South African Journal of Chemical Engineering 32 (2020) 56–61

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South African Journal of Chemical Engineering

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Physiochemical properties evaluation of Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel T

for gas turbine application
⁎
Nur Afiqah Fauzan , Ee Sann Tan, Fei Ling Pua, Gopinathan Muthaiyah
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The devastating phenomenon of depletion of fossil fuel and environmental pollution have caught global concern
Calophyllum inophyllum to explore for alternative fuel resources that could meet human demand. Due to the properties that match diesel
Biodiesel fuel properties, biodiesel appears to be one of the plausible resources due to the many advantages it provides
Atomization compared to the conventional petroleum-diesel. Recently, non-edible oil receives worldwide attention compared
Gas turbine
to edible feedstock in producing biodiesel. Among the many privileges provided by non-edible Calophyllum
inophyllum plant include useful by-products (glycerol), environmental friendly, ability to reduce the competition
for food and more economical feedstock. Besides the application in the diesel engine, biodiesel could be a
promising substitute to distillate fuel for power generation sector. Gas turbine develops steady flame during its
combustion and this feature gives the flexibility of wide range of fuel selection including biodiesel for gas
turbine. Therefore, the use of biodiesel in gas turbine seems a viable solution for the problems. This paper aims
to evaluate the physiochemical properties of C. inophyllum (CI) biodiesel for gas turbine application. The
properties of C. inophyllum methyl ester was obtained to evaluate its potential in gas turbine application ac-
cording to the fuel selection standard for gas turbine; ASTM D2880. The evaluation result show that C. in-
ophyllum biodiesel may be pursued as an alternative fuel in gas turbine.

1. Introduction simple substitution with conventional fuel (Rehman et al., 2011). Non-
toxicity, biodegradability, inherent lubricity, and domestic origin are
Environmental pollution and depletion of fossil fuels have en- also the merits of biodiesel (Sajjadi et al., 2016).
couraged the search for replacement of fossil fuel consumption. Over 350 oil-bearing crops are generally documented all over the
Emission of hazardous gases such as volatile organic compounds (VOC), world for biodiesel production as potential feedstocks where 95% of the
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and hydrocarbons (HC) are world production come from large scale agriculture edible crops
the consequences from combustion of fossil fuel. The demand for fossil (Bhuiya et al., 2016). This exploitation on edible oil has created the
fuels and the increase of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are causing issues related with severe ecological change including deforestation,
detrimental damages to our climate system. Meanwhile, the demand for deterioration of essential resources and jeopardizing arable land allo-
energy is assumed to increase year by year due to industrial and eco- cated for agriculture (Bhuiya et al., 2016). Besides, it creates rivalry of
nomic developments, urbanization and fast-growing demography. The edible oil consumption between food and fuel supply. Moreover, the
leading contributors to particulate air pollution particularly along cities economic viability of edible oil will be effected undoubtedly due to the
traffic routes and within developing urban areas are internal combus- rise of vegetable oil price (Gui et al., 2008). In the long-term, such
tion engine (ICE) and gas turbine running on distillate (Rehman et al., problems will limit the utilization of edible oil as a choice for biodiesel
2011). One of possible ameliorations of these issues is by shifting to feedstock. Much criticism have been received on the employment of
biodiesel fuels which have lesser percentage of CO2 emission when edible oil for fuel basis because its consumption for biodiesel produc-
combusted as compared to diesel. Biodiesel can be broadly known as tion potentially damaging the diversity. Therefore, one of the possible
renewable biofuel derived from biomass and it is the best alternative solutions is by shifting to non-edible oil. The crops can be cultivated in
energy source to replace petrol diesel (Mahlia et al.,2012). Besides, the any regions of the world either marginal, unused or barren lands where
chemical properties match the properties of diesel fuel indicating the less maintenance is required. Besides, non- edible oil is a sustainable

