CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR

Objective: The main objective of this lesson is to make the students learn about the
word personality and different aspects related to it.

Lesson Structure:

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Personality

2.3 Concept and definition of personality

2.4 Major determination of personality

2.5 Biological contribution

2.6 Socialization

2.7 Culture

2.8 Situation factors

2.9 Major personality Attributes influencing organizational behaviour

2.10 Theories of personality

2.11 Psychoanalytic theory (Freud’s theory)

2.12 New Freudian theories

2.13 Traits theories

2.14 Social Learning Theories

2.15 The self theories

2.16 Need theories

2.17 Holistic theories

2.18 Personality and organizational behavior

2.19 Summary

Introduction:

Personality is a concept that we use in our routine working while dealing with people. We
generally talk about people who are close to us or may or may not relate to us. We generally
say that a person has good, bad, arrogant or aggressive personality. Thus the word good,
bad, arrogant and aggressive explains that personality is related with the behavior of an
individual. The term personality has been derived from the Latin word 'per sonare' which means
to speak through. This Latin word denotes the mask, which the actors used to wear in ancient
Greece and Rome. Long ago when plays were performed the numbers of actors used to be
less than the number of roles. So the same actor used to change the masks to make people
realize that they are performing a different character. Perhaps due to this reason people relate
personality to physical and outward appearance. It is also related with social status of the
individual, as the person with high social status is having good personality. Thus in simple
sense, personality is sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
Thus,
“Personality is the supreme realization of the individuality of a particular living being".
Personality is a word or characteristics, which is of great importance now a day in every field
of life. Every organization examines the personality of the applicant before he became the
employee of the concern. Every entrance test, that may be a professional course, job or future
studies have logical, relational and constructive personality assessment questions because they
form the personality of an individual. All the interviews are designed with the questions that
can bring out the personality of the candidate. According to Gordon Allport, “personality is a
dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
unique adjustments to his environment.”
Thus, personality embraces all the unique traits and patterns of adjustments of the individual in
his relationship with others and his environment. Personality is a process of change and it is
related with psychological growth and development of an individual. According to R.B.Cattel,
“Personality is that which predict of what a person will do in a given situation".
Question no.1: Briefly explain is personality? (May, 2017)

Answer: Personality:

Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving is called personality.

Personality embraces moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions
with other people. It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that
distinguish one person from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to
the environment and to the social group.
The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a psychological concept two main
meanings have evolved. The first pertains to the consistent differences that exist between people:
in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and explaining relatively stable
human psychological characteristics. The second meaning emphasizes those qualities that make
all people alike and that distinguish psychological man from other species; it directs the
personality theorist to search for those regularities among all people that define the nature of man
as well as the factors that influence the course of lives. This duality may help explain the two
directions that personality studies have taken: on the one hand, the study of ever more specific
qualities in people, and, on the other, the search for the organized totality of psychological
functions that emphasizes the interplay between organic and psychological events within people
and those social and biological events that surround them. The dual definition of personality is
interwoven in most of the topics discussed below. It should be emphasized, however, that no
definition of personality has found universal acceptance within the field.

Question no.2: Define concept, various characteristics and definition of personality? (May,
2017)

Answer: concept, various characteristics and definition of personality

The term personality is often understood in terms of social attractiveness. A good personality is
considered to be one who impresses other people and who has the ability to get on well with
others. Those who do not possess such ability are said to have relatively poor personality.
However if one considers personality from a scientific point of view, being attractive to others is
not a true concept of personality. In fact, psychologists consider any attempt to define personality
in terms of social attractiveness as inadequate because of two reasons, (i) it limits the number
and types of behaviours considered important and worthy for incorporation into the study of
personality and (ii) such a notion implies that some people who have unique abilities,
temperament and traits are devoid of having a personality. Psychologists have attempted to
explain the concept of personality in terms of individuality and consistency. We often observe
that people differ a great deal in the ways they think, feel and act and that too to different or even
same situations. This distinctive pattern of behaviour helps one to define one’s identity.
Commenting upon the notion of individuality, it has been said that each of us in certain respects
is like all other persons, like some other persons and like no other person who has been in the
past or will be existing in future (Kluckhohn & Murray, 1953). Another important notion in
defining the concept of personality is consistency. In other words it can be stated that the concept
of personality also rests on the observation that a person seems to behave somewhat consistently
in different situations over different time. Form this observation of perceived consistency comes
the notion of personality traits that determine the way of responding to one’s world. Combining
these notions of individuality and consistency, personality can be defined as the distinctive and
unique ways in which each individual thinks, feels and acts, which characterise a person’s
response throughout life. In other words, it can be said that personality refers to all those
relatively permanent traits, dispositions or characteristics within the person that give some
measure of consistency to the person’s behaviour. These traits may be unique, common to some
groups or shared by the entire species but their pattern will be different from individual to
individual. The thoughts, feelings and actions that are perceived as reflecting an individual’s
personality typically have three characteristics

i) Thoughts, feelings and actions are considered as behavioural components of identity

that make distinction between individuals
ii) ii) Behaviours are viewed as being primarily caused by internal rather than
environmental factors.
iii) iii) The behaviours of the person seem to have organisation and structure.

Question no.3: Explain the meaning of personality. What are the major determinants of
personality? (May, 2017)
Answer: The Meaning of Personality:

The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask. According
to K. Young, “Personality is a …. patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an
individual, as these are organised externally into roles and statuses, and as they relate internally
to motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.” G. W. Allport defined it as “a person’s
pattern of habits, attitudes, and traits which determine his adjustment to his environment.”

