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Pilot Scale Biochar Production From Palm Kernel Shell (Pks) In A Fixed Bed
Allothermal Reactor

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Journal of Oil Palm Research
PILOT SCALE BIOCHAR PRODUCTION FROM PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) IN A FIXED BED ALLOTHERMAL REACTOR
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21894/jopr.2018.0043

PILOT SCALE BIOCHAR PRODUCTION FROM

PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) IN A FIXED BED
ALLOTHERMAL REACTOR

ZAINAL HARYATI*; SOH KHEANG LOH*; SIENG-HUAT KONG** and ROBERT THOMAS BACHMANN‡

ABSTRACT
Oil palm biomass wastes such as oil palm fronds (OPF), empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm kernel shells
(PKS) are amongst the most abundantly available agricultural residues in Malaysia. Of these, an average
0.16 t PKS per tonne crude palm oil (CPO) is commonly used in palm oil mills as boiler fuel to generate
steam and electricity, while the remaining unused 0.20 t PKS per tonne CPO are often sold as fuel. In order
to diversify and add value to the remaining PKS, it is proposed to convert it into biochar to sequester CO2
and improve the productivity of low-fertility soil. In this study, PKS was carbonised under allothermal
conditions at various temperatures (400°C to 600°C) and residence times (30 and 60 min) using the biochar
experimenters kit (BEK). Biochar yield decreased from 52.1 ± 15.5 wt% at 400°C (30 min) to 33.4 ± 1.4
wt% at 600°C (60 min), while pH, elemental and fixed carbon content increased with temperature and
residence time. The VM/FC (0.25 to 0.60) and O/C (0.12 – 0.23) ratios suggest that PKS biochar is an
effective carbon sink with a half-life in soil > 100 years.

Keywords: oil palm biomass, pyrolysis, fuel properties, soil application.

Date received: 28 November 2017; Sent for revision: 30 November 2017; Received in final form: 16 February 2018; Accepted: 5 July 2018.

INTRODUCTION fresh fruit bunches stripping, mesocarp fibre after

oil screw processing and palm kernel shells - PKS
Biomass is organic matter derived from living - after nut cracking process) (Kong et al., 2014). In
organisms with a renewed availability including 2014, about 4.46 million tonnes of PKS residues were
agricultural wastes, wood/forestry residues, animal produced which increased to 4.56 million tonnes
manure and municipal waste. In Malaysia, oil palm (Wafti et al., 2017) in 2015 and 4.72 million tonnes in
biomass is one of the most abundant agricultural 2016 (Loh, 2017). PKS has been used as a source of
wastes generated (Mekhilef et al., 2011). The oil palm energy for combined heat and power generation in
biomass is generally harnessed from: (1) upstream palm oil mills (Vijaya et al., 2008). However, based
plantation (trunk and fronds) and (2) midstream on a life cycle study of 12 mills by Vijaya et al. (2008),
palm oil milling (empty fruit bunches produced after only approximately 45% of PKS is utilised with the
remainder sold as fuel to external parties. Owing to
* Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6 Persiaran Institusi,
the high lignin and fixed carbon content of original
Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. PKS (Abnisa et al., 2011; Choi et al., 2015) conversion
E-mail: lohsk@mpob.gov.my of PKS to carbon-negative biochar appears to be a
** University Collage of Technology Sarawak (UCTS), promising alternative. Many studies have found
Lot 868, Persiaran Brooke, 96000 Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia. that biochar can mitigate global warming (Shepherd
Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UniKL), Malaysian Institute of et al., 2009; Woolf et al., 2010), help plants to access
‡

Chemical and Bioengineering Technology (MICET), Lot 1988,

Kawasan Perindustrian, Bandar Baru Vendor, Taboh Naning, more nutrients through physico-chemical processes
78000 Alor Gajah, Melaka, Malaysia. that allow for the better utilisation of ‘soil inherited’
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH

