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Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the Minerals and the Rocks.
Sources are from various literature sites, books and google.com.
Syllabus outline- Introduction to Geology (PEGS-2012)
UNIT 2 TOPICS/SUB TOPICS NO. OF Course Assignment

MINERALS AND ROCKS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH: Theories of Origin of Earth,
SESSION
(Hours)
Outcomes /Quizzes/
Addressed Tests

Interior and Exterior of Earth, Fundamentals of plate tectonics, convergent, CO1 &
UNIT I 06
divergent and transform margins. CO3
MINERALOGY & PETROLOGY: Introduction and classification of Minerals, Assign-1
Elementary ideas about crystal structures. Introduction to Igneous, CO1 &
UNIT II 06 Test-1
Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks. CO2

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: Rock weathering and its types. Geological work of

UNIT III Wind, River and Ocean, glacier. Principles of Isostasy. 08 CO3
Mica
Feldpar INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL AND FIELD GOEOLOGY: Dip, strike,
clinometer compass and its uses. Basic concepts of Stress, Strain and Rock CO4 &
UNIT IV deformation, Geometry, Mechanism and classification of Folds and Faults. 08
CO5
Morphology and Mechanism of Joints, shear zones and Salt Domes.
BASICS OF STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY: Stratigraphic Principles,
Assign-2
Type Section, Type Location and Type Area, Unconformities – origin and
types, Geological Time Scale,
Test-2/
DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR UNIT V
Introduction to Paleontology, Fossils and Fossilization, Introduction and
08
CO4 & Quiz
Associate Professor Importance of Invertebrate Paleontology. Micro-Paleontology: Morphology CO5
Quartz Calcite and Distribution of Microfossils (Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Conodonts,
PEES, UPES
Ostracodes, Diatoms and Palynology),
2019
Importance of Microfossils in Petroleum Exploration.
2

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Suggested readings For Minerals S. K. Garg p 30-63 Rocks and Minerals

TEXT BOOK:
1. Physical and Engineering Geology by S. K. Garg. ISBN: 81-7409-032-0 Minerals are the building blocks of rocks……!
2. Mahapatra, G.B., Textbook of Geology. CBS Publication ISBN 10: 8123900139
3. Mukherjee, P.K., Textbook of Geology. The World Press Private Limited ISBN-13: 9788187567547
4. Sam Bogg Jr., Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. ISBN 0-13-154728-3 Lava flow- Igneous rock

REFERRENCE BOOKS:
1. Fossen. Structural Geology (2010) ISBN-13 978-0-521-51664-8
2. Prothero, D.R., Bringing Fossils to Life - an Introduction to Paleontology. McGrawHill, Boston,
etc., 1998 ISBN 0-07-366170-8
3. Ghosh, S. K., Structural Geology: Fundamentals and Modern Developments.
4. Billings, M.P., Structural Geology.
5. Manual of Mineralogy (after James D. Dana), 21st Edition, Revised Hardcover – July 27, 1998, by
Cornelis Klein.
6. Petroleum Geoscience by Knut Bjørlykke (2010). ISBN 978-3-642-02331-6

WEB RESOURCES:
• Blackboard contents
• Science Direct papers
• You tube videos relate to topics,

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The Earth’s crust is made up of two things: Granite: An intrusive igneous rock
Minerals and Rocks
Minerals are individual crystals Basalt Rocks are
of similar chemical composition combinations
of minerals

Sandstone

quartz hornblende feldspar

Quartzite

***You can see lots of different minerals in every single rock Minerals are the building blocks of rocks……!

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Mineral Formation GEODES

In 2008, crystals up to 39 feet long were found in a cave in Mexico at a depth of
Geodes are geological (secondary) structures which occur in certain sedimentary and volcanic
1000 feet. The cave is extremely hot, with air temperatures reaching 136 °F with 90
rocks. They are themselves of sedimentary origin and are formed by chemical precipitation.
to 99 % humidity. The cave is relatively unexplored due to these conditions.
Crystals
In Perfect
conditions

Temperature

Pressure

Space

Time

…?

Without proper protection, people can only endure about ten minutes of exposure at a time.

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What is a mineral..?
Outline Definition: Naturally occurring, inorganic elements
or compounds with specific physical and chemical
 What is a Mineral…? properties.