According to Robert E. Park and Earnest W. Burgess, personality is “the sum and organisation of
those traits which determine the role of the individual in the group.” Herbert A. Bloch defined it
as “the characteristic organisation of the individual’s habits, attitudes, values, emotional
characteristics……. which imparts consistency to the behaviour of the individual.” According to
Arnold W. Green, “personality is the sum of a person’s values (the objects of his striving, such as
ideas, prestige, power and sex) plus his non- physical traits (his habitual ways of acting and
reacting).” According to Linton, personality embraces the total “organised aggregate of
psychological processes and status pertaining to the individual.”

Major determinants of Personality:

Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.

Personality is not determined by a single factor, but by an accumulation of many factors. Some
of those factors are psychological, while others are physical, biological, and hereditary. I have
compiled some of the most influential factors when it comes to determinants of personality.

1. Brain

The brain is one of the most important personality determinants. It is generally believed the
father and the child adopt almost the same type of brain stimulation. Later differences are the
result of the environment in which the child has grown.
2. Physical Characteristics

One of the most important factors in determining personality are an individual's physical
characteristics. These factors play a vital role in determining one’s behavior in a social
organization. Physical characteristics include, but are not limited to:

 Height

 Skin tone

 Weight

 Hair color

 Beauty

These factors influence interactions with other people, contributing to personality development.

3. Social Experiences

Social experiences play a vital role in determining one’s personality. The things that occur
around a person on a regular basis determine how that person will behave and perceive
themselves. A person's social experiences affect:

 Coordination

 Cooperation

 Family relationships

 Organizational relationships

 Workplaces relationships

 Involvement in communities

4. Culture and Religion

The culture in which one lives almost always involves:

 Traditional practices

 Norms
  Customs

 Procedures

 Rules and regulations

 Precedents

 Values.

These are all highly influential determinants of personality.

5. Heredity

Perhaps the most surprising and astonishing personality determinant is heredity. The example
given below is quite interesting, and comes from the book Essentials of Organizational
Behavior by Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge, and Seema Sanghi: “Researchers in my
many different countries have studies thousands of sets of identical twins who were separated at
birth and raised separately. For instance, one set of twins who had been separated for 39 years
and raised 45 miles apart, were found to drive the same model and color car. They also chain-
smoked the same brand of cigarette, owned dogs with the same name, and regularly enjoyed
vacations within three blocks of each other in a beach community 1,500 miles away.”

Heredity is perhaps the most important factor in determining personality, since mostly all other
determinants, such as physical characteristics, gender, psychology, and more, are passed down
through genes.

Define the term ‘neuroticism’ used in personality? (May, 2017)

What Is Neuroticism?
Neuroticism, one of the Big 5 personality traits, is typically defined as a tendency
toward anxiety, depression, self-doubt, and other negative feelings. All personality traits,
including neuroticism, exist on a spectrum—some people are just much more neurotic than
others. In the context of the Big 5, neuroticism is low emotional stability.

Some self-deprecating comedians and complainers wear their neuroticism as a badge of honor,
but in truth, people with neurotic dispositions are more prone to mood disorders, loneliness, self-
consciousness, and hypochondria, to name just a few related experiences. In reality, neuroticism
is rarely fun for anyone, though some research has shown that neuroticism can predict student
success and may be correlated with certain reproductive benefits.

Neuroticism may have provided evolutionary advantages, as well—paying more attention to

negative outcomes or risks could have helped certain early humans survive. In the present day,
however, it may be a better choice to laugh at one's hang-ups rather than run away from them.

How to Deal With Neuroticism

For someone who is highly neurotic, it’s easy to feel trapped by maladaptive thought patterns
and to struggle with depression or anxiety, both of which are more likely to occur in highly
neurotic individuals.

Is there anything someone can do to make themselves less neurotic? The evidence is mixed, but
recent studies suggest that personality traits are not set in stone and can change over the course
of a lifetime particularly after a major life event like getting married or having a child.

Whether an individual actually becomes less neurotic over time or not, there are steps one can
take to better cope with neuroticism, such as engaging in cognitive behavioral therapy or
practicing mindfulness.

Question no.4: Explain Biological contribution of personality? (May, 2016)

Answer: Biological contribution:

Psychologists agree that environmental factors interact with genetic factors to form personality.
Some psychologists have proposed theories that emphasize these genetic influences on
personality.

Hans Eysenck’s Theory

Psychologist Hans Eysenck believes that genetics are the primary determinate of personality,
although he thinks conditioning also plays a role. According to Eysenck, personality traits are
hierarchical, with a few basic traits giving rise to a large array of more superficial traits.
Genetically determined differences in physiological functioning make some people more
vulnerable to behavioral conditioning. Eysenck suggests that introverted people have higher
levels of physiological arousal, which allows them to be conditioned by environmental stimuli
more easily. Because of this, such people develop more inhibitions, which make them more shy
and uneasy in social situations.
Empirical evidence for genetic contributions to personality comes mainly from two kinds of
studies: studies of children’s temperaments and heritability studies.

Studies of Temperament
Temperament refers to innate personality features or dispositions. Babies show particular
temperaments soon after birth. Temperaments that researchers have studied include reactivity,
which refers to a baby’s excitability or responsiveness, and soothability, which refers to the ease
or difficulty of calming an upset baby.
Researchers have studied children from infancy to adolescence and found that temperaments
remain fairly stable over time. However, temperaments can also be modified over time by
environmental factors.

Heritability Studies
Heritability studies also provide evidence for genetic contributions to personality. Heritability is
a mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a trait’s variation in a population can be
attributed to genes.

Question no.5: Briefly elaborates Socialization determinants of personality? (May, 2017)

Answer: Refer Question 3.

Question no.6: Discuss the culture determinations of personality? (May, 2017)

Answer: Refer Question 3.