or ‘fertiliser-derived’ nutrients (Sohi et al., 2009), the BEK enables researchers to report comparable
improve soil pH and permeability of loamy soils yields in contrast to highly customised reactor types
(Martinsen et al., 2014). currently used (Table 1). Apart from that, the BEK is
Over many centuries, charcoal has been relatively easy to operate as it can feed the original
made using various forms of earth kilns for form of granular biomass such as PKS and therefore
metallurgical, cooking, heating and medical potentially save time, energy and cost. The quantity
applications (Kortzfleisch, 2009). However, the produced is also sufficient to conduct nursery and
traditional charcoal production technology releases field trials compared to laboratory-scale pyrolysis
condensable and non-condensable gases into the reactor (Table 1).
environment causing health concern. Modern Table 2 summarises the various process
biochar production technology must meet stringent conditions used for the production of biochar.
emission criteria while producing high-quality, Generally, the generation of solid, liquid and gaseous
stable biochar at an affordable price. Several products from biomass pyrolysis primarily depends
technologies have been proposed over the past on the feedstock used as well as operating conditions
decade such as top-lit updraft gasifiers (Nsamba such as temperature, heating rate, residence time
et al., 2015), Kon-Tiki earth kiln (Cornelissen et and oxidising agent (Shafizadeh, 1982). The biochar
al., 2016), improved retort kiln (Adam, 2009) and yield under a slow pyrolysis condition is higher
the biochar experimenter kit (BEK) (Boateng than in fast pyrolysis which produces mainly bio-
and Mullen, 2013). The BEK is a unit that can be oil. Most studies used laboratory-scale fixed bed
operated in various modes enabling researchers reactors at temperatures ranging from 400°C to
and practitioners to produce and characterise 800°C with a PKS biochar yield of 23 to 39 wt%.
biochar under allothermal, autothermal, batch and Only one study is available in which PKS biochar
continuous operation conditions. Autothermal may was produced at pilot-scale conducted at one
be defined as a process in which heat is generated temperature and holding time (Kong et al., 2013).
from reactions within the reactor to support This study therefore aims to investigate the
endothermic pyrolytic processes while allothermal effect of pyrolysis temperature and residence time
refers to heat that is produced outside the reactor on biochar and bio-oil yields at pilot-scale under
and transferred through a wall into the interior of fixed-bed allothermal conditions using the BEK and
the reactor to drive endothermic reactions (Karellas, as-received PKS. In addition, the physico-chemical
2015; Nsamba, et al., 2015; Rauch, et al., 2014; Stiller properties of biochar were determine and the
and Hochrinner, 2016). The flexible platform of potential for soil application discussed.

TABLE 1. REACTOR TYPE AND PROCESS CONDITIONS USED FOR CARBONISING PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS)
Reactor type Capacity Particle Temperature Residence Biochar Bio-oil Reference
size (mm) (°C) time yield yield (wt%)
(min) (wt%, dwb)
Fluidised-bed au 0.3-2 kg feed 1-2 479 – 555 30 – 197 21 – 23 50-53 Choi et al.
(2015)
Fixed bed al 20 kg As received 400 60 29 NR Kong et al.
(2013)
Fixed bed al 0.15 kg 1.7-2.0 400 – 800 60 24 – 35 36 - 46 Abnisa et al.
(2011)
Fluidized-bed au 0.94 kg hr-1 0.125-1.400 478 NR 23 52 Kim et al.
(2014)
Fixed bed au 0.1-0.4 10-20 500 60 32 51 Lee et al.
(2013)
Fixed bed al 0.5 As received 400 – 800 55 – 167 31 – 39 NR Titiladunayo
et al. (2012)
Note: au - autothermal; al - allothermal; NR - not reported; dwb - dry weight basis.

TABLE 2. BIOMASS PYROLYSIS BASED ON THREE DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

Pyrolysis mode Temperature Vapour Liquid yield Gas yield Char yield
(°C) residence time (wt%) (wt%) (wt%)
Fast 500 1-2 s 60-75 13-20 12-20
Intermediate 500 5-30 s 40-50 25 25-30
Slow 400 hr-days 25-30 25-35 30-40
Source: Kantarelis et al. (2013).
 PILOT SCALE BIOCHAR PRODUCTION FROM PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) IN A FIXED BED ALLOTHERMAL REACTOR

MATERIALS AND METHODS the biochar. There are several pyrolysis modes
available, i.e. bypass mode, retort mode and sweep
Sample Preparation gas mode. In this study, the bypass mode (Figure
3a) was used during start up burning propane gas
PKS (Figure 1) was obtained from Sime Darby to heat up the PKS (20 kg) in the reactor. Once the
Palm Oil Mill in Labu, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. reactor reached 100°C, the heat was generated by
Prior to biochar production, the collected PKS was burning the syngas released from pyrolysing PKS
air-dried by spreading on a rain-sheltered concrete using retort mode (Figure 3b).
floor for a few days followed by drying in an oven
at 103°C until the moisture content was <10 wt %.

