2FY3-29: Computer Aided Machine Drawing

1. Gill P S, Machine Drawing, Kataria & Sons 2009 2. Basudeb Bhattacharya, Machine Drawing, Oxford
University Press 2011 3. Dhawan, R.K., A Text Book of Machine Drawing, S. Chand & Company, 1996 4.
Ostrowsky, O., Engineering Drawing with CAD Applications, ELBS, 1995. 5. Siddeshswar N., P Kannaiah,
VVS Shastry, Machine Drawing,Tata McGraw Hill

An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is used to fully and

clearly define requirements for engineered items. Engineering drawing (the
activity) produces engineering drawings (the documents). More than merely the
drawing of pictures, it is also a language—a graphical language that
communicates ideas and information from one mind to another.

Engineering drawing, most commonly referred to as engineering graphics, is

the art of manipulation of designs of a variety of components, especially those
related to engineering. It primarily consists of sketching the actual component,
for example, a machine, with its exact dimensions. The scale of dimensions is
suitably adjusted so as to properly fit within the contours of the drawing sheet.

Sectional views reveal hidden details in a mechanical drawing.

These views assume that a cutting plane has removed portions of
the object represented by the drawing, displaying the appropriate
section of the interior. Sectional views are used in engineering and
architectural drawings. They help civil engineers, architects, and
airplane designers communicate their ideas to their peers. The
different types of sectional views assist them in this process.
Full Section
If the imaginary cutting plane passes through the entire object, splitting the
drawn object in two with the interior of the object revealed, this is called a
"full section." A full section is the most widely-used sectional view.

Half View
In this view, the cutting plane is assumed to bend at a right angle and cuts
through only half of the represented object, not the full length. When the
quarter of the object that was cut is removed, the remainder is called a "half
section." A half section view is effective only on symmetrical objects, and its
main purpose is to show an object's internal and external construction in the
same drawing.

Offset View
When specific features of an object that need highlighting are not located on
the straight line of the cutting plane, an irregular-shaped cutting plane is
imagined cutting the object, revealing the desired components. This is called
an "offset view," and is effective on complex objects. The bends in the
imaginary cutting pane are always 90 degrees.

Revolving View
A "revolving view" is effective for elongated objects or the elongated section
of an object. In this view, the cross-sectional shape of ribs, spokes, and other
projections of the object are featured. The cutting plane cuts the object at an
angle, but the drawing is rotated for a better view by the observer.

Broken View
When only a small part of the object needs viewing, the cutting plane is not
used. An irregular cut line removes a section of the object at the desired
depth, leaving a "broken view." A broken view is helpful when only specific
interior details in a certain part of the object need featuring.
 SECTIONAL VIEWS
6.1 Introduction
Sectional views are used to clarify interior or hidden details on an
Orthographic projection of an object. A sectional view usually replaces one of
the principle views (top, front or side) but may also be an additional view or a
series of supplemental views depending on the type.

Fig (6.1): Sectional view of a component cut by a cutting plane

6.2 Types of sectional view:

There are many types of sectional views: Full, Half, Removed, Revolved
(Rotated), Aligned, Offset, Broken-out, Partial, Assembly and Pictorial.
These have been explained below.
6.2a Full Sectional view:
A Full Sectional view is used to show the object as if one half of the object
was removed. The example below shows a simple single plane sectional view
where object is cut in half by the cutting plane
 Fig (6.2): Full Sectional View

6.2b Half Sectional view: A Half Section view is used to show the object as
if one quarter of the object was removed.

Fig (6.3): Half Sectional view

6.2c Removed Sectional view: A Removed Sectional view is used to show

the variable shape of the object from end to end.
 Fig (6.4): Removed Sectional view

6.2d Offset sectional view:

The section planes are usually assumed to pass through the axis of symmetry
or the principal axis of the object. When several features like holes, slot,
recess etc of the component do not lie on the axis of symmetry of the
object the section plane may be offset, as shown in fig (6.5) to include the
axes of different features.
 Fig (6.5): Offset Sectional View

6.2e Aligned Sectional view:

An Aligned Sectional view is used to show the shape of features that do not
align with the vertical and horizontal centerlines of the object.