Question no.7: Write about the situational factor of determinations of personality? (May,
2016)

Answer: Situational factor:

Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is quite
strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important
modifications of behaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent,
does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth
different aspects of one's personality. According to Milgram “Situation exerts is an important
press on the individual; It exercises constraints and may provide push. In certain circumstances it
is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that
determines his actions". We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.

Besides, Situational factors of personality also have a complete share in the formation of
personality of an individual. Situational factors of personality are charging according to the
social situations. Every person face may situations in his life which enables him/her to change
his/her behavior. For example, a teacher may be rigid and strict with students but may not with
his/her family. An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compare to his/her
friends. Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give
complete share in its formation. A person behave and his/her personality exists when interacts
with environment, culture, society, parents, friends and to those who come in contact by chance.

What are the major personality traits influencing human behaviour in an organization?
(May, 2016)

Answer: personality attributes traits OB:

Personality traits and organizational behaviour

Those personality traits which affect the organizational behaviour of a person are:

1. Authoritarianism: It was developed by the psychologist Adorno to measure susceptibility to

autocratic, fascistic, or anti-democratic appeals. It was later extended to human personality.
Authoritarians are oriented towards conformity of rules and regulation. They prefer stable and
structured work environment. They believe obedience and respect for authority and blind
acceptance of authority. They are conservatives. They are concerned with toughness and power,
close minded and less educated. They make good followers, work better under directive
supervision and are more productive within authoritarian organizational structure.
 2. Bureaucratic Personality: It is based upon respect for organizational rules and regulations.
Unlike authoritarian person, bureaucratic person's acceptance of authority is not total and blind.
A bureaucratic person values subordination, conformity to rules, impersonal and formal
relationships. These people are not innovative. They do not like taking risks. They are better
supervisors when the type of work is routine, repetitive and proceduralized.

3. Machiavellianism (Mach): Niccolo Machiavelli wrote in the 16th century on how to gain

and use power. This personality trait named after Machiavelli are:

(i) A Mach man is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify
means.

(ii) High Mach people flourish when they interact face to face with others.

(iii) They have high self-confidence and high self esteem.

(iv) They are specially successful in exploiting structured situations and vulnerable people. We
cannot conclude whether high Machs make good employees or not. The answer will depend
upon the type of the job and whether moral and ethical values are considered in evaluating the
performance of a person.

4. Introversion and Extroversion: These two terms are associated with the interpersonal
behaviour of an individual and his sociability. Extroverts are gregarious and sociable individuals
while introverts are shy, quiet and retiring. Extroverts are more suitable for positions that require
considerable interaction with others. Managerial positions are dominated by extroverts. An
introvert works best alone in a quiet office without external interruption or influence.

5. Problem-solving Style: There are the following four problem solving styles:

(i) Sensational Feeling Style: These people are dependable, friendly, social and they approach
facts with human concerns. These people are pragmatic and methodical. Some suitable areas of
jobs for these people are teaching, customer relations, social workers and marketing.
 (ii) Sensation Thinking Style: They are practical, logical, decisive and sensitive to details.
These people prefer bureaucratic type organizations. They are not highly suitable for jobs
requiring interpersonal relations. But these people are more skilled in technical jobs, e.g.,
production, accounting, engineering and computers.

(iii) Intuition Feeling Style: They are enthusiastic, people oriented, charismatic and helpful.
The professions which are suited to this style are public relations, advertising, politics and
personal.

(iv) Intuition Thinking Style: These people are very creative, energetic, and ingenious and like
jobs which are challenging in terms of design and analysis such as system design, law, research
and development, top management and so on.

6. Achievement Orientation: The people with very high achievement orientation strive to do

things in a better way. They feel that their success or failure is due to their actions. These people
do not like to perform easy tasks or tasks where the failure rate is more. These people like to the
acts with moderate difficulties. The high achievers will do better in sports, management and
sales.

7. Locus of Control: It refers to an individual's belief that events are either with one's control
(internal locus of control) or are determined by forces beyond one's control. Some people believe
that they are the masters of their own fate. They are labelled as internals. Other people see
themselves as pawns of fate. This type is called externals. A person's perception of the source of
his or her fate is termed locus of control.

Question no.8: What are the major personalities attributes influencing organization
behaviour?? (May, 2016)

Answer: personality attributes influencing OB:

Personality dimensions/attributes influencing behaviour

Personality is a set of relatively stable characteristics or dimensions of people that account for
consistency in their behavior in various situations. Personality is a major determinant of what
will be done and how it will be done in the job where most of the working day is spent in
interacting with other people. In any organization every individual’s personality reveals how
he work with superiors, subordinates and other people, how an individual adjust himself to a
particular situation and how he reacts to the changes occurring in the existing jobs or on the new
job. Some of the important personality factors or dimensions that determine what kind of
performance will be achieved or what kind of behavior is exhibited at work are:

Personality dimensions

1. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

2. Authoritarianism

3. Need Patterns

4. Bureaucratic Personality

5. Machiavellianism

6. Tolerance for ambiguity

7. Locus of control

8. Risk Taking

1. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: Self-Concept is the way individuals define themselves as so

who they are and drive their sense of identity. Self-esteem is the degree of respect; liking or
disliking an individual has for him. It is a measure of self- confidence and respect for one’s
abilities and motivation. It denotes the extent to which an individual regards himself as capable,
successful, important and worthy. People with high self esteem are very friendly, affectionate,
find it easy to form interpersonal attachment and find good in other people. They tend to take on
more challenging assignment and contribute significantly to their organization if the organization
rewards them suitably for their efforts. They are high performers. Low self-esteem people are
usually critical of others, are generally depressed and blame others for their own failure. They
contribute to poor performance, which in turn leads to low self-esteem.
2. Authoritarianism: A closely related term to authoritarian is “dogmatism” which refers to the
rigidity of a person’s beliefs. Authoritarianism refers to blind acceptance of authority.
Authoritarian people believe in obedience and respect for authority. They believe that there
should be status and power differences among people in organization. The individual with
high authoritarian personality is intellectually rigid, judgmental of others, deferential to those
above and exploitative of those below, distrustful and resistant to change. They rightly adhere to
conventional values, are conservative, endorse parental control for keeping the family together,
are concerned with toughness and power, are close minded and are generally less educated.
Where the job demands sensitivity to feelings of others, tact and ability to adapt the complex and
changing situations, the persons with high-authoritarian personality would be negatively related
to performance.

