)-arui. tum.
argud, make known, arguere, argui (ar- caved, take care, cavere, cavi, cautum.
gutus, Adj.). cedo, give. Def. 200.
ard, plough, -are, -avi, -atum. cedd, depart, cedere, cessT, cessum.
arripio, see rapid, -cello, rise, -cellere (celsus, Adj.).
ascendo, see scando. Ante-, ex-, prae-, re-,
ascribo, see scribo. -cendd, burn, -cendere, -cendi, -censum
aspergo, see spargo. [*cando ; cf. candeo]. Ac-, in-, sue-,
aspicio, see -spicio. censed, rate, think, censere, censui,
attineo, see teneo. censum.
attingo, see tango. cernd, separate, decide, cernere, crevi,
auded, audere, ausus sum. Semi-Dep. -cretum (certus, Adj., rarely Par-
(Perf. Subj. ausim, 163, 5.) tic).
audio, hear, audire, audlvi, auditum. cied, stir up, ciere, cTvi, citum. But
aufero, see fero. ac-cio, ac-cire, ac-civi, ac-citum ;
augeo, increase, augere, auxi, auctum. other cpds. vary between -cio, -cire,
ave, hail. Def. 200. -citum, and -cieo, -ciere, -citum.
cingd, gird, cingere, cinxl, clnctum.
balbutio, stammer, balbfltire. clareo, be bright, clarere [clarus].
bibo, drink, bibere, bibi, potum. clarescd, grow bright, clarescere.
blandior, coax, blandirl, blandltus sum. clauded, limp, claudere (also claudo,
Dep. [blandus]. claudere) [claudus].
claudd, shut, claudere, clausi, clausum.
cadd, fall, cadere, cecidi, casurus. Cpds. -cludo, -cludere, -clusi, -clu-
Cpds. -cid5, -cidere, -cidi, -casum. sum.
caedo, cut, caedere, cecidi, caesum. clepd, steal, clepere, clepsi (rare verb),
Cpds. -cldo, -cidere, -cidi, -cisum. clued, be said, cluere (rare verb).
 Catalogue of Verbs 363

coepi, began, coeptum (early Latin credo, believe, credere, credidl, credi-
coepio, coepere). Def. 199, 2. tum [cf. do],
coerceo, see arceo. crepo, rattle, crepare, crepui (crepavi
cognoscd, see nSscS. rare), crepitum.
cSgo, see ago. cresco, grow, crescere, crevi, cretum.
colo, cultivate, colere, colui, cultum. cubo, recline, cubare, cubui (cubavi
combtiro, see uro. rare), cubitum.
comminiscor, devise, comminisci, com- cudo, strike, cudere, -cudi, -cusum.
mentus sum. Dep. [men- in me- -cumbd, recline, -cumbere, -cubui,
min-i, etc.]. -cubitum. Ac-, con-, etc.
cSmd, comb, comere, compsi, comptum cupio, desire, cupere, cupivi, cupitum.
[emo] . curro, run, currere, cucurri, cursum.
comperio, see -periS. In cpds. Perf. -cucurri and -curri,
compesco, restrain, compescere, com- the latter more common.
pescui.
complector, see -plector. debed, see habeo.
compleo, see -pleo. iecet,itis/tting,deceie,decait. Impers.
comprimo, see premo. defendo, see -fendo.
concidd, see cado. dego, see ago.
concidd, see caedS. deleS, destroy, delere, delevi, deletum.
concino, see canS. demo, see emo.
concipio, see capio. dicS, say, dicere, dixi, dictum. Imperat.
concludo, see claudo. die, 164, 1.
concupisco, long for, -cupiscere, -cu- diribeo, see habeS.
pivi, -cupitum [cupio]. discd, learn, discere, didici.
conditio, see quatio. discutid, see quatio.
condo, establish, condere, condidl, con- distinguo, see stinguS.
ditum [cf. do]. Perf. of abs-condo, divido, divide, -videre, -visi, -visum.
abs-condi. dS, give, dare, dedl, datum. Irreg.
conficio, see facio. 197. So circum-do, satis-do, etc.
confiteor, see fateor. But ab-do, ab-dere, ab-didi, ab-
confringo, see frango. ditum ; so ad-do, con-do, credo,
congredior, see gradior. de-do, di do, e-do, in-do, ob-do, per-
congruo, agree, congruere, congrui do, pro-do, red-do, sub-do, tra-d5,
[con-gruo; cf. in-gruo]. ven-do ; in these is contained also,
conicio, see iacio. in part, another verb -do, meaning
coniveo, blink, conivere (conixl, co- put, and related to facio.
nlvi, rare), doceo, teach, docere, docui, doctum.
conquiro, see quaero. doled, suffer, dolere, doluT, doliturus.
conspicio, see -spicio. domS, tame, domare, domul, domitum.
constituo, see statuo. donniS, sleep, dormTre, dormivi, dormi-
consulo, consult, consulere, consulul, tum.
consultum. duco, lead, ducere, duxi, ductum. Im
contineo, see teneo. perat. due, 164, 1.
contingo, see tango,
coquo, cook, coquere, coxi, coctum. edo, eat, esse, edi, esum (but com-estum
corripio, see rapio. beside com-esum). Irreg. 196.
364 Catalogue of Verbs

edo, see do. ferio, strike, ferire.

egeo, want, egere, egui. Ind-igeo, fero, carry, ferre, tuli (tetuli), latum.
ind-igere, ind-igui [ind-, 51, 9]. Irreg. 193. So cpds., e.g.
elicio, see -licio. ad-fero, at-tuli, al-latum (ad-la-
emineo, project, eminere, eminui [cf. tum) ;
eminus]. au-fero, abs-tuli, ab-latum ;
emo, take, buy, emere, emi, emptum. con-fero, con-tuli, con-latum (col-
Co-emo, inter-emo or inter-imo, per- latum) ;
emo or per-imo, ad-imo, dir-imo, dif-fero, dis-tulT, di-latum ;
ex-imo, red-im5. Cf. also demo, ef-fero, ex-tali, e-latum ;
take away, demere, dempsi, demp- In-fer5, in-tuli, in-latum ;
tum ; so como, promo, sumo. of-fero, ob-tuli (rarely obs-tull),
eo, go. Ire, ii (Ivi), itum. Irreg. 194. ob-latum.
So in cpds., except ambio, go re-fero, re-ttuli (43, 1), re-latum
around, ambire, ambivi, ambitum. (rel-latum).
esurid, be hungry, esurire, esuriturus ferveo, boil, fervere (fervi, ferbui rare),
[ed6, 212, 3]. (fervo, fervere, poetical),
excello, see -cello. fido, trust, fldere, fisus sum. Semi-
excutio, see quatio. Dep.
exerceo, see arceo. figo, fix, figere, fixi, fixum.
exolesco, see alesco. findo, split, findere, fidi, fissum.
experior, see -perior. fingo, mould, fingere, finxi, fictum.
explodo, see plaudS. finio, finish, flnire, finivi, flnitum
exstinguo, see -stingno. [finis].
exuo, take off, exuere, exui, exutum fid, fieri, factus sum, used as passive
[ex-u5; cf. ind-uo]. of facio. Irreg. 195.
flecto, turn, flectere, flexl, flexum
facesso, fulfil, depart, facessere, fa- [flec-to, 168, £].
cesslvi (facessi), facessltum [facio, fleo, weep, flere, flevi, fletum.
212, 4]. -fligo, dash, -fligere, -flixl, -flictum.
facio, make, facere, feci, factum. Im- Ad-, con-, etc.
perat. fac, 164, 1 ; faxo, faxim, 163, flo, blow, flare, flavi, flatum.
5. For passive, see fio. So bene- flored, bloom, florere, florui [flos].
facio, cale-faci5, etc., 31, 3; 218, 3, flud, flow, fluere, fluxi (fluxus, Adj.).
But in prepositional cpds. -ficio, fodio, dig, fodere, fodi, fossum.
-ficere, -feci, -fectum. (for), speak, fan, fatus sum. Def.
fallo, deceive, fallere, fefellT (falsus, 198, 3.
Adj.). Re-, Perf. re-felli. [*fal-no, foveo, warm, cherish, fovere, fovi,
168, D.I fotum.
farcio, stuff, farcire, farsi, fartum frango, break in pieces, frangere, fregi,
(farctum rare). Cpds. -fercio or fractum. Cpds. -fringo, -fringere,
-farcio, -fertum. -fregi, -fractum.
fateor, con/ess, faterl, fassus sum. Dep. fremo, growl, fremere, fremui.
Cpds. -fiteor, -fiteri, -fessus sum. frendo, crush, frendere, fresum (fres-
faveo, favor, favere, favi, fautum. sum).
-fendo, strike, -fendere, -fendi, -fensum. frico, rub, fricare, fricui, frictum (fri-
De-, of-. catum).
 Catalogue of Verbs 365

frigeo, be cold, frigere. imbuo, wet, imbuere, imbui, imbutum.

frigesco, grow cold, frigescere, -frixi. immineo, project, imminere [cf. e-
fruor, enjoy, frui, fructus sum (fruitu- mineo].
rus). Dep. indigeo, see egeo.
fugio, flee, fugere, fugi, fugiturus. indulged, be kind, indulgere, indulsi.
fulcio, support, fulcire, fulsi, fultum. induo,/»r on, induere, indui, indutum
fn\geb, flash, fulgere, fulsi (fulgo, ful- [ind-uo ; cf. ex-uo].
gere, poet.), ingruo, fall upon, ingruere, ingrui
fundo, pour, fundere, fudi, fusum. [in-gru5 ; cf. con-gruo.]
fungor, perform, fungi, functus sum. inquam, say. Def. 198, 2.
Dep. inveterasco, become fixed, -ascere, -avi
furo, rage, furere. [in-vetero, vetus].
iubeo, order, iubere, iussi, iussum.
gaudeo, rejoice, gandere, gavisus sum. iungo, join, iungere, iiinxl, iu^ctum.
Semi-Dep. iuvo, aid, iuvare, iuvi, iutum (iuvatii-
gemo, groan, gemere, gemul. rus, but ad-iiiturus).
gero, carry, gerere, gessl, gestum.
gigno, beget, gignere, genu!, genitum labor, slip, labi, lapsus sum. Dep.
[gi-gn-o, 168, B\. lacesso, excite, lacessere, lacessivi,
glisco, swell, gliscere. lacessitum [lacio ; cf. -liceo].
gradioi, step, gradl, gressus sum. Dep. laedo, hurt, laedere, laesi, laesum.
Cpds. -gredior, -gredi, -gressus. Cpds. -lido, -Hdere, -lis!, -lisum.
lambo, lick, lambere (lambuT rare),
habeo, hold, habere, habui, habitum. langueo, be weak, languere.
Cpds. -hibeo, -hibere, -hibui, -hibi- languesco, become weak, languescere,
tum. Cf. also praebeo (rarely prae- langui.
hibeo), praebere, praebul, praebi- largior, lavish, largiri, largitus sum.
tum ; debeo(fromde-hibeo),debere, Dep. [largus.]
debul, debitum. lateo, lie hid, latere, latui.
haereo, stick, haerere, haesi, haesurus. lavo, bathe, lavare, lavi, lautum or
haurio, drain, haurire, hausi, haustum lotum (rarely lavatum). (Early and
(hausurus). (Imperf. haunbant, poet, lavo, lavere.) K-lavo. Cf.
164, 4.) also -luo.
have, see are. lego, collect, read, legere, legl, tectum.
hebeo, be blunt, hebere. So ad-lego, inter-lego, prae-lego, re-
hisco, gape, hiscere [hio]. lego, sub-lego, trans-lego; pel-lego
horreo, bristle, be afraid, horrere, or per-lego (also pel-ligo, per-ligo).
horrui. But intel-lego, intel-legere, intel-
lexl, intel-lectum, and so neg-leg5
iaceo, lie, iacere, iacul. (rarely Perf. intellegT, neglegi) ;
iacio, throw, iacere, ieci, iactum. So di-ligo, dMigere, di-lexi, di-lectum ;
super-iacio. But in other cpds. col-ligo, col-ligere, col-legi, col-lec-
-icio, -icere, -ieci, -iectum. For the tum, and so de-lig5, e-ligo, se-lig5.
length of the first syllable in cpds., libet (early lubet), it is pleasing, libere,
see 30, 1. libuit or libitum est. Impers.
ici, struck, ictum (Tco, Icere, early liceo, befor sale, licere, licui.
Latin). liceor, bid, liceri, licitus sum. Dep.
 366 Catalogue of Verbs

licet, it is permitted, licere, licuit or misereor, pity, misereri, miseritus sum

licitum est. Impers. (misertus). Dep.
-licio, lure, -licere, -lexi, -lectum. miseret, excites pity in, miseruit. Im
[*lacio ; cf. lacesso.] So ad-licio, pers.
in-Hcio, pel-licio (per-licio). But mitto, send, mittere, misi, missum.
e-licio, e-licere, e-licui, e-licitum. molo, grind, molere, molui, molitum.
lingo, lick, lingere, linxi, linctum. moneo, advise, monere, monui, moni-
lino, besmear, linere, lev!, litum. tum.
linquo, leave, linquere, liqui, -lictum. mordeo, bite, mordere, momordi, mor-
liqueo, be fluid, liquere, licui. sum.
liquor, befluid, liqui. Dep. morior, die, mori (sometimes morlri,
loquor, speak, loqui, locutus sum. 165, i), mortuus sum (moriturus).
• Dep. Dep.
lflceo, be light, lucere, luxi [lux], moveo, move, movere, movi, m5tum.
ludo, play, ludere, liisl, lfisum. mulceo, stroke, mulcere, mulsi, mulsum.
lugeo, mourn, lugere, luxi. mulgeo, milk, mulgere, mulsi, mulsum.
luo, loose, atone for, luere, lui.
-luo, wash, -luere, -lui, -lutum [lavo]. nanciscor, get, nancisci, nactus or
Ab-, ad-, con-, etc. nanctus sum. Dep.
nascor, be born, nasci, natus sum. Dep.
madeo, be wet, madere, madui. need, slay, necare, necavi (necui rare),
maereo, grieve, maerere. necatum. E-neco (e-nico rare), e-
mild, prefer, malle, malui [volo]. necare, e-necul, e-nectum (e-nicavi,
Irreg. 192. e-necatum rare),
mando, chew, mandere, mandi, man- necto, bind, nectere, nexui (nexi),
sum. nexum [nec-to, 168, £].
maneo, remain, manere, mansi, man- neglego, see lego,
sum. neo, spin, nere, nevi.
medeor, remedy, mederi. Dep. nequeo, see queo.
memini, remember. Def. 199, 1. ninguit (ningit), it snows. Impers.
mentior, deceive, mentiri, mentitus niteo, shine, nitere, nitui.
sum. Dep. nitor, lean on, strive, niti, nixus or
meted, deserve, merere, merui, men- nisus sum.
tum; also Dep. mereor. no, swim, nare, navi.
mergo, dip, mergere, mersi, mersum. noceS. harm, nocere, nocui, nocitum.
metior, measure, metiri, mensus sum. nolo, will not, nolle, nolui [volo].
Dep. Irreg. 192.
inetS, mo7v, metere, messui, messum. nosco (early gnosco), know, noscere,
metuo, fear, metuere, metui. novi.notum. (Forn5sse, noram, etc.,
micd, shake, micare, micui. So e-, in see 163, 2.) So inter-, per-, prae-,
ter- ; but di-mico, -are, -avi (ui ignosco ; but agnitum from agnosco
rare), -atum. (also ad-gnosco) and cognitum from
mingo, make water, mingere, minxl, cognosco.
mictum. nubo, veil, marry, nubere, niipsl, nup-
minuo, lessen, minuere, minui, minQ- tum.
tum. -nuo, nod, -nuere, -nut Ab-, ad- (an-),
misceo, mix, miscere, miscui, mixtum. in-, re-.
 Catalogue of Verbs 367

