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Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)


Updated: Feb 12, 2020
Author: Nicholas John Bennett, MBBCh, PhD, MA(Cantab), FAAP; Chief Editor: Michael Stuart Bronze, MD

Overview

Background
Avian influenza is a slightly misleading term, as influenza is among the natural infections found in birds. The term avian
influenza used in this context refers to zoonotic human infection with an influenza strain that primarily affects birds.

Influenza virus is an orthomyxovirus—an enveloped, segmented, negative-sense RNA virus. Influenza virus has 3 strains—A, B,
and C. (For additional information on influenza, see Medscape's Influenza Resource Center.) Avian influenza is caused by
influenza A virus, which has 8 RNA segments. Avian influenza is a potential and unpredictable threat to humans because of the
segmented nature of the genome.

The serotypes of influenza A virus are identified based on the hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) proteins; 16 H
serotypes and 9 N serotypes have been identified. For example, one currently circulating strain is designated as H3N2. The
strain previously considered the greatest threat was H5N1, mostly because of the high associated mortality rate (up to 60%) in
infected humans. H5N1 infections have decreased substantially in recent years, and the most recent avian influenza of note is
H7N9, first described in China in 2013.[1]

These serotypic differences result in much of the species specificity due to differences in the receptor usage (specifically sialic
acid, which binds to hemagglutinin and which is cleaved by neuraminidase when the virus exits the cell).

The immune response to these antigens is responsible for most host protection. The viral RNA polymerase lacks error-checking
mechanisms and, as such, the antigenic drift from year to year is sufficient to ensure a significant susceptible host population.
However, the segmented genome also has the potential to allow re-assortment of genome segments from different strains of
influenza in a co-infected host.

Although all strains of influenza A virus naturally infect birds, certain strains can infect mammalian hosts such as pigs and
humans. The re-assortment of an avian strain with a mammalian strain may produce a chimeric virus that is transmissible
between mammals; such mutation products may contain hemagglutinin and/or neuraminidase proteins that are unrecognizable
to the immune systems of mammals. This antigenic shift results in a much greater population of susceptible individuals in whom
more severe disease is possible.

Such an antigenic shift can cause a pandemic, 4 of which have occurred in recorded history. The most striking pandemic
occurred in 1918, when the Spanish influenza (H1N1) resulted in approximately 50 million deaths worldwide. Others included
the pandemics of 1957 (H2N2) and 1968 (H3N2); smaller outbreaks occurred in 1947, 1976, and 1977. The fact that H3N2 is
still circulating without causing an ongoing pandemic highlights the importance of herd immunity. The most recent pandemic was
in 2009, caused by a swine-origin influenza of the H1N1 serotype.

Avian influenza has low-pathogenic (LPAI) and highly pathogenic (HPAI) strains. H5N1 is typically a highly pathogenic virus in
birds, resulting in severe disease and death. This strain has drawn more attention than other HPAI strains because of ongoing
reports of bird-to-human transmissions that result in severe disease in the human host. Recently, some evidence has indicated
that H5N1 may cause fewer symptoms in ducks, making them a potential reservoir for infection and spread by migratory flocks.
[2] A reassorted H5N1 virus has been reported in the United States among wild birds but is not considered a threat to humans.

Several confirmed cases of human infection with LPAI strains (H7N2 in the United Kingdom and the US states of Virginia and
New York; H7N7 in the Netherlands, H9N2 in China and Hong Kong) have been reported. In 2004, one outbreak of an HPAI
H7N3 in Canada resulted in mild human disease.[3] In early 2009, a recombinant H1N1 influenza consisting of a mix of swine,
avian, and human gene segments spread rapidly around the world, but it was a low-pathogenicity strain.

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H5N1 was first reported to cause severe human disease in 1997 in an outbreak among infected chickens on Hong Kong Island.
The outbreak was successfully contained with the slaughter of the entire local chicken population (around 1.5 million birds).
However, 18 human cases were reported, of which 6 resulted in death.[3] Since then, H5N1 has been found in chickens, ducks,
and migratory fowl throughout Asia and is now spreading west through Europe and North Africa. Human cases are following the
route of the avian spread, but H5N1 has also been found in dead birds in several countries without any reported human cases[4]
(eg, the United Kingdom, Germany; see image below).

Global map of countries where avian influenza (bird and human infections) has been reported. Image courtesy of
PandemicFlu.gov.

