1st Chapter - Electrical (Xes52)

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (XCE 02)
Syllabus
 Introduction to Electrical systems, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits: Ohm’s laws, Kirchhoff’s laws,
Independent and Dependent sources, Analysis of simple circuits. (4)
 Network theorems (DC): Superposition Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem, Maximum
Power Transfer Theorem. (5)
 Magnetic circuits: Review of fundamental laws of electromagnetic induction, Self and mutual
inductances, Solution of magnetic circuits. (3)
 Generation of alternating voltage and current, E.M.F. equation, Average and R.M.S. value, Phase and
phase difference, Phasor representation of alternating quantity, Behaviour of AC circuits, Resonance in
series and parallel R-L-C circuits. (6)
 Poly-phase system, Advantages of 3-phase system, Generation of 3-phase voltages, Voltage, current and
power in a star and delta connected systems, 3-phase balanced and unbalanced circuits. (3)
Syllabus
 Semiconductor Devices: Construction, working and V-I characteristics of diode, Zener diode, Zener
diode as a voltage regulator, LED. (6)
 Transistors: Introduction to BJT, FET, MOSFET; CMOS, working principle, and V-I characteristics of
Transistors, biasing of BJT circuits-fixed bias, emitter bias, feedback bias, voltage divider bias, transistor
as an amplifier. (8)
 Operational amplifier: Introduction, applications: inverting, non-inverting amplifier, unity follower,
integrator, differentiator, summing circuit .(4)
 Introduction of logic gates, memory: ROM, RAM. (3)
TEXT BOOKS
1. Electrical & Electronic Technology by Hughes, Pearson Education India.

2. Introduction Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory,11/e, 2012, Pearson: Boylestad & Nashelsky.
3. Electronics: Fundamentals and Applications By D. Chattopadhyay, P. C. Rakshit; New Age Int. Publication.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Advanced Electrical Technology by H. Cotton, Reem Publication Pvt. Ltd.

2. Electrical Engineering fundamentals by Vincent Deltoro, Pearson Education India.
3. The Art of Electronics 3e, by Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill.
4. Electronics - Circuits and Systems, Fourth Edition by Owen Bishop.
5. Electronics Fundamentals: Circuits, Devices & Applications (8e) by Thomas L. Floyd & David M. Buchla.
Course Outcomes
CO1: Learn the fundamentals of electric circuits and analyze the circuits using laws and
network theorems.
CO2: Gain the knowledge about magnetic circuits, electromagnetism and the basics of
generation of alternating voltage.
CO3: Understand the behaviour of single phase and poly-phase AC circuits.
CO4: Understand the fundamentals of semiconductor devices.
CO5: Analyse the design and characteristics of transistor-based electronic circuits.
CO6: Evaluate operational amplifier-based circuits and logic gates.
Basic Electrical Engineering
 Another Reference Books:
1. Electrical Engineering Concepts and Applications by S. A. Reza Zekavat;
2. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by Charles K Alexander & Mathew N O Sadiku;
3. Electrical and Electronic Technology by Edward Hughes;
4. Electrical Circuits by Hyte and Kamarly;
5. Basic Electric Circuit Analysis by David E. Johnson, John L. Hilburn, Johnny R. Johnson and Peter D. Scott.
6. Engineering Circuit Analysis by J. David Irwin and Robert M. Nelms;
7. Linear Circuit Analysis by Raymond A. De Carlo and Pen-Min Lin.
8. Circuits and Networks by M.S. Sukhija and T. K. Nagsarkar;
9. Network Analysis by M.E. Van Valkenburg;
10. Networks and Systems by D. Roy Choudhury.
11. A text book of Electrical Technology by B. L. Thereja and A. K. Thereja;
12. Circuit Theory (Analysis and Synthesis) by A. Chakrabarty.
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
1
2
3
4
5
6
 Ohm’s Law
 George Simon Ohm (1789 – 1854), a German physicist, investigated the relation between current and
voltage in a resistor.
 Difinition: Provided the physical conditions of a normal conductor remain the same, the potential
difference necessary to send a current through the conductor is proportional to the current.
∴ Potential difference, 𝑉 ∝ Current, 𝐼
Fig. 1.1. Voltage-Current Relationship of a Resistor
 In Fig. 1.1, the potential difference 𝑉 across the 𝑙 terminal of a resistor R is directly proportional
to the current 𝑖 flowing through it.
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 ;
𝑅 is called the linear, time invariant, lumped resistance. 7
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistors
 When a current flows in a material, the free electrons move through the material and collide with
atoms.
 The collision cause the electrons to lose some of their energy.
 This loss of energy per unit charge is the drop in potential across the material.
 The amount of energy lost by the electrons is related to the physical property of the material.
 These collisions restrict the movement of electrons.
 The property of a material to restrict the flow of electrons is called resistance.
 The resistance is denoted by 𝑹. The symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2. Symbol of resistor
 Definition: A resistance is a two-terminal network component with terminal voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 directly
proportional to current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 . The constant of proportionality is also called resistance. 8
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistors
 The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
 Ohm is defined as the resistance offered by the material when a current of one ampere flows between
two terminals with one volt applied across it.
 The volt ampere plot of a linear resistor is a straight line and that of many devices are nonlinear such as
diode.
 A resistor constructed of a semiconductor material such as
silicon carbide have a characteristics of curve b in Fig. 3.
 The device which exhibits nonlinear resistance is called a
nonlinear resistor.
 The resistor which is metallic conductor shows the voltage
across the conductor is directly proportional to the current
through it at constant temperature.
 A resistor constructed of metal would obey ohm’s law and would
have a characteristic that follow a straight line as given by a
Fig. 1.3. Characteristics of resistor
curve a of Fig. 1.3.
9
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistors
 Let a voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 be applied across a resistance 𝑅 as shown in Fig. 1.4. The
reference polarity for 𝑣(𝑡) and the reference direction for 𝑖(𝑡) are shown in the figure.
Fig. 1.4. Sinusoidal Voltage applied to resistor

 Ohm’s law is valid at any instant. Hence, the current is given by
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉0
𝑖 𝑡 = = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
 The current 𝑖(𝑡) is a sinusoidal alternating current and this is in phase with 𝑣(𝑡) and having the
same frequency. 10
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistors
 The peak value of 𝑖(𝑡) is
𝑉0
𝐼0 = .
𝑅
 The power delivered by the source at any instant is

𝑉02 2
𝑉02
𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 = 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑅 2𝑅
 If 𝑇 is the time period of the impressed voltage, the average power per cycle is given by
𝑇 𝑇
𝑃 = න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡൘න 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝜔 𝑉02 1 2𝜋Τ𝜔
= 𝑡− sin 2𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 2𝑅 2𝜔 0
𝑉02 𝐼02 𝑅
= 2𝑅
= 2
watt
11
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistors
 If 𝑤(𝑡) is the instantaneous energy

𝑑
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑤(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
 Hence, the energy input from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 𝑡1 is
𝑡1
𝑉02 𝑡1
𝑤𝑡1 = න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 2𝑅 0
𝑉02 1
= 𝑡1 − sin 2𝜔𝑡1 joules
2𝑅 2𝜔
 The energy input in n complete cycles is

𝑉02 𝑛𝑉02 1
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑛𝑇 = joule, here 𝑓 = is the frequency in hertz.
2𝑅 2𝑅𝑓 𝑇
 This energy is dissipated in the form of joule heat.