obliviscor, forget, obllviscl, oblitus patior, endure, pati, passus sum. Dep.
sum. Dep. per-petior, per-peti, per-pessus.
oboedid, obey, oboedire, oboedivi, oboe- paved, fear, pavere, pavi.
ditum. pario, strike, pavire.
obsolescd, wear out, go out of use, pecto, comb, pectere, pexi, pexum [pec-
obsolescere, obsolevi, obsoletum to, 168, £].
[alesco or soleo, or both], pello, strike, pellere, pepull, pulsum
occuld, hide, occulere, occulul, occul- [*pel-no, 168, £>]. In cpds. Perf.
tum [*celo ; cf. celo, celare]. -pull ; re-ppuli (43, 1) from re-pello.
ddi, hate, osurus. Def. 199, 1. pended, hang down, pendere, pependi.
oled, smell, olere, olul. In cpds. Perf. -pendi, Partic. pr5-
operid, cover, operire, operui, oper- pensum.
tum. pendo, weigh, pendere, pependi, pen-
oportet, it is necessary, oportere, opor- sum. In cpds. Perf. -pendi.
tuit. Impers. percello, cast down, -cellere, -culT, -cul-
opperior, see -perior. sum.
drdior, begin, ordiri, orsus sum. Dep. perdo, destroy, perdere, perdidi, perdi-
orior, arise, oriri, ortus. Dep. Pres. tum [do],
Syst., except Infin., usually of Third pergo, see rego.
Conj., 165, 1. -perio, -perior :
com-perio, learn, -perire, -peri,
paciscor, bargain, pacisci, pactus sum. -pertum.
Dep. de-peciscor, de-pectus, or de- com-perior, learn, -periri, -pertus
paciscor, de-pactus. sum. Dep.
paenitet, it repents, paenitere, paeni- ex-perior, try, -periri, -pertus sum.
tuit. Impers. Dep.
palleo, bepale, pallere, pallul. op-perior, await, -periri, -pertus
pando, open, pandere, pandi, passum or sum. Dep.
pansum. Dis-pend5 or dis-pando, re-perid, find, re-perire, re-pperi
dis-pessum or dis-pansum ; ex (43, 1), re-pertum.
pands, ex-pansum (expassum). peto, seek, petere, petivi or petii, peti-
pango, fix, pangere, panxi and pegi, tum.
pactum. Also Perf. pepigl, agree ; piget, it grieves, pigere, piguit or pigi-
cf. paciscor. Cpds. -ping5, -pingere, tum est. Impers.
-peg!, -pactum, pingo, paint, pingere, pinxi, pictum.
pared, spare, parcere, peperc! (parsl), pinso, pound, pinsere, pinsui (pinsii),
parsflrus. Com-perc5 (com-parco), pistum (pinsitum).
com-persi. placed, please, placere, placui, placi-
pared, appear, parere, parui. tum. Com-placeo, per-placeo, but
pario, bring forth, parere, peperl, par- dis-pliceo.
tum (paritfirus). plangd, strike, plangere, planxi, planc-
partior, divide, partiri, partitus sum. tum.
Dep. [pars.] plaudd, clap, plaudere, plausi, plausum.
parturio, be in travail, parturire, par- Ap-plaudo, circum-plaudo, but ex-
turivi [pario, 212, 3]. plodo, sup-pl5do.
p&sco, feed, pascere, pavl, pastum. plectS, plait, plectere, plexi, plexum
pateo, be open, patere, patul. [plec-to, 168, E\.
368 Catalogue of Verbs

-plector, embrace, -plecti, -plexus sum. quaero, seek, quaerere, quaesivl, quae-
Dep. Am-, circum-, com-, situm. Cpds. -quiro, etc.
-pled, fill up, -plere, -plevi, -pletum. quaeso, beseech, quaesumus. Def. 200.
Com-, ex-, im-, etc. quatio, shake, quatere, , quassum.
jitico,fold up, plicare, -plicavi or -plicui, Cpds. -cutis, -cutere, -cussi, -cussum.
-plicatum or -plicitum. queo, can, quire, quivl, quitum, 194, c.
pluit, it rains, pluere, pluit and pluvit. queror, complain, queri, questus sum.
Impers. Dep.
polleo, be powerful, pollere. quiescd, become quiet, quiescere, quievi
polliceor, see liceor. (quietus, Adj.).
polluo, soil, polluere, pollui, pollutum
[cf. lues]. rado, scrape, radere, rasT, rasum.
pono, place, ponere, posul, positum rapid, seize, rapere, rapui, raptum.
[*po-s(i)no]. Cpds. -ripio, -ripere, -ripui, -reptum.
porricio, offer in sacrifice, porricere, For sur-ripio early Latin has sur-
porrectum [iacio ; form influenced rupio, Perf. surrupuit and surpuit.
by porrigo]. rego, direct, regere, rexi, rectum. Cpds.
posco, demand, poscere, poposci. -rigo, -rigere, -rexi, -rectum. But
possideo, see sedeo. pergo (*per-(ri)go), pergere, per-rexl,
possum,^ aW<r,posse,potuI. Irreg.191. per-rectum ; surgo (early sur-rigo),
potior, become master of, potiri, potitus surgere, sur-rexi, sur-rectum ; rarely
sum. Dep. [potis.] Pres. Syst., ex porgo beside por-rigo.
cept Infin., usually of Third Conj., reminiscor, remember, remimsci. Dep.
16S, 1. [memini.]
poto, drink, potare, potavi, potum reor, think, reri, ratus sum. Dep.
(potatum). repo, creep, repere, repsi.
praebed, see habeo. rideo, laugh, ndere, risi, rlsum.
prandeo, lunch, prandere, prandi, pran- rigeo, be stiff, rigere, rigui.
sum. rodo, gnaw, rodere, rosi, rosum.
prehendo, seize, prehendere, prehendl, rudo, roar, rudere.
prehensum, and prendo, prendere, rumpo, break, rumpere, rupi, ruptum.
prendi, prensum [prae-hend5, pre ruo, tumble down, ruere, rul, -rutum
hendo (p. 9, footnote), prendo]. (ruiturus).
premo, press, premere, pressl, pressum.
Cpds. -primo, -primere, -pressl, -pres saepio, hedge in, saepire, saepsT, saep-
sum. tum.
proficiscor, set out, proficisci, profec- Balid, leap, salire, salul. Cpds. -silio,
tus sum. Dep. [facio.] -silire, -silul (early -sului; late -silii,
profiteor, see fateor. -silivi).
promined, project, prominere, prominu! salve, hail. Def. 200.
[cf. e-mineo]. sancio, ratify, sancire, sanxi, sanctum.
promd, produce, promere, prompsi, sapid, taste of, be wise, sapere, sapTvi.
promptum [emo]. Cpds. -sipio, etc.
pudet, it shames, pudere, puduit or sarcio, repair, sarcTre, sarsi, sartum.
puditum est. Impers. scabo, scrape, scabere, scabi (rare verb).
pungo, prick, pungere, pupugi, punc- scalpo, scrape, scalpere, scalpsi, scalp-
tum. In cpds. Perf. -punxi. tum.
 Catalogue of Verbs 369

scandd, climb, scandere. Cpds. -scendo, spuo, spit, spuere, -spul, -sputum,
-scendere, -scendl, -scensum. statuo, set, statuere, statul, statutum
scindo, tear, scindere, scidi, scissum. [status]. Cpds. -stituo, -stituere,
scio, know, scire, sclvi, scitum. (Im- -stitui, -stitfltum.
perf. scibam, Fut. sclbo, 164, 4, 5.) stemo, spread out, sternere, stravT,
scisco, approve, sciscere, sclvi, scitum. stratum,
scnbo, write, scrlbere, scrips!, scriptum. sterto, snore, stertere, -stertui.
sculpo, carve, sculpere, sculps!, sculp- stinguo, prick, put out, stinguere,
tum. -stinxi,-stinctum. Distingu6,ex-,etc.
seco, cut, secare, secul, sectum. sto, stand, stare, steti, staturus. In
sedeo, sit, sedere, sedi, sessum. Cir- cpds. Perf. -stiti, e.g. prae-stitl,
cum-sedeo, super-sedeo ; but in other re-stiti, etc. ; but anti-steti, circum-
cpds. -sideo, -sidere, -sedl, -sessum. steti, super-stetT. Partic. prae-stitum
sentio, feel, sentlre, sens!, sensum. and prae-statum.
sepelio, bury, sepelire, sepelivi, sepul- strepo, make a noise, strepere, strepui.
tum. strideo, hiss, strldere, stridl. Also
sequor,yo//ira),sequl,secutus sum. Dep. strTdo, stridere.
sero, sow, serere, sevl, satum. Cpds. stringo, bind tight, stringere, strinxl,
-sero, -serere, -sevl, -situm [*si-so, strictum.
168, B, a], struo, heap up, struere, struxi, striictum.
sero, entwine, serere, -serul, sertum. studeo, be eager, studere, studui.
serpo, creep, serpere, serpsl. stupeo, be dazed, stupere, stupui.
sldo, sit down, sidere, -sedl (-sidi), suadeo, advise, suadere, suasi, suasum.
-sessum. suesco, become used, suescere, suevT,
sileo, be still, silere, silui. suetum.
sino, permit, sinere, sivi or siT, situm. sugo, suck, sugere, suxi, suctum.
(Perf. Subj. slris, sirit beside sieris, sum, be, esse, fui. Irreg. 153.
slveris; 163, 5.) sumo, take, sumere, sumpsi, sumptum
sisto, set, sistere, stitT, statum. [emo].
soleo, be wont, solere, , solitus suo, sew, suere, suT, sutum.
sum. Semi-Dep. surgo, see rego.
BOlvo, release, solvere, solvi, solutum
[luo]. taceo, be silent, tacere, tacui, tacitum.
Bono, sound, sonare, sonul, sonaturus Cpds. -ticeo, etc.
(sono, sonere, rare), taedet, /'/ disgusts, taedere, taesum est.
sorbeo, suck in, sorbere, sorbuT (rarely Impers.
-sorpsT). tango, touch, tangere, tetigi, tactum.
spargo, scatter, spargere, sparsT, spar- Cpds. -tingo, -tingere, -tigi, -tactum.
sum. Cpds. -sperg5, -spergere, tego, cover, tegere, texi, tectum,
-spersl, -spersum. temno, scorn, temnere, -tempsi, -temp-
sperno, scorn, spernere,sprevi, spretum. tum.
-spicio, spy, -spicere, -spexi, -spectum tendo, stretch, tendere, tetendl, tentum
[speci5, a rare verb]. Aspicio (ad-), (late tensum, but extensum, osten-
circum-, con-, etc. sum common beside extentum,
splendeo, shine, splendere. ostentum). In cpds. Perf. -tendl.
spondeo, promise, spondere, spopondl, teneo, hold, tenere, tenui. Cpds.
sponsum. In cpds. Perf. -spondi. -tineo, -tinere, -tinul, -tentum.
37o Catalogue of Verbs

tergeo, wipe, tergere, tersl, tersum vado, go, vSdere, -vasl, -vasum.
(tergo, tergere rare), valeo, be strong, valere, valul, valitu-
terd, rub, terere, trivi, tritum. rus.
terreo, frighten, terrere, terrul, terri- veho, carry, vehere, vexl, vectum.
tum. vello, tear, vellere, velli (vulsi), vul-
texo, weave, texere, texui, textum. sum.
timed, be afraid, timere, timui. vendo, sell, vendere, vendidi [venum
tmguo (tingo), wet, tinguere, tinxi, + do].
tinctum. veneo, be sold, venire, venii [venum +
tollo, lift, tollere, sus-tull, sub-latum. eo].
[*tol-no, 168, D.] venio, come, venire, veni, ventum.
tondeo, shear, tondere, , tonsum. vereor, revere, vereri, veritus sum.
Perf. of at-tondeo, at-tondi; of de- Dep.
tondeo, de-tondi (de-totondi rare). vergo, slope, vergere.
tono, thunder, tonare, tonui (at-toni- verro, sweep, verrere, verri, versum.
tus, Adj.). Usually impers. Early vorro, etc.
torqueo, twist, torquere, torsi, tortum. verto, turn, vertere, vertl, versum.
torreo, dry up, torrere, torrul, tostum. Early vorto, etc. Dep. re-vertor
traho, draw, trahere, traxi, tractum. has Perf. re-verti.
tremo, tremble, tremere, tremul. vescor, feed upon, vesci. Dep.
tribuo, assign, tribuere, tribui, tributum. vesperasco, become evening, vespera-
trudo, shove, triidere, trusi, trusum. scere, vesperavT [vesper],
tueor, watch, tueri, tutus sum. Dep. veto, forbid, vetare, vetul, vetitum.
tumeo, be swollen, tumere. Early voto, etc.
tundo, pound, tundere, (tutud!), tun- video, see, videre, vldi, visum,
sum or tusum. Perf. re-ttudl (43, i) vigeo, be strong, vigere, vigu1.
from re-tundo. vincio, bind, vincire, vinxi, vinctum.
vinco, conquer, vincere, vici, victum.
ulciscor, avenge, ulcisci, ultus sum. viso, look after, visere, visi, visum,
Dep. vivo, live, vivere, vixl, -victum.
urgeo,/«j^, urgere, ursJ. volo, wish, velle, volui. Irreg. 192.
uro, burn, Crere, ussl, ustum. Note volvo, roll, volvere, volvi, volutum.
amb-5r5 and (formed after this) vomd, vomit, vomere, vomui, vomi-
comb-uro. tum.
iitor, use, fltl, usus sum. Dep. voveo, vow, vovere, vovi, votum.
 INDEX
The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is mentioned. The principal abbreviations
used are: aor. =aorist or aoristic; cl. — clause; constr. = construction ; cpd. = compound ;
compar. = comparative ; dep. = dependent; det. = determinative ; descr. = descriptive ; end. =
ending; expr. = expressed ; ftn. = footnote ; imper. = imperative ; imperf. = imperfect ; ind. =
indirect; n.=note; narr. =narrative; opt. = optative ; partic.= participle; reg. = regularly ;
subj. = subjunctive ; vol. = volitive ; w. = with; wh. = which.

a, ab, abs, in cpds., 51, i ; use, 405 and a, Adverbs, Form : 124-127,293; compar.,
406, i, 2, 408. 128,129; numeral advs., 133. Syntax:
Ablative, Form: abl. sing., decl. Ill, in -e 294-295 ; forces in comparison, 300 ;
or -i, 75, a, 88, 2 ; of adjs., 118, 1 ; in two comparatives, 301.
advs., 126, 1, 3, 4 ; abl. pi., decl. I, in Adverbial accusative, p. 209, ftn. 2 ; clauses,
-abus, 66,4; decl. IV, in -ubus, 97, 1. 239; prefixes, 51, 218, 1.
Syntax: see synopsis, 404. Adversative conjunctions, 310.
Absolute tenses, 467, 2, 477, b, c. Adversative idea, expr. by abl. absolute,
Absolute use of trans, verb, 289, a. 421, 5; by partic., 604, 2; by qui-cl. w.
Abstract nouns, form, 206, 2, 4, 207, 2 ; subj., 523, w. indie, 569, a ; by cum-cl.
denned, 240, 5 ; w. concrete meaning, w. subj., 525, 526; w. indie, 569, a; by
ib., a; pi. of, 103, n., 240, 5, b. quamquam-cl. w. indie, 556-
Absurd question, w. an, 236. Aeneas, decl., 68.
-abus, in decl. I, 66, 4. aeque ac, 307, 2, a; w. si, w. subj., 604, 3.
ac, see atque. Agency, nouns of, 80, 1, 206, 1.
Accent, 31-33 ; in verse, 645. Agent,expr.by abl. w.ab,406,i ; by dat.,373.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 418-420. Agreement, of nouns, prons., adjs., and
Accordance, abl. of, 414; ut-cl. of, 562- partics., 316-327; of pred. depending on
Accusative, Form: acc. sing.end., 62, 1, n.; infin. w. putor, videor, etc., 590, 2 ; poetic
in -im, 75, a, 88, 1 ; in -a in Greek nom. in pred. of infin. for ace, 692, a;
nouns, 95, examples ; acc. pi. in -is, 75, «, agreement of verbs, 328-332 ; agreement
88, 3, 118, 4; acc. as adv., 126, 5, 6, 7; w. antecedent of rel., 328, 1, a.
acc. pi. neut. of adj. of decl. Ill, 118, 1. aio, conj., 198, 1 ; ain, form, 231, 1, b), n. 3.
Syntax: see synopsis, 379. aliquis, aliqui, decl., 142, 2 ; use, 276, 2.
" Accusing," constrs. w., 342, 343, 397, 1. aliter atque (ac), 307, 2, a.
Acquiescence, how expr., see Consent. alius,decl., 112, a ; meaning,279; asrecipr.
Act anticipated, antequam, etc., w. subj., pron., 265 ; w. atque or ac, 307, 2, a.
507, 4, a)-d) ; w. indie, ib., n., 571. Alliteration, 632, 19.
Action, nouns of, 206, 2, 3. Alphabet, 1.
Active, see Voice. alter, decl., 112, a, c; meaning, 279, 1, 2 ;
Actuality (fact), subj. of, 520, 521. as recipr. pron., 265.
ad, form in cpds., 51, 2 ; w. ace, 380, 364, Alternative questions, 234.
6 ; cpds. of, w. dat., 376. amb-, am-, 51, 3, 218, 1, b).
adeo, meaning, 302, 7; adeo ut, 521, 2, a. ambo, decl., 131, 2, n. ; use, 277.
-ades, suffix, 207, 3. amo, conj., 155.
Adjectives, Form: decl. land II, 110-112; amplius, w. abl., or without effect on case,
decl.III,113-118; comparison,! 19-123; 416, d.
pronom. adj.,112,143; derivation of, 208 an, 234; in absurd questions, 236.
-210; numerals, 130-133; verbal adjs., Anacoluthon, 631, 8.
146. Syntax: adj. denned, 221 ; used Analogy, working of, 315, 4.
w. force of advs., 245 ; as substs., 249, Anaphora, 632, 5.
250 ; pred., 230 ; comparison of, 241 ; Anastrophe, 631, 14.
denoting a part, 244 ; agreement of, Anchises, decl., 68.
320 ; case w. nihil, aliquid, etc., 346, a ; Andromache, decl., 68.
neut. pi. of, w. gen., 357. Animals, gend. of names of, 59, 2.
admoaeo, censtr. w., 351. animi, in mind, 449, c.
37'
372 Index