Fig (6.6): Aligned Sectional view

6.2f Broken-out Sectional view:

A Broken-out Sectional view is used to show the material thickness of a
hollow object.

Fig (6.7): Broken-Out Sectional view

6.2g Partial Sectional view: A Partial Sectional view is similar to a Broken-

out but usually covers a larger area but less than a Half Section. It is
common practice to section a part of an object when only small areas need
to be sectioned to indicate the important details.
 Fig (6.8): Partial Sectional view

6.2h Assembly Sectional view:

An Assembly Section is used to show the arrangement and relationship of
parts that makeup an object.

Fig (6.9): Assembly Sectional View

6.2i Pictorial Sectional View: A Pictorial Section is used to show the

arrangement and relationship of parts that makeup an object in a three
dimensional view with a quarter to a half of the object removed.
 Fig (6.10): Pictorial Sectional view

6.3 Cutting Plane representation:

Sectional views are located by creating a Cutting Plane Line in one view.
The Cutting Plane Line is a thick, dark line composed of a long dash, two
short dashes and a long dash. An optional Cutting Plane Line consisting of
thick, dark, long dashes may also be used. Short perpendicular lines with
arrowheads pointing away from the line are added to each end to indicate
the viewing direction or line of sight. The arrows should also point away
from the view that is sectioned. Identification "Letters" (A-A, B-B, C-C, etc.)
should be placed above the arrows when more than one section view is
needed on a drawing.

Fig (6.11): Representation of Cutting Plane Lines

6.4 Hatching:
"Section Lining" or "Cross Hatching" or "Hatching" is added to the Section
view to distinguish the solid portions from the hollow areas of an object and
can also be used to indicate the type of material that was used to make the
object. General Purpose "Section Lining", which is also used to represent
"Cast Iron", uses medium, thick, lines drawn at a 45° angle and spaced 1/8"
apart. Different materials have different patterns of lines and spacing.
Section lining should be reversed or mirrored on adjoining parts when doing
an Assembly Section.
· To avoid confusion, "Hidden Lines" are omitted from Section views.
· Spokes (that are used to hold the rim and hub of a wheel together) and
ribs (that are used to reinforce or support a hub and a plate) are not
sectioned.
· Keys, key ways, nuts, bolts and other fasteners on Assembly Sections are
not sectioned.
 BEARINGS
7.1 Introduction:
Rotating shafts, which transmit motion and power, need to be supported on
bearings. Long shafts, if supported only at its two ends, deflects at their
centers. So for the smooth running of the shafts, bearings are used at some
intervals.
In good bearings, provisions for lubrication and easy replacement of worn-
out surfaces are offered. The bearings are generally used in supporting the
spindle of machine tools, crankshaft of engines, axles of automobiles; shafts
in workshops etc. to fulfill these wide requirements in different conditions,
different shapes and structures are used. Bearings are grouped under two
categories, namely, sliding contact bearings and rolling contact bearings.
In sliding contact bearing, the relative motion between the shaft and the
bearing surface is of pure sliding. Due to the surface contact, the friction
between surfaces of rotating shafts and the bearing is relatively high. So to
minimize this friction, lubrication is used between two surfaces.
Sliding contact bearings are also classified as
1. Journal bearing (Radial bearing)
2. Thrust bearing
Journal bearings are used to support shafts that are subjected loads
perpendicular to shaft axis. The portion of the shaft supported by the
bearing is called journal.
Thrust bearings are used to support shafts subjected to axial loads.
7.2 Open Bearing:
Open bearing comes under the category of journal bearing, which is a sliding
contact bearing. A pictorial drawing of open bearing is shown in fig (7.1). A
full sectional and a half sectional view of open bearing are shown in fig
(7.2).
 Fig (7.1): Pictorial Drawing of Open Bearing

