Fouling in Crude Oil Preheat Trains: A Systematic Solution To An Old Problem

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Fouling in Crude Oil Preheat Trains: A Systematic Solution to an Old Problem
Article in Heat Transfer Engineering · March 2011

DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2010.495579
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Proceedings of International Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning VIII - 2009 (Peer-reviewed)
June 14-19, 2009, Schladming, Austria
Editors: H. Müller-Steinhagen, M.R. Malayeri and A.P. Watkinson
Published online
www.heatexchanger-fouling.com
FOULING IN CRUDE OIL PREHEAT TRAINS:

A SYSTEMATIC SOLUTION TO AN OLD PROBLEM
S. Macchietto1, G.F. Hewitt1, F. Coletti1, B.D. Crittenden2, D.R. Dugwell1, A. Galindo1, G. Jackson1, R. Kandiyoti1, S.G.
Kazarian1, P.F. Luckham1, O.K. Matar1, M. Millan-Agorio1, E.A. Müller1, W. Paterson3, S.J. Pugh4, S.M. Richardson1
and D.I. Wilson3
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK –
s.macchietto@imperial.ac.uk (Corresponding author)
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
3
Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, New Museums Site, Pembroke Street, University of Cambridge,
CB2 3RA, UK
4
IHS ESDU, 133 Houndsditch, London EC3A 7AH, UK
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
About 6% of the energy content of each crude barrel About 6% of the energy content of each crude barrel
processed in an oil refinery is used in the refinery itself, of processed in an oil refinery is used in the refinery itself.
which a large amount is in the crude distillation unit. Heat With a global production of about 82-85 million barrels/day,
integration and conservation are therefore paramount. It is this is roughly equivalent to the entire production of Exxon
well established that one of the major causes of refinery or Shell to operate the world‟s 720 refineries. Crude oil
energy inefficiency is crude oil fouling in pre-heat trains. distillation, where the incoming crude is first heated up and
This has been a most challenging problem for several split into its main fractions, accounts for a large fraction of
decades, due to difficulties in understanding the this energy. Thus, strenuous attempts are made to recover as
fundamental deposition mechanisms and its causes and little much as possible of the energy from the product streams of
knowledge of the deposit composition. Current the crude distillation column (and other refinery units) by
methodologies for design of heat exchangers tend to just means of a network of heat exchangers, often called the
allow for fouling rather than fundamentally prevent it. “pre-heat train” (PHT). A typical crude pre-heat train is
To address this long standing problem in a systematic illustrated in Fig. 1. Unfortunately, crude oil contains a
way, the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research variety of substances, which tend to deposit as fouling layers
Council (EPSRC) is funding a large scale interdisciplinary in the heat exchangers when heated. The material deposited
research project, CROF (for CRude Oil Fouling). The ranges from gel-like to solid-like and may change its
project brings together leading experts from of the properties with time. The fouling deposit growth results over
University of Bath, University of Cambridge and Imperial time in decreased energy recovery and thus increased energy
College London and industrial partners represented via the demand (via the furnace prior to the column in Fig. 1), with
company IHS ESDU. The project aims at providing a extra cost of fuel and CO2 emissions. Occlusion of tubes in
platform to investigate fundamental parameters leading to the exchangers due to fouling requires extra pumping power
deposition, to provide a framework for predicting deposition to overcome the pressure drops. When the furnace hits its
and avoiding it by design and to formulate methods for maximum capacity (firing limit) the crude oil throughput
mitigation. The research effort, involving both experimental must be throttled back, with serious economic impact.
and modelling work, is coordinated in 8 sub-projects which Naphtha
Desalter Top pump & gases
examine the fouling problem across all scales, from the around
molecular to the process unit to the overall heat exchanger

Kerosene
network. To make the outcomes of the project relevant and Heavy
gas oil
transferable to industry, the research team is working closely Light
Top pump
with experts from many world leading oil companies. around
gas oil
Light
The systematic approach of the CROF project is gas oil
Bottom pump
around
presented. Individual sub-projects are outlined, together Heavy
gas oil
with how they work together. Initial results are presented, Kerosene
Bottom Residue
indicating that a quantum progress can be achieved from pump around
such a fundamental, integrated approach. Some preliminary Furnace

indications in respect of impact on industrial practice are Storage Residue
discussed. Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of typical crude distillation unit