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: afiqahfauzan0811@gmail.com (N.A. Fauzan), eesann@uniten.edu.my (E.S. Tan), GracePua@uniten.edu.my (F.L. Pua),
Gopinathan@uniten.edu.my (G. Muthaiyah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2020.02.001
Received 19 September 2019; Received in revised form 27 December 2019; Accepted 19 February 2020
1026-9185/ © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Institution of Chemical Engineers. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
N.A. Fauzan, et al. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering 32 (2020) 56–61

Table 1
Highlights and challenges of CI oil (Agarwal, 2007; Arumugam and Ponnusami, 2014, 2019; Gökalp and Lebas, 2004; Hoxie and Anderson, 2017; Mardhiah et al.,
2017; Ong et al., 2011).
Highlights Challenges

• Chemical characteristics of biodiesel meet the necessity of the engine running on • Limited availability only to tropical as subtropical countries
diesel
• Meet the US ASTM D6751 and European Union EN 14214 biodiesel standards • Very sensitive to frost thus, its consumption in cold winters countries as a feedstock
producer is restricted
• Non-toxic • High acid value
• Moderately high flash point • High viscosity
• Biodegradable nature
• Provides better lubricity than petroleum oil
• High heating value
• Potential substitute for diesel
• High oil yield than Jatropha curcas
• High survival potency up to 50 years in nature

fuel compared to edible oil due to its lower cost. Therefore, non-edible diesel engine. Extensive number of studies in the field of biodiesel for
oil seems practically capable to reduce the deforestation rate, reduce fuel in ICE (Arumugam and Ponnusami, 2019; Atabani et al., 2013;
the competition for food and also significantly reduce the production Jain et al., 2018; No, 2011; Ong et al., 2014; Senadeera et al., 2015) are
cost since feedstock cost itself fills a major portion of the overall cost of available if compared to its application in gas turbine (GT). The most
production (Bhuiya et al., 2016). successful use of biodiesel was proven in the transportation sector
Calophyllum inophyllum (CI), or commonly known as beauty leaf, is a where no modification is required on the existing engine. The interest
non-edible tree found in family Clusiaceae. It is mainly distributed in the in biodiesel for industrial sector for power generation started to grow
origins including East Asia, Australia, East Africa, India, and South where diesel or natural gas is used for fueling gas turbine nowadays.
Pacific (Atabani and César, 2014a). The highlights and challenges of The past works mostly mentioned natural gas and gas oil as the fuel for
this species are outlined as in Table 1. Fatty acid compositions of CI are GT but virtually ignored the other alternative fuels for GT. Recently,
mainly dominated by oleic acid (C18:1) followed by linoleic acid there is emerging engagement in biodiesel study for the application in
(C18:2), stearic acid (C18:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) (Agarwal, 2007; gas turbine (Arumugam and Ponnusami, 2014; Atabani and
Pilavachi, 2002). As the fruits reaching maturity, these compositions of César, 2014b; Gui et al., 2008; Ong et al., 2011; Rehman et al., 2011)
fatty acids may fluctuate. Among other possible non-edible feedstocks yet the research is still limited. Study by (Agarwal, 2007;
such as Jatropha, Castor, Karanja, Neem, and Ceiba pertandra oils, CI Pilavachi, 2002) had listed out several potential alternative gaseous and
seeds possesses relatively high oil content which is around 65-–75% oil liquids fuels for gas turbine such as straight vegetable oils, biodiesel,
yield (Bhuiya et al., 2016; Ferreira et al., 2011). Dark green viscous bioethanol, biogas, and etc. However, the selection of fuels for gas
crude oil can be extracted from the seed of the plant either chemically turbine requires the consideration on the cost, availability, physical and
or mechanically. The oil can be extracted mechanically through me- chemical properties, and composition of the fuel (Gui et al., 2008). In
chanical extraction using manual ram press or engine driven screw addition, the fuel used will significantly influence the constituents in
press and this is the most conventional oil extraction method where it the exhaust gas. Each feedstock has different properties depending on
can extract oil around 60–80%. Meanwhile, the chemical extraction, the chemical composition in which it will influence the atomization
also known as solvent extraction or leaching, is the technique of ex- characteristics of the biodiesel. The atomization characteristics of the
tracting the oil constituents from the seed by means of a liquid solvent biodiesel are correlated to the following properties tabulated in Table 2.
such as n-hexane and this technique was found to be more efficient Biodiesel-diesel fuel blend could provide an ideal atomization in gas
compared to mechanical extraction (Azad et al., 2016). The physical turbine with the interest to reduce the emission and reduce fossil fuel
and chemical properties of CI oil is reported elsewhere in the works of consumption. The higher the ratio of biodiesel in a blended fuel, the
literature (Gupta et al., 2010; Hoxie and Anderson, 2017). CI is pre- higher the viscosity and density of the fuel (Ee Sann TanSann et al.,
dicted to be the second main promising feedstock globally in producing 2013). Subsequently, it will lead to larger Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)
biodiesel fuel (Jain et al., 2018) . or known as droplet size, smaller spray angle and spray width but
Before any fuel is labeled as biodiesel, it needs to comply with the longer spray length during atomization process.
American standard ASTM D6751 and the European standard (EN Among all these alternative fuels, the capability of biodiesel to be
14,214) to ensure that the quality of biodiesel product meets the blended with a certain proportion of diesel fuel (usually 5–20%) make
minimum prerequisite properties of biodiesel that can be applied in this fuel accessible to be used widely in gas turbine and can be regarded