The latest H7N9 outbreak started in China in 2013 and was initially described in 126 people. Smaller numbers of cases have
been reported since, mostly involving direct contact with domestic birds. To date, the H7N9 has spread in the poultry population
across China, resulting in more than 1500 reported human reported human infections.[5] One case was imported to Canada in
January 2014.

To date, avian influenza remains a zoonosis, with no sustained human-to-human transmission. Family clusters have been
reported but appear to be almost always related to common exposures; however, limited human-to-human spread through close
proximity could not be officially ruled out. In September 2004, one case in Thailand probably involved daughter-to-mother
transmission; the mother died.[6]

A 1996 case of suspected severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was shown to be due to H5N1 influenza.[3, 7]

Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of avian influenza differs from that of normal influenza. Avian influenza is still primarily a respiratory
infection but involves more of the lower airways than human influenza typically does. This is likely due to differences in the
hemagglutinin protein and the types of sialic acid residues to which the protein binds. Avian viruses tend to prefer sialic acid
alpha(2-3) galactose, which, in humans, is found in the terminal bronchi and alveoli. Conversely, human viruses prefer sialic acid
alpha(2-6) galactose, which is found on epithelial cells in the upper respiratory tract. One group has reported that ex vivo
cultures of human tonsillar, adenoidal, and nasopharyngeal tissues can support replication of H5N1 avian influenza.[8]

Although this results in a more severe respiratory infection, it probably explains why few, if any, definite human-to-human
transmissions of avian influenza have been reported; infection of the upper airways is probably required for efficient spread via
coughing and sneezing. Many are concerned that subtle mutation of the hemagglutinin protein through antigenic drift will result
in a virus capable of binding to upper and lower respiratory epithelium. The 1918 pandemic strain was so lethal partially
because the receptor utilization of the hemagglutinin differed from that of other strains, and H5N1 has that potential to acquire
that same biology through mutation.

Differences in the PA, NP, M1, NS1, and PB2 genes tend to correlate with human strains of influenza, including human
infections with avian influenza.[9] The functional role of these genetic markers has yet to be determined but likely involves
replication enhancement and immune suppression.

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Unlike with human influenza, most deaths associated with avian influenza have been due to primary viral pneumonia, with no
evidence of secondary bacterial infection.

Epidemiology
United States statistics

Seasonal influenza disease burden varies each year. The most recent results from the 2018-2019 US season included nearly
500,000 hospitalizations and approximately 34,000 deaths.[10] However, no cases of avian influenza in humans have been
reported in the United States, although avian influenza has been identified in some wild birds in a few states in the US in 2014
and 2015.

International statistics

As of August 27, 2015, 844 cases of H5N1 had been reported worldwide, with 449 deaths.[11] Most cases have been in eastern
Asia; some cases have been reported in Eastern Europe and North Africa. Underreporting has been a concern, particularly in
China, but the prevailing attitude about the need to suspect, test, and report cases of avian influenza is growing. There have
been 631 reported cases of H7N9 influenza, mostly from China, with other cases in Taiwan, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Canada
(2 imported cases).

Although the risk remains largely theoretical, the ease of global travel emphasizes the possibility of international spread. The
risks have been highlighted recently with the rapid spread of a low-pathogenicity H1N1 swine-origin influenza in early 2009. The
risk of a successful recombination event occurring between swine-origin H1N1 and a pathogenic avian influenza cannot be
easily assessed. A mutation in avian influenza that rendered it permissive for sustained human-to-human transmission without
affecting its pathogenicity in humans could be extremely dangerous.[12]

The image below depicts the countries where avian influenza has been reported.

Global map of countries where avian influenza (bird and human infections) has been reported. Image courtesy of
PandemicFlu.gov.

Mortality/morbidity

The extraordinarily high mortality rate of avian influenza (>60% for H5N1; approximately 30% for H7N9) is worrying and
reasonably accurate. There have been very few instances of seropositive individuals without clinical signs of infection. In most
instances, the policy is to test exposed individuals around an outbreak (human and avian). Therefore, a large population of
exposed but untested people is unlikely.

Race

Race appears to be a factor only to the extent that geographic differences in the rate of HPAI among birds and the degree of
bird-to-human contact are significant.

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Sex

In Egypt, 90% of fatalities due to avian influenza have involved women, a pattern that has not been readily apparent elsewhere.
[13] Most cases of H7N9 have been reported in men.

Age

Avian influenza has the highest case-fatality rate among persons aged 10-39 years. Unlike seasonal influenza, which
disproportionately affects very young and very old individuals, young adults make up a large proportion of the avian influenza
cases.

