MT5009 ANALYZING HI-TECHNOLOGY

OPPORTUNITIES

CIGS Solar Cells

Zhang Xuan (a0068215)

Rajendiran Aravind Raj (a0065709)
Wu Yiming (a0068957)

21/04/2011
Outline
Motivation Motivation
Solar energy is the most abundant energy and free of cost

Human energy
Solar energy
consumption in 1
supply in 1 hour:
year: 1.11 x 1014
1.78 x1014 KWh
KWh

• Solar energy is a safer, environmental friendly resource to solve energy

crisis, and environmental problems
• Solar cell is a commercially available and reliable technology with a
significant potential for long-term growth in nearly all world regions
 Motivation
• Solar cell is projected to provide 5% of global electricity consumption in
2030, rising to 11% in 2050

Silicon material
price decreased

Source: IEA solar PV roadmap

Outline
 Technology Paradigm of Solar Cells
Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 85-90% market share
• Cells are typically made using a crystalline silicon wafer (ingots can be
monocrystalline or multicrystalline)

Basic Operation
• Silicon crystals are laminated into n-type and p-type layers, stacked on top of each
other. Light striking the crystals induces the “photovoltaic effect,” which generates
electricity

Methods to improve
• New silicon materials and processing
• Cell contacts, emitter and passivation
• Improve device structure and develop new device
with novel concept
• Wafer equivalent technologies
• Productivity and cost optimization
Limitation for paradigm
• The theoretical limit for a crystalline silicon solar cell is ~ 29%.
• The thickness of silicon wafer is hard to reduce
 Technology Paradigm of Solar Cells
Thin films 10-15% market share
Made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of photovoltaic materials on a substrate.
Photovoltaic material convert sun energy to electricity.

a-Si and uc-Si CdTe CIS or CIGS Dye-sensitized solar cell

Methods to improve
• Improve quality of substrates and transparent conductive oxides
• Cell structure improvement
• High rate deposition in large area
• Defects and nanostructure improvement
Limitation of paradigm
• Light trapping efficiency
• Band gap & grain size
• Low-lifetime of thin film, sensitive to moisture
• Thermo-physical properties of layers and substrates
 Technology Paradigm of Solar Cells
Concentrating PV
CPV systems use optics to concentrate a large amount of sunlight onto a
small area of solar photovoltaic materials to generate electricity.
High cost with super high efficiency (can reach 50%)
Methods to improve
• Semiconductor properties
• Solar tracking system
• Optic concentration

Novel technologies
Develop active layers which best match the solar spectrum or which modify the incoming solar
spectrum. Both approaches build on progress in nanotechnology and nano-materials.
Structures of the active layer - quantum wells, quantum wires and quantum dots.
Key issues - collection of excited charge carriers (hot carrier cells) and the formation of
intermediate band gaps.
Ultra-high efficiency with full spectrum utilization
Methods to improve
• Characterization and modeling of especially nano-structured materials and devices
• Processing
Different PV technologies market share
Different PV technologies market share
 CIGS Thin Film Solar Cell
CIGS Technology:
•Copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CuInxGa(1-x)Se2)
•I-III-VI2 compound semiconductor material
• Direct band gap material
• Multicrystalline nature
• Band gap can be varied from 1.0 eV to 1.7 eV
• Light absorber (Active Layer) material for TFSC
Outline
 CIGS Value Proposition
Performance
• Highest energy conversion efficiency among all thin-film solar cells (≈ 19%
in small area cells, ≈ 13% in large area modules)
• Highest light absorbance (105 /cm) of all thin films
• No intrinsic degradation, excellent durability especially outdoor especially
strong sunlight and high temperature (30 years)
Cost advantage
• Simple module structure/manufacturing process and cheap installation
• Less raw material utilization fabricated on cheap substrate
• Integrated manufacturing: from raw materials to end products
• Higher efficiency reduces area of PV modules
• Short energy pay back time and less energy consuming process(1/3 of silicon)
• Adaptability - transferable know how from existing industry
• LCD industry technology
• Lightweight and light bulk, Can be manufactured on flexible substrate
• lead to niche market applications. E.g. BIPV
• Less environmental footprint for recycling for CIGS
• Green technology compared with silicon solar cell
 CIGS –Working Principle
Light shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a
voltage to generate electric power.
Generation of light-generated carriers

Collection of the light-generated carriers

to generate a electric current
N Type

P Type

Generation of a large voltage across the

solar cell

CIGS Solar cell

Dissipation of power in the load
Why CIGS has high efficiency than other thin films?