(after Panchal and Huang Fu, 2000).
1
Macchietto et al. / Fouling in Crude Oil Preheat Trains ...
Periodically, individual exchangers must then be taken out Fouling mechanism

of service and cleaned, again with high impact on
Precipitation
Bio-fouling
Particulate
Corrosion
production and considerable health and safety issues.
Chemical
reaction
Fouling by asphaltenes, waxes and hydrates also has serious
implications in areas other than refining. For example, it has
caused blockages of several pipelines under the North Sea.
Initiation
The economic cost of crude oil fouling in refinery preheat
process
Transport
Sub-
trains is huge. In the US alone it was estimated at around Attachment
US$1.2 billion per annum (circa 1992) (ESDU, 2000), at a Removal
time when extra CO2 emissions were not costed. The cost of Ageing
pre-heat train fouling in one 160,000 bbl/day Total refinery Fig. 2 5  5 fouling matrix (after Epstein, 1983). Dark
was estimated in 2003 to be US$1.5 million in a 3 month shading indicates areas of high research levels: pale
period Bories and Patureaux, (2003). One 200,000 bbl/day areas where little research has been done.
UK refinery reported recently (April 2009) to the authors
that 1ºC of loss of preheat (that is, in the oil temperature at (ANL) (see for example Ebert and Panchal, 1995; Panchal
the furnace inlet) cost the operator some £250,000 p.a. et al., 1999). Weihe (1999a, 1999b, 1999c) has devised
Other estimates state that the energy equivalent of some methods of identifying the fouling propensity for self-
0.25% of all oil production is lost to fouling in the pre-heat incompatible and mixed crudes. In Canada, work is
train. This translates to close to 1 day‟s production lost per proceeding at the University of British Columbia (e.g.
annum (85 million barrels on a worldwide basis). The Watkinson, 2003; Srinavasan and Watkinson, 2003). In the
principal benefit to the refiners of reducing fouling is UK, ESDU (now IHS ESDU) have set up an international
increased capacity. Increasing effective on-stream time due Oil Industry Fouling Working Party of oil companies and
to reduced fouling/cleaning can lead to massive savings in their suppliers; a major guidance document on crude oil
some refineries. Polley (personal communication, 2009) fouling (ESDU, 2000) has been produced under the aegis of
reported that the profit loss through reduced production (last this Working Party. Work at Bath (Crittenden et al., 1987,
quarter of 2008) ranged from around US$2/bbl in some 1992; Takemoto et al., 1999) originally focused on
Texas refineries to up to US$10/bbl in a refinery processing modelling and on the use of model fluids as substitutes for
heavy „opportunity‟ crudes and that one day lost production crude oil. More recently, a major test facility was built and a
on a 200,000 bbl/day refinery is worth between US$0.4M first programme of work completed. Experiments have
and US$2M. Some older analysis (Van Nostrand et al., determined the effects not only of major processing
1981) for a then typical 100,000 bbl/day refinery attributes parameters (surface temperature, velocity and heat flux) but
almost 40% of the costs of fouling to reduced throughput. also the effectiveness of in-tube inserts (Phillips, 1999). At
The above estimates must be taken with some care, as they Cambridge, the focus has been on developing physical
span a period of oil prices ranging from US$10-150/bbl. measurement methods (Tuladhar et al., 2002; Gu et al.,
Fouling related losses are however important at all oil 2009a) and on modelling the influence of fouling in heat
prices, as they affect directly refining margins and revenue exchangers and heat exchanger networks (Yeap et al.,
losses. 2004). The (then) European Community R&D strategy for,
The impact of crude oil fouling is increasing for all oil and projects on heat exchanger fouling in general are briefly
companies. Crudes are generally becoming heavier and reviewed in Pilavachi and Isdale (1993).
more complex, yet refineries were generally designed to Although good progress has been made in experimental
process the lighter crudes that are today becoming scarcer. studies of crude oil fouling, it appears that an asymptotic
The worldwide shortage of middle distillates is also a driver state of knowledge has been reached. Data-led mitigation is
to the processing of heavier, dirtier crudes that have a higher an active area, but this provides a response rather than a
yield of these valuable components. Fouling problems are cure. Whilst the results are useful, the mechanisms by which
therefore increasing in severity. the fouling proceeds are still not fully understood. For
The importance of the crude oil fouling problem example, it is generally assumed that materials depositing on
evidenced in the above figures led to a number of industrial heat transfer surfaces are asphaltene derived. These are
and academic studies over several decades, focusing on typically complex mixtures of polynuclear aromatic ring
mechanisms and parameters that govern rates of fouling, structures, with high heteroatom content; they carry most of
namely temperature, pressure, oil composition, salinity and the trace element content of the oil. However, it is apparent
fluid velocity. A number of excellent reviews are available that only small fractions of the asphaltene content in crudes
(see for example, Taborek et al., 1972, Watkinson, 1988, actually deposit on heat exchange surfaces and that this
Watkinson and Wilson, 1997, Taborek 1995, Bott, 1995, process can be initiated by other species. There are
Muller-Steinhagen, 1995, Muller-Steinhagen et al., 2005). complex, ill understood interactions between oil properties,
This research is summarised in Fig. 2 (after Epstein, 1983). phase stability, rheology, chemical reactions, heat transfer,
Work has been done in a number of major centres. In the interfacial and adhesion properties, surface properties and
USA groups include those at Heat Transfer Research Inc. exchanger geometry, all of which affect all the mechanisms
(HTRI) (Bennet et al., 2006), where a pilot scale facility has and sub-processes in the fouling matrix of Fig. 2. What is
been constructed, and at the Argonne National Laboratory clearly needed is a much more fundamental approach to the
www.heatexchanger-fouling.com 2
Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning VIII – 2009
problem. Recognising it is unlikely that this will emerge E F