Table 2
Properties of biodiesel that attributes to atomization characteristics (TanSann et al., 2013).
Properties Explanation

Viscosity Viscosity will affect the flow and atomization characteristics of liquid fuels. Viscosity can be divided into two which are:
• Dynamic viscosity – The measurement of the internal resistance of fuel to flow in which will determine whether the fuel is able to meet the requirement for
pumping or not

Density
• Kinematic viscosity – The ratio of viscous forces to inertia. It determines the bulk condition and influences the fuel injection equipment during operation.
Affects the breakup of the fuel injected into the cylinder. An increase in fuel density unfavorably influences atomization by which greater surface tension of fuel
opposes the droplets formation from the liquid fuel.
Flash point The minimum temperature that promotes the ignition of fuel when exposed to spark or fire. It significantly indicates the maximum temperature for storing and
handling of fuel during storage and transportation for safety purposes. Therefore, fuel with low flash point often requires to include the explosion proof
equipment.
Calorific value The thermal energy contained in a unit quantity of fuel determined from a complete combustion. Low energy content in biodiesel is influenced by the high
moisture and oxygen content in the fuel.

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as the best alternative fuels. Besides, biodiesel has the advantages to be

implemented in gas turbine due to its renewability, sustainability and
can be regarded as carbon neutral fuel. (Tan et al., 2019) discussed that
972 kton and 1057 kton of CO2 emission in transport and power sectors
respectively have the potential of reduction with 10% of fossil diesel
fuel replacement by CI biodiesel, which means more significant re-
duction of COx obtained from power sector. Biodiesel has not been
consumed in any gas turbine as the fuel for power generation at the
moment, but based on the similarity on diesel engine and gas turbine, it
is strongly advocated that the efficiency of gas turbine can be further
improved with adding biodiesel as the fuel due to biodiesel chemical
properties. The potential of this fuel is noticeably related with micro-
turbine which has the advantages over other technologies for small
scale power generation such as fuel flexibility, low maintenance cost,
Fig. 2. Cross-sectional diagram of Capstone C30.
low emissions, lower noise, small number of moving parts, and compact
in size (Nascimento et al., 2008; Tan et al., 2017). Microturbine is a
small-scale gas turbine with the ability to generate power up to 300 kW high free fatty acid C. inophyllum oil from three stages – degumming,
and well suited in distributed and combined heat and power (CHP) esterification and transesterification. The potential of biodiesel to be
applications. Blending biodiesel with diesel is a way of enhancing the among the other sources of renewable energy for gas turbine are fore-
fuel properties and this could widen up the applicability of this fuel in seen capable to minimize the reliance on the harmful diesel fuel since
microturbine. its physiochemical and chemical characteristics are close to the diesel
The cross-sectional and schematic diagram of the microturbine are fuel. The fuel compatibility in gas turbine is a crucial consideration so
shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. The basic working principle of that measures can be taken to reduce or avoid any possible impacts on
microturbine is same as larger gas turbines which is based on the major turbine component in order to achieve acceptable turbine op-
Brayton thermodynamic cycle and both share the same basic compo- eration. Previous studies have extensively focus on the production of CI
nents. In Brayton cycle, it initially starts with the compression of at- biodiesel and its application in diesel engine. However, research works
mospheric air by the compressor, heated in the combustion chamber regarding on the application of CI biodiesel in the power generation