Experimental Procedures

The BEK, a multi-mode manual pyrolysis

machine supplied by All Power Labs (USA) was
used to produce biochar from PKS with bio-oil as
a side product (Figure 2). It consists of a cylindrical
reactor and two cylindrical hoppers; one for feeding
the biomass to the reactor, and the other for collecting

Figure 1. Raw palm kernel shell (PKS) from palm oil mill. Figure 2. The biochar experimenter’s kit (BEK); white arrows for bypass
mode and black arrows for retort mode (outer layer of the reactor).

a) Biochar Experimenter Kit (the B.E.K.) b) Biochar Experimenter Kit (the B.E.K.)
Multiple mode pyrolysis reactor for characterised Multiple mode pyrolysis reactor for characterised
biochar making all power labs. www.bekbiochar.com. biochar making all power labs. www.bekbiochar.com.
gek@allpowerlabs.org gek@allpowerlabs.org

B.E.K. LEGEND B.E.K. LEGEND

1) Biomass hopper 1) Biomass hopper
2) Biomass feed auger 2) Biomass feed auger
Biomass 3) Auger Biomass 3) Auger
inlet 4) Gas cap inlet 4) Gas cap
5) Biochar reactor 5) Biochar reactor
6) Biochar auger take-of 6) Biochar auger take-of
7) Auger 7) Auger
8) Biochar hopper 8) Biochar hopper
9) Burner 9) Burner
10) Pyro valve box 10) Pyro valve box
11) Chimney 11) Chimney
12) Retort/chimney valve 12) Retort/chimney valve
13) Retort exit 13) Retort exit
14) Sweeo-gas valve 14) Sweeo-gas valve
15) Pyrolysis gas exit 15) Pyrolysis gas exit
16) Air premix 16) Air premix
17) Bio-oil condensing 17) Bio-oil condensing
circuit (optinal) circuit (optinal)
18) Ejector 18) Ejector
19) Propane support 19) Propane support
Bio-oil collector

Bio-oil collector

Biochar collector
Biochar collector

Figure 3. (a) Bypass mode layout and (b) retort mode.

JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH

Two pyrolysis parameters were monitored, i.e. used. The proximate analysis was carried out by
temperature (400°C to 600°C) and residence time thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) (Leco TGA 701)
(30 and 60 min). All experiments were performed according to ASTM D5142. Calorific value (CV) of
in triplicate in batch mode and results presented as biochar was determined with a bomb calorimeter
mean values. The biochar produced was collected (Leco AC-600) according to ASTM D5865-07.
from the second hopper (No. 8, Figure 3b), then Ultimate analysis was done using a CHNS analyser
cooled overnight prior to physico-chemical analyses. (Leco 628) according to ASTM D5373, and the oxygen
Bio-oil was collected from the condenser unit at the (O) content calculated by difference (Equation 3;
end of the run using a pre-weight glass beaker. Titiladunayo et al., 2012). The raw PKS was analysed
The biochar yield was calculated using Equation in a similar manner.
(1):
Wbc O(wt%)=100-C(wt%)-H(wt%)-N(wt%)-S(wt%)-Ash(wt%)
Biochar yield (wt%) = x 100 Equation (1) Equation (3)
W0

where W0 is the dry weight of raw PKS (kg), and RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Wbc is the weight of biochar produced (kg).
Biochar and Bio-oil Yield
The bio-oil yield was calculated using Equation
(2): The PKS pyrolysis product distribution (Figure
Wbo 4) was found to range from 33 - 52 wt% (dwb) for
Bio-oil yield (wt%) = x 100 Equation (2) biochar (Figure 5), 1 - 5 wt% (dwb) for bio-oil and
W0 43 - 64 wt% (dwb) for pyrogases. Results generally
show a decrease in biochar yield with temperature
where W0 is the dry weight of raw PKS (kg), and and residence time which agrees with literature
Wbo is the weight of bio-oil (kg) collected from the cited in Table 2. The relatively higher yields of
condenser. biochar at lower temperature (400°C) are attributed
to the thermal breakdown resistance of lignin (Ma
Physico-chemical Characterisation of PKS and et al., 2015). Comparing the PKS biochar yield with
Biochar yields from other biomasses under similar process
conditions it can be seen that PKS biochar yield is
Prior to characterisation, the biochar samples greater (Lee et al., 2013; Titiladunayo et al., 2012).
were ground using a Dickson AFY-300 grinder and According to Lehmann et al. (2006), Thomsen et al.
used as it was for analysis. For pH determination, (2011) and Kong et al. (2014), lignin is an important
Enders et al. (2012) protocol was followed using a factor for biochar production. Several authors
calibrated pH meter (BP3001 Trans Instruments). reported a PKS lignin content ranging from 44 wt%
However, instead of 1 M KCl, deionised water was (Abnisa et al., 2013) to 50 wt% (Loh, 2017) which are