Courtesy : AUO Solar

By adjusting ratio of CIGS mixture , the broad energy band distribution can be
achieved. CIGS absorb light of different wavelengths in solar spectrum. It has
wide solar spectrum response and is capable of fully utilizing incident light
compared to it competitors .

% I can absorb more light than other thin films – CIGS %

Outline
Does the CIGS has reached maximum efficiency ?

CIGS absorber layer quantum efficiency might have reached

saturation, but improvements can be done in cell structure and
materials used for fabrication to increase efficiency. End user is
concerned about cost also.
 Improvements in components

• Buffer layer CdS can be modified using ZnS, InS, ZnSe etc (Voc,Isc)
• An anti reflective layer is used to reduce front surface reflection loss( Pin)
• Contacts can be made thinner /transparent to allow more sunlight to reach
the cell and low resistivity materials can be considered. (21 %
without contacts)
 Improvements in components
CIGSSe Technology Tandem Cell Structure

Source : Univ. of Johannesburg Source : NREL

 Improvements in modules
CIGS
* Laser scribing
* Monolithic fabrication
* More transparent , less absorption
glass for lamination
* Ink based printing technology
on flexible substrates
* BOS improvements

Cell
Substrate Module
 Improvements in Systems
Controversies between research and industrial results !
• Needs duplication of equipments used for research in larger scale
• Uniform & quality deposition of thin films over large area
• Role of contaminants and some unexplained stories too….

Courtesy: Global Solar

 Latest CIGS Update
Research Industry

Efficiency : 20.3 % Efficiency : 15.7 %

Area : 0.5 sq.cms Area : 1 sq.m
Centre for Solar Energy MiaSolé
and Hydrogen Research
ZSW
Outline
Cost & Efficiency Analysis
 Cost: CIGS < c-Si? Manufacturing Steps
Si – Wafer Solar Cell CIGS Solar Cell

Substrate Cell Module Cell

Substrate Module

The monolithic integration of thin-film PV can lead to significant manufacturing cost

reduction compared to c-Si technology.
 Cost Comparisons for thin film Solar Panels

Cost Summary (per sq. meter) 20 MW Plant 2 GW Plant Net Gain

Coated Glass $ 23.62 $ 4.62 5x
Operating Expenses $ 4.00 $ 1.50 2.5 x
Materials and depreciation
a-Si $ 2.33 + $ 13.35 $ 0.31 + $ 2.67 5x
CdTe $ 3.46 + $ 10.00 $ 2.33 + $ 13.35 7.5x
CIGS $ 13.96 + $ 13.35 $ 9.31 + $ 2.67 7.5x
Assembly, Packaging & Interconnect $41.71 $ 10.50 4x
Overall process yield 60 % 93 % 1.55x
 Cost: a-Si vs. CIGS & CdTe
a-Si has the lowest manufacturing
costs/watt, but its low conversion a-Si
efficiencies, <10%, require a
greater investment in the BOS
components, the supporting
infrastructure that includes
mounting structures, inverters
and electrical wiring. CIGS

By contrast, CIGS and CdTe have

demonstrated efficiencies
approaching and exceeding a-Si.
CdTe
 Cost: CIGS > CdTe
• CIGS and CdTe cells share
common characteristics and device
structural elements.
• In principle, the cost/area should
be similar, thus, efficiency
becomes a crucial factor for
cost/watt.
• However, production processes in
terms of throughput and yield can
differ significantly and may offset
the advantage of higher
performance.
• Its production is not easy as four
different materials are used.
• This is the reason why CdTe has
low cost advantage over CIGS.
 Low Cost Processing of CIGS [1]
• Conventional best-performing CIGS deposition processes:
• co-evaporation
• by sputtering of the metals, followed by selenization with H2Se.
• These two processes suffer from relatively slow throughput, poor material utilization,
and relatively high vacuum.
• One such example is a process that uses nano-components to make printable precursors
that are crystallized into CIGS.
• Need for Low-Cost, High-Throughput Processes.
• A lower-cost process should feature high deposition rates, high material utilization, and
simpler equipment capable of processing very large substrates.