There are five main criteria for something

 How are minerals formed….? to be a mineral:
1) It must be solid
 What are the different mineral groups…? 2) It must occur naturally (not man-made)
3) It is made of non-living material
 Important properties of the Minerals.  (Inorganic solid/ never alive)
4) It has a definite chemical composition
 Classification of various mineral groups.
 (Like: NaCl=salt)
5) Have a definite crystal structure….
 Internal Structures of Silicate Minerals.
 Particles line up in a regular, repeating pattern

 Optical properties of the Minerals.  Flat sides called faces, that meet at sharp edges
and corners

We can say that the minerals are the building blocks of rocks……! http://vasichkominerals.com/

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Common elements of the earth crust How are minerals formed...?

S. K. Garg p 30

(~85% is O/ Si/ AL) • Solution: if a solution is supersaturated,

minerals will precipitate.

• Metamorphism: transformation due to

changes in pressure and temperature.

• Magma: minerals form during cooling of a magma – the slower a

magma cools, the larger the crystals,

– Intrusive: cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface (e.g., Granite)

– Extrusive: cools rapidly at Earth’s surface (e.g., Basalt)

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Different forms of the same mineral..? Minerals must have a definite chemical composition
Crystallization of the minerals is highly dependent on the conditions (Appropriate
temperature and pressure, Time and space for crystallization)  Always contains certain elements in the
Mass of small grains: each is a crystal, but same proportion.
Large individual crystals (rare) grown up against each other

Crystalline Quartz Mico-crystalline Quartz  Almost all minerals are compounds, (two or
more different elements chemically joined).

 A minerals properties are due to the internal

arrangement of its atoms.

Silicate Minerals: Minerals that contain a

combination of silicon and oxygen.

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron: The basic

structural unit of silicate minerals.

http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/Students/woodhull/uraninite.html

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Examples of different types of Minerals

Notice the different shapes, colors of minerals crystals …..
Where do minerals come from….?
Quartz Pyrite  Mineral crystals can form in two main ways:

From stuff
dissolved in liquids From Cooling
(Evaporation & Hot Water) molten material
Garnet

Galena Gold

Calcite
Google.com

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Minerals formed by Evaporation These salt crystals formed from

salt water because as the water
Salt mineral crystals are formed when the water of this lake evaporated. The evaporated, the salt wasn’t
mineral material was left behind… dissolved anymore. So the
chemical energy in salt takes
Some minerals form when solutions/mixtures evaporate- over and crystals form.
Notice the characteristic cubic
• When water evaporates, it leaves behind the stuff that’s dissolved in it.
crystalline shapes?
• The longer it takes to evaporate, the larger the crystal. i.e. Halite, Gypsum,
Calcite.

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Minerals & Crystals from Minerals Crystal Size

Magma & Lava • When the hot material cools fast, it has smaller crystal size.
• When it cools slowly, it has large crystals.
“Extrusive” Cooling:
Intrusive…? Rhyolite
Lava cools Fast
(Short Time = Small Crystals)
Granite
Extrusive…?
 Minerals form from hot magma as it
cools inside the crust, or as lava cools
on the surface.

 When these liquids cool to a solid, they

form crystals (minerals).

 Size of the crystal depends on time it

takes to freeze into a solid.

“Intrusive” Cooling:
Magma cools slowly You can’t see many individual
(Long Time = Large Crystals) You can see individual crystals
crystals in Rhyolite = cooled
in Granite = cooled slowly
Google.com very fast

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What are the different Mineral groups

1) Silicates (SiO4) – make up 96% of minerals, e.g., olivine
2) Carbonates (CO3): e.g, calcite CaCO3
3) Oxides: metal and oxygen (e.g., hematite, magnetite)
4) Sulfides: element + S2 (pyrite – FeS)
5) Sulfates: element + SO4 (gypsum – CaSO4nH2O) Lecture 2
6) Halides: element + halide (salt - NaCl)
7) Native elements: e.g., Cu, Au, Ag
pyrite

gypsum
Details about the different mineral groups and their chemical composition are given in S. K. Garg page 63-95

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Properties of the Minerals

Different physical and chemical properties are used to identify a mineral.
So what are the important properties Important properties are as follows-
to
1) Color: Every mineral has some natural color…ex: black, blue, white, green…
identify the minerals……?
2) Luster: Describes how light is reflected from a mineral surface.

3) Streak: It is a color of a minerals powder when scratch's across the surface.

4) Hardness: Hardness is determined by a “scratch test”.

• Physical Properties
5) Cleavages: The way mineral may split easily along a flat surfaces (Plane of weakness).
• Microscopic Optical Properties &
6) Fracture: It’s a texture and shape of a rock's surface formed when a mineral is fractured.
• Chemical Properties 7) Tenacity: Tenacity refers to a mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or being deformed.

8) Sp. Gravity/ Density: It is the heaviness of the mineral compare to water.

