POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

Power Up With a Load-Management System:

SETTING UP A LOAD-MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
AUTHOR INTRODUCTION
ISAAC FRAMPTON
Senior Staff Engineer
Part one of this three-part series focused on appropriate applications of
Kohler Co. load management to help control load priorities and improve power quality
Power Systems Division
to critical loads. Part two explored setting up load-management systems,
Part 3 of a 3-part series determining load priority orders and methods of shedding loads. This third
and final installment will explore seven methods for load-management.

SEVEN METHODS FOR

LOAD MANAGEMENT
There can be many differences and minimum observed demand on
between load-management systems, each priority. The actual loads on the
but common design practices and priorities can fall anywhere in this range,
setup procedures can be applied to but they have been fixed throughout the
most systems and applications. The examples for simplicity.
following are functional descriptions,
configuration tips and example
scenarios for some of the more common
1. STARTUP SHED
techniques for load management: Configuring the startup shed level
1. Startup shed allows initial loads to be removed from
the power generation system before a
2. Generator online load add generator connects to the paralleling
3. kW capacity load add bus. The primary purpose of startup
shed is to prevent a generator from
4. Engine failure shed
being overloaded as it closes to the
5. kW shed bus. This is beneficial, for example, on
6. Underfrequency shed a paralleling system where a single-
generator is not able to support the
7. Time-based load staging entire load. This can also prove useful in
Each method is demonstrated by a single-generator systems with a number
timing diagram based on an example of loads where each provides a large
system Figure 1. The example system inrush current because these loads can
includes load ranges for each be staggered using time-based load
of the priorities based on maximum staging to improve power quality.
 Figure 1: Startup Shed
arallel Generators With Load
Management in Switchgear

M M
Key:
Motor-
M Operated
Breaker
Unimportant Load
Critical Load

Important Load

Gen Gen Gen Generator Gen 1 Gen 2 Gen 3 Gen 4

(500 kW) (500 kW) (500 kW) (500 kW)

Critical Loads
Priority 8

Priority 7

Priority 6

Priority 5

Priority 4

Priority 3

Priority 2

Priority 1
C Controller C C C C
rallel Generators with Building 25 -
130 kW
35 -
185 kW
160 -
210 kW
105 -
335 kW
95 -
110 kW
110 -
165 kW
0-
375 kW
25 -
175 kW
145 -
315 kW
Management System (BMS) Paralleling
Switchgear

Control

M M

Example exceed the generator capacity or the generator is

Unimportant Load
Critical Load

Important Load

BMS
Gen Gen
unable to provide full capacity immediately after
The startup shed may be initiated on the receipt
startup. Dead-field paralleling systems may also
of a start signal from an external source or on the
be able to operate normally without startup shed,
initiation of a start signal to the generators.
as long as load is shed by another means when a
Configuration: Startup Shed Level = 1 generator fails to start.
Figure 2, all priorities except for priority 1 are shed Some load-management systems automatically
in order to ensure that the first generator online detect startup shed level. For example, some
is not overloaded. For example, the generators typical paralleling switchgear applications monitor
can support 500 kW each and priority 1, and the load power requirements while on utility
critical loads could provide from 170 kW up to power source.
490 kW of load. Advantages – Startup shed should shed load
Setup before a generator tries to feed it, potentially
The startup shed level should shed enough preventing overload of the first generator to
priorities that the power requirements of the connect to the load.
remaining priorities should not exceed the Disadvantages – Startup shed usually sheds
capacity of the smallest generator in a multi- loads regardless of the immediate load power
generator power generation system. Single- requirements. If configured incorrectly, startup
generator systems should not require startup shed shed can remove too many loads and delay
in most cases, unless the load could potentially certain equipment from receiving power.

9 1800

8 1600
Generators Online / Priority Added

Start
Load on Paralleling Bus (kW)

7 1400 Signal

6 1200
Priority
5 1000 Added

4 800
Generators
Online
3 600
2 400 Load on
Paralleling
1 200 Bus

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Figure 2: Startup Shed

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 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

GOL Priority
9 130 1 1
8 120
2 2
Generators Online / Priority Added

7 110 Frequency

Frequency (Hz) / Generator

6 100
3 5
Priority
5 90 Added 4 6
4 80
Generators
3 70
Online Figure 3: GOL Add
2 60 Generator
Load (%)
1 50
0 40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (s)