12
 Ohm’s Law
 When a sinusoidal current 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 is applied to the resistor 𝑅, the potential difference across it will
be
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
 The r.m.s value of voltage
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑅
𝑉= = = 𝑅𝐼
2 2
𝐼𝑚
where the r.m.s. value of current 𝐼 =
2
 Ohm’s law can also be expressed in terms of conductance 𝐺 (which is reciprocal of 𝑅) as 𝑖 = 𝐺𝑉

 The r.m.s. value of current 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐺
 Material whose conductivity depends not only on the value of the current flowing but also on its
direction.
 Silicon carbide possess a conductivity that varies over a wide range as the current through it is varied.
 The well-known junction in a copper oxide rectifier has a conductivity which is high in one direction
of current, low in the reverse direction and varies with current in either direction and varies with
current in either case. 13
 Kirchhoff’s Law
 Electric circuit theory is based on two fundamental laws introduced by Kirchhoff.
 These are Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (abbreviated KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (abbreviated KCL)
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 It states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any closed path of a circuit is zero at all
instants of time.
In other words, around any closed path, at all instants of time, the sum of the voltage drops must
equal the sum of the voltage rises.
 A simple circuit is shown in Fig. 1.5 to illustrate the application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
The boxes contain the circuit elements. The

reference polarities for voltages across the
elements are shown.
Fig. 1.5. Circuit containing voltage source and circuit elements

14
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 The law follows from the principle of conservation of energy.
 Let us start from the point A and move a unit positive charge in the direction of the arrow around the
closed path.
 The net change of energy for the movement of charge is zero.
 The voltage drops around the closed path of the circuit is zero as voltage difference is equal to the
ratio of energy change to unit charge.
 A voltage drop is positive when we move from a ‘+’ polarity and is negative otherwise.
 According to Kirchhoff’s law, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops must be zero.
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉𝑔 = 0
∴ 𝑉1 +𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑔
 This equation shows that the sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises.
15
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 It states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering a given point in a circuit is zero at all instants
of time.
In other words, the sum of the currents entering a given point in a circuit equals the sum of the
currents leaving that point at any instant of time.
 This law is a consequence of the conservation of charge.
As charge can not accumulate at a point, the charge entering a point must leave it. The algebraic
sum of the charge or its time derivative (which is the current) must thus be zero..
 A simple circuit is shown in Fig. 1.6 to illustrate the
application of Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
 In Fig. 1.6, the currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 are entering the point 𝑁 and
the currents 𝑖3 and 𝑖4 are leaving it.
 Conventionally, the currents entering a point are taken to be
positive.
Fig. 1.6. Currents meeting at node 𝑁
16
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law,
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 = 0
∴ 𝑖1 +𝑖2 = 𝑖 3 + 𝑖4
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law is sometimes termed Kirchhoff’s Point Law.
17
Example – P1.1
Obtain the branch currents in the unbalanced bridge circuit of Fig. P1.1. Also determine
the voltage drop across AC and the equivalent resistance between terminals A and C in
the bridge circuit.
Fig. P1.1
18
Solution of Example – P1.1
The assumed direction of currents are shown in the figure.

Applying KVL in the loop ABDA, we get
2𝑖1 + 6𝑖3 − 4𝑖2 = 0
or, 𝑖1 + 3𝑖3 − 2𝑖2 = 0
or, 𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 + 3𝑖3 = 0 1
Applying KVL in the loop BCDB, we get Fig. P1.1

4 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 − 3 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 − 6𝑖3 = 0
or, 4𝑖1 − 3𝑖2 − 13𝑖3 = 0 2

