Reboiler Design

1.0 REBOILER TYPES

There are two basic types of reboilers: natural-circulation and forced-circulation. In a natural-
circulation reboiler, there is a different in hydrostatic head between the column of liquid feeding
and the reboiler and the column of mixed liquid and vapor leaving the reboiler. This difference
causes the fluid to circulate. In a forced-circulation reboiler, circulation is obtained by means of a
pump.
Thermosyphon and kettle reboilers are the common types of natural-circulation reboilers. “Pump-
through” reboilers and reboiler furnaces are two types of forced-circulation reboilers.
The selection of the type of unit is based primarily on economics. The principal economic factors
are foundation and piping costs, required tower elevation, and operation costs. Because of an
advantage in operating costs, the natural-circulation reboiler is by far the most common type of
reboiler used. Refer Figure-1 for a list of the advantages and disadvantages of the various types.

1.1 Natural Circulation Reboilers

a. Vertical Thermosyphon (Recirculating) - This type of installation consists of a

conventional shell and tube exchanger generally mounted directly on the tower. This
minimizes the foundation and structural requirements as well as the plot area. Bottoms
product holdup and vapor-liquid disengaging space are provided in the bottom section
of the tower.
Vertical thermosyphons are generally the cheapest type of reboiler installation. If they
are supported directly on the tower, the process fluid discharge line is very short,
minimizing vapor pressure drop and cost. The process fluid (usually the more fouling) is
sent through the tubes, thus making cleaning and normal maintenance easy. If the
heating medium is clean (such as steam), one can further reduce the cost by specifying
fixed tube sheet design.

b. Horizontal Thermosyphon (Recirculating) – This type also consists of a conventional

shell and tube heat exchanger. As in the vertical type, bottoms product holdup and
vapor disengaging are provided in the bottom of the tower. The process fluid is
vaporized in the shell and, therefore, this type should be restricted to services which are
non-fouling to moderately fouling. However, placing the heating medium on the tube
side does permit the use of fouling streams in the tubes.
Horizontal thermosyphons require separate foundations and take up more plot area
than the vertical types do. Also, the outlet piping is more complex and costly. The
hydraulic design, however, is less rigid, with higher circulation rates for a given tower
elevation being possible. Conversely, the tower elevation can be somewhat lower for a
given circulation rate.

c. Once-Through Thermosyphon (Vertical or Horizontal) – In this type of installation,

the reboiler feed consists only of the liquid from the bottom tray of the tower. Once-
through reboilers are therefore equivalent to one theoretical stage. Other advantages
are the same as for the recirculating types.
 The major drawback to the once-through design is the inability to provide adequate
liquid surge capacity in the feed drawoff box to prevent “percolation” in the system. This
disadvantage is most pronounced at high vaporization rates. Therefore, unless fouling
or some other criteria prevents their use, kettle reboilers are recommended for once-
through services.

d. Kettle Reboiler – The kettle reboiler normally consists of a U-tube bundle (clean
heating fluid) encased in a shell sufficiently large to provide vapor-liquid disengaging
space above the bundle and liquid holdup beyond the bundle. When the heating fluid is
fouling (mechanical cleaning required), a tube bundle with straight tubes and a pull-
through floating head is required.
With kettle reboilers, the bottom section of the column is simplified. No product holdup
volume is required nor is any vapor-liquid disengaging space. Internal baffling is also
minimized. When the necessary liquid holdup beyond the weir in the reboiler requires
more than four feet of shell length, a thermosiphon should be considered.
Kettle reboilers require the lowest elevation of the various reboiler types, and therefore
find application where tower bottoms are not pumped away (the pump almost always
requires enough tower elevation for NPSH to satisfy the circulation requirements of
thermosiphons).
As a rule, kettle exchangers are more expensive than the shell and tube units provided
in thermosiphon service. However, this may be offset by the cost of tower elevation,
etc. Kettle provide a longer liquid residence time at the boiling temperature and are
therefore not recommended for excessively fouling or polymerizing services.

e. Internal Reboilers – An internal reboiler consists of a tube bundle that is directly inserted
into the column through a flange in the side of the column. This type of unit is
occasionally used for small heat duty services, since on this basis of installed cost per
square foot, they can be more economical than other reboiler types.
The advantages of an internal reboiler are (1) no shell is required, (2) circulation piping is
eliminated and (3) no baffling is required in the bottom of the column.
The disadvantages of an internal reboiler are (1) the bundle length is limited by the
column diameter and (2) the flange on the column can be relatively expensive.
Because of the bundle length restriction, the bundle diameter can become prohibitive. In
general, if the required bundle diameter is 36 inches or greater, a kettle reboiler will be
more economical.