Answers, forms of, 232, 233. bonus, decl., 110; compar., 122.
ante, form in cpds., 51, 4; w. ace, 380; bos, decl., 92.
cpds. of, w. dat., 376 ; in expressions of Brachylogy, 631, 2.
time, w. ace, 380, example, or abl., 424, Bucolic diaeresis, 641, c, n. 2.
example ; as adv., 303, c.
Antecedent, denned, 281, a; omission of, Caesar, decl., 80, 3 ; Caesares, pi., 103, n.
284, 1 ; incomplete, 521, i,a; repeated, Caesura, 640, 641 ; masc. and fem., 641, a.
284, 4 ; attracted to rel., ib., 6, 327. Calendar, 660-671.
Antepenult, 31, 2. Calends, Kalendae, 664.
antequam or priusquam, w. subj., 507, 4, " Can," " could," how expr., see Capacity.
a)-d) ; w. fut. perf. or fut. indie, ib., n.; Capacity, expr. by potential subj., 516,
w. pres. indie, 571 ; w. past tenses of 517; by possum w. infin., 586.
indie, 550, b. caput, decl., 76, 77, 5 ; gen. of penalty,
Anticipation, expr. by subj., 506-509 ; by 343 ; abl. of penalty, 428, b.
fut. perf. or fut. indie, 507, 4, n. to a)- Cardinal numbers, 130, 131.
d) ; by pres. indie, 571. Cases, form, 61, 62 ; endings, 62-64; ear
Anticipatory subjunctive, 506-509. liest meanings of, 334.
Aoristic tenses, 466, 2, 467, 2 ; of indie, causa, on account of, case, 444, d; w. gen.,
468, n. ; of subj., 470, 2. 339, d; w. gerundive, 612, 1.
" Apodosis," see Conclusion, 573-582. Causal-adversative qui- or cum-cl., in subj.,
Application, gen. of, 354. 523, 625, 526 ; in indie, 569, a.
" Appositive genitive," 341. Cause or reason expr. by abl., 444 ; by abl.
Appositive words, 317, 2; agreement of, absolute, 421, 4 ; by prep, phrases, 444,
319, 1, 320, II ; w. names of towns where, b, c ; by subj. qui- or cum-cl., 523, 525,
whither, whence, 452 ; attracted by dat., 526 ; by indie qui- or cum-cl., 569, a ;
326, 3 ; often put w. a rel., 327 ; acc. in by cl. w. quod, quia, quoniam, or quando,
apposition to a sentence, 395 ; nom. in 555 ; by non quia, non quod, etc., w. subj.,
stead of voe, 401 ; position of, 624, 5. 535, 2, b ; by partic., 604, 2.
apud, w. ace, 380, 454, 4. cavS, in prohibitions, 501, 3, a, 2), 502, 3,
Arsis, p. 351, ftn. 5. b) ; without nS, ib., n. 2 ; w. short -e,
Article, lacking in Latin, 221, e. 28, 2, b).
-as, old gen. sing, in, 66, 1. -c(e), particle, 32, n., 33, 138, 2, c.
-asco, verbs in, 168, F, a, 212, 2. cSlo, constrs. w., 393.
Asides, qui, cum, etc., in, 567. censed, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. cl. of obliga
"Asking," see "Inquiring" and " Request tion or propriety, 513, 5 ; w. infin., 589.
ing." cetera, acc. of respect, 389, a.
Aspirates, 6, 5, 11, 12, 14, 2, n. ceteri, meaning, 279, 1, a.
Assimilation of consonants, 49-51. " Characteristic " and " characterizing
Association of ideas, 315, 2. clause," see Descriptive clause.
Asyndeton, 305, I, a. Charge, gen. of, 342.
at, at enim, etc., 310, 1, a-c. Chiasmus, 628.
atque or ac, 307, 2 ; choice of forms, ib., circa, circum, circiter, w. acc., 380; as
3, c ; used w. idem, alius, etc., ib., 2, a. advs., 303, c.
atqui, 310, 3. circum-, form in cpds., 51, 5 ; w. ace, 380 ;
Attempted action, tenses of, 484. cpds. of, w. ace, 386, 391, 2 ; w. dat.,
Attendant circumstances, abl. of, 422. 376.
Attraction, agreement of prons., adjs., and Circumstances or situation, expr. by abl.,
partics, by, 326, 1-5 ; of verb by, 332 ; 422 ; by abl. absolute, 421 ; by partic.,
adj. attracted into rel. cl., 284, 7 ; ap 604, 2 ; by cum-cl., 524, 525.
positive attracted into rel. cl., 327 ; subj. cis and citra, w. ace, 380.
by attraction, 539. citerior, compar., 123.
Attributive words, 3 1 7, 1 ; agreement, 320,1. Cities, gend. of names of, 58, 2.
audeo, semi-depon., 161. clam, adv., or prep. w. abl. or ace, 458, 2.
audio, conj., 169 ; w. cum-cl., 524, a ; w. Clause, definitions : principal or dep. (sub
partie, 605, 1 ; w. infin., ib., n. ordinate), 224, 1 ; coordinate, 225 ; det.,
aut, 308, 1, 3, a; correlative, 309. p. 260, ftn. 1 ; descr., p. 260, ftn. 2 ; con
autem, 310, 2, a, b; position, 624, 8, b. ditional, 228, 2 ; free, p. 302, ftn. ; subst.,
Auxiliary and principal tenses, 477, c. 238 ; adv., 239 ; individual and general
Auxiliary verb, 163, 164, 8. izing, 576, 577.
Climax, 632, 11.
belli, in war, 449, a. coepi, conj., 199, 2 ; voice of infin. w., ib.
bene, compar., 129. Cognate ace, see Kindred meaning, 396.
 Index 373
cognovi etc., force of tenses, 487. third, 157; fourth, 1 59 ; of depon., 160;
cogo, w. ace, 397, i ; w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; periphr., 162; peculiarities in, 163-
w.infin.,587; w. cl. of actuality,521,3,a). 165 ; variation between conjs., 165 ; of
Collective noun, 240, 3; agreement w., irreg. verbs, 190-197 ; of defect, verbs,
325, 331, 1. 198-200; of impers. verbs, 201.
com-, see con-. Conjunctions, origin, 125; defined, 304;
Combinations of tenses, usual, 476, 477 ; coordinating, 305 and I ; copulative,
less usual, 478 ; mechanical harmony 307; disjunctive, 308; advers., 310;
of subj. tenses, 480; tenses depending inferential, 311; subordinating, 312.
on pres. perf., 481 ; permanent truths Connection, gen. of, 339.
depending on past tenses, 482. conscius, gen. w., 354; dat. w., 363, 1, b).
Command, expr. by imper., 496, 501, 3, b; Consecutive clauses defined, 519, 3, «, 521,
by subj., 601, 3, a, b ; by fut. indie, 572 ; i,e; of ideal certainty, 519, 2, 3 ; of actu
in ind. disc, 538. ality, 521, 1-3.
Common nouns, 240, 2. Consent, expr. by imper., 496; by subj.,
" Common " syllable, 28, 5, n. 531, 1, 2 ; by indie, 571, 572.
commonefacio, commoneo, constr. w., 351. consists, constrs. w., 438, 3.
communis, w. either gen. or dat., 339, c. Consonants, 2 ; classif., 6-0, 12; pronune,
Comparative, case constrs. w., 416, 417; 11; changes of, 47-49 ; stems in, 74, A,
w. quam and qui- or ut-cl., 521, 2, c. 75-86.
Comparatives, decl., 116, 118 ; formation, constituo, w. vol. subj. or infin., 586 and e.
see Comparison. consto, constrs. w., 438, 1, 3, a, b.
Comparison : of adjs., formation,119-123 ; Construction, defined, 314, 3.
forces of degrees, 241,1-4 ; two coTTTpars., consuevl etc., force of tenses, 487.
242 ; comparison., of advs., 128-129 ; consulo, w. dat. or ace, 367-
forces of degrees, 300; two compars.,301. " Contention," w. cum and abl., 419, 4 ; w.
Comparison, imaginative, w. quasi, etc., dat., 363, 2, c); w. ace, 397, 2.
and subj., 504, 3. contentus, w. abl., 438, 4.
Complementary infinitive, defined, 586, a- contra, w. ace, 380 ; w. atque (ac), 307, 2, a.
Complex sentence, 223, 3. Contraction of vowels, 45 ; quantity result
Composition of words, 213-218 ; quantity ing from, 19 ; of vowels, in poetry, 658-
in cpds., 24 ; accent in, 31, 3 ; vowel- Contrast, ut-cl. of, while . . . (yet), 563.
change in, 42 ; assimilation of prep, in, Coordinate clauses, 225.
50, 51 ; redupl. perf. of cpds., 173, D, a. Coordinate sentences, 223, 2.
Composition or material, gen. of, 349. Coordinating conjunctions, 305-311.
Compound sentence, 223, 2. Copula, 230, a.
Compounds of verb and prep., w. dat., 376, Copulative compounds, 216, 1.
377 ; w. dat. and ace, 376, a ; w. ace, Copulative conjunctions, 307, 309.
391, 2; w. dat. or ace, ib., a. coram, abl. w., 407, 1.
con-, com-, form in rnd>, 51, fi; rpds. of, Corrective aut, sive, vel, 308, 3, a ; qnaxu-
w. dat., 376. quam, etsi, tametsi, 310, 7.
" Conative action," tenses of, 484. Correlatives, 144.
Concern, dat. of, 366. Countries, gend. of names of, 58, 2.
Concession of indifference, expr. by imper., credo, w. dat., 362, II ; w. ace, 364, 3.
497, 2 ; by subj., 532, 1 ; by subj. cl. w. cui, pronune, 10, d, 140, a.
quamvis etc., 532, 2. cuius, pronune, 29, 2, a, 140, a.
Concessive, see Concession,and Adversative. cum, prep., in cpds., 51, 6 ; w. soc. abl., 418 ;
Conclusions, see Conditions. mecum, etc., ib., a ; ideas expr. by, 419.
Concrete nouns, 240, 4. cum-clauses: descr. cl. of ideal certainty,
Concrete object for wh., dat. of, 361. 619, 2 ; of actuality, 521, 1 ; descr. cl.
" Condemning," gen. w., 342, 343. of situation, 524 ; of situation, w. caus.
Condensed comparison, 631, 3. or advers. idea, 525 ; purely caus. or ad
Conditional sentence or cl., 228, 2, 577; vers. cl., 526 ; of repeated action, 540 ;
see also Conditions. determining a ti me, 650 and a ; of the
Conditions and conclusions, generalizing time included in the reckoning, 650 and
and individual distinguished, 576 ; three ftn. 2; of equivalent action, 651 ; subst.,
types, 575-581; in ind. dis., 534, 1, b, 536. 553 ; aor. narr. cl. (cum primum), 557, a ;
confido, w. dat., 362, II ; w. abl., 437. cum . . . tum . . . , 664 ; cum in forward-
conicio, quantity of first syll., 30, 1. moving cl., 566; "film inversum," ib., a;
Conjugation of verbs, 54, 145-201 ; of parenthetical cl. anj 'asides," 567; loose
sum, 153-154 ; conjs. distinguished, ly attached descr. cl . 668' free descr. cl.,
148; first conj.. 155 : second, 156; 558: tacit ca -,' d., it., a;
374 Index

general conditions, 577, ftn. 3 ; see also Descriptive compounds, 216, 2.