Stirred vessel Annulus
from the type of studies carried out by and for industry, a fouling tests flow tests
fundamental and integrated project was initiated that would D

A
address the basic issues but also provide a route for Characterisation
Thermodynamics
& molecular
of deposits
exploiting the findings in industry. modelling
G H
Control & Technology
mitigation transfer
THE CROF PROJECT B C
To meet the challenges outlined above, a 3-year CRude Interfacial & Fundamental
rheological transfer
Oil Fouling (CROF) project was initiated in June 2006 with properties processes
substantial funding from the UK Engineering and Physical Molecular Pilot plant Unit Plant
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and industry. The
project brought together a multidisciplinary team of Fig. 3 CROF sub-projects and some key inter-relations.
experimentalists (carrying out both small- and large-scale
experiments), theoreticians (developing new analysis, theory Significant advances have been made in understanding
and software in each of the underlying activities), systems the thermodynamics of complex compounds at the
engineers (carrying out modelling, component integration molecular level and there is scope for improving the
and scaling up, and analysis, design, and optimisation understanding of asphaltene behaviour using these advances
studies at plant-scale) and industrial researchers (providing (Sub-Project D). Experimental studies of fouling are carried
data, materials, advice, assessment, case studies and out in two facilities to establish rates of deposition and
feedback). provide deposit samples for physical and chemical
The CROF team comprises academic researchers at characterisation. The first is a stirred vessel test-facility
Imperial College London, the University of Bath and the developed at Bath University (Sub-Project E). The second
University of Cambridge (15 academic staff supervising 10 involves continuous flow tests in an electrically heated
PhD students and 8 postdoctoral research associates directly annulus test facility at Imperial College, with novel sensing
funded on this project, augmented by short-term equipment developed at Cambridge (Sub-Project F). These
undergraduate and postgraduate projects). From inception, experiments are highly complementary. The use of a stirred
the CROF project also involved a large consortium of vessel allows repeated low inventory tests to be done
multinational companies from the oil-and-gas sector, quickly and economically, enabling the systematic study of a
participating through the Oil Industry Fouling Working variety of crude oils, flow modifiers and surface conditions.
Party operated by IHS ESDU, an industrial consultancy It is also easy to extract samples for analysis under Sub-
based in London. Oil companies in the Fouling Working Project A. The flow tests represent a realistic representation
Party include BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, of the situation in a heat exchanger and allow investigating,
Petrobras, PETRONAS, Shell and Total and represent about amongst other phenomena, the effect of fouling deposits on
70% of the world‟s refining capacity. Also represented are pressure gradients. The flow tests are designed to make
heat transfer equipment manufacturers (e.g. Alfa Laval, continuous measurements of fouling layer thickness and heat
Calgavin) and chemical additive suppliers (e.g. Nalco). transfer coefficients (and thus fouling factor) and to study
Each of the companies is represented by their top internal the dynamics of the fouling process. Understanding the
heat exchange and fouling experts (typically from a central physics, chemistry, thermodynamics and associated transfer
specialised R&D function supporting the worldwide processes would be of little avail if it did not lead to means
operations of the respective organisations). IHS ESDU of control and mitigation of the fouling problem. Sub-
coordinates the development of close links with the oil Project G is a joint Cambridge/Imperial College effort on
refining industry and their suppliers and ensures the control and mitigation involving advanced modelling of heat
industrial relevance of the proposed work. exchangers (individually and in network systems) at
The work programme represents a new approach, as industrial scale and of cleaning and control strategies.
needed to advance the subject. The overall problem is Finally, there is little point in making any advances on this
tackled via a closely linked set of sub-projects, bringing important subject if the technology cannot be transferred
together a wide range of skills and techniques to produce a efficiently to industry. The bridge to industry is provided by
co-ordinated attack on this important problem (Fig. 3). the central role of IHS ESDU in the programme. As noted,
Understanding the fouling process requires investigating the they are charged with the task of interfacing with the oil
temperature dependence of the link between feedstocks and refining companies and their suppliers and transferring the
deposits, the advanced characterisation of these materials technology by various means (Sub-Project H).
and examining the relationship between fouling rates and An important feature of the overall programme is its
asphaltene (and other species) contents (Sub-Project A). multi-scale nature, with inputs ranging from molecular scale
A fundamental understanding of mechanisms by which to plant scale. By adopting such an approach, new insights
deposits adhere to surfaces are developed in Sub-Projects B and methodologies can be developed through understanding
and the transfer processes which take them there in Sub- the mechanisms that link the different scales. It was
Project C. Crucial to all of this is the investigation of the recognised that close integration of the activities is essential
underlying thermodynamic interrelationships. in order to reap the maximum benefits, and the structure and
management of the project and team were designed both the fraction of crude oil remaining in liquid state and
accordingly. the solid deposits. In the former, results indicate that the
crude oil gets progressively heavier as it is heated up, even
PROGRESS AND ACHIEVEMENTS TO DATE at the lower end of the temperature range where no solid