mixing with the injected fuel, and then these hot combusted gases will sector especially gas turbine are scarcely found. Therefore, this paper
enter turbine thus drive both the inlet compressor and a drive shaft aims to evaluate the physiochemical properties of CI biodiesel com-
generating mechanical or electrical power. However, besides the dif- pared with international standard of ASTM D2880 providing useful
ference in size, microturbine also typically have lower compression information for any gas turbine operator to consider CI biodiesel as a
ratios and operate at lower combustion temperatures. The efficiency of GT fuel. This work is the preliminary crucial step before any fuel per-
microturbine can be further enhanced with a recuperator as a function formance testing can be done for gas turbine application.
for exhaust heat recovery in a heat exchanger and eventually elevating
the gasses energy flowing into the expansion turbine. The high com- 2. Research methodology
bustion efficiency was achieved with less air was required for stoi-
chiometric combustion due to high oxygen content in the fuel 2.1. Production of Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel
(Gupta et al., 2010). (Nascimento et al., 2008) where the operation of
microturbine remained reliable, without any noises and vibrations, and The major consequence of direct application of crude vegetable oil
no malfunction were noticed in starting of the engine. Besides, the as biodiesel fuel is the poor atomization thus forming deposition and
output power was maintained with substantial reduction of particulate causing injector clogging in diesel engine because it is very viscous and
matters, carbon monoxide (CO), and unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC) re- have low volatility. Hence, to ensure that the fuel meets the permissible
sulted from the use of biodiesel in GT. In addition, engine performance limit on metallic and other contaminants for gas turbine, crude oil
and behavior of microturbine have no significant variations when mi- should be treated. Among any methods, transesterification can be re-
croturbine was run with blended biodiesel fuel compared to distillate garded as the excellent approach of converting vegetable oil or animal
(Nascimento et al., 2008; Senadeera et al., 2015). fats to methyl ester, reduce the biodiesel viscosity and enhance the
The paper provides the overall process of producing biodiesel from other characteristics (Ferreira et al., 2011; Ong et al., 2014). Transes-
terification is a mixing process of triglycerides either from vegetable
oils or animal fats with a short chain alcohol, usually methanol, by
exchanging the organic alkyl group with the methyl group chemically
in the addition of a catalyst to produce fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
and by-product of glycerol. However, the main challenge with biodiesel
production from crude CI oil is not only the high viscosity but also the
high free fatty acid (FFA) content. Hence, the reaction of FFA and base
catalyst in transesterification reaction will create unfavorable saponi-
fication, causing the fuel to be more viscous, emulsification and forms
by-product of soaps and gels which eventually will reduce the biodiesel
yield (Mardhiah et al., 2017). Therefore, esterification process is an
essential pre-treatment stage to ensure the high FFA content is reduced
to a level below 2 wt.% prior to transesterification process
(Silitong et al., 2014). The overall biodiesel production derived from CI
oil is summarized in the flowchart as shown in Fig. 3. The production
method of CI biodiesel follows the procedure as reported by
(Chyuan et al., 2014) with slight changes that comply the ASTM D6751
standard specification for pure biodiesel.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Capstone 30 system. Crude CI oil with high FFA content was treated with 0.5 vol.% of

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Fig. 3. Flow-chart of biodiesel production process from Calophyllum inophyllum oil.