examples, 579, 581. Descriptive genitive,355 ; abl.,443 ; tenses.
cupio, w. dat. or ace, 367 ; w. gen., 352, 466, 1, a; descr. cl. defined, p. 260, ftn.
3; w. subj., 511, 2; w. infin., 586, 587. 2 ; clauses : see synopses, 499, 543.
cur, w. subj. of obligation, 513, 1, 2; of Desideratives, 212, 3.
natural likelihood, 515, 1, 2. Desire, see Wish, 511, 1.
curo, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. gerundive, despero, w.dat. or ace, 367; w.acc., 391, 1.
612, III. deterior, comparison, 123.
Customary action, tenses of, 484. Determinative cl., p. 260, ftn. 1 ; see syn
opses, 499, 543.
Dactyl, 637 ; dactylic hexameter, 633 ' Dttei miaative-des'.: iptive pronouns, decl..
dactylic pentameter, 642. 137, 138 ; distinctive meanings ol hie.
Dates, how expr., 664-669. iste, Ule. is, and of talis, tantus, tot, 271.
Dative, Form : sing., decl. IV, in -fi, 97. 2 deus, ueci., 71, 5.
decl. V, in -ei or -ei, 100, 1 ; in -S, ib., . Diaeresis, bucolic, 641, c, n. 2.
pi., decl. I, in -abus, 66, 4; decl. IV, 111 Diastole, 664, ftn. j.
-ubus, 97, 1. Syntax : see synopsis, Sb'J. die, imper., 164, 1.
de, in cpds., 24, 2. dtro w. voL cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. infin.. 580 ,
aS, w. aid., 405, 406, 3, 4 ; for gen. of whole, in subj. in cl. of reason, 535, 2, a, n. 3.
346, e ; w. verbs of separation, 408. Dido, decl., 95, b.
debed, moods and tenses of, 582, 3; w, dies, decl., 99 ; gend. 101.
infin., 586. " Difference" or "aversion," abl. w., 412 ;
decet, w. ace, 390, a; w. subj., 513, 5 ; w. poetic dat. w., 363, 2, c).
infin., 585. difficilis, comparison, 120, 2, a.
Declarative sentence or clause, 228, 1. dignus, w. abl., 442; w. subj. cl., 513, 3 ; w.
Declension, 54, 55 ; the five decls. of supine in -u, 619, 2 ; w. infin., 598, 2, c).
nouns, 63 ; endings, 64 ; 1,65-68; II, Diminutive adjectives, 207, 1.
69-73; 111,74-95; IV, 96-98; V,99- Diphthongs, 5 ; pronunc. in Latin, 10-
101 ; nouns variable in, 107 ; of adjs., Direct discourse, explained, 533.
110-118; of comparatives, 116; of Direct object, acc. of, 390, 391.
parties., 117; of numerals, 131; of Direct reflexive, 262, 1.
prons., 134-142. Direction or relation expr. by dat., 362,
Defective nouns, 102-104, 106 ; defect, I—III ; w. ad, in, etc., 384, 2 ; poetic
compar., 123; verbs, 198-201. dat. of direction in space, 375.
" Defining" genitive, 341. dis-, 24, 1, 51, 7, 218, 1, b.
Degree, acc. of, 387. Disjunctive conjunctions, 308, 309.
Degree, cl. determining the, 560, and ftn. 2. " Distance," see Extent of space, ace, 387,
Degree of difference, abl. of, 424. I, and degree of difference, abl., 424.
Oegieon comparison, 119. Distich, elegiac, 642, a, ftn. 6.
'Jeliberation, expr. by subj., 503 ; by pres. Distributive numerals, 133 ; used for car
indie, 571 ; by fut. indie. 572. dinals, 247.
Demand, expr. by vol. subj., 600, 502, 3, a). Distributive pronouns, 142, 278.
" Demonstrative," see Determinative. diii, comparison, 129.
Denominative verbs, p. 98, ftn. 1, 211 ; of doceo, constr. w_ 393 and b, 1).
conj. I, 211, 1, 212, n., 166, 1, 2 ; of domus, decl., 97, 5; doml, loc. form, 71,
conj. II, 211, 3, 167, i,e; of conj. Ill, 6; gend., 98, a ; of place where, whither,
211, 4, 168, H, 1 ; of conj. IV, 211, 2, whence, 449-451 ; w. modifiers, 454.
169, 1. donec, see dum.
Dentals, 7, 2, 12; changes of, 49, 4, 5,8, 10. Double consonants, 11.
Dependent clause, 224, 1 and a, " Double questions," 234.
Depsndent compounds, 216. 3. " Doubt," w. quin, 519, 4, b) ; 521, 3,
Deponent verbs, defined, 145, 160; origi " Dubitativesubjunctive,"see Deliberation.
nally reflexive, 288, 3, £ ; voice meanings dubito, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, b) ; w. antic subj.,
of, 291, a~d; perf. pass, partic.of, w. act. 506, 2.*); of ideal certainty, 519, 4, b) ;
meaning, 602, 1, a. of actuality, 521, 3, b); w. infin., 586.
Deprecated act, w. antequam.ete, and subj., duc, imp^r., 164, 1.
507, 4, d); w. indie, 671. duim, duis, duit, etc., 197, a.
" Depriving,1' abl. w., 408. dum, donec, quoad, w. antic subj., 507, 5;
Derivation of nouns and adjectives, 203- w. fut. perf. or fut. indie, ib.,a; w. pres.
210; derivatives, primary and second indie, 571; determining time up to wh.,
ary, 203; vowel-quantity in, 23, 2. 650andi>; narr.cl.w.,560; determining
Descent, words dem/ting, 207, 3. time during wh., 559 and b; dum cl. of
 375
situation, 559; replacing pres. pass, par- " Exchanging," w. abl., 431 .
tic., 602, 2 ; subj.dum cl.of proviso, 529. Exclamation, acc. of, 399 ; nom. of, ib., a ;
dummodo, in cl. of proviso, 529. infin. of, 596.
duo, decl., 131, 2. Exclamatory sentence, 228, 3; questions,
Duration of time, expr. by acc., 387, II ; 503.
by per and acc., ib., a ; by abl., 440. Exhortation, expr. by vol. subj., 501, 2 ; by
fut. indie, 672.
S, prep., see ex. Explanatory genitive, 341.
ecquis? decl., 141, b; use, 275, 6. Explicative quod-cl., p. 296, ftn.
edo, conj., 196 ; edim, edis, etc., 196, a. Explicit causal or adversative qui- or
efflcio, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. cl. of fact, cum cl.. 523, a, 526.
521, 3, a). exspecto, w. antic subj., 507, 2 ; w. infin.
"Effort," w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a). 593, a.
eged, w. gen., 347 ; w. abl., 425, a. Extent of space, acc. of, 387 ; abl. of, 426, c.
ego, decl., 134; egomet, ib., d. exterus, exterior, extremus, 123.
eius, pronunc. and quantity, 29, 2, a; extra, w. acc., 380.
137, a ; eius modi, descr. gen., 355.
Elegiac stanza, 642, a. fac, imper., 164, 1.
Elision, see Slurring. facilis, comparison, 120, 2 ; w. supine in
Ellipsis, 631, 1. -u, 619, 1 ; w. ad and gerundive, ib., a.
Emphasis, obtained by order, 625-628. facio, accent of cpds. of, 31, 3 ; non-prep,
Emphatic future-perfect, 490 and a. forms, 218, 3 ; w. voKsubj., 502, 3, a) ;
Emphatic perfect, 490. w. cl. of actuality!"5UT, 3, a) ; w. infin.,
Enallage, 631, 9. 587, ftn. 1, 60*rr,-n.-_
Enclitics denned, 33, 1 ; quantity of, 28, 2, Fact, indie of, 462, 544; sufcj. of, in con-
d; question of accent before, 32, n. sec els., 520, 521, 3, a), b).
" End of motion," expr. by prep. w. ace, " Factitive object," see Result produced.
385 ; by poetic dat'., 375. falsus, comparison, 123, a.
Endeavor, expr. by vol. subj., 500. fames, abl., fame, 88, 5.
Endings, inflectional, origin, 203, ftn. 2 ; farmhas. 66, 1.
of nouns,' 64 ; of verbs, 151. fan, conj., 198, 3.
Energetic or emphatic perf., 490. fas, indecl., 106, 2 ; fas est, w. infin., 585 ;
enim, meaning and position, 311,6. fas w. supine, 619, 1.
Entreaty,expr.by imper.,496, bysubj.,530. faxo, faxim, 163, ;.
eo, conj., 194. Fear, subj. cl. of, 502, 4.
eo . . . quo, of degree of difference, 424. Feminine caesura, 641, a.
Epistolary tenses, 493. Feminines, see Gender,
equidem, use of, 257, a. fer, imper., 164, 1.
Equivalent action, cl. of, 551. ferS, fermS, position of, 624, 13, a.
erga, w. ace, 380, 364, 7. ferd, conj., 193 ; dat. w., 365 ; w. infin., 694.
ergo, 311, 1 ; w. gen., 339, d. -ficus, comparison of cpds. in, 120, 3.
-Ssco, verbs in, 168, F, a, 212, 2. fido, 161; w.dat., 362, II; w. abl. 437.
esse, often omitted, 584, e. fid us, comparison, 123, a.
Essential part, see Attraction. Field in which, expr. by in w. abl., 434, 2.
est and noun, dat. of reference w., 366, a ; Fifth declension, 99-101.
est,w. potential descr. cl.,51 7, 2 ; w. descr. Figurative use of cases, moods, etc., 315, 1.
cl. of ideal certainty, 519, 2 ; of actuality, Figures of syntax, 631; of rhetoric, 632.
521, 1 ; w. subst. cl. of actuality, 521, 3, filia, decl., 66, 4.
a) ; w. infin., 598, 3. filius, gen. and voe, fill, 71, 3.
et, 307, 1, a, c; =etiam, 302, 2 and b; et " Final clauses," p. 260, ftn. 3.
. . . et, et . . . neque, neque . . . et, 309. Final consonants, changes in, 49, 13.
etenim, 311, 6, a. " Fine," abl. of, 428.
Ethical dative, 372. finis, decl., 87, 88, 2, d; sing, and pi., 105 .
etiam, in answers, 232, 1 ; meaning and Finite forms of verb, defined, 146.
position, 302, 2 ; often added to sed or fio etc., quantity of i in, 21, 1 ; conj., 195 ;
verum, 310, 4, *. defect, cpds. w., 195, a; abl. w., 423,
etiamsi and etsi, = although, 582, 8. First conjugation, 148, 155 ; pres. stem,
etsi, " corrective," 310, 7. 166 ; denom., 211, 1.
Euphemism, 632, 12. First declension of nouns, 65-68.
ex or e, in cpds., 51, 8 ; choice of forms, First and second declension of adjectives,
405, b ; w. abl., 405, 406 ; of point of 110-112.
view, 406, 2 ; w. verbs of separation, 408. "Fitness,"adjs.of,w.dat.,362; w.ad,384,2,<i.
376 Index

flagito, cases w., 393 and b, 2\, Generalizing pronouns, 282 ; the same
Foot, denned, 635. used w. merely indef. meaning, 283.
foras, adv., 126, 7, n. Genitive, Form: sing., decl. I, in -as, 66,
fore, forem, etc., 154, I, 2. 1 ; in -ai, ib., 2 ; decl. II, in -1 of nouns
fore or futurum ut . . . = fut. infin., 472, c. in -ius, -ium, 71, 2, 3; in -ii of adjs.
Forestalled act, in subj. w. antequam or in -ius, 110, a; of pronom. adjs., 112;
priusquam, 507, 4, b). decl. IV, -i, 97, 4, 5 ; decl. V, in -ei, -el,
" Forgetting," " remembering," and " recall and -i, 100, 1,2,3; P' , decl. I, in -um,
ing," constrs. w., 350. 66, 3 ; decl. II, in -um, 71, 4; of ducenti,
foris, out of doors, 449, a. etc., in -um, 131, 4; decl. Ill, in -um
Formal ut, p. 261, ftn. 2. and -ium, 75 ; in adjs., 118, 1 ; decl. IV,
Formation of verb-stems, 166-184; of in -um, 97, 3. Syntax: see synopsis, 338.
words, 202-218. Gerund, Form, 184.
forsitan, w. potential subj., 517, 1, Gerundive and gerund, nature of, 609-
Forward-moving clauses, 566. 611; common uses, 612, 613; gend. of
Fourth conjugation, 159 ; pres. stem, 169. gerundive, w. mei nostri, etc., 614; rarer
Fourth declension, 96-98. uses, 615, 616.
Free clause, defined, p. 302, ftn.; free de " Gnomic psrfect," 488.
scriptive clause, 569. Grammatical gender, 56, b.
Freer neuter accusative modifiers, 397. gratia, w. gen., 339, d; of gerundive, 612,1.
Frequentatives, 166, 2, 212. " Greek accusative," see Ace of respect.
Fricatives, 6, 3, 12. Greek nouns, decl. I, 68 ; decl. II, 73 ;
frugi, compar., 122; as adj., p. 190, ftn. 2. decl. Ill, 95.
fruor, w. abl., 429 ; w. ace, ib., b; in ge Growth of meanings in constructions, 315.
rundive constr., 613, 2, n. Gutturals, 7, 3, 12; changes of, 49, 2, 3;
fui, etc., for sum, etc., as auxiliaries, 164, 8. stems in, 76, 77, 1.
Fullness, adjs. of, 209, 2 ; see Plenty.
fungQE w. abl., 429; w. ace, ib., b; in ge habeo, w. potential cl., 517, 2; w. infin.,
rundive constr., 613, 2, n. 597, 2; w. perf. pass, partie, 605, 5.
Fusion, explained, 315, 3. habeto, tense, how used, 496, c.
Future conditions, more vivid, 579, a ; less Habitual action, tenses of, 484.
vivid, 580 ; past-fut., 508, 509, 580, b, c. haered, constr. w., p. 193, ftn.
Future, Indicative: Form, 172; in -ibo, Harmony, ut-cl. of, 563.
164, 5 ; meanings of tense, 468, 3 and a, baud, use of, 297 and a.
484,485,486,2 ; special uses, 572; Sub have, see avS.
junctive: how replaced in Latin, 470, Hendiadys, 631, 5.
1, 4 and a, 508; Infinitive: meaning " Hesitating," w. n5, quin, or quominus,
of tense, 472 and a, b ; active, form, 502, 3, w- '"fin., 586.
178,3; passive,form, ib. ; Participle: Heteroclites, 107.
active, verbal adj., 146; in periphr.conjs., Heterogeneous nouns, 108.
162; form, 182; meaningoftense,600,2; Hexameter, dactylic, 639.
passive,verbaladj.,146; in periphr.conj., Hiatus, 647.
162 ; in conjs. Ill and IV, 164, 2 ; form, hic, quantity, 30; decl.. 138, 1; hoc, quan
184; meaning of tense, 600, 3 and b. tity, 30 ; huius, huic, pronune, 10, d,
Future perfect, Indicative: Form, 163, 138, b; meaning and uses of hic, 271-
5, 164, 6, 174, 2; meaning, 468, 6; as 273 ; hie . . . ille, " the former " . . . " the
emphatic fut., 490; Subjunctive: how latter," 274, 2 ; as indefinites, ib., b.
replaced in Latin, p. 244, ftn. 1. hic, adv., quantity, 25, 1; form, 127, 7.
Futures, periphr., see Periphrastic. Hidden quantity, 16, n. 2; list, 679.
futurum esse ut . . . = fut. infin., 472, c. hiem(p)s, 49, 7; decl., 83, 4.
futurus, as adj., 248. H ighly improbable future conclusion, 581,f-
hinc . . . illinc, 406, 2, first example.
gaudeo, 161 ; w. ace, 397, 2 ; w. abl., 444, Hindrance, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, b).
a; w. infin.. 594; w. quod-cl., 555. Historical infinitive, 595.
Gender, 56-59 ; decl. I, 67 ; decl. II, 72 ; " Historical perfect," 468, 4, a, ftn. 3.
decl. Ill, 94 (summary), 78, 81, 84, Historical present, 491, 1.
86, 89, 91,2; decl. IV, 98 ; decl. V, " Historical" tenses, p. 247, ftn. 2.
101 ; nouns variable in, 108. hoc, see hie
General " truths " or " customs," expr. by " Hoping," constr. w., 593 and a.
pres., 468, 1, b. " Hortatory " subjunctive, see 501, 2.
Generalizing clause, 576 ; indie, 579 and hortor, w. neut. ace pron., 397, 1 ; w. vol.
ftn. ; subj. in 2d sing, indef., 604, 2. cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. infin., 587.
 Index 377
huml, loe, 71, 6, 449, a. in conditions and conclusions, 581; im
humilis, comparison, 120, 2. perf. contrary to fact retained in any com
Hypallage, 631, io. bination of tenses, ib., n.
HypSrbaton, 631, 13. impero, w. dat., 362 ; w. dat. and ace, 364,
Hyperbole, 632, 2. 4; w. subj., 502, 3, a) ; w. infin., 587, b.
Hypermetric verse, 641, c, n. 4. Impersonal verbs, 201, 287 ; verhs in pass,
Hysteron prdteron, 631, 12. w. dat., 364, 2 ; impers. constr., generally
preferred w. certain pass, infins., 5S0, 1 , a.
I, letter, 1, a, n.; consonantal i, 11. impetro, w. subj. cl., 530, 2.
i, consonantal, sometimes becomes vowel imus, lowest part of, 24i.
in poetry, 656, 1 ; vocalic, sometimes be in, form in cpds., 51, 9 ; w. ace, 380. 381.
comes consonantal in poetry, 666, 2. 385; w. abl., 433, 434; use w. ahl. of
i-stems, 87-89. time, 439, a ; w. abl. of respect, 44J , a-
-ia, suffix, 207, 2. c ; often or reg. omitted w. abl. of certa in
iacid, cpds. of, spelling, and quantity of words, 436 ; freely omitted by poets.
first syll., 30, 1. 433, a ; cpds. of, w. dat., 376.
iam, compared w. nunc, 302, 4, 5. in-, negative (•'prefix, 214, 2. 212, 2; pen
iam diu, iam pridem, etc., w. tenses of action Inchoatives Inceptives
in progress, 485. of, 188, F, ftn.
Iambic shortening, 28, n., 649. Incomplete action, tenses of, 466, 1, ftn.
Iambus, 637, b. Indeclinable nouns, 106, 2 ; gend. of, 58, 3.
-ibam, imperf. indic, of conj. IV, 164, 4. " Indefinite antecedents," 521, 1, a.
-Ibo, fut. of conj. IV, 164, 5. Indefinite idea distinguished from general
Ictus, 634 ; relation to accent, 644, 645. izing, 283.
id quod, 325, a, n. 2. Indefinite pronouns, list of, 142, 276.
Ideal certainty, subj. of, 518, 519. Indefinite second person in conditions, 504,
idem, decl., 137 ; use, 270 ; w. qui or atque, 2, 576, a; in general statement of fact,
ib., b.; w. dat., 363, 2, e). 542 ; w. potential subj., 517, 1.
Identifying pronoun, see idem. Indefinite subject, 286.
Ides, idus, 664; use in dating, 665-671. Indefinite value, 356.
idoneus, comparison, 121 ; w. dat., 362 ; w. Indicative, general force of, 462, 544; tenses
ad and ace, 364, 6 ; w. qui or ut, 513, 3. of,468 ; tenses w.verbs and phrases of pos
Idus, gend., 98, a. See also Ides, sibility, obligation, etc.,582,3, a). general
iens, pres. act. partic. of ed, 183. uses, see synopsis, 543 ; pres.. pres. perf.,
-ier, infin. in, 164, 3, 178, 2. and future, in special uses, 571, 572.
igitur, position of, 311, 2. Indifference, expr. by imper., 496 ; by subj.,
" Illative " conjunctions, 311. 531 ; concession of, expr. by imper., 497,
ille, decl., 138, 1 ; meaning and uses, 271- 2 ; by subj., 532, 1 ; w. quamvis, ib., 2 ;
274, 1 ; hie . . . ille . . . , 274, 2 ; ille w. w. licet, ib., a ; w. ut, ib., b.
descr. qui-cl., 521 , x ; w. ut-cl., 521 , 2, b ; indigeo, w. gen., 347, a ; w. abl., 425, a.
position of ille, 624, 2. Indignation, expr. by subj., 503; by fut.
illic, decl., 138, 2, c. indie, 572; by infin., 696.
illic, adv., quantity of final syllable, 25, 1 ; indignus, w. abl., 442 ; rarely w. gen., 354,
accent, 32, 1. c, example ; w. subj. rel. cl., 513, 3 ; w.
Imaginative comparison, cl. of, 604, 3. supine in -ii, 619, 2.
immo, 233. Indirect discourse, defined, 533, 589, 591 ;
immunis, w. gen., 354 ; w. abl., p. 224, ftn. 1. prons.and persons in,533, a; Infinitive
Imperative, endings of, 151, b. in ind. dise: tenses, 593; list of verbs and
Imperative, synopsis of uses, 495 ; tenses phrases governing, p. 318, ftn. ; principal
of, 496 ; imper. of command, advice, etc., statements in infin., 534, 1, 591; constrs.
ib. ; w. quin, ib., b ; in prohibitions, ib., d; of, may be used w. verbs not suggesting
replaced by vol. subj. in ind. disc., 538. ind. disc., 534, 1, a, 535, 1, a, 536, a ;
Imperfect, meanings common to all forms: subord. els. in, 534, 2, 535-538.
of progressive action, 466, 1 and ftn., 470, Indirect object, dat. of, 365 and a.
1; of habitual action. 484 ; of attempted Indirect questions, of fact, 537 and ftn.;
action, ib.; w. iam diu, etc., 485; Indica fut., how expr. in, 470, 4, a; indie in,
tive : form, 171; in -Ibam, 164, 4, 171, 537,5"; antic, subj. in, 607, 3.
n.; meaning, 468, 2; of discovery, 486, 1; " Indirect reflexive," 262, 2.
epistolary, 493; Subjunctive: form, Individual condition, see Condition.
175, a; original meanings: progressive, Indo-European speech, 46, ftn. 1 ; forces
470, 1 ; aor., 477, b ; in els. of result, ib. of cases in, 334 : of moods, 459.
and 521, 2, examples; in wishes, 510, a; indulgeo, w. dat., 362 ; w. ace, 364, 4.
378 Index