Used by Global
Solar and Wurth
Solar

Reference: M. Kaelin, Low cost processing of CIGS thin film solar cells, solar energy, 2004
 Low Cost Processing of CIGS [2]
Non-vacuum absorber formation techniques
Pros Cons
Use low cost equipment Lack of a high purity vacuum environment – need
careful choice of precursor materials and additives
Enable fast processing speed to avoid undesired contamination.

Often poor
quality, includes
impurity phases
and may be Quality improved,
amorphous or material is annealed at
microcrystalline a higher temperature
due to the low
deposition T
(<400 °C)

Reference: M. Kaelin, Low cost processing of CIGS thin film solar cells, solar energy, 2004
 Low Cost Processing of CIGS [3]
• Chemical spay pyrolysis
One of the best-investigated non-vacuum deposition processes, but few results were
reported.
• Pros: Very suited for uniform large area coating.
• Cons: Impurity phases, Traces from reaction by-products, Small grain-size obtained.

• Paste coating
Typically includes screen printing, doctor-blade coating and curtain coating.
• A fast process can be applied to continuous roll-to-roll deposition.
• Very efficient use of material, exhibits high packing densities.
• Does not require expensive vacuum equipment, manufacturing cost per square meter is
significantly lower compared to vacuum deposited absorber layers.

Reference: M. Kaelin, Low cost processing of CIGS thin film solar cells, solar energy, 2004
 The Electrodeposition Process

• SoloPower has developed a low cost electro-deposition

process to manufacture CIGS solar cells and modules

electrolyte
anode

• A conversion efficiency approaching 14% has been

confirmed at NREL
• Modules have been manufactured demonstrating process
flow

Reference: Rommel Noufi, Thin Film CIGS Photovoltaics, SoloPower, Inc.

 The Electrodeposition Process

• Hardware is low cost

• Can be high throughput once the hardware is tuned to the specifics of
the process
• Near 100% material utilization
• Pre-formed expensive materials are not required, e.g. sputtering
targets, nano-particles
• Crystallographically oriented CIGS films with good morphology and
density have been demonstrated
• Thickness and composition
control of the deposited films
are integral part of the process
• Readily scalable

Reference: Rommel Noufi, Thin Film CIGS Photovoltaics, SoloPower, Inc.

 ISET’s Ink-based Fabrication of CIGS
• International Solar Electric Technology
• Currently developed a novel ink printing method for fabricating CIGS
thin-film solar cells.
• Significantly lower manufacturing costs than all current solar cell
technologies.
• Combines the following advantages to achieve low costs
• Exceptional utilization of materials
• Low capital equipment expenses
• Application over various area formats due to versatility printing
• Excellent compositional uniformity established within ink formation,
resulting in high production yields
• Adaptability to flexible substrates
• Efficiency reaching above 14%, with large potential for performance
improvements.
• Robust module architecture that reduces assembly costs and minimizes
field service failures.
Reference: Competitiveness of Ink-Based Thin-Film Photovoltaics, Advantages of ISET’s Printed CIGS over other Current Photovoltaic Technologies
ISET’s Monolithically Integrated CIGS Modules