Fig. 4. a) Crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil, b) degummed Calophyllum inophyllum oil and c) Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel.

concentrated phosphoric acid, H3PO4 for 30 min to remove the gums permissible for transesterification reaction. The reaction was catalyzed
from the oil in which this process will enhance the oxidation stability. by 1 vol.% of sulphuric acid with 30 vol.% methanol to oil molar ratio
The process primarily removes the phospholipids and other mucilage at 60 °C for 2 h. Once the acid value was reduced to below 2 wt.%,
from the oil. If it is not removed effectively in the initial stage, the transesterification was continued to convert the esterified oil into me-
impurities may interfere the biodiesel production. Fig. 4 shows the dark thyl ester catalyzed by 1 wt.% potassium hydroxide base catalyst with
green color of the crude CI oil turned reddish yellow and clear yellow 30 vol.% methanol to oil molar ratio at 50 °C for 1 h Towards the
after degumming and the end of transesterification process respectively. completion of the reaction, separation of glycerol and crude biodiesel
Next, acid catalyzed esterification was carried out to reduce the high were noticeable where biodiesel and glycerol resided at the top and
FFA content in the oil to a significantly lower 2 wt.% which is bottom layer respectively. Purification of crude biodiesel was continued

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Table 3
List of equipment and standard method for physiochemical properties test.
Property Equipment Standard method Accuracy

Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C Stabinger viscometer™ SVM™ 3000 (Anton Paar, Austria) ASTM D445 ± 0.01 mm2/s
Density at 15 °C DM40 LiquiPhysics™ Excellence density meter (Mettler Toledo, USA) ASTM D1298 ± 0.1 kg/m3
Flash point NPM 440 Pensky Martens fully automatic flash point tester (Normalab,France) ASTM D93 ± 0.1 °C
Calorific value 6100EF semi-auto bomb calorimeter (Parr, USA) ASTM D240 ± 0.001 MJ/kg

