[2]Ship transport of CO2 - Technical solutions and analysis of costs, energy utilization,

exergy efficiency and CO2 emissions

Increased focus on reducing CO2 emissions has created growing interest in CO2 capturing from industrial
processes for storage in geologic formations or injection in oil reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Due to
the scattered CO2 sources and the uncertainty in the growth of the CO2 market, a cost effective and flexible
transport system is required. In this work a ship transport concept is developed as an alternative to pipeline
transport. New technical solutions, cost-, energy-, exergy- and CO2 emission analysis for ship-based transport of
CO2 are presented. The concept includes all the elements in the transport chain, namely liquefaction, intermediate
storage, loading system, semi-pressurized ship and offshore unloading system. Economical large-scale transport
Of CO2 by ship could be done in semi-pressurized vessels of around 20 000 m 3 at pressures near triple point (6.5
bara and -52 degrees C) in order to use well established design for commercial construction of LPG carriers and
intermediate storage. This condition also gives the highest density in the liquid state, which reduces the transport
unit cost. Liquefaction Of CO2 is best achieved in an open cycle, where the refrigeration is partly or fully
provided by the feed gas itself. The offshore unloading system will transport the liquid CO2 from the dedicated
CO2 ship to the wellhead on the platform at the required temperature and pressure. During the unloading phase
the ship is connected to a submerged turret loading (STL) system. The CO2 is pumped to a pressure high enough
to avoid phase transition in the transfer lines. A flexible riser, a subsea pipeline and an insulated pipeline in the
platform shaft bring the CO2 from the unloading location to the topside of the platform. The CO2 is pumped to
injection pressure and heated to avoid operational problems before it is injected into the reservoir for EOR using
conventional water injection wells. The total specific energy requirement for the selected transport chain is 142
kWh tonne(-1) CO2, where the liquefaction process accounts for 77%. An exergy analysis of the chain is
performed showing that the minimum work required in the chain is 60 kWh tonne(-1) CO2, giving a chain
rational efficiency of 42%. The total CO2 emissions are estimated to be approximately 1.4% of the inlet CO2. The
total costs of ship-based transport are calculated to be 20-30 USD tonne(-1) for volumes larger than 2 Mt y(-1)
and distances limited to the North Sea. Ship transport offers a flexible alternative for bringing CO2 to offshore
installations. Dedicated CO2 carriers for transport Of CO2 directly from the source to the oil fields might be a key
element in future CO2 infrastructures.

[3]CO2 capture and storage - Closing the knowing-doing gap

The capture and storage Of CO2 is gaining attention as an option for limiting CO2 emissions from the use of
fossil fuels. CO2 capture is premised on the safe long-term storage Of CO2 in geological formations. Naturally
occurring CO2 is used for enhanced oil recovery in the USA, Trinidad, Turkey, Hungary, Brazil and Croatia.
Industrially produced CO2 has been used for enhanced oil recovery at the Rangely field in Colorado, USA since
1986 and at the Weyburn field in Saskatchewan, Canada since 2000. Large-scale CO2 storage in geological
formations to avoid CO2 emissions was first undertaken offshore in Norway in 1996 and onshore in Algeria in
2004. CO2 delivered for EOR in the USA averaged around USD 11/tonne CO2 during the 1990s. The Cost Of
CO2 capture from low concentration industrial sources varies with a number of factors, but will certainly be very
much higher than the recovery of naturally-occurring CO2. Adequate knowledge exists in the oil and gas industry
for the application Of CO2 capture and storage. Widespread implementation of fully-integrated CO2 value chains
will nonetheless depend on achieving public acceptance and regulatory approval for CO2 storage, cost reduction
for CO2 capture and sufficient economic incentives for the key actors involved. This article discusses the most
important research directions for CO2 capture and storage projects that have been initiated around the world. The
adequacy of economic incentives will strongly influence how quickly producers and users of fossil fuels are able
to close the knowing-doing gap for CO2 capture and storage.

[4], []
[13]EIS study of the surface film on the surface of carbon steel from supercritical carbon
dioxide corrosion

Wu SL, Cui ZD, Zhao GX, Yan ML, Zhu SL, Yang XJ ----------------------- Applied Surface Science, Vol.228, No.1-4, 17-25, 2004

The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique was Used to investigate the characteristics of the
Surface film on the surface of carbon steel formed in static Simulated produced water saturated with
supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2). Electrical equivalent Circuits were proposed to describe the
electrochemical behavior. The results showed that a protective surface film was observed on the surface of the
pre-filmed samples. In general, the protective performance of the surface film was enhanced with the increase
of the exposure time within the time period of 0-6 h. The surface film formed at a high temperature was more
protective than that formed at a low temperature because the fast formation of the film at elevated
temperatures and the surface film became more compact and continuous with the increase of the temperature.
Results Of EIS were in good agreement with the weight-loss measurements. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights
reserved.

[14]Study on corrosion properties of pipelines in simulated produced water saturated

This work aims at systematically investigating the corrosion properties of three pipeline steels in static simulated
produced water (SPW) saturated with supercritical carbon dioxide using weight-loss tests. SEM, XRD and XPS
were employed to study the chemical composition and structure of the corroded surface. The results showed
that the corrosion rates of the tested steels significantly decreased with increasing the exposure temperature
and time in static SPW saturated with SC-CO2. The surface film on the corroded surface, which markedly
influenced the CO, corrosion behavior of the samples, was mainly composed of (Fe, Ca)CO3 and alpha-FeOOH.
Inhomogencous element distribution of carbon, oxygen, calcium and iron in the surface film was observed. (Fe,
Ca)CO3 formed at a lower temperature was more stable than that formed at elevated temperatures. (c) 2005
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

[15]Effect of CO2 and H2S on the composition and stability of passive film on iron alloys
in geothermal water
Banas J, Lelek-Borkowska U, Mazurkiewicz B, Solarski W ------------------- Electrochimica Acta, Vol.52, No.18, 5704-5714, 2007 

The work presents corrosion mechanism of iron alloys in H2O-CO2-H2S system in the respect of their corrosion
resistance in geothermal waters. Anodic behaviour of carbon steel, ductile iron, low-alloyed steel and stainless
steel in thermal water of Geotermia Podhalanska S.A. (Tatra Mountains) has been discussed. There has been
also presented the influence Of CO2 and H2S on the stability of passive film in H2O-CO2-H2S system at elevated
temperature and under high pressure. (c) 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
[15]Effect of CO2 and H2S on the composition and stability of passive film on iron alloys
in geothermal water
Banas J, Lelek-Borkowska U, Mazurkiewicz B, Solarski W -------------------------------- Electrochimica Acta, Vol.52, No.18, 5704-5714, 2007

The work presents corrosion mechanism of iron alloys in H2O-CO2-H2S system in the respect of their corrosion
resistance in geothermal waters. Anodic behaviour of carbon steel, ductile iron, low-alloyed steel and stainless
steel in thermal water of Geotermia Podhalanska S.A. (Tatra Mountains) has been discussed. There has been
also presented the influence Of CO2 and H2S on the stability of passive film in H2O-CO2-H2S system at elevated
temperature and under high pressure. (c) 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.