Reference: Competitiveness of Ink-Based Thin-Film Photovoltaics, Advantages of ISET’s Printed CIGS over other Current Photovoltaic Technologies
 ISET’s Ink-based Fabrication of CIGS

bare
glass

metalized glass

ink-coated
substrate

final CIGS
module
Ink-Based CIGS Production Process Sequence – very simple
Reference: Competitiveness of Ink-Based Thin-Film Photovoltaics, Advantages of ISET’s Printed CIGS over other Current Photovoltaic Technologies
 ISET’s Printed CIGS vs. High-Vacuum CIGS
High-Vacuum CIGS ISET’s Printed CIGS
Steep capital investment required for Active materials in ISET’s ink are
deposition chambers. precisely supplied, materials utilization
greater than 95%.
Scale-up of costly vacuum equipment to ISET takes advantage of economical
large-area format requires printing technologies that are well
correspondingly high capital expenditure. established for high-volume production.
Expensive In, Ga are deposited on the Low capital expense facilitates sequential
walls of the chambers, costly to recycle. production volume expansions.
Poor utilization of metals at high-volumes Extremely low manufacturing costs allow
diminishes economy-of-scale benefits. for market-competitiveness at each stage
of production capacity development.
High cost of production prevents cost-
competitiveness.

Reference: Competitiveness of Ink-Based Thin-Film Photovoltaics, Advantages of ISET’s Printed CIGS over other Current Photovoltaic Technologies
ISET’s Monolithically Integrated CIGS Modules

Reference: Competitiveness of Ink-Based Thin-Film Photovoltaics, Advantages of ISET’s Printed CIGS over other Current Photovoltaic Technologies
Outline
 Future opportunities
Direct opportunities - applications
• Solar power plants (lightweight, light bulk and flexibility
enables to install in more harsh places)
• Power supplies for satellites and space vehicles (high
efficiency and radiation hardness)
• Decentralized power supply - Building Integrated PV, foldable
or rollable panels (flexible substrate and light bulk)
• transparent substrates apply to large areas like windows
• thin substrate can be painted onto aircraft wings
• Power supply for portable purposes (lightweight and high
efficiency)
• Consumer products such as watches, toys and calculators
• Power supply for emergency and remote areas (durability and
high efficiency)
• solar powered water pumping & water treatment system
• remote lighting system & PV powered electric fencing
• telecommunications and remote monitoring Systems
• PV powered storage batteries, vehicles and traffic control signal
• vaccine and blood storage refrigerators for remote areas
http://www.copper.org/innovations/2007/05/images/civilian_flex_panel.jpg
http://www.rgp.ufl.edu/publications/explore/v12n2/images/thin-film.jpg
http://www.baulinks.de/webplugin/2007/i/0732-wuerthsolar1.jpg
http://www.esa.int/images/ISS_2004_web400.jpg
Entrepreneurial Opportunities
CIGS solar cell value chain
opportunities lie in each segment of the chain
 Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Material and chemical supplier
For CIGS solar cell manufacturing, process control starts with the material: the target.
If process starts with inadequate material, process will yield inadequate results.
• CIGS absorber layer materials - elemental copper, indium, gallium, selenium
• Individual components that make up the CIGS layer - inks, nanoparticles
• Suspension solvents and additives such as resins and wetting agents
• Other materials - transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), molybdenum and zinc oxide used
for the contacts
• New materials substitutes used in non-vacuum deposition of the electrode layers

Flexible substrate - Cheaper, Flexible and Larger

• Encapsulation Materials – make multiple alternating layers
of polymer and ceramic films
• Ultrathin, Flexible Glass and Glass‐like Composites
• Polyimide Films – dominated by polymer substrates
 Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Material and chemical supplier
For CIGS solar cell manufacturing, process control starts with the material: the target.
If process starts with inadequate material, process will yield inadequate results.
• CIGS absorber layer materials - elemental copper, indium, gallium, selenium
• Individual components that make up the CIGS layer - inks, nanoparticles
• Suspension solvents and additives such as resins and wetting agents
• Other materials - transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), molybdenum and zinc oxide used
for the contacts
• New materials substitutes used in non-vacuum deposition of the electrode layers

Flexible substrate - Cheaper, Flexible and Larger

• Encapsulation Materials – make multiple alternating layers
of polymer and ceramic films
• Ultrathin, Flexible Glass and Glass‐like Composites
• Polyimide Films – dominated by polymer substrates
 Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Opportunities for Solar Panel Firms and Service Firm
• Installation and maintenance of solar panels and solar energy
products - hardware engineers, turnkey system integrators and
trainers
• Outside firms like roof and building firms come in as BIPV
installer
• Training people for the solar energy industry
• Trading of solar panels and a range of solar energy products