2019/2020 PH 210 LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER 4
DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS
In this chapter, we analyse simple electric circuits that contain devices such as batteries and
resistors in various combinations. We begin by introducing the concept of rate of flow of charges,
known as direct current (d.c).

4.1. Electric current

The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the electric current. The electric current in a
circuit denoted by I, is defined as the rate of flow of charge through it. Mathematically it is given
by:
Charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) =
time taken (t)
When the rate of flow varies with time, we define instantaneous current as:
𝑑𝑞
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
The SI unit of electric current is the Ampere (A) or Coulomb per second (C/s). Thus, 1A is
equivalent to 1C of charge passing through the surface area in 1 s. A moving charge, positive or
negative, is usually referred to as a mobile charge carrier. The current flowing through a
conductor depends upon the nature and the dimensions of the conductor.

4.2. Drift Velocity

Good conductors have large numbers of free charges in them. In metals for instance, the free
charges are electrons. The distance that an individual electron can move between collisions with
atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly random. However,
there is an electric field in the conductor that causes the electrons to drift in the direction opposite
to the field. The drift velocity vd , is the average velocity with which free electrons get drifted
towards the positive end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field.

4.3. Relation between electric current and drift velocity

It is possible to obtain an expression for the relationship between the electric current and drift
velocity by considering the number of free charges in a segment of a conductor. Let us consider a
portion of cylindrical rod that has a volume V, cross sectional area A, length ∆x, and carries a
constant current I. For convenience, we consider charge carriers each having a charge e. Let N be
the number of charge carriers. See figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 A portion of a straight rod of uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying a constant
current I. The mobile charge carriers are assumed to be positive and move with an average
speed vd
The electric current is given by:
total charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) =
time taken (t)
𝑁𝑒
𝐼=
𝑡
We know that the relation between time, distance and velocity is:
distance length
𝑡= =
velocity velocity
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑡= ⟺𝑣=
𝑣 𝑡
Then, the expression for electric current becomes:
𝑁𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑣
𝐼= =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑣
We know that the relation between volume, length and area is:
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐴∆𝑥 ⟺ ∆𝑥 =
𝐴
The expression for electric current then becomes:
𝑁𝑒𝑣 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝐴 𝑁
𝐼= = = 𝑒𝑣𝐴
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐴
𝑁
Where 𝑉 = 𝑛, is the electron density, defined as the number of electrons per unit volume.

Therefore, the expression for electric current becomes:

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝐴
Here 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑 , the drift velocity. Finally, the expression for electric current becomes:
𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅 𝑨

4.4 Electric current density

The electric current density denoted by J, is defined as the electric current flowing per unit area.
That is:
𝑰
𝑱=
𝑨
The SI unit of the current density is A/m2. Generally, the current density is a vector quantity.
Using the relation 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴, we get the expression for the electric current density as:
𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
𝐽= =
𝐴 𝐴
𝑱 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅
In vector notation, the expression for the electric current density is:

𝑱⃗ = 𝒏𝒆𝒗
⃗⃗𝒅

4.5. Ohm’s law and electrical resistance

Ohm’s law states that the electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference 𝑉 or ∆𝑉, across the conductor provided the physical conditions of a
conductor such as temperature, etc. That is:
𝑉∝𝐼
Then:
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ⇔ =𝑅
𝐼
Where R is known as the resistance of the conductor, which depends upon the nature and
dimensions of the conductor. Note that Ohm’s law is valid only for metallic conductor. The graph
of the electric current versus the potential difference is a straight line as shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 The slope of the I versus V curve in the linear region yields a value for 1/R
Resistance of a conductor is the obstruction posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current
through it. It is given by:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor changes with temperature.
A material obeying Ohm’s law is called an ohmic material or a linear material. If a material does
not obey Ohm’s law, the material is called a non-ohmic or a nonlinear material.

4.6. Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Electrical resistivity denoted by 𝝆, of a material of a conductor is defined as the resistance of unit
length and unit of cross-section area of the conductor.
Resistance R of a conductor is directly proportional to the length l of a conductor and inversely
proportional to the area A of the cross section of the conductor. That is:
𝑅∝𝑙
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝑙
𝑅=𝑘
𝐴
Here 𝑘 = 𝜌, is a constant called the resistivity of the material of the conductor. Hence:
𝒍
𝑹=𝛒
𝑨

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Ωm). The resistivity of a conductor changes with
temperature and depends upon the nature of the conductor.

Resistivity is also defined as electric field per unit current density. That is;

𝑬
𝝆=
𝑱
The electrical conductivity denoted by 𝜹, of a conductor is defined as the reciprocal of its
resistivity. It is given by:
𝟏
𝜹=
𝝆
The SI unit of electrical conductivity is per ohm-metre (/Ωm).
4.7. Ohm’s law in microscopic view
If an electron of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑒 is placed in an electric field 𝐸, it will experience an
acceleration given by Newton’s second law:
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
Since 𝐹 = 𝐸𝑒, then;
𝐸𝑒
𝑎=
𝑚
If an electron from rest, then the drift velocity is given by
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏
Here 𝜏 is the mean free time between collisions.
Therefore;
𝐸𝑒
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚
We know that;
𝐽
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒
Then;
𝐸𝑒 𝐽
𝜏=
𝑚 𝑛𝑒
𝑚
𝐸 = ( 2 )𝐽
𝑒 𝑛𝜏
𝐸 𝑚
=( 2 )
𝐽 𝑒 𝑛𝜏
𝐸
Since 𝜌 = 𝐽 , then:

𝒎
𝛒=
𝒆𝟐 𝒏𝝉

4.8. Effect of temperature on resistance

The resistance 𝑹𝟐 of a metallic conductor at a temperature 𝒕𝟐 is given by:
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )]
Where 𝑹𝟏 is the resistance of a conductor at initial temperature 𝒕𝟏 and 𝜶 is the temperature
coefficient of resistance. The same applies for the resistivity. Thus;
𝝆𝟐 = 𝝆𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )]
Where 𝑹𝟐 is the resistance of a conductor at final temperature 𝒕𝟐 , 𝑹𝟏 is the resistance of a
conductor at initial temperature 𝐭 𝟏 and 𝛂 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. That is;
𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 𝝆𝟐 − 𝝆𝟏
𝛂= =
𝑹𝟏 (𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) 𝝆𝟏 (𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )

4.9. Kirchoff’s Rules

Not all circuits can be reduced to simple series and parallel combinations. A technique that is
applied to loops in complicated circuits consists of two principles called Kirchhoff’s Rules.
4.9.1. Kirchoff’s first rule (Junction rule)
This rule states that at any junction in a circuit, the sum of the ingoing currents must equal the sum
of the outgoing currents. That is:

∑ 𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑ 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

The first rule merely states that no charge can accumulate at a junction. This rule is based on the
principle of conservation of charge within any system.
4.9.2. Kirchoff’s second rule (Loop rule)
This rule states that for any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the potential differences across all
elements must be zero. That is:

∑ ∆𝑽 = 𝟎
𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑

The second rule follows from the law of conservation of energy but is expressed in terms of
potential energy.
When we apply Kirchhoff’s second rule to a loop, we should note the following sign conventions:
(1) When a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is −IR
(Fig. 4.3a).
(2) When a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is
+IR (Fig. 4.3b).
(3) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction of its emf (from− to +), the potential
difference ∆𝑉 is + 𝜺 (Fig. 4.3c).
(4) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite to its emf (from + to −), the potential
difference ∆𝑉 is −𝜺 (Fig. 4.3d).

Figure 4.3 The potential differences ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 across a resistor of resistance R and a

battery of emf E (assumed to have zero internal resistance), when each element is traversed
from a to b

EXERCISES
1. The charge that passes a cross-sectional area A=10−4 m2 varies with time according to the
relation Q = 4 + 2t + t2, where Q is in coulombs and t is in seconds.
(a) Find the relation that gives the instantaneous current at any time, and evaluate this
current at time t =2 s.
(b) Find the relation that gives the current density at any time, and evaluate this current
density at time t =2 s. [(a) I =2(1 + t),6 A, (b) J =2 × 104(1 + t), 60 kA/m2]
2. Estimate the drift speed of the conduction electrons in a copper wire that is 2 millimeters
in diameter and carries a current of 1A. The free-electron density is 8.45 × 1028
electrons/m3. [2.35 × 10−5 m/s]
3. A metallic rod has a length 1.5m and a diameter 0.2 cm. The rod carries a current of 5A
when a p.d of 75V is applied between its ends.
(a) Find the current density in the rod.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field applied to the rod.
(c) Calculate the resistivity and conductivity of the material of the rod. [(a) 1.59×106
A/m2, (b) 50 V/m, (c) 3.14 ×10−5 Ω.m, 3.18×104 (Ω.m)−1]
4. At 20 ℃, a silver wire has a diameter of 2 mm, a length of 50 cm, a resistivity of 1.6×10−8
Ω.m, a temperature coefficient of resistivity of 4×10−3/℃ and carries a current of 5A.
(a) What is the current density in the wire?
(b) Find the magnitude of the electric field applied to the wire.
(c) What is the potential difference between the ends of the wire?
(d) What is the resistance of the wire?
(e) Find the temperature of the wire when its resistance increases to 6.5×10−4 Ω.
[(a) 3.9 × 105 A/m2, (b) 6.357 × 10−3 V/m, (c) 3.184 × 10−3 V, (d) 6.366 ×10−4 Ω, (e)
23.91℃]
5. A coil consists of 5000 turns of wire, each turn having a length of 200 mm and the wire
has a cross sectional area of 0.032 mm2. Calculate the resistance of the coil at 20℃ if the
resistivity of the wire is 17.5 × 10−9 Ωm at 20℃. [547 Ω]
6. A heating element using Nichrome connected to a 230V supply draws an initial current of
3.2A which settles after few seconds to a steady value 2.8A. What is the steady temperature
of the heating element if the room temperature is 27℃? Temperature coefficient of
resistance of Nichrome averaged over temperature range involved is 1.7 × 10−4 /℃
[867℃]
7. The temperature coefficient of resistivity of copper at 20℃ is 3.9×10−3(℃)−1. Calculate
the percentage increase in its resistivity when its temperature increases to 220℃. [78%]
8. A steady uniform current of 5mA flows axially along a metal cylinder of diameter 0.5mm,
length 5m and resistivity 3 × 10−5 Ωm. Determine
(a) the p.d between the ends of the cylinder
(b) the rate of production of heat. [3.75V; 0.01875W]
9. For the circuit shown in figure 4.4, let R1 =3 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω, R3 =3 Ω, R4 = 6 Ω, and 𝜺 =7.5V.
Find the values of the currents I1, I2, I3, and I4 in the circuit. [I1 =0.5 A, I2=−1 A,
I3=−0.5 A, I4 =0]

Figure 4.4 See exercise 9

10. Using Kirchhoff’s rules, find the current in each resistor in figure 4.5. [𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝑨
(through 𝑹𝟏 ), 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝑨 (through 𝑹𝟐 ), 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟗 𝒎𝑨 (through 𝑹𝟑 )]

Figure 4.5 See exercise 10