Fifty percent of reported cases have been in people younger than 20 years. Forty percent of cases involve persons aged 20-40
years.

In Egypt, avian influenza has been associated with a relatively low mortality rate, which seems to be associated with a high rate
of infection in young children (< 10 y); as of May 2009, the mortality rate in this subpopulation has been zero. The significance
and reproducibility of these findings remains to be seen.[13]

Prognosis
The prognosis of confirmed human cases of avian influenza is related to the degree and duration of hypoxemia. The cases to
date have exhibited a 60% mortality rate. The risk of mortality depends on the degree of respiratory disease rather than the
bacterial complications (pneumonia).

Little evidence regarding the long-term effects of disease among survivors is available.

Presentation

History
The key history component that should prompt consideration of avian influenza as a possible diagnosis is exposure to sick,
dead, or dying poultry or humans with avian influenza. Many cases involve close contact, such as plucking or gutting of dead
birds, removing infected carcasses, or ingesting incompletely cooked bird meat or blood. Some cases have had no link to prior
exposure to sick birds, suggesting that spread from asymptomatic birds is possible or that the virus can be transmitted
environmentally on fomites.

The time from exposure to disease is slightly longer than in human influenza, although this interval can be as short as 2 days.
Intervals of up to 17 days have been reported, although most cases occur within one week of exposure.[14]

Respiratory symptoms are the most common presentation. More severe respiratory distress occurs around 5 days from the
initial symptoms. The sputum is sometimes bloody.

Other symptoms include the following:

Fever (temperature >38°C)


Diarrhea (watery, nonbloody) (possibly a poor prognostic sign)
Vomiting
Chest and/or abdominal pain
Encephalitis (Two persons in Vietnam presented with encephalitis only. [14] )

Risk factors or features that should raise the index of suspicion include the following:

Travel to (within the last 2 wk) or location in a country with known avian influenza cases in animals or humans
Unusual comorbidities such as encephalopathy or diarrhea
History of exposure to birds, especially living in close proximity to birds, contact with sick or dying birds, or consumption
of incompletely cooked bird meat
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History of exposure to individuals with known avian influenza, especially family, or to sick people in a country with known
human cases of avian influenza

The situation can be complicated during outbreaks of severe respiratory disease not due to avian influenza. The first case of
laboratory-confirmed avian influenza infection was documented during the SARS outbreak and was mistakenly misdiagnosed as
SARS.

Although a small percentage overall, several cases in which respiratory disease was limited or not apparent (with even normal
chest radiography findings) have been described.[14] The primary presenting illness has been encephalitis and/or diarrhea.

Physical Examination
Tachypnea and crackles are common.

Wheeze is occasionally apparent.

Conjunctival suffusion/conjunctivitis is not uncommon.

Case reports have described other occasional signs (eg, bleeding gums, always in the presence of viral pneumonia).[14]

DDx

Differential Diagnoses
Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)

H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu)

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome

Influenza

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)

Pediatric Pneumococcal Infections

Pneumococcal Infections (Streptococcus pneumoniae)

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

Workup

Workup

Laboratory Studies
If avian influenza is suspected, the laboratory should be called ahead of time and forewarned before specimens for identification
of viral infection (eg, nasal washes) are obtained. Pneumatic tubing is not recommended for transport; hand transport using a
leak-proof specimen bag is preferred. The specimen should be clearly labeled as "suspected AI," and the person who transports
the specimen should use appropriate protective equipment.

Many laboratories are not equipped to deal with the isolation needed to safely contain avian influenza (category 3+ containment,
higher than that used for HIV). If a sample is sent, the laboratory may need to be shut down for decontamination. Samples from
patients with suspected avian influenza should be sent to a dedicated central reference laboratory such as at the Center for

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Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC laboratory can perform antiviral sensitivity testing, as well as subtyping of the
virus.

Laboratory tests and findings include the following:

Nasal wash specimens for detection of virus and viral subtyping are crucial.
Leukopenia may be present.
Relative lymphopenia may be present.
Thrombocytopenia is common.
Elevated levels of liver enzymes (SGOT/SGPT) are common.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is rare.

Other tests, including blood cultures, lumbar punctures for CSF analysis (including polymerase chain reaction [PCR]), and
sputum cultures, should be performed based on clinical suspicion for alternative or complicating diagnoses.