1.2 Forced Circulation Reboiler

Pump-Through Exchangers - Pump-through reboilers consist of conventional heat
exchangers with the fluid to be vaporized fed to the reboiler from the discharge of a
pump. Vaporization may take place either on the shell side or the tube side. Since this
type of installation is more expensive than natural-circulation reboilers, it is therefore
used only in the following special circumstances :

(1) A positive circulation is required because of an extremely fouling or viscous service.

(2) A high circulation rate and/or a low increase in temperature is required to minimize
thermal degradation of the bottoms product.
(3) The size of a natural-circulation reboiler would be unreasonably large (requiring
multiple shells and complex piping).
(4) For services where hydrostatic head is limited.
 Furnace Reboilers - A furnace reboiler, as the name implies, consists of a fired reboiler
with the feed liquid also supplied from the discharge of a pump. Fired reboilers are the
most expensive type of installation. They are normally used only when the temperature
level required for reboiling is higher than can be obtained from steam or a process
stream.

1.3 Waste Heat Boilers

Application – Waste heat boilers (steam generations) are commonly used to recover heat from
catalytic cracker regenerator flue gas, reformer effluent, gas turbine exhaust, catalyst – oil slurries
and fixed bed reactor.
Types of Units – The usual installation is a thermosiphon type. Natural circulation is especially
adaptable, because of the large density difference between the water “leg” to the generator and
the steam “leg” from the generator. The outlet of the generator discharges into a steam
disengaging drum. Steam goes overhead from the drum, and the disengaged water returns to
the generator inlet.
There are a wide variety of designs used for waste heat boilers. However, waste heat boilers are
generally classified as firetube or water tube unit. In firetube units (the most common type) the
heating stream passes through the tubes and steam is generated outside the tubes (shell side).
Firetube units using a high-temperature process stream (about 1000 F) are normally constructed
with refractory lining on the inlet channel and ferrules inserted into the tubes in order to protect
the inlet channel and tube sheet. Water tube units which generate steam inside the tubes are
commonly used with gas turbine exhaust units in order to obtain a low gas pressure drop, and for
units in which the steam pressure is greater than 1000 psig.

2.0 SPECIAL TUBES

- Special tube shapes and surfaces can improve heat transfer performance

BOILING

- Heat transfer is affected by the rate of bubble formation

- Rate of bubble formation affected by :
o Fluid properties system pressure
o T = (Thot – Tboil)
o properties of tube surface

Special tubes can be used to improve performance in boiling applications.

- If the process pressure or heating medium temperature cannot be changed, then

change tube surface.
- Specially treated tube surfaces can improve boiling heat transfer by 300%.
- Roughen tube surface on boiling side.
- This improves bubble formation rate which improves boiling
3.0 DESIGN GUIDELINES

 The vertical thermosyphon should be restricted to a maximum of 50% vaporization (based

on feed), in order to prevent erratic operation due to slugging, etc. However, it is common
industrial practice to limit vaporization to 30%, in order to insure smooth operation of the
unit. Thermosyphons should be avoided for viscous fluids, and for services where the
liquid head on the feed system is variable.
 It is recommended that Thermosyphon reboilers be designed to vaporize 25 – 33% of
throughput (i.e. total circulation rate 3 to 4 times required vapor rate)
 Vaporization limits deal with return pressure drop, flow regime on boiling side, minimizing
shell side deposition.
 Kettle reboilers are limited to once-through operation only. However, they are
capable of vaporization loads approaching 100% for clean stocks (such as
refrigerants). If the feed contains dirt or tends to be fouling (as is the case with
most process streams), vaporization loads should be restricted to 80% to provide
some purge.
 In Vertical thermosyphons Tube lengths are usually 16 feet maximum to avoid
elevating the tower.
 In vertical thermosyphons, for vertical Upflow boiling, the fluid flow regime affects
heat transfer coefficients as each flow regime has a different correlation for finding
the value. In general, heat transfer coefficients are better with more liquid than less
liquid against the tube wall.
As the percentage of vapor increases, the amount of liquid on the wall of the tube
decreases. Limiting the amount of vaporization in a vertical thermosiphon reboiler
is to avoid annular mist flow regimes. Slug flow and lower is desirable.
 Avoid mist flow due to dryout and deposition inside tubes as well as poor heat
transfer in region. Mist flow is avoided by keeping vaporization to a manageable
amount (~33%).