Fig (7.2): Full and Half Sectional View of Open bearing

Exercise 7.1: Draw the Half sectional Front view, Top view, Side view &
Sectional isometric view of open bearing shown in fig (7.3).
 Fig (7.3): Isometric view of Open bearing

Fig (7.4): Half Sectional Front view, top view, side view & Sectional
Isometric view of Open bearing

7.3 Bushed bearing:

It is a modification of solid bearing. A bush of brass or gunmetal is press

fitted inside the bearing. Shaft sits on the bush instead directly in contact
with bearing. A grub screw or a pin inserted half inside the bush and half in
the block prevents sliding or rotating of bush against bearing. The basic
purpose of bush is that when bush gets worn out, it can be easily replaced
instead replacing the whole bearing. The boltholes in the block are made
longer with semi-circular ends for adjusting the position of the bearing. A
pictorial drawing of bushed bearing is shown in fig (7.5) and a half sectional
pictorial view is shown in fig (7.6).

Fig (7.5): Pictorial Drawing of Bushed Bearing with Shaft

Fig (7.6): Half sectional Pictorial view of Bushed Bearing

 Fig (7.7): Half sectional Isometric view of Bushed Bearing

Fig (7.8): Orthographic Views (Front view, Top view & Side View) of a
typical Bushed Bearing
Exercise 2: Draw the Half sectional Front view, Top view, Side view &
Sectional isometric view of Bushed bearing Shown in fig (7.8) by
orthographic views.

7.4 FootStep Bearing:

Footstep bearing is used to support shaft vertically. It consists of a cast iron
block into which a gunmetal bush having a collar at the top is fitted. The
shaft rests on a steel pad. The pad is prevented from rotating by a pin,
inserted half inside the block and half in the pad and away from the centre.
The collar of the bush is made hollow to serve as an oil cup for lubrication of
the bearing. A pictorial drawing of footstep bearing is shown in fig (7.10)
and a half sectional view of footstep bearing is shown in fig (7.11). An
exploded view of footstep bearing is shown in fig (7.12)

Fig (7.10): Pictorial Drawing of FootStep Bearing

Fig (7.11): Half sectional View of Footstep Bearing

 Fig (7.12): Exploded View of Half sectional Footstep Bearing

Fig (7.13): Orthographic Views (Front View, Top View & Side View) of
Footstep Bearing
Exercise 3: Assemble the Components of Footstep bearing i.e. Pad, Bush &
Block shown in fig (7.14), Fig (7.15) & Fig (7.16) and draw half-sectional
front view of Footstep bearing.

Fig (7.14): Half Sectional Front View of Pad

Fig (7.15): Half Sectional Front View of Bush

 Fig (7.16): Half Sectional Front View of Block

Fig (7.17): Half Sectional Front View of Footstep Bearing

 Fig (7.18): Sectional Isometric View of Footstep Bearing

7.5 Plummer-Block:

A plummer block consists of a cast iron Block Base, gunmetal bearing

bottom & top halves, a cast iron cap and two mild steel bolts. It is made in
two halves to provide easy placing and removal of the shaft in and from
bearing. The split bottom & top halves give advantage to overcome wear as
these can be easily replaced. The bolt holes in the block base are made
longer with semi-circular ends for adjusting the position of the bearing. A
half sectional pictorial view of plummer block is shown in fig (7.19) and an
exploded sectional view of plummer block is shown in fig (7.20), which
shows the positioning and assembling of parts in plummer block.
 Fig (7.19): Half Sectional Pictorial View of Plummer-Block

Fig (7.20): Exploded View of Sectional Plummer Block

Parts of plummer block are shown below. Fig (7.21) shows the sectional
isometric view of cap while fig (7.22) shows orthographic views of cap.
General dimensions of plummer block are taken to draw these figures. Fig
(7.23) & Fig (7.24) shows the orthographic views of bearing top & bottom
half respectively. The sectional front view and top views of block case is
shown in fig (7.25). Assembling of all these parts results into plummer block
which has been drawn in fig (7.26) and the sectional isometric view for the
same is shown in fig (7.27).
 Fig (7.21): Isometric view of Cap