9) Crystal habits: Different minerals make different crystal shapes

10) Chemical Composition: A defined atomic structure and chemical composition.

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties

1. Color: First thing noticed about minerals but least useful property in
Why?
EXAMPLES of Physical
identifying minerals...

All of these are varieties of quartz!

Properties of the Minerals

• Even some different minerals having same colour like: Fluorite and Amethyst quartz,

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties S. K. Garg p 45 EXAMPLES Mineral Properties

2. Luster: How the minerals surface reflects light. Can be classified into 2. Luster: How the minerals surface reflects light. Can be classified into
Metallic vs. non- metallic. Metallic vs. non- metallic.
Shines like a metals Does not shine like metals
Glassy/ Vitreous Pearly
Talc Silky
Graphite Gypsum
Quartz

Waxy Earthy Boxite

Greasy

Pyrite Jasper

Serpentine
• Some times one kind of minerals can have two different forms and so it may have two types of luster.

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties EXAMPLES Mineral Properties

3. Streak: The color of a mineral powder. Identified by “streak test” 4. Hardness: A measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched
(or resistance to being scratched).
When scratched on an unglazed porcelain tile called a streak plate (may Relative hardness test
have in black and white colors) Friedrich Mohs invented Mohs Scale of Hardness
(Diamond is the hardest and talc is softest mineral)

?
Streak is not always the same
as the color of the mineral.

If mineral A can scratch mineral B, what does that tell

us about the relative hardness of each mineral……?

• Not all the minerals leaves streaks……

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties Different types of Cleavages Ref: S. K. Garg p 40

5. Cleavages: The way mineral may split easily along a flat surfaces
(Plane of weakness). Minerals may have very distinctive cleavages…
Definition: The tendency of a Mineral to break evenly along its weakest plane is called Cleavages.
Mica

three

Calcite

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties Different types Ref: S. K. Garg 40

6. Fracture: Mineral breaks unevenly or irregularly, not with smooth plane

or flat surface. Can be classified into Even, Uneven, Conchoidal, Fibrous

• Conchoidal fracture: A curved, shell like pattern, like broken

glass. Example- Quartz

• Splintery/ Fibrous fracture: Looks splintery. Example-

Gypsum, Asbestos

• Irregular or uneven: Fracture shown no definite pattern,.

Example- Magnetite

Remember fracture is neither linear nor parallel….

Fracture occurs in all minerals even ones with cleavage, although a lot of cleavage
directions can diminish the appearance of fracture surfaces.

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties EXAMPLES Mineral Properties

• Minerals having closely-spaced atoms will have a high sp. Gravity, while the
7. Tenacity: Tenacity is a mineral's behavior when deformed or broken. minerals having widely spaced atomic structure will have low Sp. Gravity.
Tenacity is classified as follows:
8. Sp. Gravity/ Density: Sp. Gravity of a mineral is defined as a ratio of
Sectile: Mineral which may be cut with knife but slices are not malleable, TALC its weight to the weight of an equal volume of water.

Malleable: The mineral may be pounded out into thin sheets. Metallic-bonded If a mineral has a specific gravity of 5 that means it is 5 times as dense as water.
minerals are usually malleable. (flatten under the hammer- GOLD)
 Most common rock-forming minerals have a specific
Flexible: Minerals which may be bent. GYPSUM gravity of between 2-3. Ex. quartz has a specific gravity
of 2.65.
Brittleness: The mineral breaks or powders easily. Most ionic-bonded minerals
are brittle.  By contrast, some metallic minerals such as pyrite and
magnetite are more than twice as dense as quartz.
Ductility: The mineral may be drawn into a wire (Plastic deformation). Ductile
materials have to be malleable as well as tough.  Galena, an ore of lead, has a specific gravity of roughly
7.5, whereas the specific gravity of 24-karat gold is
approximately 20.
Elasticity: If bent, will spring back to its original position when the stress is
released.

• Tenacity of mineral denotes the degree or character of cohesion.

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Lab test for Sp. gravity Mineral Properties

9. Crystal Habit: It’s appearance – shape and size of crystals.
Different instruments for Sp. Gravity test- Jolly’s balance, Walker’s steel
yard balance, Beam balance, etc length of an individual crystal
is much greater than its width
Hematite Stibnite

Botryoidal: grape-like Bladed Acicular

Dendritic: tree-like

Serpentine Calcite, malachite, Variscite

Malachite, Agate

R1- Reading when lower pan is submerged into the

water

R2- Reading when mineral sample in upper pan

R3- Reading when mineral sample in lower pan

Banded Fibrous Stalactitic
• It is the ratio of the density of the mineral to the density of water (1 g/cm3). Ref: S. K. Garg Nodular
https://geology.com/minerals/crystal-habit & www.iRocks.com.