Inferential conjunctions, 311. iri, in fut. infin. pass., 178, 3.

inferior, comparison, 123. Irony, 632, 4-
inflmus, lowest part of, 244. Irregular nouns of decl. Ill, 92.
Infinitives, Form, 178. Syntax: synopsis Irregular verbs, 170; conj. of, 190-197.
of uses, 583 ; gender, case relations, etc., is, decl., 137; meaning and uses, 271 -274 ;
584 ; tenses, 472 ; in ind. dise, 534, i, sometimes instead of se, 262, 2, a ; w.
591 ; tenses w. verbs of swearing, etc., qui-cl., det. 550 ; descr., 521, 1 ; w. ut-cl.,
593, a ; w. verbs of remembering, ib., b ; 521, 2,
w. verbs of obligation, propriety, etc., -is, acc. pi. in, 75, a, 88, 3, 118, 4.
. p. 3 1 1, ftn. 2 ; energetic or emphatic perfs., -Isco, inchoatives in, 212, 2, 168, F, a.
490 ; list of verbs taking ind. disc., p. 31 8, Islands, gend., 58, 2; constrs. of place w.,
ftn.; ordinary uses : dependent, 585-594, 449-451.
597, independent, historical, 695, ex iste, decl., 138,2; meaning, 271, 274, 4.
clamatory, 596 ; poetical and later prose ita, in answers, 232, 1 ; ita ut or ne, w. vol.
uses,598; special points: complementary subj., 502, 2, a; ita ut, ut non, etc., 521 , 2,
infin., 586, a ; omission of subject in ind. d ; ita ut, of way by wh., ib. ; ita si, 578, 5.
disc.,592; w. paratus, suetus, etc., 586,/; itaque, accent, 32, 2, n. ; use, 31 1, 3.
w. verbs of seeing, hearing, or represent iter, decl., 80, 6.
ing, 605, 1, n.; in rel. cls., 535, I,b; after " Iterative" subj., see Repeated action.
quam, ib., c. Iterative verbs, see Frequentatives, 212, 1.
Inflection, defined, 54. -ito, frequentatives in, 212, 1.
Informal indirect discourse, subj. of, 535, iubeo, w. acc., 397, 1 ; w. infin., 587 ; w.
1, a, 536, a. subj., ib., b; iubeor, w. infin., 588.
Infra, w. ace, 380. iugerum, decl., 107, 2 ; as measure, 676, b.
innixus, abl. \v., 438, 2, a ; dat. w., ib., b. -ium, gen. pi. in, 64, 88, 4, 91, 1, 118, 1.
inops, w. gen., 347, a ; w. abl., 425, a. iungo, constr. w., 431, c.
inquam, conj., 198, 2; position of, 624, 16. Iuppiter, decl., 92.
"Inquiring," two acc. w., 393; indirect iuratus, having sworn, 161, 290, a, 4).
question w., 537, b. ius, decl., 86, 1 ; ius est,w. cl. of obligation,
Inquiry for instructions, in subj., 503 ; in 513, 5 ; ifis est belli, w. vol. cl., cf. 502, 3,
indie, 571, 572. c), and ftn.
"Inseparable prepositions," see 218, 1. -ius, pronom. gen., quantity of i in, 21, 2,
Insidiae, pi. only, 104, 4 ; dat. w., 363, 1, a). 112, n. ; -Ius in gen. in poetry, 653.
instar, gen. w., 339, d. -ius, suffix, 210, 1, 215, 2; gen. and voc.
Instrument, abl. of, 423. sing, of nouns in, 71, 2, 3; of adjs. in,
Instrument or means, ends. denoting,206,6. 110, a.
"Instrumental ablative," 61, b, 423. iussu, abl. only, 106, 1 ; case, 414, a.
" Integral part," see Subj. by attraction. iuvenis, decl., 88, 4 ; compar., 122, 123, b.
Intensive pronoun, see ipse. iuxta, w. acc., 380.
Intensives (meditatives), 212, 4. -ivi, psrf. contracted, 173, A ; short forms
Intention, expr. by vol. subj., 500, 502, 3, a), of, 163, 1, 3.
b), and ftns. ; by fut. act. partie, 607.
intentus, cases w., 438, 5. J, letter, 1, n.
inter, form in cpds., 51, 10; w. acc., 380; Judging, person, in dat., 370.
cpds. of, w. dat., 376 ; inter se, etc., 266. " Jussive,1' see Volitive subjunctive.
intercludo, w. dat., 366, c; w. abl., 408, 2. Juxtaposition, in cpds., 214, 3, 218, 2.
interdico, w. dat., 366, c; w. abl. 408, 3.
" Interest," dat. of, see Reference, dat. of, K, letter, 1, a.
366-369. Kindred meaning, acc. of, 396.
interest, cases w., 345 ; w. vol. cl., 502, 3, c) ; " Knowing," w. infin., 589.
w. infin., 585.
interior, comparison, 123. Labials, 7, 1, 12; changes of, 49, 8, 10;
Interjections, 221, 313. stems in, 76, 77, i, 90.
Interrogative pronouns, 141, 275. laetor, w. neut. acc. pron., 397, 2 ; w. abl.,
Interrogative sentence, see Questions, 444, a; w. infin., 594.
intra, w. acc., 380. Iaetus, w. force of adv., 245 ; w. abl., 444 , a.
Intransitive, see Voice and Verbs. Leading idea not in principal noun, 333.
Intransitive verbs, passive of, 201, c, 290, a. Leap year, calendar for, 669, 671.
-1S, verbs in, of conj. Ill, 158, 168, I. lege, by law, 414, a ; under the condition^
ipse, decl., 139; use, 267-269; agreement 436, b.
of, 268; as reflex., 263, 264; meus Length, measures of, 676-
ipsius, etc., 339, b. Lengthening in poetry, 654 ; see also 652.
 Index 379
Less vivid future condition and conclusion, Measures of money, weight, etc., 672-677.
580. mecum, 418, a.
liber, decl., HI ; constr. w., 411, a, b. Meditatives, 212, 4.
fiber!, pi. only, 104, 4 ; gen. pi. of, 71, 4, b). medius, the middle of, 244; w. abl. noun,
libera, acquit, w. gen., 342 ; w. abl., 408, 436 and a.
3 and exc. 1. mei, gen. of ego, reg. objective, 254, a.
licet, conj., 201 ; w. dat., 362 ; w. subj., melior, decl., 116.
531, 2; = although, 532, 2, a; w. infin., memini, conj., 199; case-constrs. w., 350
585 ; w. pred. dat., ib., c. and a; w. infin., 589 ; force of tenses,
" Likeness," adjs. of, w. dat., 362, III ; w. 199, 1, 487 ; memento, 496, c.
gen., 339, c. memor, 117, b, 118, 1, a, 2); w. gen., 354.
lingua, as loc. abl., 436, b. -men, -mentum, suffixes, 206, 3.
" Linguals," see Dentals. Mental action, obj. of, in gen., 350, 351.
Liquids, 6, 1; stems in, 79-81. -met, particle, 134, d.
fitore, w. and without in, 436. Metaphor, 632, 13.
Litotes, 632, 1. Met6nymy, 632, 9.
Local point of view, dat. of, 370, a. Metre, defined, 638.
Locative,Form, 61,*; decl. 1, 66, 5; decl. II, metuo, w. dat. or ace, 367; w. subj. cl. w.
71, 6; decl. Ill, 93; in pron. advs., ne or ut, 502, 4; w. infin., 586.
127, 7 ; doml, humi, etc., 449, a ; loca meus, decl., 136, a ; voc. mi, ib.
tive of names of towns, etc., 449 ; apposi- mi, dat. of ego, 134.
tive to, in abl. w. prep., 452. Middle voice, p. 158, ftn.; w. ace, 390, b.
Locative ablative, 334, 2. mihi, quantity of final i, 28, n., 134, a;
loco, w. gerundive, 612, III. mihi, in poetry, ib., 652, 1.
locus, pi. of, 108, 2 ; loco, locis, in abl. w. miles, final syll, 30, 3, 49, 4 ; decl., 76.
or without prep., 436. militiae, in war, in thefield, 449, a.
longius, w. abl., or without effect on case, mille, 131, 3; use, 131, 3, 4.
416, d; w. abl. of noun of time, 417, a. minimS, compar., 129 ; in answers, 232, 2.
longum est, etc., mood, 582, 3, b). minimi, -0, of value, 356, 1 ; 427, 2, a).
Loosely attached descr. cl. w. qui, etc., 568. minor natu, 441 ; minoris, of value, 356, 1.
1 minus, comparison, 129 ; w. abl., or with
m, final, in slurring, 34, 646. out effect on case, 416, d; w. abl. of
magis, use in compar., 121. nouns of time, 417, a.
magnopere, magis, maxime, compar., 129. mlror, conj., 160; rare gen. w., 352, 3.
magnus, compar., 122; magni, -0, of value misceo, constrs. w., 431 and a, b.
or price, 356, 1, 427, 2, a). misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 352, 2.
Main (or principal) sentence or cl., 224, 1. miseret, acc. and gen. w., 352, 1, 390, a.
major, w. natu, 441 ; w. quam qui or ut, Mixed conditions and conclusions, 582, 1.
521, 2, c. Mixed stems, 74, C, 90, 91.
maius, pronunc., 29, 2, a. " Modest (softened) statements," 519, 1, b.
male, quantity of e, 28, 2, c) ; compar., 129. modo, short -0, 28, 4 ; in cl. of proviso, 529.
malo, conj., 192 ; w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; moneo, conj., 156; w. neut. ace, 397, 1;
w. infin., 586, 587 ; malim, mallem, w. w. vol. cl., 602, 3, a) ; w. infin., 587.
subj., = a wish, 519, I, c. Money, Roman, 672-675.
malus, compar., 122. Monosyllables, quantity of, 25-28.
maneo, abide by, constr. w., 438, 2, c. Moods, 145; mood-sign of subj., 175;
Manner, expr. by abl., 445 ; by ad, in, or mood defined, 460 ; table of forces, 462 ;
per w. ace, ib., 3, a ; by abl. absolute, general sketch of historical relations,
421, 8; by partie, 604, 5. 459.
Masculine caesura, 641, a. Months, names of, 662 ; gend., 58, 1 and a.
Material, gen. of, 349; may be expr. by ex mora, p. 344, ftn. 2.
(poetic dS) w. abl., 406, 4 ; prep, may be more, of accordance, 414, a; of manner,
omitted in poetry, ib., a. 445, 1.
Material, suffix denoting, 209, 1. Morevividfuture condition and conclusion,
maturus, comparison, 120, 1 . 579, a.
maximS, use in comparison, 121. mSs est, w. vol. subj., 502, 3, c) ; w. subj. cl.
maximi, gen. of value or price, 356, 1. of actuality, 521, 3, a) ; w. infin., 585.
" May," " might," expr. by potential subj., Motion toward, see Place whither, 385.
516, 517 ; by possum w. infin., 586- multi sunt qui, subj. or indic, w., 521, 1, b.
Means, expr. by abl., 423 ; by abl. absolute, Multiplicatives, 133.
421, 7; persons as means, 423, a. multum, much, 126, 6, n., 387, III ; com
" Measure of difference," see 424. parison, 129.
 38o Index