19
Applying KVL in the loop ABCEA, we get
2 𝑖1 + 4 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 + 2 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 =4
or, 8𝑖1 + 2𝑖2 − 4𝑖3 = 4
or, 4𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 2𝑖3 = 2 3
Solving these equations 1 , 2 and (3), we get
𝑖1 = 451.61 𝑚𝐴
𝑖2 = 322.58 𝑚𝐴 ∴ 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝑖 = 774.19 𝑚𝐴
𝑖3 = 64.51 𝑚𝐴
20
Then the branch currents are as follows:
Current in branch 𝐴𝐵 𝑖1 = 451.61 𝑚𝐴
Current in branch 𝐴𝐷 𝑖2 = 322.58 𝑚𝐴
Current in branch 𝐵𝐷 𝑖3 = 64.51 𝑚𝐴
Current in branch 𝐵𝐶 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 = 387.1 𝑚𝐴
Current in branch 𝐷𝐶 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 387.09 𝑚𝐴
Current in external circuit 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 774.19 𝑚𝐴
21
The internal voltage drop of the cell being 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 2 × 774.10 × 10−3 𝑉 = 1.55 𝑉
Equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐶 is the ratio of p.d. between points 𝐴 and 𝐶 to the current
between these two points, The numerical value of the equivalent resistance becomes
2.452
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑖𝑣 𝐴𝐶 = 0.77419
= 3.17 Ω
[∵ The p.d. between points 𝐴 and 𝐶 = 2 × 0.45161 + 4 × 0.3871 𝑉 = 2.452 𝑉]
22
 Analysis of simple circuits−Node Method
 The node method is based on kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
 The advantages of node method is that a minimum number of equations need to be solved to
determine the unknown quantities.
 Every junction in the network where two or more branches meet is regarded a node.
 One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero potential node.
 Hence, the number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where n is the number of
independent nodes.
 These node equations often become simplified if all voltage sources are converted into current
sources.
23
 The analysis of node method is illustrated through the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.7.
 There are four nodes, marked 0, 1, 2 and 3 in the
network.
 The node 0 is taken as the ground node or reference.
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 be the voltages at nodes 1, 2 and 3
respectively with respect to the reference.
 Voltages 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 are assumed to be positive.
 The current entering node 1 is 𝐼1 .
 The current leaving this node is
𝑌1 𝑉1 + 𝑌2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑌6 𝑉1 − 𝑉3
 Application of Kirchhoff’s current law gives Fig. 1.7. Circuit used for node analysis.
𝑌1 𝑉1 + 𝑌2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑌6 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 = 𝐼1 (1)
24
 Similarly, we get for node 2
𝑌3 𝑉2 + 𝑌2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 + 𝑌4 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 𝐼2 (2)
 and for node 3
𝑌5 𝑉3 + 𝑌4 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 + 𝑌6 𝑉3 − 𝑉1 = 0 (3)
 Rearranging equations (1) through (3), we obtain
𝑌1 + 𝑌2 + 𝑌6 𝑉1 − 𝑌2 𝑉2 − 𝑌6 𝑉3 = 𝐼1 (4)
−𝑌2 𝑉1 + 𝑌2 + 𝑌3 + 𝑌4 𝑉2 − 𝑌4 𝑉3 = 𝐼2 (5)
−𝑌6 𝑉1 − 𝑌4 𝑉2 + 𝑌4 + 𝑌5 + 𝑌6 𝑉3 = 0 (6) Fig. 1.7. Circuit used for node analysis
 The self-admittance of a node is defined as the sum of the admittances connected to that node.
 In the example, 𝑌11 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 + 𝑌6 , 𝑌22 = 𝑌2 +𝑌3 + 𝑌4 and 𝑌33 = 𝑌4 + 𝑌5 + 𝑌6 .
25
 The coefficients of 𝑉1 in Eq. (1), 𝑉2 in Eq. (2) and 𝑉3 in Eq.(3) are the self-admittances of nodes 1, 2 and
3 respectively.
 The coupling admittance between two nodes is the admittance connecting these two nodes.
 In the example, the coefficient of 𝑉2 in Eq. (4), −𝑌2 is the coupling admittance between nodes 1 and 2.
Similarly, −𝑌6 between nodes 1 and 3 and so on.
 It is observed that the self-admittance terms are positive while the sign of all the coupling admittance
terms are negative.
 The symbol for the coupling admittance between nodes h and k is 𝑌ℎ𝑘 .
 For linear bilateral elements, 𝑌ℎ𝑘 = 𝑌𝑘ℎ (ℎ ≠ 𝑘).
 In the example, 𝑌12 = 𝑌21 = 𝑌2 etc.
 If there is no admittance coupling between nodes ℎ and 𝑘, 𝑌ℎ𝑘 = 𝑌𝑘ℎ = 0.
26
 The right-hand sides of the equation are positive when they denote current entering the nodes, and are
negative when the current leave the nodes. These features follow from the reference directions and
polarities chosen.
 The right hand sides of some of the above equations may be zero.
 Generalisation of these equations for a network having 𝑛 + 1 nodes of which one is a ground node
yields
𝑌11 𝑉1 − 𝑌12 𝑉2 − 𝑌13 𝑉3 − ⋯ − 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼1
−𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 − 𝑌23 𝑉3 − ⋯ − 𝑌2𝑛 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼2
. . . . .
. . . . .
−𝑌𝑛1 𝑉1 − 𝑌𝑛2 𝑉2 − 𝑌𝑛3 𝑉3 − ⋯ + 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛
 The self-admittances of nodes 1 through n are designated by 𝑌11 , 𝑌22 ,... 𝑌𝑛𝑛 respectively
 The coupling-admittances are −𝑌12 , −𝑌13 ,…−𝑌1𝑛 ; −𝑌21 , −𝑌23 ,…−𝑌2𝑛 ; .. −𝑌𝑛1 , −𝑌𝑛2 ,…−𝑌𝑛(𝑛−1)
 The incoming currents are 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , … 𝐼𝑛 respectively.
27
 The voltages 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , …, 𝑉𝑛 can now be determined by solving the above equations by Cramer’s rule.
Cramer’s Rule
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦+𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦+𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦+𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
or, 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑦 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
∴ ∆ = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑥𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
or, 𝑥∆= 𝑥𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑥𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 28
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑏1 𝑐1
∴ 𝑥∆ = 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 𝑑2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑑1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑑2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑑3 𝑏3 𝑐3
∴ 𝑥 =
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑑1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑑2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑑3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑑3
Similarly, 𝑦 = and 𝑧 =
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
29
Example – P1.2
Determine the output voltage, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 in the circuit as shown in Fig. P1.2 by using nodal
method.
Fig. P1.2
30
Fig. P1.2
In the above circuit, 2 Ω and 5 Ω are in parallel and this is connected to 3 Ω in series. So, the equivalent
resistance is 3+ 2 ǁ 5 = 4.43 Ω
Also 10 Ω and 2 Ω are in parallel and this is connected to 1 Ω in series. So, the equivalent resistance is
1+ 10 ǁ 2 = 2.67 Ω.
31
Assuming voltage 𝑉𝐴 at node 𝐴 and applying Kirchhoff’s current law in the circuit, we get
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
10 − −5− =0
4.43 2.67
1 1
𝑉𝐴 + =5
4.43 2.67
𝑉𝐴 = 8.33 𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐴 = 8.33 Volt
32
Example – P1.3
In the network of Fig. P1.3, find the current through and voltage across 5 Ω resistor.
Fig. P1.3 33
Apply KCL at node 1 and we get
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝑣3
+ +1=0
5 4
or, 9𝑣1 − 4𝑣2 − 5𝑣3 = −20 1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑣2
+ −2=0
5 1
or, −𝑣1 + 6𝑣2 = 10 2
𝑣3 − 𝑣1 𝑣3
+ +2=0
4 2
or, −𝑣1 + 3𝑣3 = −8 3 34
In matrix form,
9 −4 −5 𝑣1 −20
−1 6 0 𝑣2 = 10
−1 0 3 𝑣3 −8
9 −4 −5
∆= −1 6 0 = 9 6 × 3 − 0 + −4 0 − −1 × 3 + −5 0 − −1 × 6 = 162 − 12 − 30 = 120
−1 0 3
−20 −4 −5
∆1 = 10 6 0 = −20 6 × 3 − 0 + −4 0 − 3 × 10 + −5 0 − 6 × −8 = −360 + 120 − 240
−8 0 3
= −480
9 −20 −5
∆2 = −1 10 0 = 9 10 × 3 − 0 + −20 0 − −1 × 3 + −5 (−1) × (−8) − −1 × 10
−1 −8 3
= 270 − 60 − 90 = 120
35
∆1 −480 ∆2 120
∴ 𝑣1 = = = −4 𝑉 ; 𝑣2 = = = 1𝑉
∆ 120 ∆ 120
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 −4 − 1
∴ The current through 5 Ω resistor is = = −1 𝐴
5 5
∴ The voltage drop across 5 Ω resistor is 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = −5 𝑉.
36
 Analysis of simple circuits−Mesh Method
 The analysis of mesh method is illustrated through the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.8.
 The current supplied by the generator of voltage 𝑉𝑎 is to find out.
 A suitable tree as shown in Fig. 1.9 is selected in such a way that the links of the tree contain the
generator 𝑉𝑎 , the impedance 𝑍5 , and the impedance 𝑍6 .
Fig. 1.8. Circuit used for mesh analysis Fig. 1.9. A tree of the circuit of Fig. 1.8 37
 The network contains six branches and four nodes marked 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑐 and 𝑜.
 The number of links or independent meshes is (𝑏 − 𝑛 + 1) = (6 − 4 + 1) = 3.
 These three links placed one at a time, form the meshes 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑝, 𝑜𝑠𝑞𝑐𝑜 and 𝑝𝑞𝑐𝑝 respectively.
 The link currents or the mesh currents in Fig. 1.8 are denoted by 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 respectively.
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation is to be written for each mesh. These equations are called mesh
equations or loop equations.
 These equations are to be solved to yield the link currents or the mesh currents.
 The current in a tree branch which is common to two or more meshes is obtained by algebraically
summing the associated mesh currents.
38
 Application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to the three meshes gives the following three simultaneous
equations.
𝑍1 𝐼1 + 𝑍2 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 + 𝑍3 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉1 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) (1)
𝑍3 𝐼2 + 𝐼1 + 𝑍4 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝑍5 𝐼2 = 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉2 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) (2)
𝑍2 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 + 𝑍4 𝐼3 + 𝐼2 + 𝑍6 𝐼3 = 0 (3)
 Rearranging equations (1) through (3), we obtain
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 𝐼1 + 𝑍3 𝐼2 − 𝑍2 𝐼3 = 𝑉1 (4)
𝑍3 𝐼1 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 𝐼2 + 𝑍4 𝐼3 = 𝑉2 (5) Fig. 1.8. Circuit used for