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EXAMPLES Mineral Properties Special Properties of the Minerals

9. Crystal Form: Any grouping of crystal faces or facets that are
arranged in the same symmetry is referred to as a crystal's "form." Some Minerals have very distinctive properties that can be
used to identify them directly…
Some minerals can be identified by their specific crystal shape,
a) Effervescence: Acid test- When HCL is added to Calcite
a) Cubic: Cube shaped structure of well developed crystals, (CaCo3)- It causes bubbling as carbon dioxide (Co2).
Examples- Pyrite, Halite, Galena
b) Double Refraction: An optical properties of some varieties of
CALCITE that gives a double image effect.
b) Hexagonal: Six side crystals, like Quartz
c) Magnetism: Minerals having this property attracted to
magnets- MAGNETITE.
c) Rhombic: It has a shaped like parallelogram, like Calcite
d) Fluorescence: Property where the mineral glows under ultra-
Other Forms of natural minerals…. voilet lights- FLUORITE

e) Radioactivity: Minerals that contain radium, uranium (they

give off radiation/ Gamma rays).

f) Taste: Halite (rock salt) like minerals can be identified by test.

More details- https://geology.com/minerals/crystal-habit/

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Crystallography: Crystal structure is

a description of the ordered arrangement
of atoms, ions or molecules in a
crystalline material.

Lecture 3

Crystals of Minerals- http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geology/crystals-of-minerals-geology/91120 Google.com

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crystal systems
Classification of the Minerals
• Silicate minerals are the most common Earth's minerals

Interaxial Angles
Can be divided into two groups
Axes

Non-silicate minerals
Silicate minerals
a = b = g = 90° a = b = g = 90° a = b = g = 90°
a≠b≠c
• Oxides
a=b=c a=b≠c • Feldspar Group • Carbonates
• Pyroxene Group • Sulphides
• Amphibole group • Haloids
• Mica Group • Sulphates
a = b = 90°, g = 120° • Miscellaneous silicate minerals • Miscellaneous non-silicate minerals
a=b≠c

Clay Minerals
a = b = g ≠ 90°
Basically hydrous silicates
a = g = 90° ≠ b a=b=c
a ≠ b ≠ g ≠ 90°
a≠b≠c a≠b≠c

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Major Silicate Structures

• Made of Silicon and Oxygen

• 90% of Earth’s crust forming minerals Sio4

• Ex. Feldspar, Quartz, Mica, Pyroxene

• Do not contain silicon and Oxygen

• They may contain Oxygen but not in

combination with silicon.
Now u understand the
• Ex. Gypsum, Calcite, Pyrite, Galena
why different crystals are
in same silicate group
• Native elements: Copper, gold, silver,
platinum, Diamond,

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Examples of polymorphic minerals…

Polymorphism means "many forms". In mineralogy it means that a single
chemical composition can exist with two or more different crystal structures.

• Carbon - has two polymorphs. At high

pressure carbon has an isometric crystal
structure that is called diamond. As
temperature and/or pressure are decreased
diamond should undergo a reconstructive
transformation to the hexagonal structure of
Non-Silicate Minerals
graphite.

• Because this transformation involves a

drastic rearrangement of atoms on the
crystal structure,

• As evidenced by the fact that diamond is the

hardest naturally occurring substance and
graphite is one of the softest)

• Diamond is found at the T-P conditions

present at the Earth's surface, where it is
therefore only metastable.

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Important Non-Silicate Minerals

S. K. Garg (p. 83) Carbonates
 Cations with carbonate ion (CO32-)
 Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), siderite (FeCO3),
smithsonite (ZnCO3)
Non silicon composition  Make up many common rocks including limestone and marble
 Very important for CCS!

Calcite (CaCO3) CaCO3+2H+= Ca2++CO2+H2O

Smithsonite (ZnCO3)

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Oxides Sulfides
 Metallic cations with sulfide (S2-) ion
 Compounds of metallic cations
and oxygen  Important for ores of copper, zinc, nickel, lead, iron
 Pyrite (FeS2), galena (PbS)

 Important for many metal ores

needed to make things (e.g.,
iron, chromium, titanium)

 Ores are economically useful

(i.e., possible to mine) mineral
deposits
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Galena (PbS) Pyrite

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Sulfates
Gypsum

Optical Mineralogy
 Minerals with sulfate ion (SO42-)

 Gypsum (CaSO4.H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4)

Crystal size….?

