Lecture 2: The Cellular Concept

Mustafa El-Halabi

CCE 417: Wireless Communications

February 28, 2020
Recapitulation

• First mobile radio system were noise-limited system with few users
• The BS were placed at high towers and the next BS was so far away to
mitigate the effect of interference from the other BS
• This approach severely limits the number of users that could
communicate simultaneously
• The solution: The Cellular Concept
• In the cellular concept, the coverage area is divided into many small
areas called cells
• In each cell, there is one BS that provides coverage for this cell area
• Each frequency channel can be used in multiple cells; frequency re-use
• We cannot use each frequency change; in each cell! We can re-use the
same frequency channel in cells that have a certain minimum distance
from each other; co-channel distance
• The co-channel distance can be computed from link budgets (chapter 2)
• The cells that contain different frequency channels form what we call a
Cluster, and the number of those cells is the cluster size.

1 / 22
ups for all of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency Figure 1.2: The
planning. Highway
distanceStyle cells made using directional antennas.
ween two cells that use the same frequency channels (co-channels) is called the reuse distance. This reuse distance can be
Different Cellular Topologies
mputed from link budgets.
The concept of cells was first proposed as early as 1947 2. by Manhattan stye
Bell Laboratories in cells:
the US,used
with to cover cities
a detailed proposalwith
for high building in the shape of rectangles or block
gh-Capacity Mobile Telephone System” incorporating the cellularNew concept submitted
York). See by Bell Labs to the FCC in 1971.
Figure.1.3.

not allow base stations to be placed exactly as they appear in the hexagonal layout. Most system designs permit a base station
to be positioned up to one-fourth the cell radius away from the ideal location.
Note that cells are sometimes intentionally made non-hexagonal. Two of the most spread non-hexagonal cell shapes are the
highway style coverage cells and the Manhattan style coverage cells. Figure 1.3: Manhattan Style cells.
ure 1.1: Illustration of the cellular frequencyHexagonal
reuse concept. Cells
Cellswith the same letter use the same set of frequencies. A
Manhattan Style Cells
cluster is outlined in bold and replicated over the coverage area. In this example, the cluster size, N, is equal to 7, and the
1. Highway style cells: used to cover long stretches of highways in an almost deserted region. See Figure.1.2.
quency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell contains one-seventh of the total number of available channels.

1.2.3 Cellular System Capacity and Frequency-Reuse Facto

Figure.1.1 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells labeled with the same letter (A, B, C , ... ) use the
me group of channels. The frequency reuse plan is overlaid upon a map to indicate
To understand thewhere differentreuse
frequency frequency channelsconsider
concept, are
a cellular system which has a total of S dupl
d.
use. If each cell is allocated a group of k channels (k < S), and if the S channels are divided among
disjoint channel groups which each have the same number of channels, the total number of availab
1.2.1 Cell Sites
expressed as
A cell site or cell tower is a cellular telephone site where antennae and electronic communications equipment are placed,
S =k ◊N
ally on a radio mast, tower or other high place, to create a cell (or adjacent cells) in a cellular network. The elevated
ucture typically supports antennae, and one or more sets Theof1.2:
Ntransmitter/receivers
cells which Style transceivers,
collectively usedigital
the signal processors,
complete set ofantennas.
available frequencies is called a cluster. If a clus
Figure Highway cells made using directional
within the system, Highway
trol electronics, a GPS receiver for timing (for CDMA2000/IS-95 or GSM systems), primaryStyle
the total number Cells
and backup electrical power
of duplex channels, C , can be expressed as a measure of capacity
rces, and sheltering.
In Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) networks, the correct term is Base Transceiver Station (BTS), and
oquial synonyms 2.are Manhattan stye cells:
“mobile phone mast” or “baseused to cover
station”. cities
The term ”basewith high
station site”building in the
might better reflectshape C = M ◊ or
of rectangles
the increasing N=M
k ◊blocks (such
◊ Sas Manhattan in
New York).
location of multiple mobile See
operators, andFigure.1.3.
therefore multiple base stations, at a single site. Depending on an operator’s
As we can see, the capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a clust
Cellular System Capacity
• Assume a cellular system has a total of B Hz available bandwidth and
the minimum needed bandwidth for full duplex voice or control traffic is
W Hz.
• The total number of duplex channels available for use is then

B
S=
W

• The S channels will be divided among N cells, which form a cluster

• The cluster size is denoted N
• The number of channels within each cell is then
S
k=
N

• Assume that the cluster is replicated M times within the system

• The system capacity is the total number of duplex channels available
for the system
C =S×M =k ×N×M
Cellular System Capacity
Frequency-reuse

• Frequency reuse: design process of selecting and allocating channel

Consider fixed total coverage area Atotal and the coverage area of each cell
groups
Acell • The distance between two co-channels is the reuse distance
• How to calculate the reuse distance? Link budget analysis.