Fig (7.22): Half Sectional Front view and top view of Cap
 Fig (7.23): Sectional Front View and Side view of Bearing Top half

Fig (7.24): Sectional Front View and Side view of Bearing Bottom half
Fig (7.25): Sectional Front View and top view of Bearing Block Base

Fig (7.26): Half sectional front view of Plummer Block

Fig (7.27): Sectional Isometric view of Plummer block
 ROD JOINTS
8.1 Introduction:
Rods, having axial tensile or compressive forces are connected by cotter
joints. Rods may be of different cross sections like circular or square. This is
a temporary method of joining the rods. Cotter joints can be quickly
assembled as well as disassembled.
A cotter is a rectangular cross section of uniform thickness and varying
width with one of its longer sides tapered and other longer side being
straight. The slots in the spigot rod and in socket are made slightly larger
then the cotter with one side straight and the other side tapered. The taper
on one of the sides of cotter facilitates holding of the two rods. Excessive
taper must be avoided. For general use, a taper of 1:30 is recommended.
When the taper is greater than 1:30, to prevent slipping back of the cotter,
it should be locked in position by some additional means of locking
arrangement.

8.2 Cotter Joint for Circular rods (Socket and spigot): Socket and spigot
cotter joint is used to connect circular rods. One of the rods is formed into a
socket by enlarging its end while the other rod, called spigot end is formed
with enlarged diameter and an integral collar as shown in fig (8.1). The
spigot is put inside the socket and the cotter is driven through the slots in
socket and spigot ends. A pictorial view of socket and spigot cotter joint is
shown in fig (8.1). While a sectional view of socket and spigot cotter joint is
shown in fig (8.2). An exploded view of this joint is also shown here in fig
(8.3).
 Fig (8.1): Pictorial view of Socket and Spigot Cotter joint

Fig (8.2): Sectional view of socket and spigot cotter joint

Fig (8.3): An exploded view of socket and spigot cotter joint

Components of socket and spigot cotter joint are shown below with typical
dimensions. In fig (8.4), Pictorial and orthographic views of socket are
shown. Similarly for spigot and cotter it is shown in fig (8.5) and in fig (8.6)
respectively. Sectional isometric view and sectional orthographic views of
Socket and spigot cotter joint is shown in fig (8.7) and in fig (8.8).

Fig (8.4): Pictorial and orthographic views of Socket

Fig (8.5): Pictorial and orthographic views of Spigot
 Fig (8.6): Pictorial and orthographic views of Cotter

Fig (8.7): Sectional isometric view of Socket and spigot cotter joint

Fig (8.8): Sectional front view and top view of socket and spigot cotter joint
8.3 Cotter Joint for Round rods (Sleeve and Cotter Joint):
This cotter joint is also used to connect circular rods. This joint has better
strength compared to the socket and spigot cotter joint. Here instead of a
socket arrangement, a sleeve is used. Sleeve has two slots where two
cotters are placed in different slots and going through different rods. A
Pictorial view of sleeve and cotter joint is shown in fig (8.9). Half sectional
and partial sectional views of sleeve and cotter joint are shown in fig (8.10).

Fig (8.9): Pictorial view of sleeve and cotter joint

 Fig (8.10): A half sectional and partial sectional view of sleeve and cotter
joint

Components of Sleeve and cotter joint are shown below with typical
dimensions. In fig (8.11), Pictorial and orthographic views of sleeve are
shown. Similarly rod end it is shown in fig (8.12). Sectional orthographic
views and Sectional isometric view of Sleeve and cotter joint are shown in
fig (8.13) and in fig (8.14).
Fig (8.11): Pictorial and orthographic views of sleeve
 Fig (8.12): Pictorial and orthographic views of rod end