multus, comparison, 122 ; denoting a part, neve, neu, 30/, 3; use w. moods, see ne.
244. nf, length of vowel before, 18.
Mute and liquid, pronounced in same syll., ni, use, 578, 4.
14, 2, n. ; separated in poetry, 655. nihil (or nil, quantity, 25, 1, 45), indecl.,
Mutes or stops, 6, 4, 12; mute stems, 76. 106, 2; as acc. of degree, 387, III;
constr. of adjs. w., 346, a ; nihil reliqai
nam, use, 311, 6. facio, etc., 340, a ; nihil abest quin, 502,
-nam, interrogative enclitic, 231, 2, n. 3, b) ; nihil est quod, quare, etc., 513, 2.
Names, Roman, 678 ; in adoption, ib., 4. mhili, descr. gen., 355, a; nihil!, -S, of
namque, 311, 6, a. value or price, 356, 2, 427, 2, b).
Narrative clause, subj., w. cum, 524; indie, nisi, nisi si, forte, etc., 577, 578 ; nisi w.
w. ubi,etc., 657; of situation, w. same, 558; abl. absolute, 421, 6, a ; meaning except
w. dum, donec, etc., 560 ; w. antequam or or but, 578, 3, b.
pnusquam, 561; narr. partie, 604, 2, n. nitor, w. abl., 438, 1.
Nasalized vowels, 4, 3; before ns, 11, 18; noli in prohibitions, 501, 3, a, 2).
before -in, 34, 2. nolo, conj., 192 ; w. vol. ci., 502, 3, a) ; w.
Nasals, 6, 2, 12 ; changes, 49, 9 ; stems in, infin., 586, 687.
" 82-84; pres. w. inserted n, 168, C. Nominative, Form : decl. Ill, p. 36, ftn.,
natfi, abl. only, 106, 1 ; w. maior, etc., 441. 75, 77, 1, 80, 83, 86, n., 87, 92, n.;
Natural gender, 56, a. decl. IV, 96; decl. V, 99. Syntax: as
Natural likelihood, subj. of, 514, 615. subject, 335 ; as attributive, appositive,
net, length of vowel before, 18. or pied., 317-321; in exclamations,
ne-, prefix, 24, 3. 399, a ; for voc., 401.
-ne, encl., interrog., 33; added to forms in non, general statement of uses, 464, 1.
-ce, 138, 2, d; shortened to n, 28, n._, non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, 299.
231, n. 3; use and position, 231, 1, b) ; non nemo and non nullus, 276, 6 and a.
-ne ... an, 234 ; -ne . . . -ne, ib., t ; w. non quia, etc., w. subj., 535, 2, b.
exclamatory infin., 596. Nones, Nonae, 664 ; use in dating, 665-
ne, surely, 302, 8. 671.
ne, not, lest, general statement of use, 464, nonne, interrog. particle, 231, x,c).
1 ; fitting changed meaning, ib., 2 ; de nos = ego, noster = meus, 259.
tails : w. imper., 496 ; w. subj., see espe nostri, objective, nostrum, gen. of the
cially prohibitions, 501, 3; cl. of pur whole, 134, b, 254, a.
pose, 502, 2 ; in vol. subst. cl., ib., 3 ; in Nouns, gender, 56-59 ; number, 60 ; cases,
cl. of fear, ib., 4; in wishes, 511, 1 ; in 61-62; decl., 63-108; used only in
opt. subst. cl., ib., 2 ; sometimes in state sing., 103; only in pi., 104; w. differ
ments of obligation or propriety, 512, a. ent meaning in sing, and pi., 105 ;
ne non, in cl. of fear, 502, 4. defect, in case-forms, 106; variable in
nS . . . quidem, not even, w. all moods, 464, decl., 107 ; variable in gend., 108 ; deriv.
1, a; simply adds emphasis, 298, 2, a. of, 203-207 ; classification of cpds., 214;
" Nearness," see dat. of relation, 362. verbal nouns, 146; noun defined, 221;
nec, see neque. kinds of, 240 ; as adjs., ib., 2, b ; appos.,
nec enim, 311, 6, b. 319, 1; pred., ib., II.
necesse est, w. vol. subj. cl., 502, 3, c); w. novi, etc., force of tenses, 487.
infin., 585. ns, length of vowel before, 18.
necne, alternative in questions, 234, a. nulla causa est cur,quarS,quin,etc., cf.513, 2.
nedum, still less, w. subj., 505. nullus, decl., 112, a; use, 276, 9 and b.
Negative particles, see ne and non ; two num, interrog. particle, 231, 1, d) ; in
negatives, 298, 2. indirect questions, 537, d, 2).
nSmd, 106, 3 ; for nullus, 276, 9, c, d. Number, in nouns, 60; in verbs, 145;
nequam, compir., 122- nouns used only in sing., 103 ; only in
neque, nec, and not, 464, 1 ; choice of p!., 104 ; with difference in meaning,
forms, 307, 3, c ; correl., 309. 105 ; in agreement, 318-332.
nescid, w. infin., 586, 589; nescio an, 537, Numerals, 130-133; uses, ib. and 247.
/; nescio quis, quo pacto, etc., 276, 4 ; numquis, decl., 141, b, n.; use, 276, 1.
same not affecting mood, 537, e. nunc, compared w. iam, 302, 4, 5.
neuter, pronunc., 10, b ; decl., 112, a ; use, nuper, comparison, 129.
273, 9 ; meaning in pi., ib., a. nx, length of vowel before, 18.
Neuter acc. as adv., 126, 6, n., p. 209, ftn. 2.
Neuter adj. as pred. w. nouns of any gend., d si, in virtual wish, 582, 5.
325, c; neut. pi. w. gen., 357. ob, form in cpds., 51, 11; w. acc., 380;
Neuters, see Gender. cpds. of, w. dat., 376.
 Index 38i
" Obeying," w. dat., 362. 245 ; as subst., 249, 250 ; used imper
obicio, quantity of first syll., 30, 1. sonally in abl. absolute, 421, 8, a ; perf.
Object, concrete obj. for wh., w. dat., 361 ; pass, modified by adv. or adj., 250, 2, n. ;
ind. in dat., 365; direct in ace, 390, perf. pass. w. act. meaning, 290, a, 4) ;
391 ; obj. els., see Substantive clauses. w. pres. force, 601 ; agreement, 320 ;
Objective genitive, 354. carrying leading idea, 333, 608 ; tenses,
Obligation, expr. by subj., 512,513; by meanings of, 600, 601 ; of attempted
fut. pass, partic., 600, 3; by same used action, 484; w. iam diu, etc., 485 ; voice-
impersonally, ib., a ; moods and tenses jn meanings, 146 ; of deponents and semi-
verbs of, 582, 3 ; in ind. disc., ib., a), n. 2. deponents, 291; lacking perf. act. and
Obligation or propriety, subj. of, 512, 513 pres. pass, partics., how supplied, 602 ;
Oblique cases, 61, a. fut. pass. w. occasional pres. pass, force,
obliviscor, constrs. w., 350. 600, 3, b ; common uses, 604 ; special
Obstructed consonants, 14, 2, b, 37. idioms, 605 ; new uses in later Latin,
dcior, comparison, 123. 606, 607.
Sdi, meaning of tense, 199, 1, 487. Particles, defined, 221, d.
Omission of verb, 222, a, 631, 1, a ; of sub " Particular conditions," see 576 and ftn.
ject, 257, 285 ; of antecedent, 284, 1. partior, conj., 160.
Onomatopoeia, 632, 20. Partitive apposition, 319, I, a.
Open syllables, 14, a; open vowels, 3. " Partitive genitive," p. 183, ftn.
opinione, after compar., 416, e. Parts of speech, 53 ; defined, 221.
oportet, moods and tenses of, 582, 3; w. parum. comparison, 129.
subj. cL, 513, 5; w. infin., 585. parvus, comparison, 122; parvior -S, of
oppidum, in appos. to names of towns, 452. value or price, 356, 1, 427, 2, a).
Opposition, see Adversative. Passive, see Voice.
Optative, Form, 175, n.; opt. subj., uses, Past aorist, indie, 468, 4, a ; subj., 470, 2.
510, 511. Past-future expressions, periphr. indie and
optimum est, moods w., 502, 3, c), 585. antic subj., 508 and ftn. ; dep. past-fut.
opto, w. opt. cl., 511,2; w. infin., 586, 587. els. necessarily in antic, subj., ib.; past-
opus est, w. abl., 430, 1 ; of partic., ib., 2 ; fut. condition and conclusion, in subj.,
w. supine in -u, 619, 2 ; w. vol. cl., 502, 580, b; in periphr. fut. indie, ib., c.
3, c) ; w. infin., 585 ; opus as pred., 430, Past perfect, Indicative: Form, 174, 1 ;
2, a, b. meaning, 468, 5 ; of rapid succession of
oratio obliqua, see indirect discourse, 533. events, 492 ; epistolary, 493 ; instead of
oratio recta, see direct discourse, 533. subj. contrary to fact, 581, e; Subjunc
Ordinals, 130, 131 ; w. quisque, 278, 2, <r). tive: form, 175, c; meaning, 470, 1;
Origin, abl. of, 413 ; w. ab or ex, ib., a, b. in wishes, 510, a; in conditions and
oxd, w. two aces., 393 ; w. subj. cl. 530, 2. conclusions, 581.
Orthography, 52. Patronymics, Greek, 207, 3.
Oxymdron, 632, 3. Penalty, gen. of, 343; abl. of, 428.
penes, w. ace, 380.
paene, position of, 624, 13, a. Pentameter, dactylic, 642.
paenitet, cases w., 352, 1 ; mood w., 585. Penult, 31, 2.
palam, as adv., or w. abl., 407, 1, a. per, form of, in cpds., 51, 12 ; as prefix,
Palatals, 7, 3. 218, n: w. ace, 380 ; of persons as means,
par, quantity in, 25, 1 ; cases w., 339, c. ib., d; of duration of time, 387, II, a;
Parallel cum . . . tum, 564. of route, 426, b; of cause, 444, c; of
Parallel order, 628. manner, 445, 3, a.
Parataxis defined, 227; paratactic uses, -per, enclitic particle, 127, 9.
imper., 497, 2; subj., 504, 1, 511, 1, b, Peremptory command, expr. by imper., 496.
530, 1, 532, 1; indie, 545, *. Perfect, Indicative : Form, perf. system
paratus, constrs. w., 384, 2, a, b, 586,/. of, 147, B; ends., 151, a ; short forms
" Pardoning," w. dat., 362. of, 163; types of, 173; pass., 164, 8;
Parentage or origin, constr., 413. meanings, 468, 4 and a ; tenses of dep.
Parenthetical cl., 567 ; partie=, 604, 7, c). verb w., 476, 479, 481; perf. of expen- .
pars, 91, 1, a; parte, in loc. abl., 436; par ence ("gnomic"), 488; of act or state
tem, acc. of respect, 388. no longer existing, 489 ; energetic perf.,
Part, idea of, denoted by adjs., 244. 490; picturesque, 491, 1 ; of rapid suc
Participles, Form, pres. act., 183 ; decl., cession of events, 492 ; novi, memini,
117, 118; fut. act., 182; perf. pass., 6di,coepi, etc., 199,487; Subjunctive:
179; fut. pass., 184. Syntax: nature, form, 175, b; confusion w. fut. perf.
699 ; used as adjs., 248 ; w. adv. force, indie forms, 164, 6; in -sim, 163, 5;
382 Index

meanings of tense, 469, 470 ; in result pone, w. ace, 380.

cd., 478, 521, 2, examples ; Infinitive: por-, prefix, 51, 13; 218, 1, b.
form, 178, 1-3 ; w. esse omitted, 164, 7 ; " Position, length by," see 29, 3.
meaning of tenses, 472 ; in ind. disc., Positive degree, 119; wanting, 123.
534, S89, 591; Participle: form, Possession, dat. of, 374 and a.
179, 180 ; meaning of tenses, 473, 600, Possessive compounds, 216, 4.
601 ; perf. w. verbs of wishing, 605, 3. Possessive genitive, 339 ; in pred., 346.
Perfect definite, see Perfect indicative. Possessive pronouns, Form, 136; use, 254 ;
Period, definition of, 630. of 3d pers., how replaced, 256; when
Periphrastic conjugation, 162; peculiari expr.,when omitted, 258; in pi. of dignity,
ties in, 163-165 ; periphr. fut. tenses, of 259; as reflexive, 260, a; poss. pron.
indie, 468, 7 ; of subj., 470, 4 ; when preferred to gen. of personal, 339, a.
used in general, ib., a ; periphr. fut., in Possibility, expr. by potential subj., 516,
ind. questions, 537, 1); in conclusions, 517; by possum w. infin., 586; moods
indie, subj., or infin., 580, c, 581, a, b. and tenses in verbs of, 582, 3, a) ; in
Permanent truths, tenses of, in combina ind. dise, ib., n. 2.
tion w. other tenses, 482. possum, conj., 191 ; moods and tenses of,
permitto, w. subj., 531, 2; w. infin., 587- in conclusions, 582, 3, a) ; in ind. disc.,
Perplexity, question of, in subj., 503 ; in ib., n. 2; possum w. infin., 586 ; posse
pres. indie, 671 ; in fut. indie, 572. w. pres. infin. = fut. infin., 472, d.
Person, 147 ; order of mention of the three post, w. ace, 380 ; cpds. of, w. dat., 376 ;
persons, 624, 1 5 ; person judging, dat. of, as adv., 303, c ; see also ante
370; persons as agents, 406, 1; as posteaquam, w. indie, 557, 558.
means through wh., w. per, 380, d; as posterior, defect, comparison, 123.
means by wh., w. abl., 423, a. postquam, w. indie det. cl., 550 ; replaced
Personal construction in passive voice, by a noun w. quam or the abl. of qui,
prohibeor, putor, etc., 590, 1. ib., c; w. narr. cl., 657, 558.
Personal endings of verbs, 151, 152. postremus, the last to, 243.
Personal pronouns, decl., 134; use, 254; postridie, w. gen. or ace, 380, c.
of third pers., how replaced, 255 ; when postulo, cases w., 393, b, 2); w. subj., 602,
expr., when omitted, 257; pi. of dignity, 3. <*).
259 ; as reflex., 260, a. Potential subjunctive, 516, 517.
Personification, 632, 18. potestas, w. infin., 598, 2, d).
persuaded, w. dat., 362 ; w. dat. and ace, potior, w. abl., 429; w.ace, ib., b; w. gen.,
364, 4; w. subj., 602, 3, a). ib., c; in gerundive constr., 613, n.
pertaesum est, constr. w., see taedet. 352, 1. potior, defect, adj., comparison, 123.
peto, cases w., 393, c; w. subj., 530, 2. potissimum, 302, 6 ; position, 624, 13, a.
Phonetic changes, 41-51. potius, comparison, 129 ; meaning, 302, 6 ;
Phrase, defined, 224, 2, b. position, 624, 13, a; potius quam, w.
Picturesque tenses, 491. subj., 507, 4, d).
piget, w. ace and gen., 352, 1 ; w. infin., 585. prae, sometimes shortened, p. 9, ftn.; w.
Place, adjs. denoting, 210, 3. abl., 407, 1 ; cpds. of, w. dat., 376.
Place where, whither, or whence, reg. expr. praeceps, decl., 117, b ; w. adv. force, 245.
by preps., 433, 385, 408, 1 and a, 2 and praesertim, w. qui or cum, 523, b, 526, a.
a; poets may omit, 433, a, 385, c, 410, praestolor, w. dat. or ace, 364, 5.
2 ; repeated relations all expr. (ad Chry- praesum, conj., 190, 191 ; w. dat., 376.
sogonum ad castra, etc.), 540, c ; constr. of praeter, w. ace, 380; w. infin., 598, 3 ;
namesof towns, domus, riis,etc.,449-453. cpd. of, w. ace, 386, a.
"Placing," w. in and abl., 433, c. praetervehor, w. ace, 386, a.
Plan, how expr., 502, 2. Prayer, expr. by imper., 496.
Plants, gend. of names of, 58, 2. Predicate, defined, 229, 230, 317, 3 j pred.
" Pleasing," w. dat., 362. verb, 317, 3, a; omission of, 222, a ;
Plenty and want, gen. of, 347; abl. of, 425. pred. ace, 392, a; poss. gen. in, 340;
Pleonasm, 631, 4. agreement of pred., 318-332, agreeing
Pluperfect, see Past perfect. w. subject of main verb, 590, 2, 592, a ;
Plural, wanting, 103; pi. only, 104; of pred. attracted by dat., 326, 3, 585, c.
dif. meaning from sing., 105. Prefixes, adv., spelling, 51; lists, 218.
plus, comparison, 122; plus, w. abl. or Prepositions, Form, 126; assimilation in
without effect on case, 416, d ; phiris and cpds., 51. Syntax: definition, 221, 303;
plurimi, gen. of value or price, 356. 1. origin and early use, ib., a ; cpds. of,
Point of reference for tenses, 467, 1, a. taking dat., 376; taking ace, 391, 2;
Point of view, expr. by ab or ex, 406, 2. taking dat. or ace, ib., a; taking two
 Index 383

