Tires and differential gear

Asist. Prof. dr. Simon Oman

Composition of a radial-ply tire

2
 Tire labeling

• 265/50 R 14 101 V: • 6,40-13/6 PR:

– Radial-ply tire (R) – Bias-ply tire
– Tire width: 265 mm – Tire width: 6,40”
– Wheel-rim diameter : 14” – Wheel-rim diameter: 13”
– Tire-wall height : 0,50 * 265 – Tire-wall height: 0,95 (super
mm balloon for D) * 6,40”
– Load index: 101 – Loading index: PR6
– Velocity index: V (maximum – Velocity index: no index
velocity = 240 km/h) (maximum velocity = 150
km/h)

3
 Tire labeling

• Production date: DOT xxyy

– xx => week;
– yy => year.

• Tire load index:

4
 Tire labeling

• Tire velocity index:

– P => 150 km/h
– Q => 160 km/h
– S => 180 km/h
– T => 190 km/h
– H => 210 km/h
– V => 240 km/h
– W => 270 km/h
– Y => 300 km/h
– VR => above 210 km/h
– ZR=> above 240 km/h

5
Difference between radial and bias tire
 Tire as a friction wheel - acceleration

v0

Z rst
M v Fk
µh =
Z

Ft v0 − v
σt =
v0
H
tr,m

tr,g
M = µ H ⋅ Z ⋅ rst = µ H ⋅ konst

0 1 t

7
 Tire as a friction wheel - braking

K
µh =
Z

v0 − v
σt =
v
H
tr,m

tr,g
M = µ H ⋅ Z ⋅ rst = µ H ⋅ konst

0 -1 t

8
Difference between rolling and sliding
Traction diagram for radial-ply tires and bias-ply tires

10
Traction diagram for accelerating and braking

11
Micro-contact between tire and driving surface during
acceleration

12
Micro-contact between tyre and driving surface during
braking

13
 4x4 wheel drive

• Central power splitter without differential gear on a hard

surface:

R1 R1
R1,R2 >> 0

Power splitter
without central
differential
gear

R2 R2
P P

• Theoretical tangential velocities:

v1, 0 = ω1, 0 ⋅ rst ∝ R1 > v2, 0 = ω 2, 0 ⋅ rst ∝ R2
• Actual tangential velocities:
v1 = v2 ; M 1 ≠ M 2
14
 4x4 wheel drive

• Central power splitter without differential gear on a hard

surface:

+M1 Mmot=0 -M2

Mmot>0

v1 = v2 v1,0; v2,0 … theoretical velocities

v1,0 v2,0

|+M2|=|-M1|
-M1

v1; v2 … actual velocities

+M2

+Mmot

+M2 -M1

15
 4x4 wheel drive

• Central power splitter with a differential gear on a hard

surface:
Pmot
Pmot/2

Pmot/2

R1 P1 P2

Power splitter
with a central
differential
gear

R2
P

v1 = ω1 ⋅ rst ∝ R1 > v2 = ω 2 ⋅ rst ∝ R2

M mot
M1 = M 2 =
2
16
 4x4 wheel drive

• Central power splitter with a differential gear – hard surface

under the rear axle, soft surface under the front axle, straight
driving:

17
 4x4 wheel drive

• Central power splitter without differential gear – hard surface

under the rear axle, soft surface under the front axle, straight
driving:

-M2
+M1
v1,0=v2,0
M1

-M1
Mmot
M2 v1=v2
+M2

18
 TORSEN differential gear

Differential gear
Agle
bevel
gear

Worm gear Worm

wheel

Animation 19
Mechanical self-locking differential gear with lamellas

20
 Automatic self-locking differential gear - ASD

Angle bevel
gear

Control pressure Control pressure

(left) (right)
Attached to a housing
of a bevel gear

Differential gear

21
 Torque vectoring differential

Safety – vehicle
Agile cornering Improved traction
stabilisation

ICE ICE ICE

Gear-box Gear-box Gear-box

Bigger torque to
a wheel with a
Steering torque on Steering torque better traction
traction wheels on traction wheels

Fk,n Fk,z Fk,n Fk,z Fk,1 Fk,2

Mn Mz > Mn Mn Mz < Mn M1 M2 > M1

Torque-vectoring Torque-vectoring Torque-vectoring

differential gear differential gear differential gear
22
 Torque vectoring differential
• Operation during cornering:

Granzow 2013, str. 5. 23

 Torque vectoring differential

• Functional assembly of a ZF Vector drive differential gear:

Multi-disc brake Multi-disc brake

Fa Fa Fa Fa

Left unit for torque-

Right unit for torque-
vectoring
vectoring
Conventional differential
gear with the angle
bevel gear
24
 Torque vectoring differential

• System assembly:

Granzow 2013, str. 8. 25

 Torque vectoring differential

• Assembly cross-section:

Granzow 2013, str. 15. 26

 Torque vectoring differential

• Principle of operation without torque-vectoring function:

MKG
Fa=0 Fa=0

Fk,1 Fk,2=Fk,1

M1=MKG /2 M2=MKG /2

Granzow 2013, str. 9.

27
 Torque vectoring differential

• Principle of operation by applying the torque-vectoring

function:

MKG =2000 Nm
Fa=0 Fa>0
Fk,2 >Fk,1

1100 Nm 120 Nm
Fk,1

900 Nm 980 Nm

M1=480 Nm 420 Nm
Σ=1400 Nm

Granzow 2013, str. 10.

28
 Torque vectoring differential

• Principle of operation by applying the torque-vectoring

function:

MKG =0 Nm
Fa=0 Fa>0

1100 Nm 120 Nm
Fk,2
1100 Nm 980 Nm

M1=510 Nm 590 Nm
Σ=390 Nm
Fk,1

Granzow 2013, str. 11.