mesh analysis
−𝑍2 𝐼1 + 𝑍4 𝐼2 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍6 𝐼3 = 0 (6)
39
 Solving these equations, we get the desired current 𝐼1 . The solution for 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 give the currents in
impedances 𝑍5 and 𝑍6 respectively.
 The current through 𝑍2 is 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 , that through 𝑍4 is 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 and that through 𝑍3 is 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 .
 If any current turns out to be negative, it simply means that its actual reference direction is opposite
to that chosen.
 Since the current through any impedance is known, the voltages at the nodes are readily determined.
 The sum of the impedances in going completely round a mesh is referred to as the self-impedance of
the mesh.
 The self-impedances of meshes 1 through 𝑛 are denoted by 𝑍11 , 𝑍22 , 𝑍33 , …, 𝑍𝑛𝑛 respectively.
 In the example, 𝑍11 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3 , 𝑍22 = 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 and 𝑍33 = 𝑍2 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍6 .
 The impedances that is common to two meshes is called the coupling impedance between the
meshes.
 The coupling impedance between meshes ℎ and 𝑘 is denoted by 𝑍ℎ𝑘
40
 The coupling impedance between meshes ℎ and 𝑘 is denoted by 𝑍ℎ𝑘 .
 Since, only linear bilateral elements are considered, hence 𝑍ℎ𝑘 = 𝑍𝑘ℎ (𝑘 ≠ ℎ).
 In the example, 𝑍12 = 𝑍21 = 𝑍3 , 𝑍13 = 𝑍31 = 𝑍2 and 𝑍23 = 𝑍32 = 𝑍4 .
 Generalisation of these equations for a network having 𝑛 meshes yields.
𝑍11 𝐼1 + 𝑍12 𝐼2 + 𝑍13 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝑍1𝑛 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1

𝑍21 𝐼1 + 𝑍22 𝐼2 + 𝑍23 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝑍2𝑛 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉2
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
𝑍𝑛1 𝐼1 + 𝑍𝑛2 𝐼2 + 𝑍𝑛3 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛𝑛 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛
 Here, the signs of the self-impedance terms are all positive.
 The signs of some of the coupling impedance terms may be negative depending on the chosen
reference directions of currents.
41
 The coupling impedance between meshes ℎ and 𝑘 is denoted by 𝑍ℎ𝑘 .
 The sign before 𝑍ℎ𝑘 will be positive if the currents in the adjacent meshes ℎ and 𝑘 flow in the same
direction through 𝑍ℎ𝑘 .
 If they flow in the opposite direction through 𝑍ℎ𝑘 , the sign before 𝑍ℎ𝑘 is negative.
 If there is no impedance common to meshes ℎ and 𝑘, 𝑍ℎ𝑘 = 𝑍𝑘ℎ will be zero.
 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 ,…..𝑉𝑛 are respectively the resultant voltages applied to meshes 1, 2,…n. If there is no resultant
applied voltage in a particular, say ℎ, 𝑉ℎ will be zero.
 The currents 𝐼1 , I2 , …, 𝐼𝑛 can now be determined by solving the above equations by Cramer’s rule.
42
Example – P1.4
Find the current in the 3 Ω resistor of the circuit as shown in Fig. P1.4 by mesh method
Fig. P1.4
43
Fig. P1.4.1
The current through 3 Ω resistor is given by 𝐼𝐿 = 0.806 𝐴

44
 Super Mesh Analysis in Network Theory
 A super mesh forms when two meshes have a common current source (dependent or Independent).
 Consider a circuit as shown in Figure 1.9 in which the current source branch is common between
meshes 1 and 2.
Fig. 1.9. Circuit having common current source

45
 Super Mesh Analysis in Network Theory
 So, current source branch is removed and super mesh is formed as shown in Figure 1.10.
Fig. 1.10. Circuit having super mesh

46
 Procedure (Steps) for applying mesh analysis
1. Identify the total number of meshes.

2. Assign the mesh currents and check for super mesh in the circuit.
3. If super mesh found, develop the KVL equation for it.
4. Solve the equations to find the mesh currents.
47
Example – P1.5
Find the current 𝐼 in the circuit of Fig. P1.5 by mesh method
Fig. P1.5
48
In the example P1.5, 2 A current source is

connected between meshes 1 and 2. So, the
problem is based on super mesh.
Step 1:- The total number of meshes is 2.