Cave of the Crystals

•1,000 feet depth in the silver and lead
Naica Mine

•150 degrees, with 100 % humidity

•4-ft diameter columns 50 ft length

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For detailing follow- S. K. Garg page 46 -61

Follow- S. K. Garg page 46 -61
Why study optical Mineralogy….?
This time Optical Mineralogy is not a part of your
syllabus. But if you want to discuss, I can show • Study of Minerals optical properties under the microscope for their
identification.
slides.
. • Microscopic study is the cheapest and fastest method for identifying
. minerals.
. • Microscopic study is required for textural (natural arrangements of minerals)
? analysis.

• It is useful in determining the rock type, the crystallization sequence,

deformation history or constraining pressure-temperature history, noting
weathering/alteration, etc.

• However, there are limitations to the optical method, such as constraints of

very small size (sub-microscopic) of minerals, or complex solid solutions, etc.

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Polarised vs Unpolarised Light Reflection and Refraction of Light

A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as unpolarised
light. Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle flame
is unpolarised light. ... Polarised light waves are light waves in which the vibrations
occur in a single plane.

Refractive index (n)= sin i / sin r

• When light passes from a low density medium (e.g. air) into a higher density non-
opaque medium (e.g. a mineral), part will be reflected and part will be pass
through, but be bent and slowed – refracted.
• Angle of reflection (r’) equals the incident angle (i)
Polarized light • Angle of refraction (r) will differ from the incident angle depending on the change
in velocity between the two substances.
Unpolarized light

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Isotropic and An-isotropic Minerals Observations using plane polarized light

(PPL) mode
• Minerals which allow the light to pass through it with the same velocity in all
the directions, and having single value of refractive index is called an
Isotropic minerals. Ex. Isometric crystal system- Cubic The observations typically made in PPL are

1. Transparency,
2. Shape/habit/size,
3. Colour,
4. Pleochroism,
• Other minerals which allow the light to pass through it with different velocity 5. Cleavage,
in different directions, and having different value of refractive index is called 6. Relief and
an-isotropic minerals. 7. Inclusions/alterations.
• These minerals shows double refraction by splitting the light rays into
ordinary and extra-ordinary rays. Ex. All other system except cubic.

Anisotropic minerals can further subdivided into uniaxial/ biaxial & positive or negative

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Observations using plane polarized light (PPL)

PROPERTY MEASUREMENT
1 TRANSPARENCY • A mineral is opaque, if it appears totally black and stays black
regardless of the rotation of the stage). CRYSTAL HABIT
• The light cannot pass through the mineral, at all.
• Usually the opaque minerals are either sulphides, oxides.
• Light passes through the mineral, so the mineral is transparent.
2 SHAPE, HABIT, • Shape: Euhedral, subhedral, anhedral (or, if metamorphic, we call it
SIZE idiomorphic), (hypidio-morphic) or (xeno-morphic);

• Habit: isometric, prismatic, tabular, sheeted, etc.

• Size: estimated in mm, based on the field of view determined from the
magnification by the objective and ocular lenses.

CRYSTAL SHAPE

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COLOUR CLEAVAGE
Cleavages are planar surfaces of low cohesion
The observed color should be described as color, nuances and
produced by weaker atom bonds across them.
intensity.

For example: pale yellowish brown, bluish light grey, etc. The quality of cleavage is
described as perfect,
If when rotating the stage, the color changes, then the mineral imperfect, good, distinct,
indistinct, poor, or
has pleochroism and the range of colors should be described,
absent.
rather than a single color.

PLEOCHROISM
Cleavage in Calcite

A mineral shows pleochroism when the absorption

colour changes when the stage is rotated.

It means that absorption of specific light wavelengths Amphibole (2 cleavage at 120 and 60º)
depends on the crystal orientation.
One good cleavage in One good cleavage in feldspar
This happens when the mineral is anisotropic. Pyroxene (px) (kfs and no cleavage in garnet)
Ex. Biotite and Hornblende.
Pyroxene (2 cleavage at 90º)

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RELIEF INCLUSIONS, ALTERATIONS

• “Relief” refers to the relative difference in RI between neighboring crystals.
• Minerals can have inclusions, which can be solid (other finer-grained minerals)
or fluid (liquid and/or gas) inclusions.
• Refractive index (RI, n) is a measure of the speed of light in vacuum to the
speed of light in the given material.
• If altered, other minerals (alteration minerals) can appear at the margin of the
analyzed mineral, or along its cleavages or cracks.
• The higher the RI, the slower the light propagation in the mineral.

Inclusion
Alteration

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X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique primarily used

for phase identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on THANK YOU
unit cell dimensions.

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