Fig (8.13): Sectional front view and top view of Sleeve and cotter joint
Fig (8.14): Sectional isometric view of Sleeve and cotter joint
The Theory Of Projections
Since engineers are confronted with the task of recording the sizes and
shaped of three-dimensional objects on the plane of sheet of drawing paper,
it is obvious that recognized procedure must be followed if their drawing
and sketches are to be easily understood.
Objects are seen when light rays called visual rays, coming from the object
strikes the observer’s eye. The size of the image formed on the retina will
depend upon the position of the observer from the object. Such an image
formed on the retina is called perspective view of the object. In the same
way if an imaginary plane is introduced in-between the object and observer
as shown in fig (3.1), the visual rays crosses at some points on the
transparent plane. These points when connected form the perspective view
of the object on an imaginary transparent plane. The imaginary transparent
plane is called the plane of projection and the view formed on it is called
projection. The visual rays are called projectors.
In the above case the view formed is called perspective projection.

3.1 Orthographic projections:

When the observer is at a finite distance from the object, the visual rays or
the projectors converge to the eye. But if the observer is imagined at an
infinite distance from the transparent plane or the plane projection, the
projectors will be parallel and will be perpendicular to the plane of
projection as shown in fig (3.1). This projection is called orthographic
projection.

Fig (3.1): Orthographic projection of an object on projection plane

 Fig (3.2): Principal Views of a Hut describing hut fully

A classification of projections has been shown through fig (3.3).

 Fig (3.3): Classification of Projections

3.2 Principal views:

The orthographic projection shown in fig (3.1) does not describe the object
fully. It only shows the appearance of the object when viewed from front.
To describe the object fully, it should be viewed from different positions
and the additional views should be projected on additional planes of
projection as shown in fig (3.2). The figure shows the arrangement of planes
to project the views from the front, top and right side of the object. These
three mutually perpendicular planes of projection are called the principal
planes and the views projected on these planes are called the principal
views.
3.3 First and Third Angle Projections:
When a Cartesian co-ordinate system is extruded in z direction, it will take a
shape of crossed planes as shown in fig (3.4). This has four quadrants, which
can be numbered as first, second, third, and fourth quadrants in
counterclockwise direction.
If the object has been put in first quadrant the object will be in-between
the plane of projection and observer. So the front view is projected on the
vertical plane and the top view on the horizontal plane. Now these
transparent planes can be unfolded to make it on a drawing sheet. After
unfolding the planes as shown in fig (3.6), the top view will be below the
front view, right side view will be on left of the front view and the left side
view will on right of the front view. This system of projection is called the
first angle projection. Mostly first angle projection is used to draw
orthographic views of components.
If the object has been put in the third quadrant as shown in fig (3.7), the
plane of projection will be in-between the observer and the object. When
the views are projected on the planes and the quadrant is unfolded. The top
view will come on top of the front view, the left view will on the left of
front view and right side view will be on right of front view. These views are
shown in fig (3.8).

Fig (3.4): Cartesian Co-ordinate extruded to form Four Quadrants

Fig (3.5): Object placed in First Quadrant

Fig (3.6): Unfolded First quadrant

Fig (3.7): Object placed in Third Quadrant

 Fig (3.8): Unfolded Third Quadrant showing Orthographic projections.

Theory of Projections (Part2)

3.4 Projection symbols:
The projection system used in drawing should be indicated in the title block
of the drawing sheet. This can be shown by drawing the two views of a
frustum of cone placed with its axis horizontal as shown in fig (3.9). The fig
(3.10a) shows the symbol of projection for the first angle projection system
and figure (3.10b) shows the symbol of projection for the third angle
projection system.
Fig (3.9): pictorial view of Frustum of cone