Step 2: Let us assign mesh currents 𝐼1 and
𝐼2 for meshes 1 and 2 respectively
as shown in Fig. P1.5.1. The current
Source of 2 A should be removed
from the circuit because 2 A current
source is connected between
meshes 1 and 2.
Fig. P1.5.1 49
Step 3:- The reduced circuit having super mesh is shown in Fig. P1.5.2.
Fig. P1.5.2 50
Apply KVL in super mesh and we get
−4 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 = 0
or, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2 (1)
Apply KCL to node 0 (junction point of 2 A source and anther branches) and we get
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 2
or, 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 2 (2)
Solving the two equations, we get 𝐼1 = 0 and 𝐼2 = 2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼2 = 2
51
 Super Node Analysis in Network Theory
 A super node forms when two nodes have a common voltage source.
 Consider a circuit as shown in Fig. 1.11 in which the voltage source branch is connected between
nodes 1 and 2.
Fig. 1.11. Circuit having common voltage source 52

In the Fig. 1.11, 1 V voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2. So, the problem
is based on super node.
Step 1:- The total number of nodes is 3.
Step 2: Node 0 is selected as reference
node and it is assigned to have
ground (zero) potential. The
remaining nodes 1 and 2 are
considered as non-reference
nodes as shown in Fig. 1.12.
Here, node 1 and node 2 forms
super node.
Fig. 1.12. Circuit having super mesh
53
Step 3:- Apply KCL at super node and we get
Step 4: Apply KVL to the loop having 1 V voltage

source, we get
54
Put Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get
From Eq. (1), we get
55
 Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation
 The complicated networks can be simplified by successfully replacing delta meshes by equivalent
star systems and vice versa.
 The analysis of ‘delta/star and star/delta transformation’ is illustrated through the circuit as shown in
Fig. 1.9.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9. Circuit for delta/star and star/delta transformation

56
 Three resistances 𝑅12 , 𝑅23 and 𝑅31 are connected in delta fashion between terminals 1, 2 and 3 as
shown in Fig. 12 (a).
 These three resistances are replaced by the resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 , connected in star as shown in
Fig. 12(b).
 These two arrangements will be electrically equivalent if the resistance as measured between any pair
of terminals is the same in both the arrangements.
 First, consider the terminals of 1 and 2 in delta connection. There are two parallel paths. One having a
resistance of 𝑅12 and the other having a resistance of 𝑅23 + 𝑅31 .
∴ Resistance between terminals 1 and 2 is
𝑅12 × 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
 Now, consider star connection. The resistance between the same terminals 1 and 2 is 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 .
57
 As terminal resistance have to be the same
𝑅12 𝑅23 + 𝑅31

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = (1)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
 Similarly, for terminals 2 and 3 and terminals 3 and 1, we get
𝑅23 𝑅31 + 𝑅12

𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = (2)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅31 𝑅12 + 𝑅23

and 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 = (3)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
58
 Now, subtracting (2) from (1) and adding the result to (3), we get
𝑅12 𝑅31
𝑅1 = (4)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
 Putting the value of 𝑅1 in Eq. (1), we get

𝑅23 𝑅12
𝑅2 = (5)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
 Putting the value of 𝑅1 in Eq. (3), we get

𝑅31 𝑅23
𝑅3 = (6)
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
 So, resistance of each arm of the star is given by the product of the resistances of the two delta sides
that meet at its end divided by the sum of the three delta resistances.
59
 Dividing Eq. (4) by Eq. (5), we get
𝑅1 𝑅31
= (7)
𝑅2 𝑅23
 Similarly, dividing Eq. (5) by Eq. (6), we get
𝑅2 𝑅12
= (8)
𝑅3 𝑅31
 From Eqs. (7) and (8), we get
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑅23 = 𝑅31 and 𝑅12 = 𝑅31
𝑅1 𝑅3
60
 Putting values of 𝑅23 and 𝑅12 in Eq. (1), we get
𝑅12 𝑅23 + 𝑅31

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 =
𝑅12 + 𝑅23 + 𝑅31
𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅31 2 𝑅31 + 𝑅31
𝑅 𝑅1
= 3
𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅31 + 2 𝑅31 + 𝑅31
𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅2 𝑅
𝑅31 1 + 2 𝑅31
𝑅 𝑅1
= 3
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅31 1 + 2 + 2
𝑅3 𝑅1
61
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅31 𝑅1 𝑅3
or, 𝑅1 +𝑅2 = ×
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
or, 𝑅31 =
𝑅2
𝑅3 𝑅1
∴ 𝑅31 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 +
𝑅2
Similarly,
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅23 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +
𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
𝑅3
62
Example – P1.5
Determine the equivalent resistance across X-Y of the circuit as shown in Fig. P1.5 by
using star-delta transformation.
6Ω 4Ω
X
5Ω 3Ω
4Ω 8Ω 10 Ω
Y
Fig. P1.5
63
There are two star circuits in Fig. P1.5. One consisting of 5 Ω, 3 Ω and 4 Ω resistors and other one
consisting of 6 Ω, 4 Ω and 8 Ω resistors.
Convert the star circuits into delta circuits so that the two delta circuits are in parallel.
The two star circuits and their equivalent circuits are shown below:
5×3+4×3+5×4
𝑅1 = = 11.75 Ω
4
5×3+4×3+5×4
𝑅2 = = 15.67 Ω
3
𝑎 𝑏 5×3+4×3+5×4
𝑅3 = = 9.4 Ω
Fig. P1.5.1 5
64
The two star circuits and their equivalent circuits are shown below:
𝑎 𝑏
Fig. P1.5.2
6×4+4×8+8×6 6×4+4×8+8×6
𝑅1′ = = 13 Ω 𝑅2′ = = 26 Ω
8 4
6×4+4×8+8×6
𝑅3′ = = 17.3 Ω
6
65
The simplified circuit is shown in figure below
In the circuit, three resistors 10 Ω, 9.4 Ω and 17.3 Ω are in parallel.
Equivalent resistance = (10 ǁ 9.4 ǁ 17.3) = 3.78 Ω.
Resistors 13 Ω and 11.75 Ω are in parallel.
Equivalent resistance = (13 ǁ 11.75) = 6.17 Ω.
Resistors 26 Ω and 15.67 Ω are in parallel.
Equivalent resistance = (26 ǁ 15.67) = 9.78 Ω.
The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. below
∴ The equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 9.78 ǁ 6.17 + 5.78