70

60

50
Yield (wt%)

40

30

20

10

0
400 500 600
Temperature (°C)

Biochar, 30min Biochar, 60min Bio-oil, 30min

Bio-oil, 60 min Gas, 30 min Gas, 60 min

Figure 4. Palm kernel shell (PKS) pyrolysis product yield distribution at different temperature and residence times.
 PILOT SCALE BIOCHAR PRODUCTION FROM PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) IN A FIXED BED ALLOTHERMAL REACTOR

that the bio-oil appeared as a single phase even after

long-term storage. The physical appearance of bio-
oil PKS was dark-brown, viscous, yet free-flowing
liquid with a pungent coal odour.

Physico-chemical Characteristics of PKS and PKS

Biochar

Results from the proximate and ultimate

analyses of PKS and its biochar produced at
different temperatures and residence time are
summarised in Tables 3 and 4. Proximate results
for raw PKS are in agreement with Kawser and
Ani (2000) and Ma et al. (2015) who reported
very similar values. Compared to its raw form,
Figure 5. Fully carbonised palm kernel shell (PKS) biochar.
pyrolysis enhanced fixed carbon (FC), ash
content and carbon content of PKS by factors of
2.4 - 3.2, 1.7 – 4.7 and 1.2 – 1.5, respectively. The
amongst the highest values found in plant biomass volatile matter (VM) of PKS biochar (20-39 wt%)
(Mohan et al., 2006). Although the crystallinity was lower than the raw PKS (71 wt%). Increasing
of cellulose also plays an important role, lignin the pyrolysis temperature caused a significant
possesses a more complex, aromatic structure that loss of VM content in the biomass due to the
resists volatilisation and thus facilitates biochar decomposition of hemicellulose, cellulose and
formation. lignin components, respectively (Thangalazhy-
The relatively low bio-oil yields (Figure 4) may Gopakumar et al., 2010; Mukherjee et al., 2011;
be attributed to the condenser temperature which Rafiq et al., 2016). The VM/FC ratio of raw PKS was
appears to be >100°C thus primarily collecting high 3.18 while for PKS-biochar the ratios decreased
molecular weight, organic condensable substances with increasing temperature and residence time
and less water. Sukiran et al. (2009) also reported (Table 3). Similar trends were reported by Lee et
that the amount of water in the bio-oil is a function al. (2013) for raw (3.73) and pyrolysed PKS (0.15).
of the gas leaving the collector as well as the extent According to Amonette et al. (2010) and Novak
of secondary reaction or cracking reactions in and Busscher (2013), a VM/FC ratio of < 1.0 is
the reactor. The presence of water can affect the indicative of a good biochar stability in the soil
physical, chemical and combustion properties of suitable for carbon sequestration suggesting that
the bio-oil (Ibrahim et al., 2012), where a high water all PKS biochars produced with the BEK meet
content reduces the calorific value but improves this criterion and can therefore be considered as a
viscosity and stability (Sukiran et al., 2009). In suitable carbon sink.
laboratory-scale studies where bio-oil was collected The elemental composition of raw and PKS
at temperatures close to 0°C, the oil yield was 52 biochar as well as pH are provided in Table 4. The
wt% while the water content constituted 42 wt% pH of biochar is an important parameter in biochar-
of the bio-oil (Kim et al., 2013). According to Wang soil interactions associated with nutrients mobility
(2013), fresh bio-oil generally appears in one phase (Gomez-Eyles et al., 2013). The pH of PKS biochar
however long-term storage can cause its separation ranged from pHH2O 6.7 to 7.8 and increased as
into two phases as the heavier substances segregate temperature and residence time increased. The
and deposit at the bottom. In this study, we found pH in this study was similar to values reported by