Fig (3.10a): First Angle Projection symbol

Fig (3.10b): Third Angle Projection symbol

3.5 Orthographic views of Machine Parts:
When the object is given, its front, top and side views may be drawn by
direct visualization. But generally instead of giving the object itself, its
pictorial view will be given. A pictorial view is a 3D representation of an
object. Since a pictorial view directly shows the shapes of the front, top and
one the side face of the object, it will be easy to visualize the appearance
of the object, when viewed from front, top and one of the sides. This
enables the student to develop the technique of visualizing the external
appearance of the object and ability to draw front, top and side views from
the pictorial views.
Mostly this pictorial representation of an object is either isometric or
oblique. In both these representations the object may be visualized. For
example a circle is shown in pictorial view as elliptical, similarly a rectangle
as a parallelogram.
The following rules can be studied carefully and understood thoroughly
before making attempt to prepare an orthographic drawing.
1) The front and top views are always in line vertically as shown in fig
(3.11).
2) The front and the side views are in line horizontally as shown in fig
(3.11).
3) The depth of the top view is the same as the depth of side views as shown
in fig (3.11).
4) The width of the top view is same as the width of the front view as shown
in fig (3.11).
5) The height of the side view is same as the height of the front view as
shown in fig (3.11).
Fig (3.11): Orthographic projection of an object showing Width, Depth &
Height

Problems
1. Isometric view of a corner block is shown in fig (3.12). Draw front view,
top view and right side view of corner block in first angle projection.
 Fig (3.12): Corner block

2. Isometric view of a Stop block is shown in fig (3.13). Draw front view, top
view and right side view of corner block in first angle projection.
 Fig (3.13): Stop Block

3. Draw orthographic views of parts shown in fig (3.14), Fig (3.15) and fig
(3.16) below.
Fig (3.14)
Fig (3.15)

Fig (3.16)
 Sectional Views
 CUTTING PLANE
 CUTTING PLANE LINE
 SECTION LINING
 FULL SECTIONS
 HALF SECTIONS
 BROKEN OUT SECTIONS
 REVOLVFD SECTIONS
 OFFSET SECTIONS
 REMOVED SECTIONS

You have learned that when making a multiview sketch, hidden edges and
surfaces are usually shown with hidden (dash) lines.
When an object becomes more complex, as in the case of an automobile
engine block, a clearer presentation of the interior can be made by sketching
the object as it would look if it were cut apart. In that way, the many hidden
lines on the sketch are eliminated.
The process of sketching the internal configuration of an object by showing it
cut apart is known as sectioning. Sectioning is used frequently on a wide
variety of Industrial drawings.
In this example, blocks A and B result after the block in figure 1 has been
“Sectioned”. When you cut an apple in half you have sectioned it. Just as an
apple can be sectioned any way you choose, so can an object in a sectional
view of a drawing or sketch.
Cutting Plane

A surface cut by the saw in the drawing above is a cutting plane.

Actually, it is an imaginary cutting plane taken through the object,
since the object is imagined as being cut through at a desired
location.

Cutting Plane Line

A cutting plane is represented on a drawing by a cutting plane line.

This is a heavy long-short-short-long kind of line terminated with
arrows. The arrows in show the direction of view.

 
Once again, here is an graphic example of a cutting plane line and the section
that develops from it.
Section Lining

The lines in the figure above, which look like saw marks, are called section
lining. They are found on most sectional views, and indicate the surface
which has been exposed by the cutting plane. Notice that the square hole in
the object has no section lining, since it was not changed by sectioning.
 
Different kinds of section lining is used to identify different materials. When
an object is made of a combination of materials, a variety of section lining
symbols makes materials identification easier. Here are a few examples:
 

 
Section lines are very light. When sketching an object or part that requires a
sectional view, they are drawn by eye at an angle of approximately 45
degrees, and are spaced about 1/8” apart. Since they are used to set off a
section, they must be drawn with care.
It is best to use the symbol for the material being shown as a section on a
sketch. If that symbol is not known, you may use the general purpose symbol,
which is also the symbol for cast iron.

Full Sections

When a cutting plane line passes entirely through an object, the resulting
section is called a full section Fig. 7 illustrates a full section.
 
 
It is possible to section an object whenever a closer look intentionally is
desired. Here is an object sectioned from two different directions.
 

Half Sections

If the cutting plane is passed halfway through an object, and one-quarter of

the object is removed, the resulting section is a half section.  A half section
has the advantage of showing both inside and outside configurations.
It is frequently used for symmetrical objects. Hidden lines are usually not
shown on the un-sectioned half unless they are needed for clearness or for
dimensioning purposes. As in all sectional drawings, the cutting plane take
precedence over the center line.
 