= 9.78 ǁ 9.95 = 4.93 Ω
66
 Sources
 Definition: The availability of electrical energy with network components called sources.
Example: Generators or alternators, that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
A battery that convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Sources
Independent Sources Dependent Sources

1. Independent Voltage Source 1. Voltage- Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
2. Independent Current Source 2. Voltage- Controlled Current Source (VCVS)
3. Current- Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
4. Current- Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
67
 Sources
 Independent Source: The sources which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit are called
independent sources.
 Independent Voltage Source
 A practical energy source such as battery in an automobile can maintain a voltage across its
terminals which is relatively independent of the current required by the accessories under
practical operating conditions.
 The idealization of the device with a network component called an independent voltage source or
more simply a voltage source.
 The network symbol for the representation of an independent voltage source is shown in Fig.
1.10.
The (+) and (−) marks inside the circle

of the voltage source symbol identify the
component as a voltage source.
Fig. 1.10. Independent Voltage Source
68
 Sources
 Independent Source
 Independent voltage source equation or source equation is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉(𝑡)
 The component equation is graphically depicted in Fig. 1.11 for an independent voltage source
with voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 12 𝑉 to emphasize that the terminal voltage is independent of the terminal
current.
Fig. 1.11. Graphical representation of Independent Voltage Source
 It is observed from Fig. 1.11 that current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 has no effect on voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 . 69
 Sources
 Definition: An independent voltage source is a two terminal network component with terminal
voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 specified by a time function 𝑣(𝑡) that is independent of the terminal current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 .
 The definition of a voltage source represent that a short circuit can be considered to be a voltage
source of value zero.
 An independent voltage source can also be known as an ideal voltage source.
70
 Sources
 Independent Current Source
 A few practical devices generate a current that is relatively independent of the terminal voltage over
the normal range of operating voltage. The examples are as follows:
1. A constant current transformer used to supply power to incandescent street light.
2. An automobile alternator which provides relatively constant current under certain operating
conditions.
 We idealize such a device with a network component called an independent current source, or more
simply a current source.
 The network symbol used to represent an independent current source is shown in Fig. 1.12.
The arrow inside the circle of the current source

symbol identifies the component as a current
Fig. 1.12. Independent Current Source source.
71
 Sources
 An Independent current source equation or source equation is 𝑖𝑎𝑏 = 𝑖(𝑡)
 The component equation is graphically depicted in Fig. 1.13 for an independent current source with
current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 = 50 𝐴 to emphasize that the terminal current is independent of the terminal voltage.
Fig. 1.13. Graphical representation of Independent Current Source
 It is observed from Fig. 1.13 that voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 has no effect on current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 .
72
 Sources
 Definition: An independent current source is a two terminal network component with terminal
current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 specified by a time function 𝑖(𝑡) that is independent of the terminal voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
 The definition of a current source represent that an open circuit can be considered to be a current
source of value zero
 An independent current source can also be known as an ideal current source.
73
 Sources
 Dependent Source
 Many electrical systems take a small amount of electric power from one source and use this to
control the delivery of a large amount of electric power from another source.
 The example of dependent source is an amplifier used in a tape player. The working principle of the
amplifier is given below:
i. The magnetized tape moving past the tape ahead, which consists of magnetic material and a
small coil of wire, generates a very small voltage signal that delivers a small fraction of a watt to
the amplifier.
ii. This low power signal ultimately controls the delivery of tens of watts to the speaker system.
iii. The power to the speaker is obtained from the amplifier power source: a car battery or an
electrical outlet.
 The ability to control the delivery of power is modelled by the introduction of four terminal network
components called dependent sources or controlled sources.
74
 Sources
 Voltage- Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

 A tape player amplifier is an example of voltage-controlled voltage source. The amplifier
generate a large voltage across two terminals that is intended to be proportional to a smaller
voltage established across other two terminals.
 A practical voltage amplifier is idealized with a four terminal network component called a
voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS).
 The network symbol as shown in Fig. 1.14 is used to represent a VCVS.
The + and – marks inside the diamond of

the component symbol identify the component
as a voltage source.
Fig. 1.14. Voltage- Controlled Voltage Source 75

 Sources

 An equivalent definition is given by the following component equation or control equation.
Control Equation: 𝑉𝑐𝑑 = 𝜇𝑉𝑎𝑏
 It is observed that voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑑 depends only on the constant 𝜇, a dimensionless constant called
the voltage gain and the control voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
 Current 𝑖𝑐𝑑 can affect voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑑 only if it affects 𝑉𝑎𝑏 voltage.
 Definition: A voltage controlled voltage source is a four-terminal network component that
establishes a voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑑 between two points 𝑐 and 𝑑 in the circuit that is proportional to a
voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 between two points 𝑎 and 𝑏.
76
 Sources

Example of VCVS
Determine voltage 𝑉2 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.15
Fig. 1.15. Test figure of Voltage- Controlled Voltage Source
Solution for Example of VCVS

Kirchhoff’s voltage law easily established that 𝑉1 = 12 𝑉
∴ 𝑉2 = 5 𝑉1 = 5 × 12 𝑉 = 60 𝑉 77
 Sources
 Voltage- Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

 The field-effect transistor is an example of voltage-controlled current source. This electronic
device permit the control of a current directly with a voltage.
 The device is idealized with a four terminal network component called a voltage-controlled
current source (VCCS).
 The network symbol as shown in Fig. 1.16 is used to represent a VCCS.
The arrow inside the diamond of the component

symbol identifies the component as a current
source.
Fig. 1.16. Voltage- Controlled Current Source 78

 Sources

Control Equation: 𝑖𝑐𝑑 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑏
 It is observed that current 𝑖𝑐𝑑 depends only on the control voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 and the constant 𝑔𝑚 ,
called the transconductance or mutual conductance.
 Constant 𝑔𝑚 has dimension of ampere per volt or Siemens (S).
 Definition: A voltage-controlled current source is a four-terminal network component that
establishes a current 𝑖𝑐𝑑 in a branch of the circuit that is proportional to the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 between
two points 𝑎 and 𝑏.
79
 Sources

 Example of VCCS
Determine the current 𝑖𝑥 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.17
Fig. 1.17. Test figure of Voltage- Controlled Current Source
Solution for Example of VCCS