2. GENERATOR ONLINE (GOL) LOAD ADD management systems where the GOL add
allows multiple priorities to add with each
Implementing load management based on the connected generator, the maximum load of
number of generators that are connected to the all priorities on a single generator connection
paralleling bus and thereby the generator capacity typically should not exceed the capacity of a
(called generators online or GOL) allows adding single-generator. Adding too many priorities at
loads quickly when a connecting generator once may delay the synchronization of additional
increases the capacity of the paralleling bus. generators by causing a significant decrease in
Loads may be added immediately when the bus frequency.
generators connect to the paralleling bus. The GOL add delay provides a window for
This should load the newly added generator very generators to parallel and come online before
quickly and minimize the time that each load is switching to a different load-adding technique
without power. (typically kW capacity load add). It should typically
Example be configured long enough that all generators
have a reasonable chance to synchronize and
Figure 3 the generator’s available capacity come online. Setting the GOL add delay too long
increases slightly as each generator comes online, may delay adding of additional priorities, so the
but the immediate adding of the associated delay should be minimized.
priorities minimizes the increase in available
capacity. The generator frequency may dip Advantages – GOL operation is usually quicker
considerably with the sudden increase in load than kW capacity add and is generally considered
since multiple priorities are added at once, but the to be simpler to configure and understand.
load should receive power within a very short time
of a generator coming online. Disadvantages – GOL add does not consider
the expected load of each priority or support
Setup the re-addition of loads that are shed due to
On load-management systems where the GOL underfrequency and overload conditions, making
add is a single priority per generator, it may be recovery from a configuration error or site
important to ensure that no priority exceeds change more difficult. Also GOL add may provide
the capacity of a single generator. On load- inconsistent performance in systems where
generators differ in size.

Load Management Systems Part 3 / 3

 Priority Expected Load
10 80 1 175
9 70 2 375

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

8 Frequency
Generators Online / Priority Added

60 3 165
7
6
50 Priority 4 110
Added

5 40 5 335
Generators
4 30
Online
6 210
3
20 Generator 7 185
2 Load (%)

1 10 8 130
0 0 Figure 4: kW Capacity Add (Fixed Time)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(threshold=85%, kW addtime=10.0s)
Time (s)

3. KW CAPACITY LOAD ADD the power generation system, although it can

also be configured as the priority’s typical
Configuring load management based on kW power requirement.
capacity adds loads when the online generators
can support them. For automatic load adding, The expected load requirement allows the system
this method generally only adds priorities up to a to determine if enough capacity exists to support
threshold. It is often used in conjunction with GOL the load’s power requirement before adding the
load add in cases where the maximum potential load, preventing load cycling or degradation of
demand of the load exceeds the capability of all power quality.
of the generators. Increasing the kW capacity add delay allows time
Example for the loads to initialize and ramp to full power
requirements before the next priority adds. This
Loads are added after the generator capacity has also may provide more accurate information about
been determined to be sufficient to support the the load’s power requirements before adding
load, including expected inrush. additional priorities. Increasing the kW capacity
Adding a single priority in sequence may minimize add delay may also slow the rate that priorities
the disturbance to the generator frequency, but are added, causing loads to be de-energized
it comes at the cost of an additional time delay for longer.
before the load is added. Decreasing the kW capacity add delay allows
The kW capacity load add system provides loads to receive power faster, but may not allow
different performance from the generator online sufficient time for the load’s power requirement to
load add system, with preference for a given stabilize before the next priority is added.
technique largely based on site requirements Many systems have a throw-over timer to
and expectations. The consistent timing of kW switch from GOL load add mode to kW capacity
capacity load add generally makes it easier to add mode.
define rough outage time for each load in the
event of a utility outage. Advantages – Although kW capacity load
add typically requires more time to add each
Setup
priority than GOL add, it adds priorities based
The threshold for automatic load adding should on feedback and knowledge of the loads, as
generally be set below the kW shed threshold opposed to a simple load add as soon as a
to avoid exceeding the kW shed threshold when generator is connected to the bus. It is robust to
adding a load (and causing load cycling). changes in the generator capacity, allows good
recovery from a shed condition and supports
It is important to configure the expected load
various-sized generators.
requirements correctly for predictable operation
within the load-management system. The Disadvantages – The kW capacity load add may
expected load is typically set as the maximum be susceptible to configuration errors and take
power requirement a given priority can place on longer to add loads.
4 / Load Management Systems Part 3
 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

Failed
9 140
Priority
Generators
8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

1 5

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110 2 2
Priority
5 100 Added
3 1
4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70
Figure 5: Engine Failure Shed
Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