 
Here is another example of a half section. Remember that only one fourth of
the object is removed with a half section, whereas half of the object is
generally removed with a full section.
 
This manufacturer’s drawing, using both full and half section, illustrates the
advantages of sectional views. The different line directions indicate different
parts and materials used in the assembly of this valve.
 

 
Quiz
Directions: On a separate sheet of paper, complete the section view.
 

Broken Out Sections

In many cases only a small part of a view needs to be sectioned in order to

show some internal detail. In the figure below, the broken out section is
removed by a freehand break line. A cutting plane line does not need to be
shown, since the location of the cut is obvious.
 
Revolved Sections

A revolved section shows the shape of an object by rotating a section 90

degrees to face the viewer. The three revolved sections illustrated in the
spear-like object of figure 12 show the changes that take place in its shape.
 

Offset Sections

An offset section is a means of including in a single section several features

of an object that are not in a straight line. To do this, the cutting plane line is
bent, or “OFFSET” to pass through the features of the part.
 
Removed Sections

A section removed from its normal projected position in the standard

arrangement of views is called a “removed” section. Such sections are
labeled SECTION A-A, SECTION B-B, etc., corresponding to the letter
designation at the ends of the cutting plane line. Removed sections may be
partial sections and are often drawn to a different scale.
 

Quiz
Directions: Complete the half section view of a separate sheet of paper.
 

 
Conventional Practices  

Hidden
Line
Represe
ntation
in
Section
Views.

In
section
view
drawings
, hidden
line
represen
tation is
omitted
in that
part of
the view
with the
section
lining.
Threee
different
orthogra
phic
represen
tations
of the
hub are
shown: (
A) A
standard
orthogra
phic
drawing
of the
hub
showing
the front
and top
views; (
B) a full
section
in the
front
view but
with
hidden
lines
inapprop
riately
included
in the
backgro
und;
and (C) 
a correct
conventi
onal
represen
tation of
the full
section
in the
front
view
which
omits
these
hidden
lines. In
all cases
the top
view of
the
drawing
is a
standard
orthogra
phic
view
complet
e with
visible
and
hidden
lines.
Because
the
cutting
plane is
obvious,
the
cutting
plane
line is
omitted
in the
top view.
 Line
Precede
nce in
Section
View
Drawing
s.

Visible
object
lines
take
precede
nce over
hidden
and
centerlin
es.
Hidden
lines
take
precede
nce over
centerlin
es.
Cutting
plane
lines
take
precede
nce over
centerlin
es when
locating
the
cutting
plane for
the
section
view.
Centerlin
es are
included
in the
section
view, but
hidden
lines are
omitted.
 Parts
Not
Section
ed.
Certain
features
of
engineer
ing parts
are
generall
y not
sectione
d even
though
the
cutting
plane
may
pass
through
them.
When
the
cutting
plane
passes
through
the
length of
supporti
ng ribs,
lugs,
and
other
thin
parts,
the
feature
is
represen
ted
without
section
lines to
avoid a
misimpr
ession of
solidity.
Here the
cutting
plane
passes
through
a thin rib
and a
lug. The
section
view
represen
ts the
cylindric
al body
and
base of
the part
with
section
lining,
but the
thin rib
and lug
are not
sectione
d in
accorda
nce with
this
conventi
on.
Convent
ional
Represe
ntation
of
Mechani
cal
Element
s in
Section
Views.

In
addition
to thin
structura
l
features,
parts not
sectione
d also
include
standard
mechani
cal
element
s such
as
shafts,
bolts,
screws,
nuts,
rivets,
keys,
pins,
bearings
, and
gear
teeth.
Here the
shaft,
bolts,
and nuts
of the
assembl
y are not
sectione
d even
though
they are
cut by
the
cutting
plane.
Treatme
nt of
Webs
and
Spokes
in
Section
Views.
When
shown in
section
views
(case A),
the web
is
sectione
d to
indicate
the
continuit
y of the
material
througho
ut the
circumfe
rence of
the
wheel.
when
shown in
section
views
(case B),
spokes
are not
sectione
d to
indicate
gaps
around
the
circumfe
rence.
The Use
of
Alternat
e
Sectioni
ng.