To date, substantial experimental results have been deposits were observed in the MBR. The molecular weight
obtained in Sub-Projects A and B. Molecular- and distribution of the crude oil was found to increase upon
continuum-scale modelling developments in Sub-Projects C heating showing the formation of larger molecules in the
and D, respectively are continuing apace. The two pilot liquid, which may be related to deposit precursors. In the
plant rigs (Sub-Projects E and F) have been designed and case of the deposits, it was found that their solubility
built. Some interesting data have already been collected properties are also different in several solvents in
from the batch rig, while the continuous rig is presently comparison with the original samples, which suggests that
being commissioned and tested, with data to follow by the there are chemical transformations accompanying
end of the year. Good progress has been made in the deposition. The amount of deposits obtained in each run has
development of plant scale models of heat exchangers under shown a strong dependence with temperature and residence
fouling and exchanger network applications. The time. No deposits were obtained at low residence times (1
interactions within the team and with industry were hour) regardless of the temperature, which reinforces the
developed in a number of ways and are growing well. For role that stagnant zones in the heat exchangers have in the
presentational purposes, progress and achievements in this formation of deposits. Relatively high temperatures and long
section are described according to the sub-projects detailed residence times favour deposition. The hypothesis that the
in Fig. 3. This also reflects the “bottom-up” nature of the only origin of the deposits was the asphaltene fraction of the
implementation work. However, suitable emphasis is made crudes was put to test by carrying out fouling experiments in
on the strong links between sub-projects and the highly the MBR with the asphaltene-free heptane-soluble (HS)
beneficial interplay between them. fraction of a crude oil (Venditti et al. 2009b). Carbonaceous
deposits have been proven to appear not only from the
Sub-Project A: Characterisation of asphaltenes and asphaltene fraction of the crude, but also from this
deposited foulants deasphalted crude. It was observed in some cases that the
The main focus of research in this sub-project is to explore deasphalted fraction produced a larger amount of deposits
whether and how molecular masses and structures of the than the crude oil itself under the same operating conditions.
deposits actually relate to components of the crude oil feed Work is ongoing to check these results with a broader range
materials and to identify the chemical transformation of crude oils as well as to analyse in more detail the
leading to deposit formation. It focuses on the study of chemical characteristics of both industrial and lab-scale
changes in the crude oil leading to fouling, as well as in the deposits.
chemical characterisation of deposits, both laboratory- A new imaging technique based on infrared
generated and of industrial origin, and liquid phase after the spectroscopy was applied to the characterisation of fouling
crude oil has been heated. Many techniques have been used deposits and asphaltenes. This attenuated total reflection-
to investigate the molecular masses and chemical structures Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopic
of asphaltenes and other species but no single technique is imaging, which relies on the infrared focal plane array
able to unravel the molecular masses and structures of detector to simultaneously obtain thousands of spectra from
complex hydrocarbon liquids as each technique allows only different locations in a sample, is a non-destructive
a limited, specific view of these complicated materials. For analytical technique and most importantly, provides both
this reason an array of multiple approaches is used. chemical and spatial information of a sample. ATR imaging
A batch micro-bomb reactor (MBR) was used to study spectrometers with a Focal Plane Array (FPA) detector are
the effect of time-temperature history of crude oil samples patented by Varian (Burka and Curbelo, 2000). The small
on the formation and deposition of a solid phase (Venditti et penetration depth of the evanescence wave of the ATR
al. 2009a). This approach allows firstly, to decouple the approach makes it a convenient sampling method with little
transformations induced by exposition of the samples to or no sample preparation and can be applied to highly
temperature from flow-related effects, and secondly it absorbing materials such as carbonaceous hydrocarbons.
enables measuring the effect of different variables on the The advantages and intrinsic limitations of ATR-FTIR
chemical characteristics of the liquid and the deposits under spectroscopic measurements of high refractive index
carefully controlled operating conditions, not available from materials, such as petroleum deposits, have been addressed
refinery operation data. Formation of deposits has been by Tay and Kazarian (2009). A lab-made aperture,
studied at temperatures between 280 °C and 390 °C and developed by Chan et al. (2008), to vary the angle of
residence times up to 24 hours. Both the liquid and the solid incidence of the incoming infrared radiation in the ATR
phase have been analysed by a number of techniques, which diamond accessory is used to correct the distortion of
include size exclusion chromatography (SEC) (Berrueco et spectral bands due to the dispersion of refractive index. This
al. 2008), UV-fluorescence spectroscopy, elemental allowed reliable spectral information to be obtained on high
analysis, solubility tests in various solvents and thermo refractive index materials using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy
gravimetric analysis (TGA). A process of chemical with a diamond accessory. Tay and Kazarian (2009)
transformations due to heating was observed to take place in introduce novel applications of combining macro and micro
(a) (b)
x
1500-1350 cm-1
2940-2880 cm-1
(c) (d)
x
x
1675-1620 cm-1 1170-1080 cm-1 Fig. 5 Determination of the interactions between an