4. ENGINE FAILURE SHED management may not be considered a failed

generator, but may be offline, such that if another
Engine failure shed is initiated when a generator generator fails, engine failure shed may not
disconnects from the load while it is needed. recognize that the first generator is offline and
Some examples of causes of an engine failure thus may not shed enough load for the remaining
shed are: online generators to support what remains.
• User interaction
Setup
• Generator protective shutdown
On load-management systems, engine failure
• Mechanical or system failure shed can be configured to shed a given number
of priorities or a given priority level.
Example
On systems that only use GOL add, it is often
Upon generator disconnection from the load,
beneficial to reverse the GOL add priority levels.
engine failure shed removes load from the
remaining generators to a level that they are Advantages – Engine failure shed may be used
able to handle. In (Figure 5), the engine failure to proactively avoid potential decreases in
shed is set up to mirror the generator online power quality.
add settings.
Disadvantages – Engine failure shed may not
Engine failure shed may not coordinate well with account for load on the system when shedding, so
load priorities in systems where generators are the system may shed loads that could have easily
stopped or started based on the load demand been supported by the remaining generators.
(generator management). In particular, a first Further, the system may not seamlessly support
generator that has been stopped by generator various-sized generators in a system.

9 120

8 110
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 100 Frequency

6 90
Priority
5 80 Added

4 70
Generators
Online
3 60
2 50 Generator
Load (%)
1 40
0 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 6: Motor Inrush
Time (s)
(threshold=95%, shed time=2.0s)

Load Management Systems Part 3 / 5

 5. KW SHED A second scenario, shown in Figure 7, is similar
to the first scenario, only with one generator
kW shed detects overload conditions on the offline. The load-management system may
generator that could decrease power quality and need to shed load very quickly to minimize the
upon detection shed loads accordingly. kW shed detrimental effect on the power quality due to
is generally based on the generator’s rating and the overload condition.
usually does not require poor power quality to
detect an overload condition (although severe The load-management system in this scenario
overloads often decrease power quality). does not shed more loads than necessary, but
the system is nevertheless overloaded for four
Some kW shed systems base the load on current, seconds. In some cases, the generators may
not on the real power (kW), and as such may be lose enough speed and voltage in four seconds
more sensitive to reactive loads. Such systems to cause brownouts on the critical loads.
may, for example, detect motor inrush as a much Accordingly, it may be necessary to decrease the
higher number due to the low power factor of the time delay to improve system performance.
power demand for a motor as it starts.
Figure 8 shows an example where the time delay
Example is decreased to allow the generator voltage and
Figure 6 shows a temporary overload condition frequency to recover more quickly. However,
due to motor inrush on a system where the kW decreasing the time delay increases the chance of
shed logic is configured to shed load that may unintentional load shedding on a switching load
not be necessary or desired to shed. The example application and may result in shedding too many
shows the direct online starting of a 250-kW priorities as shown.
motor driving a large axial fan on priority 2 of the Figure 9 shows that the shed time of one second
example system, with the initial settings set to a takes the load off the generators much more
sensitivity that results in shedding priority 8 when quickly, but will probably result in frequent load
the motor starts. shedding due to switching loads.
The unintended shedding in (Figure 6) could
be resolved by adjusting the shed time delay
out to 2.8 seconds, but that change would cause
the system to shed loads more slowly in an
overload condition.

9 140

8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110
Priority
5 100 Added

4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70 Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 7: kW Overload Shed
(threshold=95%, shed time=2.0s)

6 / Load Management Systems Part 3

 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

9 140

8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110
Priority
5 100 Added

4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70 Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 8: kW Overload Shed
Time (s) (threshold=95%, shed time=0.8s)

Setup
To avoid add/shed cycling of a priority, the kW Advantages – kW shed responds to real-time load
shed level typically should be above the changes and complements kW capacity load add.
threshold for automatic load adding. It is
important to configure the time delay (1) short Disadvantages – If a significant overload event
enough to permit all available priorities to shed occurs, power quality may decrease significantly
before the power quality deteriorates enough to before the kW shed acts.
trip the generator’s paralleling circuit breaker or The underfrequency shed and engine failure
to shut the generator down due to a protective shed can often be used in conjunction with
function, and (2) long enough that loads are not kW shed, offsetting the slow response from
shed unintentionally. the kW shed method.
Intermittent loads may not reduce the load
power requirement when shed, as they may not
be drawing power at the time they are shed. In
this case, the system will generally have to shed
multiple loads to maintain the power quality.