aces., 386; preps, w. ace, 380-383 ; 276; collective, 277; distrib., 278; pro
preps, w. separative abl., 405-412 ; w. nom. adjs., 279; rel. prons. and adjs.,
sociative abl., 41 8-420 ; w. locative abl., 281-284; agreement, 321-325; refer
433-436; w. names of towns, small ring to general substance of sentence,
islands, etc., 453 ; summary of uses of 325, a ; prons. in ind. disc., 683, a.
cases w. preps., 455-458. Pronunciation, general explanations, 2-8 ;
Present: present system, 147, A; Form of Latin, 9-11, 13-34; suggestions and
of present stem, 166-170; meanings cautions, 35-40.
common to all forms: of permanent prope, comparison, 129 ; w. ace, 380 ; posi
truths or customs, 468, 1, b ; of habitual tion of, 624, 13, a; prope a, 406, 2.
or attempted action, 484; w. iam diii, Proper nouns, 240, 1.
etc., 485; Indicative: form, 152, 1,2, propior, comparison, 123; w. dat., 362,
166, 170 ; progressive, 468, 1; aor., ib., III ; w. ace, 380, *.
a; historical pres., 491, 1 ; special uses, propius, w. ace, 380,
671; Subjunctive: form, 176; pres. Proposal, expr. by imper., 496; by vol.
and hit. forces, 469, 470, 1 ; w. progres subj., 501, 2.
sive force, ib. ; w. aor. force, ib., 2 ; refer " Propriety," expr. by subj., 512, 513 ;
ring to fut. in conditions and conclusions, tenses of verbs meaning, 682, 3, a).
580; Infinitive: form, 178, in -ier, proprius, w. gen. or dat., 339, c.
164, 3; meaning, 472 and b; Parti propter, w. ace, 380.
ciple: form, 183; decl., 117, 118; Prosody, see Quantity and Versification,
meaning, 473. prosper, decl., Ill, a.
" Preventing," w. subj. cl., 502, 3, b). prospicio, w. dat. or ace, 367-
Price or value, gen. of, 356 ; abl. of, 427. prSsum, conj., 190, 191; w. dat., 362.
pridie, w. gen. or ace, 380, c. Protasis, see Conditions, 573-582.
Primary derivatives, 203 ; nouns, 206 ; provides, w. dat. or ace, 367; w. subj., 502,
adjs., 208. 3. «)- cl. of, w. modo, dum, etc., 529.
" Primary " tenses, 476 and ftn. 2. Proviso,
Primary verbs, p. 98, ftn. 1 ; of conj. 1, 166, proxime, w. ace, 380, b.
3, 4 ; of conj. II, 167, 1, a, 2; of conj. proximus, w. dat., 362, III ; w. ace, 380, b.
Ill, 168; of conj. IV, 169, 2. pudet, w. ace and gen., 352, 1, 390, a ; w.
primo distinguished from primum, 302, 3. infin., 585.
primus, thefirst to, 243. Purpose, expr. by dat., 360 ; by ace w. ad
princeps, decl., 76, 77, 1, 4; 118, 1, a, 2; or in, 384, 3 ; by subj. cl., 502, 2 ; by ace
thefirst to, 243. of gerund or gerundive w. ad, 612, III ;
Principal and auxiliary tenses, 477, c. by gerund or gerundive w.causa or gratia,
Principal parts of verbs, 150. 612, 1; by supine in -um,618; by partics.,
Principal sentence or clause, 224, 1. 605, 2, 606, 607 ; by poetic infin., 598, 1.
prior, comparison, 123 ; thefirst to, 243.
prius, comparison, 129. quae res for quod or id quod, 325, a, n. 1.
priusquam, see antequam. quaero, cases w., 393, c.
pro, 51, 13; quantity in cpds., 24, 2; w.abl., quaeso, defective, 200, 4.
407, 1. qualis, pronom. adj., 143; interrog., 275, 5;
procul, as prep. w. abl., 405, c. rel., 144; w. det. cl., 550 and ftn.
Progressive action, tenses of, 466 and ftn. qualiscumque, 282, 283.
prohibeo, w. abl., 408, 2 ; w. vol. cl., 502, 3, quam-cl. determining the degree, 550 and
b); w. infin., 587; prohibeor w. infin., 588. ftn. ; quam diii cl. determining the time
Prohibition, how expr., 496, d, 501, 3 ; in how long, ib. ; quam, quam possum, w.
ind. disc always subj., 538 superls., 241, 4-
Prolepsis, 631, 11. quam, than, w. alius or aliter, 307, 2, b ;
" Promising," constr. w., 693, a. after compare., 416, 417; quam qui or
Pronominal adjectives, 112; use, 279. ut after compare., 521, 2, c; quam after
Pronominal adverbs, 126, 3, 4, 6, 7, 127. infin. and followed by ace, 535, 1, c.
Pronouns, declension : pers., 134; reflex., quamobrem, see quare.
135; poss., 136; det.-descr., 137, 138; quamquam, advers. cl. w., 556 ; " correct
intens., 139; rel., 140; interrog., 141; ive," 310, 7 ; w. subj. 541.
indef. and distrib., 142 ; pronom. adj., quamvis, w. subj., 532, 2 ; w. later indie,
143; correl., 144. Syntax: prons. de 541.
fined,221; classification,263; pers.,254- quando, in cl. of cause or reason, 555 ;
259 ; reflex., 260-264 ; recipr., 265 ; in same in ind. disc., 535, 2 and a.
tens., 267-269; identifying, 270; det.- quanti or -0, of value or price, 356, 1, 427,
descr., 271-274 ; interrog., 275 ; indef., 2, a).
 3^4 Index

Quantity of vowels, 16, 17; in syll. not quispiam, 142, 4 ; use, 276, 3.
final, 18-24; in final syll., 25-28; in quisquam, 142, 5 ; use, 276, 7.
Greek words, 21, 5, p. io, ftn. i ; in cpds., quisque, 142, 6 ; use, 278, 2 ; in partitive
24 ; quantity of sylls., 29, 30 ; marks of apposition, 319, 1, a; w. pi. verb, 331, 2;
quantity, 16; evidences of, 16, n. 2 ; list in agreement, or w. gen. of the whole,
of "hidden quantities," 679. 346, b.
quantus, pronom.adj., 143; interrog., 275, quisquis, decl., 140, d ; use, 282, II.
5; rel., 144; uses, 282, 1; w.det.cl., 550 quivis, 142, 8; use, 276, 8.
and ftn. 2. quo, in cl. of purpose, 502, 2 and b.
quare, why, wherefore, w. subj. of obligation quoad, see dum.
or propriety, 513; w. subj. of natural quod, rel., = id quod, 325, a, n. 2; quod
likelihood, 515. sciam, etc., 521, i,f.
quasi, w. quidam, 276, 5»«; w. abl. abso quod-clauses, indie, of time included in the
lute, 421, 6, a ; w. subj., 504, 3. reckoning, 550 and ftn. ; of equivalent
-que, encl. particle, 32, n., 33, 1, 307, 1 action, 551; subst. cl., 552, 1 and ftn. 1 ;
and b ; -que . . . -que, 309, a. quid quod . . . ? ib., a ; quod-cl. of respect
queo, conj., 194, c. (as to the fact that), 552, 2 ; of cause or
Questions, classification by form, 231 ; al reason, 555 ; subj., of cause or reason in
ternative, 234 ; rhetorical, 235 ; absurd, ind. disc., 535, 2, a ; of rejected reason,
236; for subj. questions see synopsis, ib., b; of obligation or propriety, 513, 2.
499 ; for indic, questions see synopsis, quom, earlier form of cum, 44, 1.
543, and 571, 572. quominus, in subst. vol. cl., 502, 3, b).
qui, indef., decl., 142 and 1, n. quoniam, see quia-clauses.
qui, interrog. adv., 140, b ; in imprecations, quoque, 302, 2; added to sed or verum,
511, 1, a; w. subj. of natural likelihood, 310, 4, b.
515, 1. quot, correl., 144; meaning, 282, I.
qui, interrog. pron., see quis. quot and quotus, interrog., 275, 3.
qui, rel. pron., decl., 140; stem, 141, n. ; quotcumque, meaning, 282, II.
meaning, 282 ; qui-cls., in subj., see Quoted expressions, gender of, 58, 3.
synopsis, 499; in indie, 543; in con Quoted reason, subj. cl. of, 535, 2, a.
ditional cls., 577- quotquot, meaning, 282, II.
quia-clauses : indie, of cause or reason, quotus quisque, 278, 2, c).
555 ; same in ind. disc., subj., 535, 2 and
a ; of rejected reason, ib., b. re-, red-, prefix, 24, 2, 51, 15, 218, 1, b.
quibuscum, with whom, with which, 418, a. Reason, see Cause.
quicum, with whom, with which, 140, b. Reciprocal pronouns, 265 ; equivalent
quicumque, decl., 140, d ; meaning, 282, phrases, 266.
II; as indef., 276, 10, 283. Recomposition, 41, n. 2, 50.
quid, to what extent? 387, HI; in what recuso. w. subj., 502, 3, b) ; w. infin., 586, d.
respect ? 388 ; why ? ib., n. ; quid, quidni, Reduplication, in present, 168, B; in perf.,
why ? why not ? in questions of obliga 173, D ; in cpds., ib., a.
tion or propriety, 513, 1 ; of natural Reference, dat. of, 366-369; gen. of, see
likelihood, 515, 1. Application, 354.
quid quod, what (of the fact) that? 552, 1, a. refert, cases w., 345.
quidam, 142, 3 ; use, 276, 5 ; w. quasi, Reflexive, passive used as, 288, 3.
ib., a ; w. ex, 346, e ; quidam sunt qui, Reflexive pronouns, 135, 260, a, b; use of
mood after, 521, 1, b. se and suus, 262, 264; ipse as reflex.,
quidem, 302, 1 ; w. tu, 257, a; w. is, 274, 3. 263, 264, 4 ; inter se, etc., as reflex., 266.
quilibet, 142, 9; use, 276, 8. reicio, quantity of first syll., 30, 1.
quin, w. indie, 545, a; w. imper. 496, b; Rejected reason, subj. cl. of, 535, 2, b.
w. subj. in vol. subst. cl., 502, 3, b); in Relation, words of, w. dat., 362-364.
cl. of obligation or propriety,-613, 2 ; in Relative adverb, see Adverb.
cl. of ideal certainty, 519, 2, 4, b) ; in cl. Relative clause, is either declarative or
of actuality, 521, 1, 2, 3, b). conditional, 228, 3, b; =noun, partic.,
quippe, w. qui-cl., 523, b ; w. cum-cl., 526, a. appos., etc., 284, 3; position, 624, 10,
quis, indef., decl., 142, 1; use, 276, 1. 284, 5 ; w. infin., in ind. disc., 535, 1, b ;
quis, interrog. pron., and qui, interrog. moods in, see qui-cls.
adj., decl., 141; distinction not always Relative pronoun, decl., 140 ; defined,
observed, ib., a, 275, 4, a; stem, 141, £, 281; meanings, 282, 283; peculiarities
n.; cpds., 141, £, 142; meaning, 275, 1,4. in use, 284; agreement of, 322 326
quis, for quibus, 140, c. Relative tenses, of indie, 467, 1, 477, b;
quisnam, quinam, 141, b. of subj., 470, 3, 477, b.
 Index 38s
relinquitur, w. vol. ut-cl, 602,3, c) ; w.ut-cl. Second person sing, indef., in generalizing
of fact, 521, 3, a). conditions, 504, 2; in potential subj., 517,
reliqui, meaning, 279, 1, b. 1; in generalizing statements of fact, 542.
" Remembering," cases w., 350; w. infin., Secondary derivatives, 203; nouns, 207;
589; w. pres. infin. of past act, 593, b. adj., 209, 210; verbs, 211, 212.
" Reminding," cases w., 351- "Secondary" tenses, p. 247, ftn. 2.
reminiscor, cases w., 350. secum, 418, a.
Repeated action, subj. of, 540; see also secundum, w. ace, 380.
habitual action, 484, and generalizing sed, 310, 4 and b; sed enim, 311, 6, b.
condition, 576, a. "Seeing," verbs of, w. pres. partic., 605,
"u Repraesentatio,"
Representing," verbs see Picturesque tenses.
of, w. pres. partic., 1 ; w. infin., ib., n.
Semi-deponents, 161 ; voice-meanings,291.
605, 1 ; w. infin., ib.t n. Semihiatus, 648.
Request, expr. by imper., 496; by subj ., 530. Semivowels, 2.
requies, decL, 107, 2. senex,decl., 88, 4; compar., 122, 123, b.
rSs, decl., 99, 100, 1 ; see also ea res. Sentence, defined, 220; how made up,
" Resisting," w. dat., 362. 221 ; simple, 223, 1 ; compound, ib., 2 ;
Resolve, expr. by subj., 501, 1; by pres. coordinate, ib.; complex, ib.,yt four func
indie, 571 ; by fut. indie, 572. tions, 228.
Respect, expr. by ace, 388, 389; by abl., Separation, abl. of, 405-411; gen. w. verbs
441 ; by supine in -ii, 619, 1, 2. of, 348.
Restrictive clauses, 522- "Sequence of tenses," reg., 476; excep
Result, abl. expressing, 422, II. tions to, 478-480.
Result, cls. of : obligatory or proper, 513, 4 ; " Service," dat. of, see Tendency, 360.
possible, 517, 3 ; ideally certain, 519, 3 ; "Serving," dat. w., 362, II.
actual, 521, 2. sestertius, sestertium, 675.
Result produced, acc. of, 394. seu, see slve.
reus, w. gen., 342, a; voti reus, 343. Shortening of vowels, 20, 1, 2, 26.
Rhetoric, figures of, 632. " Should," see Obligation and Natural
Rhetorical det. cl., 550, a, n. 3. likelihood.
Rhetorical questions, 235; question of fact, si, meaning, 578, 1 ; in ordinary conditions,
in infin. in ind. disc., 591, a. 579-581; in loosely attached condition,
Rhotacism, 47, 86, n. 582, 2; in virtual wish, ib., 5; in ind.
Rhythm, 633- question of fact, 582, 2, b; adversative
Rivers, gend. of names of, 58, 1. or concessive, 582, 7.
rogo, w. two accs., 393; w. subj. cl., si minus, 578, 3 ; si modo, 582, 6.
530, 2. si non, 578, 2, 3.
Root, 147, n. 2, 203, ftn. 1. si quidem, = " for " or "since," 582, 9.
Route, abl. of, 426- Sibilants, 6, 3, 12.
rus, decl., 86, 1 ; place relations w., 93, sic, in answers, 232, 1 ; sic ut, 521, 2, a,
449, a, 450, b, 451, a. and ftn.
Stmile, 632, 15.
s-stems, 85, 86, 116. a. similis, compar., 120, 2; cases w., 339,
sacer, comparison, 123, a. c, n.
saepe, comparison, 129. Simple sentence, 223, 1.
salve, defective, 200, 1. simul, poetic w. abl., 418, b.
sanS, in answers, 232, 1. simul, simul atque (ac), w.aor. indie, 557.
satin, 236, 2, </. sin, use, 578, 2, 3; see also si.
satis, comparison, 129; w. dat., 362, I. sine, w. abl., 405.
" Saying," infin. w. verbs of, 589; w. pass. Singular, nouns used only in, 103 ; want
of (dicor, etc.), 590, 1 ; subj. w., 502, 3, a). ing, 104; of different meaning in pi., 105-
Scanning, 643. sino, w. subj., 531, 2 ; w. infin., 587.
sciens, w. force of adv., 245. Situation, descr. cum-cl. of, in subj., 524 ;
scito, force of tense, 496, c. w. caus. or advers. idea, 525 ; w. ubi, etc.,
-sco, verbs in, 168, F} 212, 2 ; length of in indie, 558; dum-cl. of, 559 ; expr. by
vowel before, 18. partic., 604, 2 ; by historical infin., 595.
sS, sSse, see sui. Situation, tenses of, 466, 1, a.
sS-, sed-, prefix, 218, 1, b). sive or seu, 308, 3 and a ; correlative, 309.
Second conjugation, 148, 156, 167- Slurring, 34, 1, 38, 646-
Second declension, 69-73. -so, frequentatives in, 212, 1.
Second object, in ace, 392, 393; in abl. Softened statements, etc., in subj., 519, 1, b.
w. utor, etc., 429, a. soled, semi-deponent, 161"
386 Index