3.1 Reboiler and Tower Elevation

The bottom of the shell of a reboiler is located at the minimum practical distance above grade.
This distance is set by space requirements for piping, and is usually about 3 feet.
For natural-circulation reboilers, a pressure balance through the reboiler circuit determines the
exact tower elevation. The usual points of a reference for the pressure balance are the bottom
tangent line of the tower and the bottom of the reboiler shell. As a very rough guide, the distance
between these points will normally be 6 to 10 feet for kettle reboilers and 8 to 15 feet for
thermosiphon reboilers.
For forced-circulation reboilers, the tower is normally elevated 15 feet above grade to provide an
adequate pump NPSH. If necessary, this elevation can be decreased by reducing the pump
NPSH requirement to minimum of 5 feet. However, this will usually cause a considerable
increase in the cost of the pump.

3.2 Boiling Heat Transfer

The three forms of boiling which may occur in reboilers are nucleate boiling, film boiling, and
transition boiling. Of these, nucleate boiling occurs at the lowest temperature differences. It is
characterized by bubble formation at cavities in the heating surface. The agitation caused by the
 bubbles as they leave the surface is primarily responsible for heat transfer in this mode of boiling.
Heat flux will increase with increasing temperature differences until a maximum value is reached.
Stable film boiling occurs where temperature differences are so high that the heating surface
becomes vapor blanked. Heat transfer coefficients are lower for film boiling than for nucleate
boiling, because the primary means of heat transfer across the vapor blanket are conduction and
radiation, as contrasted to the vigorous convection currents set us in nucleate boiling.
At temperature differences between those associated with nucleate boiling and film boiling, both
will occur on the same surface. This regime is known as transition boiling. An important
characteristic of transition boiling is that heat flux, as well as heat transfer coefficients, decrease
with increasing temperature difference.
Typical pool boiling curve is given in attachment.

3.3 Vapor Blanketing

At very high temperature differences between the tube and shell side fluids, vapor bubbles form
on the surface of the tubes faster than convection and buoyancy can remove them. Vapor will
then blanket the tube, with the result that very little liquid will reach the tube surface. Vaporization
of liquid must take place through the additional resistance set up by the vapor blanket, causing a
sharp drop in the heat transfer coefficient. For this reason the high temperature differences that
are desirable in heat exchangers may be a hindrance in vaporizing equipment.
To stay out of the temperature range in which vapor blanketing might occur, restrictions are
placed on the heat flux, Q/A, and the vaporizing film coefficient, hv. The maximum allowable
average heat flux is 15,000 Btu/hr sq ft for natural-circulation reboilers and 20,000 Btu/hr
sq ft for forced-circulation reboilers. The maximum allowable vaporizing film coefficient is
300 Btu/hr sq F for both natural and forced circulation.
Recent HTRI data shows that the above specified maximum heat fluxes and htc’s are
conservative. However, to take care of fouling effects etc designs cab be based on these
maximum limits.