to obtain pure biodiesel. Crude biodiesel was purified and washed found that the biodiesel fuel density is still within the permissible limit
several times with distilled water at 40 °C to remove the impurities. for gas turbine operation. The fuel density will determine the exact fuel
The mixture was allowed to settle for 4 h and the lower layer that volume injected by the fuel injection pumps. Thus, the injected mass of
contains the impurities was drained out. The purified biodiesel was fuel will be subjected to its density. Besides, the density of fuel will also
evaporated using the rotary evaporator to remove excess moisture. influence the air-fuel ratio and energy content within the combustion
Next, the biodiesel properties were determined for characterization chamber (Muthaiyah and Palanisamy, 2018). Higher density causes the
study. fluid to resist acceleration and tends to result in a larger average droplet
size and increase the surface tension of the fuel. The kinematic viscosity
2.2. Physiochemical properties testing of CI meets the specification for biodiesel labeling. However, it does not
meet the stringent limit set by the standard for gas turbine. The volume
The CI biodiesel was sent to Energy Efficiency Laboratory, flow could be negatively affected and gum formation on injector may
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaya for physio- resulted due to high viscosity of fuel. Besides, it also could cause poor
chemical properties testing according to the respective testing standard atomization which eventually lead to incomplete combustion. Emission
method as listed in Table 3. The properties of biodiesel were then of soot, UHC, carbon monoxide (CO) and low efficiency will occur due
compared to the Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (ASTM D6751) to en- to incomplete combustion. Therefore, the viscosity of biodiesel can be
sure it complies the standard quality as biodiesel, and Standard Speci- further improved by pre-heating of fuel as viscosity is highly tem-
fication for Gas Turbine Fuel Oils (ASTMD2880) to evaluate its ap- perature dependent, and fuel blending (Muthaiyah and
plicability as a fuel in gas turbine. Palanisamy, 2018; Senadeera et al., 2015; Silitonga et al., 2013;
TanSann et al., 2013). Enhanced viscosity of fuel could provide finer
3. Results and discussions droplet during atomization thus, increase the probability of achieving
complete combustion and will result in a reduction of NOX and CO
In order to obtain complete combustion, physical and chemical emissions. (Gupta et al., 2010) reported that pre-heating of fuel caused
properties such as density, viscosity, pour point, flash point, water and no problem in atomization process and the thermal efficiency of the
sediment, carbon residue, ash and sulfur content, sodium, potassium, turbine reached the level of around 26%, and such and attempt marks
and vanadium must be within the limit of operating. Besides, high at- good performance and no problem arise associated to the viscosity was
tention needs to be placed on the quality of fuel entering the gas turbine noticed. Besides, in order to diminish any problems regarding the high
to allow high firing temperature and to ensure acceptable turbine life viscosity of biodiesel fuel, a pre-heating system may be proposed to be
operation with less or without deterioration on the turbine component. placed in the biodiesel reservoir to reduce its viscosity before the fuel
Hence, it is necessary to identify the fuel composition and the supply was let to flow into the gas turbine by fuel injector and into the com-
condition to prevent any constituent of the fuel contaminant on the gas bustion chamber (Nascimento et al., 2008). Calorific value of biodiesel
turbine operation. The fuel properties need to comply with the standard seems lower than the limit set by ASTM D2880. Nevertheless, biodiesel
that encompasses the fuel selection for gas turbines which is ASTM has high oxygen content that can promote complete and cleaner com-
D2880 (American and Standard, 2003). Certain requirements must be bustion (Hwai Chyuan Ong et al., 2014). (Gupta et al., 2010) reported
met in order to guarantee the equipment's adaptability and ability to that higher thermal efficiencies with pure biodiesel may be attributed
function properly. Table 4 shows the physiochemical properties of C. to lower equivalence ratio (leaner air/fuel mixture ratio) and more
inophyllum biodiesel compared with AЅTM D2880 Standard Specifica- complete combustion due to the presence of excess oxygen in biodiesel
tion of Gas Turbine Fuel Oil and ASTM D6751 Standard Specification molecules. Besides, ( Tan et al., 2017) agrees that 20% of biodiesel
for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock. blend fuel was able to sustain better thermal efficiency although having
Generally, the properties of biodiesel are close to diesel fuel which lower calorific value than distillate. The flash point of biodiesel is sa-
makes it a strong alternative fuel for diesel. The utilization of biodiesel tisfactory compared to diesel in which it does not compromise the
in gas turbine requires minor or no gas turbine modification with the safety purposes for storage and handling. The high flash point of bio-
advantage of being blended with diesel at any level. Fuel properties diesel attributes to its lower volatility characteristics, thereby reducing
may influence the gas turbine performance such as injector operation, or eliminating potential hazards during use. The flash point of biodiesel
droplet sizes and fuel evaporation characteristics. From Table 4, it was is satisfactory compared to diesel in which it does not compromise the

Table 4
Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel properties and specifications.
Fuel properties Test method (ASTM) ASTM D2880 ASTM D6751 CI biodiesel Distillatea

Density at 15 °C (kg/cm3) D1298 876 860–880 880.7 840.0

Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) D445 1.3–2.4 1.9–6.0 4.68 2.95
Calorific value (MJ/kg) D240 42–46 n/a 38.02 45.825
Flash point (°C) D93 38 Min. 100–170 150.8 70.5
water and sediment (vol.%) d1796 0.05 0.05 n/a 0.003
sulfur (m/m%) d4294 0.05 0.05 n/a 0.015

*n/a, not available.

a
(Chyuan et al., 2014).

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The authors would like to express the gratitude to TNB Generation Ong, Hwai Chyuan, Masjuki, H.H., Mahlia, T.M.I., Silitonga, A.S., Chong, W.T., Yusaf, T.,
2014. Engine performance and emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and
for the financial support from TNB Seed Fund under research grant Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine. Energy 69, 427–445. https://
number: U-TG-RD-18-13. Besides, special appreciation to Dr. Arridina doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.035.
Susan Silitonga for the physiochemical properties assessment. Pilavachi, P.A., 2002. Mini- and micro-gas turbines for combined heat and power. Appl.
Therm. Eng. 22 (18), 2003–2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-4311(02)00132-1.
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