solus, decl., 112, a ; gen. of, w. poss. pron., sum, conj., 153, 154; as copula, 230, a ;
339, b; solus qui, w. subj., 521, i, a w. dat. of possession, 374; est at w.
and ftn. subj., 521, 3, a) ; est w. infin., 598, 3.
Sonant, or voiced, consonants, 8, i, 12. summus, the top of, 244.
Sounds, general statement, 2-8 ; classifica sunt qui, moods after, 521, 1, b.
tion of the Latin sounds, 12. super, form in cpds., 218, i,a); w.acc., 383 ;
Space over which, 426, c ; see also Extent. w. abl., 435 and a, b ; as adv., 303, c.
" Sparing," dat. w., 362, II. superior, comparison, 123.
" Specification," gen. of, see Application ; Superlative degree, 119; in -errimus, -illi-
abl. and acc. of, see Respect. mus, 120, 1, 2; in -mus, -timus, etc.,
Speech, parts of, 221 ; figures of, 631, 632. 120, 4, 122, 123 ; expr. by maximS, 121 ;
Spelling, variations in, 82. wanting, 123, b; of advs., 128, 129;
Spirants, 6, 3- force of degree, 241, 300; w. quisque,
Spondaic verse, 639, b. 278, 2, b) ; w. vel or unus, 241, 3, a ; w.
Spondee,' 637. quam or quam possum, ib., 4.
sponte, defect., 106, i ; of manner, 445, 1. Supine, formation, 181 ; in -um, use, 618 ;
Stage, tenses of the, 466, 1. in -u, uses, 619.
Standard, abl. of, 415 ; w. ex, ib., a. supra, w. ace, 380.
statuo, w. subj., 502, 3, a) ; infin., 586. 589. Surd, or voiceless, consonants, 8, 2, 12.
Stem, of nouns, 62, 1, n., 63, 202-205; Surprise, expr. by subj., 503 ; by fut. indie,
of verbs, 202 ; the three stems, 147 ; 572 ; by infin., 596.
pres. stem of the four conjs., 148 ; union Suspense, in Latin sentence, 625, III.
of stem and ends., 152; form of tense- suus, 136 ; uses of, 260-264 ; special mean
stem, mood-stem, etc., 166-184. ings, 264, 3; suus quisque, ib., 2, a.
sto, abide by, w. abl., 438, 1. Syllables, 13 ; division of, 14, 15 ; open and
Stress, 31, 33, 1, 2. closed, 14, a, b ; quantity of, 29, 30.
studeo, w. dat., 362, II ; w. infin., 586, 587. Synaeresis, p. 352, ftn. 3.
su-, pronunc. in suavis, suaded, suSsco, 11. Synalo^pha, p. 350, ftn. 1.
suadeo, w. dat., 362, II; w. acc., 364, 4; Synapheia, 641, n. 4.
w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; w. infin., 587. Syncope of vowels, 43 ; used in poetry, 650.
sub (subs), form in cpds., 51, 14 ; w. acc., Synecdoche, 632, 8.
381 and b; w.abl., 433. Synesis, 631, 6.
Subject, defined, 229 ; omitted, 285 ; indef., Syniz6sis, p. 352, ftn. 3.
286 ; of finite verb, in nom., 335 ; like Syntax, defined, 219.
wise of historical infin., 595 ; verb agrees Syntax, figures of, 631.
w., 328 ; two or more w. one verb, 329 ; Systole, 652, 3, ftn. 4.
subj. of infin. in ace, 398 ; sometimes
omitted, 592 ; cl. as subject, 238. Tacit caus.-advers.cl.,569,ff; explicit,523,tf.
Subjective genitive, 344. taedet, w. gen., 352, 1 ; w. ace, 390, a.
Subjunctive, origin and mood-signs, 175 ; 11 Taking away," dat. w. verbs of, 371-
tables of general forces, 462 ; for details, talis, 143, 144 ; meaning, 271 ; w. qui and
see synopsis, 499. subj., 521, 1, b.
Subordinate clause, defined, 224, 1, 2, a. tam w. qui or quin, 521, 1, a ; tam w. ut or
Subsequent action, defined, 470,3 and ftn. 2. quin, 521, 2, a.
Substantive cls., defined, 238 ; used as sub tamen, 310, 6 ; position, ib.
ject, obj., etc., ib., 319, 2, c, 597, i,a),b); tametsi, corrective, 310, 7; —although,
subj. : vol., 502, 3 ; antic., 507, 2 ; opt., 582, 8.
511, 2; of obligition or propriety, 513, tamquam, w. abl. absolute, 421, 6, a; w.
5; of natural likelihood, 515, 3; poten subj., 504, 3.
tial, 517, 3; of ideal certainty, 519, 4; tandem, pray, in questions, 231, 2, n.
of actuality, 521, 3 ; of request, 530, 2 ; tanti, gen. of value, 356, 1 ; tanti ut, 5 13, 4.
of consent or indifference, 531, 2; ind. tantum abest ut, 521, 3, a).
questions of fact, 537, c; indie: w. quod, tantus, pronom. adj., 143, 144; meaning,
552, 1 ; w. cum, 553 ; infin., 585-594. 271; w. subj. qul-or ut-cl., 521, 1, a; w. .
Substantives, defined, 221, a; adjs. and quantus and indie, 550.
parties, used as, 249, 250. -te, encl. particle, 134, d.
subter, w. acc., 382 ; w. abl., ib., a. " Teaching," two accs, w., 393.
Suffixes, primary and secondary, 203-210. tego, conj., 167.
Suggestion, in imper., 496; in subj., 501, 2. "Temporal " cum-cl., 524, 525; ubi-cl., etc.,
sui, decl., 135; use, 260-264; w. gen. of 557, 558.
gerundive, 614; gen. of, reg. ohiective, tempus est, w.subj., 502,3,ir); w. infin., 586.
254, a. Tendency or purpose, dat. of, 360.
 Index 387

teneo, w. perf. pass, partie, 605, 5. Two comparatives, adjs., 242; advs., 301.
Tenses, 145 ; stems of, 147, n. 1, 166-175 ; " Two datives," 360, b.
tense denned, 465 ; tenses of the stage, Two negatives, 298, 2.
466, 1; ao1. tenses, 2; rel. tenses, 467, Two objects in ace, 392, 393; one retained
1 ; absolute tenses, ib., 2 ; tenses of in w. pass., 393, a ; two objs. in abl., 429, a.
dicative, 468 ; of imperative, 471, 496 ;
of infinitive, 472, 593 ; of subjunctive, u, consonantal may become vowel in poetry,
469, 470; of the participles, 473, 600, 656, 1 ; vocalic may become consonantal
601 ; special points : combinations (" se in poetry, ib., 2.
quence ") of tenses, 476, 477 ; less ubi, when : for ordinary uses, see postquam ;
usual combinations ("exceptions to the in cl. of equivalent action, 551.
sequence"), 478, 479; mechanical har ubi, where, same constrs. as qui ; see qui.
mony of subj. tenses, 480; tenses depend -ubus, dat.-abl. pi., decl. IV, 97, 1.
ing on pres. perf., 481 ; permanent truths -ui, perfects in, 173, B.
depending on past tenses, 482; tenses ullus, decl., 112, a, 143 ; use, 276, 7.
of habitual ("repeated" or "custom ulterior, comparison, 123.
ary ") action and attempted (" conative") ultimus, the last to, 243.
action, 484 ; w. iam d:u, etc., 485 ; of dis ultra (uls), w. ace, 380.
covery, expr. by imperf., 486, 1 ; by fut., -um, gen. plur.. in decl. I, 66, 3 ; decl. II,
ib., 2; perf. of experience ("gnomic"), 71, 4 ; decl. ill, in i-stems, 88, 4 ; decl.
488; perf. of state of affairs no longer IV, 97, 3; in adjs., 118, 1 ; of ducenti,
existing, 489 ; energetic or emphatic etc., 131, 4.
perf., 490 ; historical pres. and perf., 491 , unde, whence, same constrs. as qui ; see qui.
1 ; tenses of rapid succession of events, Unthematic verbs, p. 76, ftn., 170.
492; epistolary tenses, 493; accuracy unus. decl., 112, a ; gen. of, w. poss. pron.,
of use of Latin tenses, 494, 577, a. 339, b ; unus de or ex, 346, c ; unus qui,
tenus, w. gen. or abl., 458, 4 ; position, ib. w. subj., 521, 1, a ; uni, use, 247, 1, b.
terra, by land, 426, a ; on land, 449, a. unusquisque, 142, 7.
Thematic vowel in verbs, p. 76, ftn. ; urbs, decl., 90; in apposition to names of
changes in, 152, 1. towns, 452.
Thesis, 654 and ftn. 5. usus est, constrs. w., 430, 1, 2, and e.
Things personified, as agents, 406, 1, b. ut (uti), often merely formal, p. 261, ftn. 2 ;
" Thinking," w. infin., 589. w. subj., see especially in cl. of purpose,
Third conj., 148, 157-158, 168. 502, 2 ; in vol. subst. cl., ib:, 3 ; in cl. of
Third decl., nouns, 74-95 ; adj., 113-118. fear, ib., 4 ; in question or exclamation of
Time, adjs. denoting, 209, 5 ; time at or surprise, etc., 503 ; in antic, subst. cl.
within wh., expr. by abl., 439; by abl. 607, 2; in opt. subst. cl., 511, 2; in cl.
absolute, 421, 1 ; duration of time, by of actual result, 521, 2; in subst. cl. of
ace, 387, II ; by abl., 440 ; absolute and actuality, ib., 3 ; in ind. questions or
rel. time, 467, 1, 2. exclamations, 537, d, 3) and ftn.; w. in
Time in Roman reckoning, 660-671. die, see synopsis, 543.
timap, w. dat. or ace, 367; w. subj., 502, ut nS, p. 261, ftn. 2.
4 ; w. infin., 586. ut primum, ut semel, 557, a.
Tmesis, 659. ut si, as if, w. subj., 504, 3.
-to(-are), frequentatives in, 212, 1. uter, rel., 140, d; interrog., 141, b; use,
tot, meaning and uses, 271, 2, a. 275, 1 ; decl., 112 ; cpds. of, 142, a.
totus, 112 ; w. abl. noun, 436 and a. utercumque, decl., 140, d.
Towns where, whither, or whence, 449- uterlibet, meaning, 142, a, 276, 8.
451 ; appositives w.,452 ; preps, w., 453. uterque, 142, a ; use, 278 ; meaning in
trans, form in cpds., 51, 16 ; w. ace, 380 ; pi., ib., a, b ; as recipr. pron., 265 ; in
cpds. of, w. ace, 386- agreement or w. gen. 346, b.
Transitive, see Voice and Verb. utervis, meaning, 142, a, 276, 8.
Trees, gend. of names of, 58, 2. uti, see ut.
tres, decl., 131, 2. utinam, in wishes, 511, 1, and ftn. 1.
Trochee, 637. b. utor, w. abl., 429 ; w. 2d abl., ib., a ; w. ace,
" Trusting," w. dat., 362, II. ib., b ; in gerundive constr., 613, 2, n.
tfl, decl., 134; tute, 134, rf. utpote, w. qui-cl., 523, b ; w. cum-cl., 526, a.
tui, gen. of tu, reg. objective, 254, a. utrum . . . an, etc., 234, I and b ; utrum
tum . . . cum, see cum. suppressed, ib., III.
-tum, -tu, supine endings, 181, 49, 4, 5.
-tus, perf. pass, partic. in, 179, 4; adj. in, v, may become u in poetry, 656, 1.
209, 3; adv. in, 126, 8. Value, expr. by gen., 356 ; by abl., 427
388 Index

Variable nouns, 107, 108. vis, decl., 92.

-ve, encl. particle, 32, n., 33 ; see also vel. Vocative, Forms, exceptional: in -l, of
vS-, inseparable prefix, 214, 2. nouns in -ius, 71, 2; in -ie, of adjs. in
vel or -ve, disjunctive, 308, 2 ; correction, -ius, 110, a. Syntax, 400 ; position of,
ib., 3, a ; vel w. superlative, 241, 3, a. 624, 6; nom. for, 401.
velim or vellem, in softened statements, Voice, 145 ; act., 288, 1 ; pass., ib., 2 : pass,
519, 1, b; in virtual wishes, ib., c. used reflexively (" middle voice "), ib., 3 ;
velut or veluti (si), w. subj., 504, 3. w. ace, 390, b ; intrans. verbs, pass, of,
venturus, as adj., 248. used impers., 290, a, 1); voice-meanings
Verbal nouns, 146. of depons. and semi-depons., 291.
Verbs, Form: voices, moods, etc., 145; Voiced consonants, 8, 1, 12 ; change 01
three stems, 147; the conjs., 148; prin voiced mutes, 49, 1.
cipal parts, 150; ends., 151; union of Voiceless consonants, 8, 2, 12.
end. with stem, 1 52 ; examples of inflec Volitive subjunctive, 500-505.
tion of tlje four reg. conjs., 155-159; de- volo and its cpds., 192 ; w. vol. cl., 502, 3,
pons., 160; semi-depons., 161; periphr. a) ; w. infin., 586, 587 ; w. perf. partic.,
conj., 162; peculiarities in conj., 163- 605, 3.
165; formation of the stems, 166-184; Vowels, 2 ; classification, 3 ; pronunc., 9 ;
illustrations of the various types (prin quantity, 16-28, 36 ; weakening in inte
cipal pirts), 185-189; conj. of the irreg. rior syll., 41, 42 ; syncope, 43 ; changes
verbs, 190-197; defect, verbs, 198-200; in final syll., 44 ; contraction, 45 ; vowel-
impers. verbs, 201 ; derivation of verbs, gradation, 46 ; thematic vowel, pf. 76,
211-212; composition of verbs, 218; list ftn., 152, 1 ; final, slurred, 34, 1, 646.
of, p. 361. Syntax: verb defined, 221;
sometimesomitted, 222, a ; impers. verbs, "Want," w. gen., 347 ; w. abl., 425.
287 ; trans, verbs, 289; intrans. verbs, Watches of the night, 670, 2.
290. Way or manner, expr. by abl., 445 ; by ad,
vereor, 160; w. subj., 502, 4 ; w.infin., 586- in, or per, w. ace, ib., 3, a ; by dum-cl.,
vero, 310, 5, a, b; in answers, 232, x. 559, a ; by partic., 604, 5.
Verse, defined, 636. Weights and Measures, 672-677.
Versification, 633-659. Whole, idea of, expr. by gen., 346 . .>
versus, w. ace, 380; position of, ib., a. or ex, w. abl., ib., e.
verum, 310, 4 ; following non, ib., b ; w. Will, expr. by vol. subj., $00.
etiam or quoque added, ib. Winds, gend. of names of, 58, 1.
vescor, w. abl., 429 ; w. ace, it., b ; in Wish, expr. by opt. subj., 511, 1 ; by velim,
gerundive constr., 613, 2, n. etc., w. subj., 519, 1, c; by si or 0 si w.
vestri, objective gen., 134, b, 254, a ; ves- subj., 582, 5.
trum, gen. of the whole, ib. " Wishing," w. opt. subj., 511, 2 ; w. infin.,
veto, moods w., 587, b ; vetor w. infin., 586 and d ; see also volo.
588. Women, names of, 678, 5.
vetus, decl., 117, 118, 1, a, 2; stem of, Word-accent, in verse, 645.
117, b ; comparison, 120, 1. Word-formation, 202-218.
-vi, perfects in, 173, A ; short forms, 163. Word-order: normal, 623, 624 ; rhetorical,
vicis, defect., 106, 4 ; vicem, 388. 625-630; parallel order, 628; cross
video, w. vol. cl., 502, 3, a) ; vide ne in pro order, ib.
hibitions, 501, 3, a, 2); video and videor
w. infin., 589, 590, 1 ; video w. pres. y, in borrowed words only, 1, a.
partic. or infin., 605, 1, n. ; videor w. Year, how indicated, 661.
dat., 370. " Yes," how expressed, 232, 1.
vir, decl., 70; poetic gen. virum, 71, 4, c.
Virtual wishes,expr. by velim, etc., w. subj., 2, in borrowed words only, \,a; pronunc.,
519, 1, c; by condition w. si or S si, w. 11 ; in poetry, 29, 3, *.
subj., 582, 5. Zeugma, 631, 7.
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