When
both a
web and
ribs are
present
in
section
views of
cylindric
al parts,
the
alternate
sectionin
g rule
applies. 
(A) The
base
web is
sectione
d
accordin
g to
normal
practice. 
(B) Whe
n ribs
are
present
in
addition
to the
web, the
usual
conventi
on for
ribs
would
result in
a view
identical
to case
A. To
eliminat
e this
misrepre
sentatio
n, a
techniqu
e called
alternate
sectionin
g is
employe
d. In this
techniqu
e only
alternati
ng
section
lines are
shown in
the
cross-
hatching
style as
depicted
in case
B.
Foresho
rtened
Feature
s in
Section
Views.

(A) True
orthogra
phic
projectio
n
sometim
es yields
a
misimpr
ession
of
objects.
Foresho
rtening
of
features
such as
holes,
lugs,
ribs,
spokes,
and
arms
should
be
avoided. 
(B) Rec
ommend
ed
practice
is to
rotate
the
feature
into the
plane of
projectio
n to
yield an
aligned
view.
Here
both the
hole and
the rib
have
been
rotated.
Foresho
rtened
Feature
s in
Section
Views.

(A) True
orthogra
phic
projectio
n
sometim
es yields
a
misimpr
ession
of
objects.
For
example
,
foreshort
ening of
the
spokes
should
be
avoided. 
(B) Rec
ommend
ed
practice
is to
rotate
the
spoke
into the
plane of
the
section
view.
The
spoke
itself is
not
sectione
d in
keeping
with
conventi
onal
practice.
In
addition,
the rear
spoke
projectio
n is
omitted
here for
clarity.
The use
of
Partial
Views
in
Sectioni
ng.

In
section
views of
symmetr
ical
parts,
partial
views
may be
used.
For
example
, only
half of
the top
view of
the rod
base is
shown.
This is
permissi
ble
because
the rod
base is
circularly
symmetr
ic and
the
missing
half of
the top
view can
easily be
inferred
by the
reader.
When
using
half
views in
sectionin
g, the
cutting
plane is
omitted
because
the cut
through
the
object is
obvious.
 Cutting
Plane
Intersec
tion
Practice
s in
Setion
 Views.

(A) Whe
n the
true
projectio
n of the
intersect
ion
results
in only a
minor
distortio
n, the
true line
of
intersect
ion is
disregar
ded and
a
simplific
ation is
used. In
this
case,
the true
projectio
n is
replaced
with a
simple
straight
line
projectio
n. (B) In
the case
where
the
cutting
plane
intersect
s large
features
such as
 this
large
through
hole, the
true
orthogra
phic
projectio
n is
shown.

 
   
   ©College
2000 ME
of Engineering at UT Austin
 Temporary Joining Permanent Joining

A temporary joint can be dismantled A permanent joint cannot be

without breaking the assembled parts. dismantled without breaking parts.

Temporary joining is beneficial where Permanent joining is beneficial where

frequent assembly and disassembly joint is intended to stay fixed for
are required. longer period.

Strength of temporary joint is Permanent joint offers stronger

comparatively lower. joining.

Temporary joints are not leak-proof. Most permanent joining processes

provide leak-proof joints.

Temporary joining processes offer Inspection, repair and maintenance

easy and cost efficient inspection, are difficult when structures are joined
repair and maintenance as parts can permanently as disassembly is not
be dismantled without breaking. possible without breaking.

Examples of various permanent

Examples of various temporary joining
joining techniques:
techniques:
 Welding
 Fasteners
 Brazing and soldering
 Press fit
 Riveting
 Cotter joint
 Coupling.
 Knuckle joint.