3. Need Patterns: Every individual have needs for achievement, affiliation, autonomy and
dominance at work. People with:

a) High need for achievement engage them totally in work in order to feel proud about their
achievements and success.

b) High need for affiliation work with great co-operation with others.

c) High need for autonomy prefers to work in the environment where the supervision is less.

d) High need for dominance is effective in an environment where they can enforce their
legitimate authority.

4. Bureaucratic Personality: This kind of persons has respect for rules and regulations.

Thus, on this account it differentiates from authoritarian person whose respect for authority is
blind. Bureaucratic persons are not innovative; even not ready to take risk and they keep
themselves at ease while following other directions. They value subordination, rules, conformity,
impersonal and formal relationship. In the routine and repetitive work they are better supervisors.

5. Machiavellianism: It refers to manipulation of others as a primary way of achieving one’s

goals and gaining and keeping control of others. The extent to which an individual is
Machiavellian is measured by Mach Scale. People with high score on mach scale have high self-
confidence and self esteem. They are cool and calculating, logical in assessing the system around
them. They have no hesitation in using others or taking advantage of others in order to serve their
own goals, willing to twist and turn facts to influence others and try to gain control of people,
event and situation by manipulating the system to their advantage. As they thoughtfully and
logically approach their situation, they are skilled in influencing others. They are successful in
exploiting structured situations and vulnerable people.

6. Tolerance for ambiguity: Because of rapid changes an individual have to work in an

environment which is full of uncertainty. They should develop high level of tolerance for
ambiguity. People or managers with high tolerance level of ambiguity can work effectively
without much stress. But the people with low tolerance for ambiguity can work effectively in
structured work setting but it is difficult for them to work in changed conditions.

7. Locus of control: It is the extent to which individual believe that they control their own lives
or external forces control their lives. In other words, the degree to which people believe that they
are masters of their own fate

The individual with ‘internal locus of control’ believes that he is master of his own destiny. He
believes that his internal traits determine what happens in a given situation and he controls
events concerning his own life. The person with this kind of personality seeks opportunities for
advancement and relies more on their ability and judgment at work. The study proves that the
persons with internal locus of control are highly confident. They use their own wisdom and
energy while working on any projects.

The individual with ‘external locus of control’ tends to believe that events occur purely by
chance and because of the factors beyond their control. They feel that the outside forces are
affecting the events in his life and the individual is at the mercy of destiny, chance or other
people. The person with this kind of personality are generally in active and allow the events
occur own their own.

8. Risk Taking: This shows the willingness of individual to take or avoid risk. It shows how long
a manager take to make a decision and how much information he requires before taking a
decision. High-risk taker takes rapid decision with less available information. The propensity to
assume risk is dependent upon the nature of job. An accountant performing auditing activities
should be risk averse; on the other hand in the expectation of higher return a high risk-
taking propensity results high performance for a stock trader‘s brokerage firm. As a general
saying it is higher the risk, higher the return.

Question no.9: Explain the theories of Personality? (May, 2018)

Answer: Theories of Personality:

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

1) Psycho-analytical Theory

2) Trait Theory

3) Type Theory

4) Self Concept Theory

5) Social Learning Theory

1. Psycho-analytical Theory: The mile stone in the study of personality is Freud’s

psychoanalytical theory. Freud is of the belief that the personality as a reflection of behaviour
has been primarily based on the unconscious nature of personality. The human behaviour and
motivation is outcome of following psychoanalytical concepts. Such as:

a) ID: It is the unconscious part of the human personality. It is most primitive part and is the
storehouse of biologically based urges. Example- urges to have food, water etc. ID is original
source of personality present in a newborn or infant. The principal of working for ID is
‘Pleasure’. Id tries to satisfy the urge as soon as possible without considering the realities of life.

b) Ego: Ego manages ID through the realities of the external environment. Ego is conscious in
nature and is a mechanism to relate our conscious urge to outside real world. As Ego is conscious
and logical part of human personality, ID is guided and governed by Ego. It explains the ways of
thinking and behaving. ID demands immediate pleasure at whatever cost, Ego controls it so that
the pleasures are granted at appropriate time and in acceptable manner. Ego delays satisfying ID
motives and channels the behaviour, which is socially acceptable. It makes people work to live
and adjusting to the realities of life. The principle of ego to work is ‘Reality Principle’. It takes
into account what is possible in this world. As the function of ID and Ego are contrary there is
always ongoing tension between ID and Ego i.e. between urges and realities of life which keeps
Ego to develop more sophisticated thinking skills. Thus to keep ID under control, Ego is
supported by Super Ego.

c) Super Ego: It is higher level restraining force and can be described as the conscience of the
person. The conscience creates standards of what is right or wrong. It represents the rules and the
norms that check the cultural, moral or ethical behavioral values of the individual in the social
environment. However, an individual is not aware of presence and working of superego in
oneself. It is developed slowly in a person when he absorbs central values and follows the
standards of society. Superego keeps ego to judge what is right or wrong.

Example: A Boy is feeling hungry because of ID. He passes through a shop with food displayed
in the window and thus the urge of hunger arises more strongly. But the boy has no penny and
the Ego suggest the ways to satisfy hunger that if you don’t have money to buy food, steal and
run. Then, Super Ego warns boy that there is something wrong as stealing is considered
blundered in society and it is punishable.