TABLE 3. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) AND PKS BIOCHAR
Properties Unit Raw PKS Biochar
PKS 30 min 60 min
Temperature °C - 400 500 600 400 500 600
Calorific value MJ kg-1 19.5±0.6 26.7±2.8 25.1±5.1 29.9±0.6 29.0±0.3 27.9±0.21 28.3±1.2
Moisture content wt% 4.86±1.29 2.20±0.08 3.00±0.04 4.07±0.18 2.46±0.07 3.26±0.16 3.80±0.08
Volatile matter (VM)* wt% 70.7±2.0 38.6±1.1 34.6±1.7 22.8±2.5 31.6±0.5 25.2±0.8 20.0±5.3
Ash content* wt% 2.17±0.59 6.07±0.88 3.73±0.34 5.12±0.63 6.23±0.62 10.3±5.2 5.28±0.29
Fixed carbon (FC)* wt% 22.2±2.2 53.2±1.8 58.7±1.8 68.0±2.3 59.7±0.9 61.3±4.7 70.9±0.4
VM/FC - 3.18 0.73 0.59 0.34 0.54 0.41 0.28
Note: ± SD - standard deviation; * dwb - dry weight basis.
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH

Kong et al. (2013) who found that the value of PKS form cyclic amides such as 2,5-diketopiperazine
biochar at 400°C was pHH2O 6.9, and Lee et al. (2013) (DKP) (Hansson et al. 2003; Becidan et al., 2007;
reported a pHH2O 6.99 at a temperature of 500°C. Liu et al., 2017) which lock up N at temperatures
Biochars (pHbiochar >> psoil) are known to increase soil below 400°C. However, as pyrolysis temperature
pH which helps to alleviate aluminum root stress increases, N content in pyrolysed PKS decreased
(Manickam et al., 2015). The PKS biochar with the (Table 4) probably due to the decomposition of DKP
highest C content (74.2 wt%) was obtained at 500°C and glycosylamine resulting in the formation and
for 30 min reaction. The H and O contents of PKS release of HCN, HNCO and NH3 (Hansson et al.,
decreased during pyrolysis probably caused by 2003; Becidan et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2017). Although
dehydration and decarboxylation reactions (Li et al., major and trace nutrients in PKS and PKS biochar
2007; Jindo et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2016). In addition, were not analysed in this study, Loh (2017) showed
aromatisation and the formation of light molecular that PKS can be potentially used as animal feed
weight hydrocarbons during pyrolysis could also ingredient and soil amendment (Loh et al., 2013). It
reduce the H content (Kim et al., 2010; Mantilla et can therefore be anticipated that the derived PKS
al., 2014). biochar will also inherit these properties.
The sulphur (S) content in raw and pyrolysed The H/C and O/C molar ratios are important
PKS was below the detection limit, while nitrogen indicators of the presence of polar functional
content was found to range from 0.17 wt% in raw to groups, hydrophilic nature of the surface (Chen
0.77 wt% in pyrolysed PKS. The low concentrations et al., 2008; Kearns et al., 2014) as well as biochar’s
of S and nitrogen (N) content in PKS is a common stability (Spokas, 2010). The H/C ratio of raw PKS
feature of ligno-cellulosic material due to a lack of was found to be 2.02 while ratios of 1.36 to 1.47
proteins in non-reproductive plant components were reported by numerous authors (Kawser and
while animal residues have a typical S and N content Ani, 2000; Asadullah et al., 2013; Asadieraghi and
of 2.3 wt% and 12 wt%, respectively (Vassilev et Wan Daud 2014; Ma et al., 2015). Raw PKS had an
al., 2010). Sulphur content in PKS was reported in O/C ratio of 0.61 which agrees well with literature
literature to vary from below detection limit (BDL) values ranging from 0.513 to 0.818 (Kawser and Ani,
(Kawser and Farid, 2000), 0.04 wt% (Asadullah et 2000; Asadullah et al. 2013; Asadieraghi and Wan
al., 2013), 0.1 wt% (Ma et al., 2015) and 0.38 wt% Daud 2014; Ma et al., 2015). The H/C molar ratio
(Asadieraghi and Wan Daud, 2014). Increased levels of PKS biochar ranged from 0.52 and 0.97, while the
of inorganic S in plants is indicative of cultivation O/C ratio varied between 0.12 and 0.23 (Table 3).
on acid sulphate soils, soil contamination with H/C and O/C ratios of < 0.7 and < 0.4 respectively
sulphur due to acid rain or excessive sulphur indicate a good degree of carbonisation of biochar
fertilisation requiring the plants in all cases to store (Kuhlbusch, 1995; Zheng et al., 2010; Kung et al.,
S compounds such as SO4 and sulphate esters in 2013) and its suitability for biochar-soil interaction
plant fluids and vacuoles (Knudsen et al., 2004). The (Camps-Arbestain et al., 2015; IBI, 2015). The H/C
N content ranged from 0.37 wt% (Kawser and Farid, and O/C ratios decreased as pyrolysis temperature
2000) to 0.76 wt% (Asadieraghi and Wan Daud, increased (Krull et al., 2009; Spokas 2010; Enders et
2014) and was found to be greater in pyrolysed al., 2012). According to Spokas (2010), biochars with
PKS arguably due to pre-concentration effects an O/C ratio of < 0.2 can attain half-life > 1000 years
caused by the volatilisation of hemicellulose and while O/C ratio > 0.6 have an estimated half-life
cellulose while proteins either react with cellulose of < 100 years. Therefore, it shows that O/C ratio
to form glycosylamines (Maillard reaction) or of PKS biochars reported here have an expected