Imaging Studies
Chest radiography should be performed. The most common finding is multifocal consolidation; effusions and lymphadenopathy
are also observed, as well as cystic changes.

The severity of radiologically apparent disease is a good predictor of mortality, including findings consistent with acute
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), such as a diffuse, bilateral ground-glass appearance.

Procedures
Intubation may be necessary for ventilatory support

Lumbar punctures for CSF analysis may need to be performed based on clinical suspicion.

Treatment

Medical Care
The mainstay of treatment is the administration of antiviral medication.

Supportive care such as oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids and parenteral nutrition may be needed.

Severe cases may require ventilatory support with intubation and low-volume (high-frequency) ventilation.

Antiviral therapy should be tailored to the patient's age and the antiviral resistance profile of the virus from the area of exposure.
Therapy should be initiated even when the presentation is late.

Antibiotics may be needed to treat bacterial pneumonia but are not empirically necessary.

Steroids have not been shown to be beneficial, except perhaps in the setting of sepsis with adrenal insufficiency.[14]

Baloxavir acid (BXA) and its prodrug baloxavir marboxil (BXM) have shown promise in the treatment of H7N9 influenza in vitro
and in vivo. In a mouse model, BXM administration provided complete protection from a lethal A/Anhui/1/2013 (H7N9)
challenge, and this treatment proved effective even after delayed treatment (up to 48 hours following infection) and at higher
virus doses, supporting investigation in humans.[15]

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An important consideration is that of infection control and prevention of transmission to other patients and health care workers.
Droplet precautions should be used, including eye protection. No evidence shows that airborne spread is possible, but, if fine
aerosols are expected because of specific procedures, a particulate respirator should be properly fitted and used.

Adults and children older than 12 years require one week of infection-control precautions, from the initial onset of symptoms.
Children younger than 12 years may shed high titers of human influenza virus for up to 21 days after the illness onset, and the
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the same duration for avian influenza precautions.[14]

Consultations
Consultation with an infectious disease expert is recommended.

Intensive care specialists need to be involved to manage severe disease.

Ultimately, the WHO and/or CDC should be contacted; the CDC can safely perform testing for suspected avian influenza strains.

Prevention
No vaccine is currently available to the public for routine immunization, although two adjuvanted influenza A (H5N1) monovalent
vaccines have been approved by the FDA for H5N1 influenza A.

The AS03 adjuvant vaccine (GlaxoSmithKline) is a 2-component monovalent vaccine. It is supplied as a vial of inactivated, split-
virion, A/H5N1 influenza antigen suspension and a vial of AS03 adjuvant emulsion that must be combined before IM
administration. Each 0.5-mL dose contains 3.75 mcg hemagglutinin (HA) of the influenza virus strain A/Indonesia/05/2005
(H5N1).[16]

The MF59 adjuvant (Audenz; Seqirus Inc) is a ready-to-use emulsion. Each 0.5-mL dose contains 7.5 mcg HA of the H5N1
influenza virus strain A/turkey/Turkey/1/2005.[17]

Each vaccine is approved for patients aged 6 months or older and is administered as a 2-dose series given at least 21 days
apart.

Prophylactic antivirals are not indicated for patients who plan to travel to areas where avian influenza has been reported.
Travelers who plan to travel to areas of the world affected by avian influenza outbreaks in birds and/or humans are advised to
avoid close contact with poultry, especially diseased or dead birds, and to consume only adequately cooked meat. If contact with
birds in enclosed spaces is unavoidable, an N-95 respirator mask (or equivalent), gloves, and goggles should be used to
minimize contact with droplets or particulates. PandemicFlu.gov details more specific travel recommendations.

Medication

Medication Summary
Current WHO and CDC guidelines recommend treatment regimens with a neuraminidase inhibitor, preferably oseltamivir.
Studies are ongoing as to the relative effectiveness of high-dose and/or prolonged courses of therapy with oseltamivir.[14] If
high-dose regimens prove to be more effective, the availability of antiviral medication in the event of a massive outbreak, as well
as treatment considerations for mildly versus severely ill people, would be affected.

Zanamivir has not yet been tested in people with H5N1 disease, but animal studies are promising and the resistance mutations
to oseltamivir do not cause cross-resistance. Some researchers have recommended dual therapy with both existing
neuraminidase inhibitors. One concern is that inhaled zanamivir is unlikely to reach distal airways in severe disease.[14]

Currently, the CDC is recommending against using the M2 ion-channel blockers amantadine and rimantadine for routine
influenza treatment or prophylaxis because of increasing resistance rates.[18]

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Antivirals, Influenza

Class Summary
Agents that inhibit neuraminidase activity may be of benefit.