Atotal Atotal S
M×N = ⇒C= ×
Acell Acell N
• If N is reduced and cell size is kept constant, more clusters are required
to cover a given area, and hence more capacity (larger C) is achieved
• The smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to maximize the
capacity over a given coverage area
• However, small value of N may lead to larger interference
• Optimal N should consider: capacity and interference
• Each cell within a cluster is using 1/N of the total available channels:
frequency reuse factor
Exercise

If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to particular FDD cellular tele-

phone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex
voice and control channels.
1 Compute the number of channels available per cell if a system uses
four-cell reuse.
2 If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
determine an equitable distribution of control channels and voice
channels in each cell.

Solution
1 Each full duplex channel has a bandwidth of 2 × 25 = 50 kHz. The total
number of available channel for the system is
33 × 106
S =k ×N = = 660. Since N = 4, the the number of
50 × 103
660
channels available per cell is k = = 165.
4
106
2 The total number of control channels per cluster is = 20.
50 × 103
20
Hence, the number of control channels per cell is = 5, and as a
4
result the number of voice channels is 165 − 5 = 160.

5 / 22
Valid Cluster Size

Theorem

In a hexagonal geometry, valid cluster configurations have a cluster size N

given by
N = i2 + i × j + j2
where i and j are non-negative “shift integers”.

6 / 22
Figure.1.4. This is a valid configuration. The whole band of frequency is used in a cell and reused in each
Valid Cluster Size
nt cells. Since the same frequency is used in all cells, high levels of interference occurs in such a system,
practical. Note that there are 6 cells with the same frequency band around each cell.

Figure 1.4: Clusters with frequency reuse factor of 1.

Figure 1.5: Invalid clustering.
Figure 1.5: Invalid clustering.
igure.1.5. This is an invalid configuration. In this cluster, the allocated band is divided into two bands and
bands are reused in an alternating fashion somehow. Clearly, only two cells with the same frequency as a
are at equal distance from it.

igure.1.6. This is a valid configuration. Here, the allocated band is divided into 3 bands (possibly with equal
nd the three sub-bands are re-used in an alternating fashion. No neighboring cells have the same frequency
uration. This results in this being the configuration with the least number of cells that provides practical
se.

igure.1.7. This is a valid configuration. The allocated band is divided into 4 bands and the four sub-bands
an alternating fashion. No neighboring cells have the same frequency in this configuration.
Figure 1.6: Clusters with frequency reuse factor of 1/3.
13Figure 1.6: Clusters with frequency reuse factor of 1/3.

• N = 1 is a valid5. cluster N = 5. See Figure.1.8.This is an invalid configuration. A cell does not have 6 co-channel cells at equ
.
size
5. N = 5. See Figure.1.8.This is an invalid configuration. A cell does not have 6 co-channel cells at equal distances from it.
.
• N = 2 is not a valid cluster size
What does make a cell frequency valid or invalid? Looking at either N = 2 or N = 5, we note that to
• N = 3 is a valid some cluster sizecells (not equal to 6) and there are some co-channel cells at a farther away distanc
close co-channel
What does make a cell frequency valid or invalid? Looking at either N = 2 or N = 5, we note that to each cell there are
6). This makes the interference dominated by the close co-channel cells. So, we are splitting the frequenc
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Valid Cluster Size
Figure 1.7: Clusters with frequency reuse factor of 1/4.

Figure 1.7: Clusters with frequency reuse factor of 1/4. Figure 1.8: Invalid clustering.

Consider the cell at the center of the cluster to be the origin of the axes, and the cell whose center lies at (u, v )
i and j are the integer “shift parameters”, with i Ø j. By Equation (1.6), the distance D between the centers o
other nearest neighboring co-channel cells is 
D = i2 + i ◊ j + j2
Any cell has exactly six equidistant nearest neighboring co-channel cells. Moreover, the vectors from the cent
the centers of these co-channel cells are separated in angle from one another by multiples of 60 degrees. Ea
large hexagon. The center of each A cell is also the center of a large hexagon, just as it is contained in exact
All large hexagons have the same area, just as all clusters have the same
Ô area. The distance between the cent
cells is unity. The distance between centers of the large hexagons is i 2 + i ◊ j + j 2 . Consequently,
Ô since the p
hexagons is simply an enlarged replica of the original cellular pattern with a linear scale factor of i 2 + i ◊ j + j
total number of cell areas contained in the area of the large hexagon, is the square of this factor, namely N = i

Figure 1.8: Invalid clustering.