2. Trait Theory: It visualizes personality as a reflection of certain traits of the individual.

This theory was put forward by ‘ALLPORT”. Trait is a distinctive and personal form of
behaviour. There are many traits, which are common to most people, some are unique to a
person and other individuals share some. On the basis of trait theory, people can be described
as aggressive, loyal, pleasant, flexible, humorous, sentimental, impulsive, cool and so on.
Traits are basic elements of personality and can be used to summarize behaviour. The trait of an
individual or ‘Personal disposition is studied at three levels:

a) Cardinal Trait Level: ALLPORT defined cardinal traits as those pervasive traits which
are so powerful/dominant that rarely all the individual action can be traced back to them. As
these are highly influential traits, so they are named after key historical figures like Mother
Teresa, Hitler, and Romeo etc. This level describes a trait so broad and so deep in its impact that
it overshadows the influence of other traits for the same individual.
b) Central Trait Level: ALLPORT describes central traits as those that might be referred in
careful recommendations or at a rating scale.These are unique and limited in number. The traits
at this level means to convey what can be expected from a person most of the time.

c) Secondary Trait level: These are least generalized traits of a person. The range of influence of
these traits is very narrow. These peripheral traits are specialized to the situation.

Cattell used groups of traits to describe the structure of personality. He put these traits in the
following categories:

a) Surface Traits: Wise-foolish, sociable-exclusive, honest-dishonest etc.

b) Source Traits: Trustful-suspicious, relaxed-tense, dominant-submissive, forthright- shrewd,

cheerfulness-depressed etc.

3. Type Theory: “Type is simply a class of individuals said to share common collection of
characteristics”. Type approach discuss the personality in the following ways:

a) Type on the basis of body build:

i. Endomorph: They are fat, thick in proportion to their height. They seek comfort, eat too
much, jovial, affectionate and liked by all. They are even tempered, show a relaxed posture, easy
to get along with others and are tolerant of others. They prefer to be led than to lead.

ii. Ectomorph: They are thin, long and poorly developed physically. They work well in
closed areas and displays restraint, inhibition and desire for concealment. They prefer not to
attract attention to him and tend to be distrustful of others. They are anxious, ambitious and
dedicated.

iii. Mesomorph: They are basically strong, athletic and tough. They seeks lot of muscular
activity, tends to be highly aggressive and self-assertive. They desire action, power and
domination and they can run faster and smile brighter.

b) Type on the basis of nature:

i. Introvert: The people with following characteristics are introvert such as- shyness, social
withdrawal, emotional, process the idea within themselves. Introvert can be good scientists and
researchers.

ii. Extrovert: People having following characteristics are extrovert. These are- socials,
talkative, less emotional, easily makes friends, easily express their ideas and feelings.
Extroverts propagate more knowledge and ideas to society. They can be good reporters, actors
and marketers.

iii. Ambiverts/Reserved: These are the people between introverts and extroverts.

c) Type A and Type B:

i. Type A: Persons are those who are highly achievement oriented, competitive feel,
chronic sense of time urgency and impatient whenever their work slow down. Type A are on fast
track of life and are more successful in reaching top slot. They work against opposing forces.
Managers in this category are hard drivers, detailed oriented people with high performance
standards. These people have difficulty in increasing cordial interpersonal relationships and
create a lot of stress for themselves and for the people they deal with. If they have to
complete a task within given deadline, they feel pressurized. Researchers have proved that Type
A personality profile lead to health problems and specially heart related illness.

ii. Type B: These kinds of persons are easy going, no competitive drive, feel no emergency.
They are relaxed, sociable and have a balanced outlook on life. They are not over ambitious, are
more patient and take a broader view of things. In order to meet a deadline they do not feel
pressurized. They may be hard-working but feel no pressing conflict with people or time and
hence are not prone to stress and coronary problems.

4. Self-Concept Theory: This theory is organized around the concept that the individual
himself largely determines personality and behaviour. It is also termed as organismic or field
theories, which emphasize on totality and inter relatedness of all behaviour. There are four
factors consider in self-concept theory. These are as-
a) Self-Image: Every person has certain beliefs about who or what he is. The beliefs of the
individuals are the proof of self-image or self-identity. Thus self-image is the way one sees
himself.

b) Ideal Self: As discussed earlier self image indicates the realities of a person as perceived
by him, but ideal self indicates the ideal position as perceived by him. It denotes the way one
would like to be.

c) Looking glass-self: This is the way one thinks people perceive about him and not the way
people actually see him. It is the perception of a person about how others perceive his qualities
and characteristics. It is a social product, which emerges from face-to-face interaction with
others from the very beginning of life. This interaction directs how others see him as an
individual.

d) Real Self: This is what one actually is. An individual self-image is confirmed when other
persons response to him, indicate their beliefs about who and what he corresponds with.
On the basis of feedback from environment, the person re- evaluates himself and re-adjusts
himself as per the expectation of others. Thus a balance should be maintained between real self
and self-image.

Thus self-concept plays a very important role in analyzing individual behaviour. It gives a sense
of meaningfulness and consistency. On the basis of self-concept a person perceives a situation.

5. Social Learning Theory: This theory believes that personality development is a result of
social variables. It emphasizes on conscious needs and wants of an individual. This theory uses
“reinforcement and punishment approach” in understanding personality. It looks at personality as
some total of all that a person has learned from outside stimuli. There is mutual interaction
between external environment and behaviour. For example- if an individual receives bad
behaviour from society, the frustration causes and reinforces aggression as a personality trait.
And if he receives good behaviour from people in terms of praise, this reinforces good
behaviour. Learning can also occur from observation; we watch the behaviour of other people,
draw observation about them and express our own behaviour.