𝑉1 = 6 − 2 = 4 𝑉
∴ 𝑖𝑥 = −10𝑉1 = − 10 × 4 = −40 𝐴
80
 Sources
 Current- Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

 The resistor is an example of current-controlled voltage source. This device permits the control
of voltage across one branch with current through another branch in the circuit.
 The device is idealized with a four terminal network component called a current-controlled
voltage source (CCVS).
 The network symbol as shown in Fig. 1.18 is used to represent a CCVS.
The + and – marks inside the diamond

of the component symbol identify the
component as a voltage source.
Fig. 1.18. Current- Controlled Voltage Source 81

 Sources
 Current-Controlled Voltage Source (VCCS)

Control Equation: 𝑉𝑐𝑑 = 𝑟 𝑖𝑎𝑏
 It is observed that voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑑 depends only on the control current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 and the constant 𝑟, called
the transresistance or mutual resistance.
 Constant 𝑟 has the dimension of volt per ampere or ohm (Ω).
 Definition: A current-controlled voltage source is a four-terminal network component that
establishes a voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑑 between two points 𝑐 and 𝑑 in the circuit that is proportional to current
𝑖𝑎𝑏 in some branch of the circuit.
82
 Sources
 Current- Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

 Example of CCVS
Determine voltage 𝑉2 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Fig. 1.19. Test figure of Current-Controlled Voltage Source
Solution for Example of CCVS

𝑖1 = 15 𝐴
∴ 𝑉2 = 6 𝑖1 = 6 × 15 𝑉 = 90 𝑉
83
 Sources
 Current- Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

 The bipolar junction transistor is an example of current-controlled current source. This device
permits the control of one current with another
 The device is idealized with a four terminal network component called a current-controlled
current source (CCCS).
 The network symbol as shown in Fig. 1.20 is used to represent a CCCS.
The arrow inside the diamond of the component

equation identifies the component as a current
source.
Fig. 1.20. Current- Controlled Current Source

84
 Sources
 Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

Control Equation:𝑖𝑐𝑑 = 𝛽 𝑖𝑎𝑏
 It is observed that current 𝑖𝑐𝑑 depends only on the control current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 and the dimensionless 𝛽,
called the current gain.
 Definition: A current-controlled current source is a four-terminal network component that
establishes a current 𝑖𝑐𝑑 in one branch of a circuit that is proportional to current 𝑖𝑎𝑏 in some
branch of the network.
85
 Sources
 Current- Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

 Example of CCCS
Determine current 𝑖2 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.21.
Fig. 1.21. Test figure of Current-Controlled Current Source
Solution for Example of CCCS

𝑖1 = 10 𝐴
∴ 𝑖2 = 5 + 7𝑖1 = 5 + 7 × 10 𝐴 = 75 𝐴
86
 Equivalence of voltage and current sources
 The equivalence of voltage and current sources is shown in Fig. 1.22.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.22. Equivalence of Voltage and Current Sources
 In Fig. 1.22(a), a voltage source, 𝑉 in series with an impedance, 𝑍𝑔 supplies a current 𝐼 to a load impedance
𝑍.
 𝑍𝑔 represent the internal impedance of the source.
87
 The phasor equation for the load voltage is

𝑉0 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑍𝑔 (1)
𝑉 𝑉0
∴ 𝐼= − = 𝑉𝑌𝑔 − 𝑉0 𝑌𝑔 (2)
𝑍𝑔 𝑍𝑔
where 𝑌𝑔 = 1Τ𝑍𝑔 .
 The circuit in Fig. 1.22(b) represents Eq. (2). Here, 𝑉𝑌𝑔 is the current delivered by the voltage source
when the terminals ab are short-circuited.
 The circuits shown in Fig. 1.22(a) & (b) are equivalent so far as the current through the load impedance
𝑍 is concerned.
 The mutual conversion of voltage & current sources is positive when 𝑍𝑔 is finite other than zero.
88
Example – P1.6
Determine 𝑖1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑖𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑎𝑏 for the network as shown in Fig. P1.6, if no other
components are connected to terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Fig. P1.6
89
𝑖1 = 5 𝐴
𝑣1 = 30 − 50 = −20 𝑉
𝑖𝑥 = 2𝑖1 = 2 × 5 𝐴 = 10 𝐴
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣1 − 40 + 5𝑣1 = −20 − 40 − 100 𝑉 = −160 𝑉
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = −20 − 5𝑣1 + 40 = −20 + 100 + 40 𝑉 = 120 𝑉
 Independent and Dependent Sources are active components.

 The source which cannot supply positive average power, these are passive components.
 A network that contains one or more active components is an active network.
 A passive network contains only passive components.
 Some physical devices convert electrical energy into heat or store energy in electric or magnetic fields.
We model the properties of the devices with network components called elements.
90
Example – P1.7
Find 𝑖 in the circuit of Fig. P1.7. Check the power balance condition.
Fig. P1.7
91
Applying KVL in the given loop
10 𝑉0 − 6 + 𝑉0 − 10 + 100 𝑖 = 0
11 𝑉0 − 16 + 100 𝑖 = 0
100 𝑖 = 16 − 11 𝑉0
100 𝑖 = 16 − 11 10 𝑖 ∵ 𝑉0 = 10 𝑖
100 𝑖 = 16 − 110 𝑖
16
∴ 𝑖= = 76.2 𝑚𝐴
210
The dependent source offers a terminal voltage of 10 𝑉0 = 10 10 𝑖 = 7.62 𝑉
In the circuit, power is supplied by 6 V and 10 V source while power is absorbed by 110 Ω resistor
(dissipating heat) and the dependent source.
92
Thus power supplied by 6 V source = 6 × 0.0762 𝑊 = 0.4572 𝑊
Power supplied by 10 V source = 10 × 0.0762 𝑊 = 0.762 𝑊
∴ Total power supplied = 0.4572 + 0.762 𝑊 = 1.219 𝑊 ≈ 1.22 𝑊
Power absorbed by the dependent source is 7.62 × 0.0762 𝑊 = 0.5806 𝑊 and