To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the following (assuming j < i ):
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Mathematical Review

R
3R
R R

3R 3
R
R 2
3R R R
2
R 3
2 R
2
2R

Figure 4: Hexagon

9 / 22
Valid Cluster Size: Proof of the Theorem
• Cast the problem in a hexagonal axis, i.e., the angle between the axes is 120◦
• Assume that the two yellow cells are co-channels
• The co-channel distance D is the distance between two co-channels

A(i, j)
E(0, j) A(i, j) E(0, 2)

p
C(0, R 3) C(0, 1)

B(i, 0)
p O(0, 0) B(1, 0)
O(0, 0) B(R 3, 0)

Choose unit vector such that R = p1

3

Consider triangle OAB in the hexagonal axes with the chosen unit distance. Using the
law of cosines, the co-channel distance is given by
p p
D = OA = OA2 + AB 2 − 2(OA)(AB) cos(120◦ ) = i 2 + j 2 + i × j

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Valid Cluster Size: Proof of the Theorem
p
• In normalized hexagonal axes D = i 2 + j 2 + i × j, hence in reality
√ p √
D = 3 i 2 + j 2 + i × j = 3N

Large Cell

E(0, j) A(i, j)

p
C(0, R 3)

B(i, 0)
p
O(0, 0) B(R 3, 0)

• Scaling the central yellow cell along vector AO leads to a large cell
• The ratio of the area of the large ALar ge cell to the area of the small cell
ASmall is
ALar ge
= N = (OA)2 = D 2 ⇒ N = i 2 + j 2 + i × j (Q.E.D)
ASmall
11 / 22
Exercise

Find the cluster size N without counting the number of cells within the
cluster.

Figure 1.10: i = 4, j = 2, N = 42 + 22 + 4 ◊ 2 = 28.

1.3 Handoff Strategies

SolutionWhen a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to
a new channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new base station,
Since i but andthatjthe=voice2,and then
=also4requires Nbe=
control signals i 2 to+channels
allocated j2 + ij =
associated with 16
the new+base4station.
+ 8Processing
= 28
handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system. Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation
requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site. Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible,
and be imperceptible to the users. In order to meet these requirements, system designers must specify an optimum signal level
at which to initiate a handoff. Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum usable signal for acceptable voice
quality at the base station receiver (normally taken as -90 dBm and -100 dBm), a slightly stronger signal level is used as a
threshold at which handoff is made. This margin, given by = Pr ,hando↵ ≠ Pr ,minimum usable , cannot be too large or too small.
If is too large, unnecessary handoffs which burden the MSC may occur, and if is too small, there may be insufficient time
to complete a handoff before a call is lost due to weak signal conditions. Therefore, is chosen to meet these conflicting
requirements.
Figure.1.11 illustrates a handoff situation. Figure.1.11(b) demonstrates the case where a handoff is not made and the signal
drops below the minimum acceptable level to keep the channel active. This dropped call event can happen when there is an 12 / 22
Handoff In Wireless Networks
• Mobility is the most important feature of a wireless cellular
communication system
• Continuous service is achieved by supporting handoff
• Handoff is the process of changing the channel associated with the
current connection (switching technique) while a call is in progress
• It enables a call to proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one
cell (Source cell) to another cell (Target Cell)
• The system
stoj-1.qxd can 1:29
12/5/01 switch
PM moving
Page 2 users between towers to find the
strongest signal
• Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently as
possible, and be imperceptible to the users.
2 HANDOFF IN WIRELESS MOBILE NETWORKS

Figure 1.1 Hard handoff between the MS and BSs.

A hard handoff is essentially a “break before make” connection. Under the control of the 13 / 22
Types of Handoffs

• Handoffs are classified into two categories: hard handoffs and soft
handoffs
• A hard handoff is essentially a “break-before-make” connection. Under
the control of the MSC, the BS hands off the call to another cell and then
drops the call. In a hard handoff, the link to the prior BS is terminated
before or as the user is transferred to the new cell’s BS; the user is linked
to no more than one BS at any given time. Used mainly in GSM and LTE
systems.
• A soft handoff occurs when the channel in the source cell is retained
and used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. It is
referred to as “make-before-break”. The interval, during which the two
connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial. For this
reason the soft handover is perceived by network engineers as a state of
the call, rather than a brief event. Used mainly in CDMA system.
• Soft handoffs incur more complexity to the system than hard handoffs.

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Dwell Time

• The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without
handoff, is called the dwell time.
• The dwell time of a particular user is governed by a number of factors,
which include propagation, interference, distance between the
subscriber and the base station, and other time varying effects.
• Even when a mobile user is stationary, ambient motion on the vicinity of
the base station and the mobile can produce fading, thus even a
stationary subscriber may have a random and finite dwell time.