Question no.10: Discuss about Psychological theory (Freud’s Theory)? (May, 2016)
 Answer: Psychological theory (Freud’s Theory):

The Freudian Theory of Personality

Sigmund Freud is considered to be the father of psychiatry. Among his many accomplishments
is, arguably, the most far-reaching personality schema in psychology: the Freudian theory of
personality. It has been the focus of many additions, modifications, and various interpretations
given to its core points. Despite many reincarnations, Freud’s theory is criticized by many (e.g.
for its perceived sexism) and it remains the focus of hot discussions on its relevance today.
Etymology

Freud was a one of a kind thinker. There can be little question that he was influenced by earlier
thinking regarding the human mind, especially the idea of there being activity within the mind at
a conscious and unconscious level yet his approach to these topics was largely conceptual. His
theoretical thoughts were as original as they were unique. It is a testament to Freud’s mind to
know that whether you agree, disagree, or are ambivalent about his theory, it remains as a
theoretical cornerstone in his field of expertise.

Definition

Human Personality: The adult personality emerges as a composite of early childhood

experiences, based on how these experiences are consciously and unconsciously processed
within human developmental stages, and how these experiences shape the personality.

Not every person completes the necessary tasks of every developmental stage. When they don’t,
the results can be a mental condition requiring psychoanalysis to achieve proper functioning.
Stages of Development

Believing that most human suffering is determined during childhood development, Freud

placed emphasis on the five stages of psychosexual development. As a child passes through these
stages unresolved conflicts between physical drives and social expectation may arise.
These stages are:

 Oral (0 – 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. If not satisfactorily met there is
the likelihood of developing negative oral habits or behaviors.
 Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to developing
healthy toilet training habits.
 Phallic (3 – 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the sexual
attraction boys and girls have toward a parent of the opposite gender.
 Latency (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual feelings
for the opposite sex.
 Genital (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are integrated into
the mind allowing for the onset of healthy sexual feelings and behaviors.
It is during these stages of development that the experiences are filtered through the three levels
of the human mind. It is from these structures and the inherent conflicts that arise in the mind
that personality is shaped. According to Freud while there is an interdependence among these
three levels, each level also serves a purpose in personality development. Within this theory the
ability of a person to resolve internal conflicts at specific stages of their development determines
future coping and functioning ability as a fully-mature adult.

Super ego

Each stage is processed through Freud’s concept of the human mind as a three tier system
consisting of the superego, the ego, and the id. The super ego functions at a conscious level. It
serves as a type of screening center for what is going on. It is at this level that society and
parental guidance is weighed against personal pleasure and gain as directed by ones id.
Obviously, this puts in motion situations ripe for conflict.

Ego

Much like a judge in a trial, once experiences are processed through the superego and the id they
fall into the ego to mediate a satisfactory outcome. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean
a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance,
reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and
memory.

Id
The egocentric center of the human universe, Freud believed that within this one level, the id is
constantly fighting to have our way in everything we undertake.

Critique

So where does this leave us? In the words of Jim Morrison in a song he wrote for the Doors “I
want the world and I want it NOW!” seems to be on the tip of many persons lips. It could have
been entitled Ode to the Id.
There are many mental illnesses that place the id in the forefront decision making. In particular,
there are those whose lives are lived on a totally narcissistic level. Then there are those with anti-
social personalities, psychotic like illnesses, and more. In the world of Freud, it is the neurotic
person that is most affected by the principles of his theory.

As a result Freud laid out his plan for treatment: psychoanalysis. The treatment has been in use
for many years with many adaptations given to it. On the plus side, psychoanalysis do present a
client with the structure and time to resolve neurotic issues. On the negative side there is always
expressed concern over the cost. Being that it does take time for psychoanalysis to be effective
there is an associated cost that can be prohibitive.

Short Answer type Questions

Question no.11: write about New Freudian Theories? (May, 2016)

Answer: New Freudian Theories:

Personality theorists who followed Freud branched out in many different directions. Jung was
fascinated by the unconscious and distinguished between the personal unconscious of an
individual and the collective unconscious of the species.

To Jung, dreams, myths, fantasies, and even the journals of medieval alchemists were full of
symbols from the collective unconscious. Jung believed these patterns were built up over our
species history in response to ubiquitous elements of our social environments.
Adler was also interested in social influences on personality, but his emphasis was on early
childhood and family influences. Adler thought personality was shaped by feelings of inferiority
in childhood and how an individual responded to them.

Adler pointed out that individuals often compensate for things that make them feel bad in
childhood. They strive to overcome these "felt inferiorities." The result is a distinctive style of
life, a characteristic way of interacting with others, based on what worked in childhood.

Karen Horney emphasized warm and nurturant relations between caregivers and young children.
Positive relations fostered basic confidence, she said, and negative ones created basic anxiety.
Either could persist into adulthood and affect an individual's ability to cope effectively with life.

Adler and Horney were both ego psychologists because they believed the executive process in
personality (the conscious self or ego) had the power to transform itself and energize self-
change. Adler referred to the creative self, while Horney advocated self-analysis.

Erik Erikson was another ego psychologist of the mid-20th Century. Writing with his wife Joan
as an unacknowledged co-author, he depicted personality development as a series of challenges
or crises throughout life. Each crisis, if resolved properly, contributed a virtue or strength to
personality.

Modern psychologists tend to avoid the word ego, with its Freudian connotations. They discuss
an active, executive process using labels like self-concept or dialogical self.

Question no.12: Explain Traits Theories? (May, 2016)

Answer: Traits Theories:

In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of

human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which
can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this
perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across
individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are not), are relatively consistent over
situations, and influence behavior. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory
dispositions.
In some theories and systems, traits are something a person either has or does not have, but in
many others traits are dimensions such as extraversion vs. introversion, with each person rating
somewhere along this spectrum.