TABLE 4. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) AND PKS-BIOCHAR

Properties Unit PKS Biochar
30 min 60 min
Temperature °C - 400 500 600 400 500 600
pH - 6.28±0.08 6.63±0.05 6.89±0.15 7.30±0.20 6.65±0.01 7.08±0.02 7.75±0.23
C wt% 49.2±0.2 67.4±2.4 74.2±0.3 72.8±2.8 72.5±0.5 66.3±0.6 61.0±1.2
H wt% 8.26±0.06 4.21±0.05 4.71±0.02 3.18±0.04 3.90±0.02 4.49±0.11 4.93±0.07
N wt% 0.17±0.03 0.64±0.01 0.72±0.01 0.77±0.02 0.73±0.01 0.43±0.01 0.37±0.02
S wt% BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
O wt% 39.7±2.3 21.8±0.7 16.6±0.2 18.1±0.04 16.7±0.3 18.6±0.2 28.5±0.1
C/N (molar) - 332 123 120 110 117 182 195
H/C (molar) - 2.02 0.75 0.76 0.52 0.65 0.81 0.97
O/C (molar) - 0.61 0.23 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.12
Note: ± SD - standard deviation; BDL - below detection limit of the method used.
C - carbon. O - oxygen. S - sulphur. H - hydrogen. N - nitrogen.
 PILOT SCALE BIOCHAR PRODUCTION FROM PALM KERNEL SHELL (PKS) IN A FIXED BED ALLOTHERMAL REACTOR

half-life of at least 100 to 1000 years thus playing article and the staff of Energy and Environment
a potentially important role in locking up carbon Unit for their thechnical assistance.
while improving plant growth in low-fertility soils.
The C/N ratio of biochar indirectly relates to
N mineralisation/immobilisation during biochar- REFERENCES
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Stack emission monitoring should be carried
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PKS biochar was successfully produced at pilot-
AMELOOT, N; SLEUTEL, S; DAS, K C;
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KANAGARATNAM, J and NEVE, S DE (2015).
times. The PKS biochar yield ranged from 33 – 52
Biochar amendment to soils with contrasting
wt% which was amongst the highest reported in
organic matter level: Effects on N mineralization
literature and found to decrease with pyrolysis
and biological soil properties. GCB Bioenergy, 7(1):
temperature and residence time. All PKS derived
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biochars had VM/FC and O/C ratios of < 0.60 and
< 0.23 respectively, and are expected to be stable AMONETTE, J E; SCHLEKEWEY, N; HU, Y; DAI, S
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carbon in soil. The pH of the PKS biochar was neutral properties and implications for soil application.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ASADULLAH, M; AB RASID, N S; KADIR, S
The authors would like to thank the Director- A S A and AZDARPOUR, A (2013). Production
General of MPOB for permission to publish this and detailed characterization of bio-oil from fast
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