29
 Torque vectoring differential

• Activation of a multi-disc brake of a planetary shaft:

Granzow 2013, str. 18. 30

 Torque vectoring differential

• Activation of a multi-disc brake of a planetary shaft:

Granzow 2013, str. 19. 31

 Torque vectoring differential

• The torque-vectoring differential is a mechatronic system:

Granzow 2013, str. 27. 32

 Cornering stifness of a tire

ω=0
Contact surface

dZ/dx(ω=0)
Z
S S

dY/dx(ω>0), theoretical
x

dY/dx(ω>0), realistic
Y
PZ ω>0

(dZ/dx)µtr(m)
(dZ/dx)µtr(g)
dZ/dx(ω>0)

S e

x x x
33
 Lateral traction coefficient and side-slip angle

αs

Ms = Y ⋅e
dY/dx(ω>0), realistic
αs …kot
side-slip anglenakotaljevanja /
poševnega
Side-slip angle S e

S Y
µs =
Z x

lateralkoeficient
µs …bočni traction sojemanja
coefficient /
lateral traction coefficient µs
βs
αs
cs = tgβ s =
µs
cornering
cs …bočna stiffness
elastičnost of a tire /
pnevmatike
cornering stifness of a tyre
αs 34
Steering angle during cornering

steeringkotangle
λ …krmilni / steering angle
λ = f (R )
35
Influence of side-slip rolling during cornering

36
 Influence of side-slip rolling during cornering

l" l'
R1 , R2 >> 0 ⇒ R1 ≈ R2 ≈ R ⇒ Fc1 ≈ Fc⋅ ; Fc 2 ≈ Fc⋅
l l
v2 G v2
Fc = mv ⋅ = ⋅
R g R

Fc 1 v 2
µs = = ⋅
G g R
µ s1 ≈ µ s 2 ≈ µ s
α s1 = c s1 ⋅ µ s
α s 2 = cs 2 ⋅ µ s
l
l = [λ − (α s1 − α s 2 )]⋅ R ⇒ R =
λ − µ s ⋅ ( c s1 − c s 2 )
37
 Under-steered vehicle: cs1>cs2

R
Increase of velocity
for constant R.

R=v2/(µs*g)

R=l/[λ−µs*(cs1-cs2)]

µs
If a vehicle‘s velocity is
increased during cornering,
the steering angle λ should
be increased.
38
 Over-steered vehicle: cs1<cs2

λ=0 st.
Increase of velocity
for constant R.

R=v2/(µs*g)

R=l/[λ−µs*(cs1-cs2)]

µs
If a vehicle‘s velocity is
increased during cornering,
the steering angle λ should
be reduced.
39
 Influence of a side wind

• Under-steered vehicle (cs1>cs2):

s1 s1
v v

Fc
T Fv T Fv
s2 s2

The centrifugal force

stabilizes the wind force.
40
 Influence of a side wind

• Over-steered vehicle (cs1<cs2):

The centrifugal force de-

stabilizes the wind force.
41
 Vehicle stabilization during cornering

• Under-steered vehicle:
Actual cornering Actual cornering = wish
Wish

Fst

Fst
Stabilisation

v v

• Over-steered vehicle:
Fst Actual cornering = wish
Wish
Stabilisation
Fst

Actual cornering
v v

42
 Critical velocity of over-steered vehicle

• A critical velocity of the over-steered vehicle is the velocity at

which the vehicle can negotiate curves with a zero steering
angle, if subjected to a lateral disturbance (e.g. wind blow):

c s 2 > c s1 1 v2 1 v2
µs = ⋅ ⇒ R = ⋅
λ = 0; R > 0 g R g µs

2
1 vkrit l
R= ⋅ =
g µs − µ s ⋅ (cs1 − cs 2 )

l⋅g
vkrit =
( c s 2 − c s1

43
 Position of steered wheels

• Camber angle:
>0 <0
=+0,3/+1,5 =-0,5/-2

– Nullifies bearing clearance.

– Positive camber angle reduces lateral forces during cornering.
– Negative camber angle increased grip during heavy cornering.

44
 Position of steered wheels

• Lateral slope of a pivot line:

=5-10

– It causes a raise of the vehicle‘s front part during a steering

maneuver.
– A consequence is self-alignment of the steering wheels if a
driver releases a steering wheel.

45
 Position of steered wheels

• Caster angle:

– Positive caster will make

the vehicle more stable at
high speeds, and will
increase tire lean when
cornering.

46
 Position of steered wheels

• Toe angle:

– The angle derived from pointing the tires inward or outward from
a top view.
– The steering mechanism is pre-stressed to nullify clearance.
– Reduces lateral wheel twisting.
47
 List of references

• Granzow C.: ZF Vector Drive – better driving dynamics and

driving safety through Torque Vectoring. Praktischer Entwurf
mechatronischer Systeme, Karlsruhe 13.12.2013.
• Lewis R., Olofsson U. (editors): Wheel-rail interface
handbook. Boca Raton: Woodhead Publishing in Mechanical
Engineering, 2009.
• Wong J.Y.:Theory of Ground Vehicles, 3rd edition. New
York: John Willey & Sons, 2001.
• Simić D.: Motorna vozila. Beograd: Naučna knjiga, 1988.
• Janičijević N., Janković D., Todorović J.: Konstrukcija
motornih vozila. Beograd: Mašinski fakultet, 1979.
• Goljar M.: Motorna vozila, osnove konstruiranja. Ljubljana:
Fakulteta za strojništvo, 1977.

48