There are two approaches to define traits: as internal causal properties or as purely descriptive
summaries. The internal causal definition states that traits influence our behaviours, leading us to
do things in line with that trait. On the other hand, traits as descriptive summaries are
descriptions of our actions that don't try to infer causality.

Question no.13: Write about Social Leaning Theory? (May, 2016)

Answer: Social Leaning Theory:

Social Learning theorists, such as: Kassin, Fein, & Markus (2008), Albert Bandura (1977) and
Lev Vygotsky (2006) agree with the notion that “behaviors and learning” are the results of
observation, imitation and modeling. Kassin et al. (2008) establishes that observation of others,
as well as direct experience of rewards and punishment influence behaviors outcomes.
Consequently, behavior is influenced by modeling and social interaction. Bandura (1977) educes
that people learn through observations of other people’s behavior, attitudes and consequences of
those behaviors. Therefore, learning is a continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioral and environmental influences. Vygotsky conveys through the theory of Zone of
Proximal Development that learning appears twice: first on the social level, and the latter, on the
individual level (Wang, 2006). For full ZPD to take place, it needs a full social interaction cycle.

Connect the theory to relevant, current literature

The three articles that we reviewed are relevant to the social learning theory and they all address
the importance of interaction between students. Whether it is through play as it is mentioned in
Leuong & Bodrova’s (2012) article or whether it is through cooperative learning (Olsen &
Kagan, 1992) students are all taking part in the social learning theory as they interact and learn
social skills from one another. Olsen & Kagan (1992) write about communicative skills and
social skills that develop through the interaction of class and group work. These skills include
asking for clarification, checking the understanding of others explaining, paraphrasing,
acknowledging contributions, asking others to contribute, praising others, verifying consensus,
and mediating conflicts (Olsen & Kagan, 1992). Anderson, Spainhower, & Sharp (2014) discuss
the importance of child-directed play and the connection with social learning theory. It is
important for children to directly learn from experiences in the classroom and have interactions
with others. Leung & Bodrova (2012) discuss the importance of play and this has a strong
connection with social learning because of the social skills students are acquiring as they play.
They are also developing in a positive way both socially and academically through social
learning.

Connections to Practice

There were many connections to practice on every level. The connections to our own practice
vary by age groups. We all made connections to the social learning theory by connecting our
classrooms back to collaboration and interactions with one another. In the kindergarten this is
seen through hands on learning approach. The program iplay gives the students the opportunity
to learn by experiencing, and working with others. In the fourth grade classroom the social
learning theory is present through group work and interactions with the teacher. Finally in the
secondary language classroom students learn through their interactions with one another and the
teacher. Laura uses pre assessments to gage the students prior knowledge along with their
motivation for a topic. She uses this information to help scaffold the learning to meet the needs
of all learners. The three classrooms utilize the student's ability to interact to help build on their
own learning. It is evident that in all three classrooms, the social learning theory is present.

Question no.14: Elaborate the Self Theory? (May, 2018)

Answer: the Self Theory:

Carol Dweck and others have identified two implicit theories of intelligence.  Those learners
who have an “entity” theory view intelligence as being an unchangeable, fixed internal
characteristic.  Those who have an “incremental” theory believe that their intelligence is
malleable and can be increased through effort.

Originators: Carol Dweck, based on over 30 years of research on belief systems, and their role in
motivation and achievement. 

Key Terms: entity theory, incremental theory

 Self-Theories (Dweck)
Carol Dweck (currently at Indiana University) describes a series of empirically-based studies that
investigate how people develop beliefs about themselves (i.e., self-theories) and how these self-
theories create their psychological worlds, shaping thoughts, feelings and behaviors [1].  The
theories reveal why some students are motivated to work harder, and why others fall into patterns
of helplessness and are self-defeating.  Dweck’s conclusions explore the implications for the
concept of self-esteem, suggesting a rethinking of its role in motivation, and the conditions that
foster it.   She demonstrated empirically that students who hold an entity theory of intelligence
are less likely to attempt challenging tasks and are at risk for academic under achievement.

Students carry two types of views on ability/intelligence:

1. Entity View – This view (those who are called “Entity theorists”) treats intelligence as
fixed and stable.  These students have a high desire to prove themselves to others; to be seen as
smart and avoid looking unintelligent.
2. Incremental View – This view treats intelligence as malleable, fluid, and changeable. 
These students see satisfaction coming from the process of learning and often see opportunities
to get better.  They do not focus on what the outcome will say about them, but what they can
attain from taking part in the venture.

Entity theorists are susceptible to learned helplessness because they may feel that circumstances
are outside their control (i.e. there’s nothing that could have been done to make things better),
thus they may give up easily.  As a result, they may simply avoid situations or activities that they
perceive to be challenging (perhaps through procrastination, absenteeism, etc.).  Alternatively,
they may purposely choose extremely difficult tasks so that they have an excuse for failure. 
Ultimately, they may stop trying altogether.  Because success (or failure) is often linked to what
is perceived as a fixed amount of intelligence rather than effort (e.g., the belief that “I did poorly
because I’m not a smart person”), students may think that failure implies a natural lack of
intelligence.  Dweck found that students with a long history of success may be the most
vulnerable for developing learned helplessness because they may buy into the entity view of
intelligence more readily than those with less frequent success.
Those with an incremental view (“Incremental theorists”) when faced with failure, react
differently: these students desire to master challenges, and therefore adopt a mastery-oriented
pattern.  They immediately began to consider various ways that they could approach the task
differently, and they increase their efforts.  Unlike Entity theorists, Incremental theorists believe
that effort, through increased learning and strategy development, will actually increase their
intelligence.