4.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

A) Reboilers

The basic method, as in “no change of phase” exchangers, is to assume a reboiler

geometry and then to check it for the specific conditions in question. The first trial is
made using the minimum area set by vapor blanketing considerations. Average heat flux
is 15,000 Btu/hr sq ft in natural convection reboilers and 20,000 Btu/hr sq ft in forced
convection reboilers. If the calculated area is less than the minimum area, the minimum
area is specified. If the calculated area is larger than the minimum, a new area is
assumed and checked until agreement is reached.
For multicomponent mixtures, a temperature vs. heat duty (T-Q) curve at the reboiler
pressure should be plotted to check the deviation from linearity. If a significant deviation
exists, the T-Q curve should be divided into two or more increments, such that each
segment approaches linearity. The overall LMTD is then determined by weighting the
individual zone LMTD’s according to their respective duties. If the T-Q curve does not
deviate significantly from a straight line, the conventional log mean temperature
difference is used. Most reboiler layouts approach true countercurrent flow and therefore
LMTD correction factors are not required.
 In sizing kettle reboiler, the effective temperature difference is calculated without an
LMTD correction factor (Fn). However, a modified process inlet temperature (equal to the
process inlet temperature plus one third the difference between inlet and outlet
temperatures) is used. This modified inlet temperature accounts for the mixing that
occurs between the inlet liquid and the “pool” of liquid in the kettle. (It is assumed that
the inlet fluid is at its boiling point and that there are no distinct “zones” of pre-heating and
vaporization.)
The film coefficient and pressure drop for the fluid giving up heat are calculated using the
appropriate methods for “no change of phase” for steam (h=1200 Btu/hr sq ft deg F and
normally negligible pressure drop) or for condensing hydrocarbons. The film coefficient
used for the vaporizing side is the weighted average of the liquid film coefficient (the
larger of either the natural or forced convection liquid film coefficient is used) and a
boiling coefficient of 300 Btu/hr sq ft F. The respective coefficients are weighted
according to the fraction of the total heat duty which is due to latent heat transfer. The
boiling coefficient is limited to 300 Btu/hr sq ft F to prevent vapor blanketing.
For natural-circulation reboilers, a kinetic pressure balance must be made to determine
the required vertical distance between the bottom tangent line of the vessel and the
bottom of the reboilers. Basically, the procedure amounts to equating pressure losses
(static and frictional) to pressure gains in the system and solving for the required
elevation.

B) Waste Heat Boilers

The following procedure is based on steam generation using conventional tubes (no
extended surface).
Exchanger Orientation – The units can be installed in either a vertical or horizontal
position, and can have one or more tubes passes. In general, one tube pass vertical
units have been used most successfully in the past (in cat regenerator flue gas and fixed
bed reactor service). However, in recent years, one tube pass horizontal units have been
used with increasing frequently (e.g., reformer effluent waste heat boilers).
Shell Side or Tube Side Vaporization – Steam is normally generated in the shell
(firetube design) for the following reasons :
1. The hot fluid is frequently so fouling that it must be passed through the tubes.
2. With clean boiler water, it is permissible to use a non-removable tube bundle (fixed
tube sheet unit) with triangular tube pitch. This type of construction results in a
compact unit with a low initial cost.
3. there is less differential expansion between the tube and the shell.
When the pressure of the steam is considerably higher than that of the hot fluid, it may
some-times be advantageous to generate steam in the tubes to avoid the extra cost of a
high-pressure shell.

Tube Selection
1. For installations that recover heat from cat regenerator fluid gases or reformer
effluent, the number of tubes is based on maintaining an inlet gas velocity of 100
ft/sec. For cat regenerator flue gases use 2-1/2 in O.D., 5 BWG tubes. For reformer
effluent, the minimum nominal tube size is 1-1/2 in. O.D., 10 BWG. The length of the
 tubes will vary for each installation, depending on the surface area required. If
necessary, the tube length may be 25 feet or more
2. Fixed-bed reactors for exothermic processes are often constructed as shell and tube
exchangers. In these units, the hydrocarbon passes through the tubes, which are
filled with catalyst. Steam is generated on the shell side. For this service, use 2-1/2
in. O.D., 5BWG tubes. The number and length of tubes will vary for each installation,
depending on process requirements as well as on heat transfer requirements.
3. Water Circulation Rate – To eliminate the possibility of dry tubes, design for a
water/steam weight ratio of approximately 10/1 at the outlet for a heat density of
15,000 Btu/hr sq ft and 15/1 at the outlet for a heat density of 25,000 Btu/hr sq. ft. A
Baton Rouge design with extended surface tubes requires a 40/1 circulation rate to
insure a wetted wall condition at a heat density of 100,000 Btu/hr sq. ft. (Note that a
wetted wall condition is dependent upon other variables, such as: temperature
difference, geometry, orientation, etc., in addition to the circulation rate.)
Elevation of Steam Disengaging Drum - It is necessary to calculate a detailed
pressure balance through the water-steam circuit to determine the elevation of the steam
drum above the generator.

4.0 DETAILED DESIGN PROCEDURE

It is recommended to use TASC simulation software for design and rating of shell & tube
Heat exchangers including reboilers. The step by step design procedure is given in
attachment.