15 / 22
MAHO

• In second generation systems that use TDMA technology, handoff

decisions are mobile assisted.
• In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station (cellphone)
measures the received power from surrounding base stations and
continually reports the results of these measurements to the serving
base station.
• A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of a
neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current
base station by a certain level or for a certain period of time.
• The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between base
stations at a much faster rate than in first generation analog systems
since the handoff measurements are made by each mobile, and the
MSC no longer constantly monitors signal strengths.
• MAHO is particularly suited for microcellular environments where
handoffs are more frequent.

16 / 22
Handoff Initiation
• When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in
progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station
• To initiate a handoff, system designers must specify an optimum signal
level at which to initiate a handoff
• Once a particular
stoj-1.qxd signal
12/5/01 1:29 PM level
Page 3 is specified as the minimum usable signal
(Pr,min ) for acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver (normally
taken as -90 dBm and -100 dBm), a slightly stronger signal level (Pr,HO )
is used as a threshold at which handoff is made
• This margin ∆ = Pr,HO − Pr,min cannot be too 1.3 large nor
HANDOFF too small
INITIATION 3

Figure 1.2 Signal strength and hysteresis between two adjacent BSs for potential handoff. 17 / 22
Handoff Initiation

Pr,HO

Pr,min

• ∆ = Pr,HO − Pr,min
• Pr,min is the minimum needed power for acceptable voice quality. It is a
constant for a given system.
• Pr,Ho is the power threshold set by the system; once this power level is
received, the BS will send a request to the MSC to look for a new tower
for the user
• If ∆ is very high, then Pr,HO is very high, the system will be overburdened
with unnecessary handoff requests
• If ∆ is very small, then Pr,HO is very low, the user will be under the risk of
losing the call and getting repeatedly disconnected 18 / 22
Successful Handoffs

19 / 22
Unsuccessful Handoffs

Figure 1.11: Illustration of handoff scenario at cell boundary.

20 / 22
Power Log Model

• Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the

average received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of
the distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver.
• The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting
antenna in the log model is approximated by
 n
d0
Pr = P0
d

where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point at a small

distance d0 from the transmitting antenna, and n is the path-loss
exponent

21 / 22
Exercise
Consider a mobile user driving his car at a constant speed of 72 km/hr . Initially, his traffic was serviced by base station S.
Assume that the only other available base station, denoted T , is located 2.8 km from S. The minimum power level needed to
maintain an acceptable voice quality is equal to 1.4 × 10−18 W . Take P0 = 10−12 W at d0 = 1 m, and n = 2.

d2

S 60 m

d1
50 m

A
800 m 2 km

1. If a handoff request is sent at position A, find the Pr ,HO and .

1 If a handoff request is sent at position A, find the Pr,HO and ∆.
2. Let B be the position of the car once the handoff has been accomplished. The power received by the mobile user from
T at position B is 0.69 ◊ 10≠18 W . Find the time t needed to complete the handoff.
2 Let B be the position of the car once the handoff has been accomplished. The power received by the mobile user
Solution. −18 W . Find the time t needed to complete the handoff.
from T at position B is 0.69 × 10Ô
1. We start by calculating d1 = 502 + 8002 = 801.56 m. Hence, using the log model, we can compute
Solution 3 4≠2
801.56
Pr ,HO = 10≠12 = 1.55642 ◊ 10≠18 W
q 1

1 We start by calculating d1 = 502 + 800

=2(1.55642 ≠ 1.4)◊
= 801.56 ≠18
m. Hence,
= 1.56 ◊using the log model, we can compute
10≠19 W

2. Using the log model, we can compute the distance from B to T

 −2
801.56
Pr,HO = 10−12 =0.69 ◊ 10≠18 =
×10
10−18 BT∆= =
1203.85m
(1.55642 − 1.4)×−18 = 1.56 × 10−19 W
≠12
1.55642 BT ≠2W∆⇒
1
We can now compute the distance between B and the base of base station T :

−18 −12 d = −2BT 2 ≠ 602 = 1202.35m
2 Using the log model, 0.69 × 10 = 10 BT ⇒ BT = 1203.85m. We can now compute the distance
between BHence,
and the base ofABbase
the distance station
= 2000 T : = 797.64 m. As a result, t = 797.64
≠ 1202.35 20 = 39.88 s.

q
d= BT 2 − 602 = 1202.35m
1.4 Channel Assignment Strategies
Fordistance
sufficient utilization of the radio spectrum, =
a frequency 797.64
Hence, the AB = 2000 − 1202.35 797.64 reuse scheme
m. As that is consistent
a result, t= with the
=objectives
39.88 s.of increasing
capacity and minimizing interference is required. A variety of channel assignment strategies20 have been developed to achieve
these objectives. Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either fixed or dynamic. The choice of channel assignment
strategy impacts the performance of the system, particularly as to how calls are managed when a mobile user is handed off
from one cell to another. 22 / 22