power absorbed by the 110 Ω resistance is 110× 0.0762 2 = 0.6387 𝑊
∴ Total power absorbed = 0.5806 + 0.6387 𝑊 ≈ 1.22 𝑊
Thus, the total power balance is maintained.
93
Example – P1.8
Find the loop currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 of the circuit in Fig. P1.8 by mesh method.
Fig. P1.8
94
In loop 1, mesh analysis gives
𝐼1 × 1 + 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 × 2 − 3 = 0
or, 3𝐼1 − 2𝐼2 = 3 (1)
In loop 2, mesh analysis gives
Fig. P1.8
2 × 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 × 1 + 𝑣 = 0
Answer
or, 3𝐼2 − 2𝐼1 + 𝑣 = 0 (2)
1
𝐼1 = − 𝐴𝑚𝑝 = −0.0588 𝐴𝑚𝑝
In loop 3, mesh analysis gives 17
27
𝑣 = 2𝐼3 + 2𝐼1 (3) 𝐼2 = − 𝐴𝑚𝑝 = −1.588 𝐴𝑚𝑝
17
From loop 3, we also get 41
𝐼3 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝 = 2.412 𝐴𝑚𝑝
17
𝐼3 − 𝐼2 = 4 (4) 95
Electrical Technology (EEC-01)
 SYLLABUS
 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits: Ohm’s laws, Kirchhoff’s laws, Independent and Dependent sources,
Analysis of simple circuits.
 Network Theorems: Superposition theorem, Reciprocity theorem, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem,
Maximum Power Transfer theorem.
 Magnetic field, Concept of magnetic circuits, Magnetomotive force, Reluctance, Ampere’s circuital law
and Biot-Savart law, Determination of B/H curve, Comparison of electric and magnetic circuit,
Electromagnetic induction, Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, Direction and Magnitude of
induced E.M.F.
 Self and mutual Inductance, Inductances in series and parallel, Energy stored in inductor, Capacitance,
Capacitance in series and parallel, Relationship between charge, voltage and current, Energy stored in
capacitor.
 Transients with D.C. excitation.
Electrical Technology (EEC-01)
 SYLLABUS
 Generation of alternating voltage and current, E.M.F. equation, Average and R.M.S. value, Phase and
phase difference, Phasor representation of alternating quantity, Behaviour of A.C. circuits, Resonance in
series and parallel R-L-C circuits.
 Single-Phase Transformer, equivalent circuits, open circuit and short circuit tests.
 Poly phase system, Advantages of 3-phase system, Generation of 3-phase voltages, Voltage, current and
power in a star and delta connected systems, 3-phase balanced and unbalanced circuits, Power
measurement in 3-phase circuits.
Text Books:
1.
1. Electrical & Electronic Technology by Hughes, Pearson Education India.
Reference Books:
1. Advanced Electrical Technology by H. Cotton, Reem Publication Pvt. Ltd
2. Electrical Engineering fundamentals by Vincent Deltoro, Pearson Education India.

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Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (XCE 02)

1. Electrical & Electronic Technology by Hughes, Pearson Education India.

1. Advanced Electrical Technology by H. Cotton, Reem Publication Pvt. Ltd.

Fig. 1.1. Voltage-Current Relationship of a Resistor

Fig. 1.2. Symbol of resistor

Fig. 1.4. Sinusoidal Voltage applied to resistor

 The power delivered by the source at any instant is

 If 𝑤(𝑡) is the instantaneous energy

 The energy input in n complete cycles is

 This energy is dissipated in the form of joule heat.

 Ohm’s law can also be expressed in terms of conductance 𝐺 (which is reciprocal of 𝑅) as 𝑖 = 𝐺𝑉

The boxes contain the circuit elements. The

Fig. 1.5. Circuit containing voltage source and circuit elements

 According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law,

The assumed direction of currents are shown in the figure.

2𝑖1 + 6𝑖3 − 4𝑖2 = 0

or, 𝑖1 + 3𝑖3 − 2𝑖2 = 0

or, 𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 + 3𝑖3 = 0 1

Applying KVL in the loop BCDB, we get Fig. P1.1

or, 4𝑖1 − 3𝑖2 − 13𝑖3 = 0 2

or, 8𝑖1 + 2𝑖2 − 4𝑖3 = 4

or, 4𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 2𝑖3 = 2 3

Solving these equations 1 , 2 and (3), we get

Then the branch currents are as follows:

Current in branch 𝐴𝐵 𝑖1 = 451.61 𝑚𝐴

Current in branch 𝐴𝐷 𝑖2 = 322.58 𝑚𝐴

Current in branch 𝐵𝐷 𝑖3 = 64.51 𝑚𝐴

Current in branch 𝐵𝐶 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 = 387.1 𝑚𝐴

Current in branch 𝐷𝐶 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 387.09 𝑚𝐴

Current in external circuit 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 774.19 𝑚𝐴

[∵ The p.d. between points 𝐴 and 𝐶 = 2 × 0.45161 + 4 × 0.3871 𝑉 = 2.452 𝑉]

 Rearranging equations (1) through (3), we obtain

−𝑌6 𝑉1 − 𝑌4 𝑉2 + 𝑌4 + 𝑌5 + 𝑌6 𝑉3 = 0 (6) Fig. 1.7. Circuit used for node analysis

∴ The voltage drop across 5 Ω resistor is 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = −5 𝑉.

 Rearranging equations (1) through (3), we obtain

𝑍3 𝐼1 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5 𝐼2 + 𝑍4 𝐼3 = 𝑉2 (5) Fig. 1.8. Circuit used for

𝑍11 𝐼1 + 𝑍12 𝐼2 + 𝑍13 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝑍1𝑛 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑉1

The current through 3 Ω resistor is given by 𝐼𝐿 = 0.806 𝐴

Fig. 1.9. Circuit having common current source

Fig. 1.10. Circuit having super mesh

1. Identify the total number of meshes.

Find the current 𝐼 in the circuit of Fig. P1.5 by mesh method

In the example P1.5, 2 A current source is

Step 1:- The total number of meshes is 2.

Solving the two equations, we get 𝐼1 = 0 and 𝐼2 = 2

Fig. 1.11. Circuit having common voltage source 52

Step 4: Apply KVL to the loop having 1 V voltage

From Eq. (1), we get

Fig. 1.9. Circuit for delta/star and star/delta transformation

𝑅12 𝑅23 + 𝑅31

 Similarly, for terminals 2 and 3 and terminals 3 and 1, we get

𝑅23 𝑅31 + 𝑅12

𝑅31 𝑅12 + 𝑅23

 Putting the value of 𝑅1 in Eq. (1), we get

 Putting the value of 𝑅1 in Eq. (3), we get

 From Eqs. (7) and (8), we get

𝑅12 𝑅23 + 𝑅31

∴ The equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 9.78 ǁ 6.17 + 5.78

Independent Sources Dependent Sources