Question no.15: Discuss Need Theories? (May, 2018)

Answer: Need Theories:

Need theory, also known as Three Needs Theory, proposed by psychologist David McClelland,

is a motivational model that attempts to explain how the needs for achievement, power, and
affiliation affect the actions of people from a managerial context. This model was developed in
the 1960s; two decades after Maslow's hierarchy of needs was first proposed in the early 1940s.
McClelland stated that we all have these three types of motivation regardless of age, sex, race, or
culture. The type of motivation by which each individual is driven derives from their life
experiences and the opinions of their culture. This need theory is often taught in classes
concerning management or organizational behaviour.

Need for achievement

They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty, prefer work in which the results are based
on their effort rather than on anything else, and prefer to receive feedback on their work.
Achievement based individuals tend to avoid both high-risk and low-risk situations. Low-risk
situations are seen as too easy to be valid and the high-risk situations are seen as based more on
the luck of the situation rather than the achievements that individual made. This personality type
is motivated by accomplishment in the workplace and an employment hierarchy with
promotional positions.

Need for affiliation

People who have a need for affiliation prefer to spend time creating and maintaining social
relationships, enjoy being a part of groups, and have a desire to feel loved and accepted. People
in this group tend to adhere to the norms of the culture in that workplace and typically do not
change the norms of the workplace for fear of rejection. This person favors collaboration over
competition and does not like situations with high risk or high uncertainty. People who have a
need for affiliation work well in areas based on social interactions like customer service or client
interaction positions.

Need for power

People in this category enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. The downside to this
motivational type is that group goals can become zero-sum in nature, that is, for one person to
win, another must lose. However, this can be positively applied to help accomplish group goals
and to help others in the group feel competent about their work. A person motivated by this need
enjoys status recognition, winning arguments, competition, and influencing others. With this
motivational type come a need for personal prestige, and a constant need for a better personal
status.

Effect

McClelland's research showed that 86% of the populations are dominant in one, two, or all three
of these three types of motivation. His subsequent research, published in the 1977 Harvard
Business Review article "Power is the Great Motivator", found that those in top management
positions had a high need for power and a low need for affiliation. His research also found that
people with a high need for achievement will do best when given projects where they can
succeed through their own efforts. Although individuals with a strong need for achievement can
be successful lower-level managers, they are usually weeded out before reaching top
management positions. He also found that people with a high need for affiliation may not be
good top managers but are generally happier, and can be highly successful in non-leadership
roles such as the Foreign Service.

Question no.16: Explain Holistic Theories? (May, 2019)

Answer: Holistic Theories:

Holism is the idea that various systems should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of
parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and Evolution. The
exact meaning of "holism" depends on context.
Holistic theory - the theory that the parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood
except in their relation to the whole; "holism holds that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts"; "holistic theory has been applied to ecology and language and mental states" holism.

Holistic nurses believe that the human being, composed of a mind, body and soul integrated into
an inseparable whole that is greater than the sum of the parts, is in constant interaction with the
universe and all that it contains. Health and well-being depend on attaining harmony in these
relationships. Healing is the journey toward holism. Using presence, intent, unconditional
acceptance, love, and compassion, holistic nurses can facilitate growth and healing and help their
clients to find meaning in their life experiences, life purpose, and reason for being.

Question no.17: Define Personality and Organizational Behaviour? (May, 2017)

Answer: Personality and Organizational Behaviour:

Work-related behaviour of people in an organization stems from both environmental and

individual factors. From the environmental approach, interpersonal, group, and societal
influences and individual factors extend across cognitive abilities, acquired expertise, personality
styles, motivation, and physical attributes.

A common aspect of personality is the manner in which we think of its effect on behaviour. We
tend to think of this in terms of a person with a particular set of traits. For example, we think of
an aggressive, impatient person as one likely to act in an aggressive manner.

The direction of the relationship is thought to stem from personality trait and move to behaviour.
That is to say, your personality greatly influences how you behave, not the other way around—
that your behaviour would explain your personality.

For example, we usually assume that a shy person is not likely to go to parties, but we could also
think that someone who does not go to parties or other social occasions is likely to become shy.
The assumed relationship between personality and work-related behaviour is one of the key
reasons why it is of interest to those who study and manage organizations.

One of the fundamental issues in the understanding of people’s behaviour is how we understand
the person in an organizational setting. Jackson and Carter (2000) pointed out that in work
organizations, we often take a limited view of the person, focusing more on the degree of
willingness (or otherwise) to pursue organizational goals.

But our experience shows that in work organizations, people are more complex in their
behavioral patterns. In organizational contexts, we can account for such complex behavioral
syndromes from social and psychological standpoints. For example, we can think of people in
the context of role, identity, personality, or self.

Major Personality Attributes

 Locus of Control

 Machiavellianism

 Self-esteem

 Self-monitoring

 Risk taking

Traits of Personality

Personality traits are the enduring features that define an individual’s behavior. A personality
trait is a unique feature in an individual. Psychologists resolved that there are five major
personality traits and every individual can be categorized into at least one of them. These five
personality traits are −

 Extrovert

 Neurotic

 Open

 Agreeable

 Conscientious
Summary:
Every individual possesses a unique set of traits and characteristics, which remain stable
overtime. This uniqueness and consistency form the aspects of personality. It is the stability of
these characteristics that sometimes assist in predicting behaviour of a given person. There
are many factors like biological characteristics, family and social groups, cultural and social
factor, which contributes towards formation of personality. An individual can be manifested in
variousforms like authoritarian personality, bureaucratic personality, and Machiavellian
personality and so on. There are many theories that are developed in predicting the behaviour of
an individual on the basis of various attributes. Some tests are also designed for assessing the
personality of an individual.