Oseltamivir (Tamiflu)
Inhibits neuraminidase, which is a glycoprotein on the surface of influenza virus that destroys an infected cell's receptor for viral
hemagglutinin. By inhibiting viral neuraminidase, decreases release of viruses from infected cells and thus viral spread. Effective
to treat influenza A or B. For hospitalized patients and outpatients with severe, complicated, or progressive illness (eg,
development of pneumonia), treatment with oral or enterically administered oseltamivir is recommended. Start within 40 h of
symptom onset. Available as cap (75 mg, 45 mg, 30 mg) and oral susp.

Zanamivir (Relenza)
Inhibitor of neuraminidase, which is a glycoprotein on the surface of the influenza virus that destroys the infected cell's receptor
for viral hemagglutinin. By inhibiting viral neuraminidase, release of viruses from infected cells and viral spread are decreased.
Effective against both influenza A and B. Consider use for outpatients without underlying asthma or COPD. Administer by
inhalation via Diskhaler oral inhalation device. Circular foil discs containing 5-mg blisters of drug are inserted into supplied
inhalation device. IV zanamivir is investigational and is available as compassionate use for severe influenza in hospitalized
adults or children.

Peramivir (Rapivab)
Neuraminidase inhibitor. It is indicated for treatment of acute uncomplicated influenza in patients aged 2 years or older who
have been symptomatic for less than 2 days. Peramivir is used in hospitalized patients and administered as an IV infusion.

Vaccines, Inactivated, Viral

Influenza A (H5N1) vaccine (Audenz)


Indicated for active immunization to prevent disease caused by the influenza A virus H5N1 subtype in patients aged 6 months or
older who are at increased risk of exposure.

Questions & Answers


Overview

What is avian influenza?

What is the pathophysiology of avian influenza?

What is the prevalence of avian influenza in the US?

What is the global prevalence of avian influenza?

What are the mortality rates of avian influenza?

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What are the racial predilections of avian influenza?

What are the sexual predilections of avian influenza?

Which age groups have the highest prevalence of avian influenza?

What is the prognosis of avian influenza?

Presentation

Which clinical history findings are characteristic of avian influenza?

What are the signs and symptoms of avian influenza?

What are the risk factors for avian influenza?

What atypical presentation of avian influenza has been reported?

Which physical findings are characteristic of avian influenza?

DDX

What are the differential diagnoses for Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)?

Workup

What is the role of lab testing in the workup of avian influenza?

What is the role of imaging studies in the workup of avian influenza?

What is the role of intubation in the workup of avian influenza?

What is the role of lumbar puncture in the workup of avian influenza?

Treatment

How is avian influenza treated?

Which specialist consultations are beneficial to patients with avian influenza?

How is avian influenza prevented?

Medications

What is the role of medications in the treatment of avian influenza?

Which medications in the drug class Vaccines, Inactivated, Viral are used in the treatment of Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)?

Which medications in the drug class Antivirals, Influenza are used in the treatment of Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)?

Which medications in the drug class are used in the treatment of Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)?

Contributor Information and Disclosures

Author

Nicholas John Bennett, MBBCh, PhD, MA(Cantab), FAAP Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Co-Director of Antimicrobial
Stewardship, Medical Director, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Connecticut Children's Medical Center

Nicholas John Bennett, MBBCh, PhD, MA(Cantab), FAAP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha,
American Academy of Pediatrics

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Cubist<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from:
Horizon Pharmaceuticals, Shire<br/>Medico legal consulting for: Various.

Coauthor(s)

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Joseph Domachowske, MD Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Division of
Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Upstate Medical University

Joseph Domachowske, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of
Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi
Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Pfizer;GlaxoSmithKline;AstraZeneca;Merck;American Academy of Pediatrics,


Novavax, Regeneron, Diassess, Actelion<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Sanofi
Pasteur.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy;
Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Chief Editor

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD David Ross Boyd Professor and Chairman, Department of Medicine, Stewart G Wolf Endowed
Chair in Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Science Center; Master of the American
College of Physicians; Fellow, Infectious Diseases Society of America; Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London

Michael Stuart Bronze, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of
Physicians, American Medical Association, Association of Professors of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Society of America,
Oklahoma State Medical Association, Southern Society for Clinical Investigation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

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https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2500029-print 11/11

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