9 140

8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110
Priority
5 100 Added

4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70 Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 9: kW Overload Shed
Time (s)
(threshold=95%, shed time=1.0s)

Load Management Systems Part 3 / 7

 6. UNDERFREQUENCY SHED Generators often use underfrequency unloading
techniques to remove load from the generator as
Underfrequency shed removes load to avoid the engine speed falls to allow the frequency to
significant decreases in power quality due to any recover. A common technique of under frequency
number of issues. Load priorities are shed when shedding is volts/Hz and comprises a knee
the generator frequency drops below a threshold frequency below which the voltage is controlled to
for a sufficient amount of time. In paralleling a target that decreases at a given percentage per
systems, the generator should be connected to cycle of frequency lost (see Figure 10). If the load
the paralleling bus to be included in the on the generator system causes the frequency
frequency calculation. The paralleling bus to drop below the knee of the volt/Hz curve, the
frequency is often used instead of generator voltage will drop. Underfrequency load shed
frequency in paralleling systems. provides a mechanism to minimize the time
that critical loads receive low supply voltage.

100
90
80

70
Output Voltage (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40 45 50 55 60 Figure 10: Underfrequency Shed
Generator Frequency (Volts/Hz) (knee frequency=59Hz,
slope=3%/Hz)

8 / Load Management Systems Part 3

 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

9 140

8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110
Priority
5 100 Added

4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70 Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Figure 11: Under Frequency
Shed(threshold=59Hz, delay=2.0s)

Example
Figures 11 and 12 apply to an under-frequency As shown in (Figures 12), decreasing the
scenario caused by starting a large motor with a underfrequency shed delay will result in quick
generator offline. voltage recovery while increasing the chance of
In Figures 11, the generator frequency remains unnecessary shedding.
below the knee of the volts/Hz curve (59 Hz) for kW shed logic may be active in addition to
over four seconds, meaning that the critical loads underfrequency logic in many applications,
will experience lower input voltage for that time. so actual timing may be quicker than illustrated
An advantage to a long delay is that no priorities in these examples.
are shed that the system could otherwise support.

9 140

8 130
Generators Online / Priority Added

Frequency / Generator Load (%)

7 120 Frequency

6 110
Priority
5 100 Added

4 90
Generators
Online
3 80
2 70 Generator
Load (%)
1 60
0 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 12: Under Frequency Shed
(threshold=59Hz, delay=1.0s)Hz

Load Management Systems Part 3 / 9

 Setup
The underfrequency shed level is usually set low Advantages – Underfrequency shed is relatively
enough to protect the generator from shutting consistent between various power generation
down due to underfrequency or undervoltage, but systems. It provides an alternate line of
high enough to avoid nuisance trips. defense for power quality in the event that load
The time delay is usually chosen such that all management is configured incorrectly or another
available priorities should shed before the under- condition limits generator capacity.
frequency shutdown or protective relay for the Disadvantages – Underfrequency shed utilizes a
generator acts, since those protective features drop in frequency to detect an overload condition,
may cause further degradation of the power by which time power quality may have already
quality or a total loss of power to the critical load. decreased, before load can be shed.
Intermittent loads may not reduce the load power
requirement when shed, as they may not be
drawing power at the time they are shed. In this
case, the system will typically shed multiple loads
to maintain the power quality.

10 / Load Management Systems Part 3

 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

7. TIME-BASED LOAD STAGING Setup

Time-based load staging is more commonly The time delay should be short enough to allow
provided by an automatic transfer switch than by the load to receive power within a reasonable
a full load-management system, but the operation time, but long enough to allow the generator
is often not complicated, as load priorities are speed and voltage to recover before the next
added in sequence according to a fixed time load is added.
schedule without regard for load or generator Advantages – Time-based load staging may be
capacity. Some systems use a fixed time easily configured and generally does not require
step for all priorities, while some will allow the frequency or power metering on the generator.
configuration of the delay between each priority.
In either case, the priorities are generally added at Disadvantages – Time-based load staging does
a fixed time after the loads were connected to the not usually utilize feedback to determine if the
power generation system. generator capacity is sufficient to add the load.

Example
Properly configured load-management systems
As shown in (Figure 13), time-based load adding
have the potential to decrease system downtime
is typically used to stage high-inrush loads such
and power loss in overload conditions, while
as motors and transformers to avoid a severe
improving flexibility, versatility and power
voltage dip from a sudden application of the
quality. Understanding the details of a properly
entire load.
implemented load-management system can mean
the difference between a mild inconvenience and
a full loss of system function.

7
6
Priority Online

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Figure 13: Time-Based Load
Staging (delay=5.0s)

Load Management Systems Part 3 / 11

 POWER SYSTEMS TOPICS 110

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Isaac Frampton is a Senior Staff Engineer at Kohler Co. He has

worked for the company’s Kohler Power Systems division since 2006
and specializes in control system design and paralleling applications.
He has a bachelor of science in electrical engineering from Kettering
University in Flint, Michigan.

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