asphaltene coated glass particle and a stainless steel
metal surface immersed in water at pH 5.5.
determine whether they can be reduced; to determine the

interactions between asphaltene molecules and so provide
Fig. 4 Macro ATR-FTIR images of deposits from a refinery data for the molecular modelling studies described under
PHT exchanger. Images show the distribution of a) Sub-Project D; to determine the mechanical properties of
CH stretching band, b) carbonate compounds, c) the adsorbed asphaltene film, a necessary input into the
oxalate compounds and d) sulphate compounds. modelling effort in Sub-Project C.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used to study
ATR modes in FTIR imaging to characterise deposits from a the adsorption and adhesion of asphaltene to metal surfaces.
refinery heat exchanger. Using different ATR accessories Adhesion was monitored by attaching an asphaltene coated
for the macro and micro modes, FTIR imaging yields sphere to the AFM cantilever, pushing it against the metal
important information about the spatial distribution of surface, leaving it in contact for a certain period of time and
different components in the deposits. The macro ATR then monitoring the force required to separate the metal
imaging approach provides a larger field of view which can surface from the asphaltene layer (Fig. 5). The interaction
be used to obtain the overall distribution of different between asphaltene molecules was measured similarly, only
components in the sample (Fig. 4). With the enhanced with an asphaltene coated glass surface rather than a bare
spatial resolution of the micro ATR approach, spectra of metal one. The local mechanical properties of the rheology
nearly pure components can be isolated. ATR-FTIR imaging of the asphaltene layer were determined by indenting a
allows the visualisation of different chemical components in sphere into the asphaltene layer (the instrument was initially
a heterogeneous sample. Combining macro ATR and micro calibrated by indenting a film of cross linked
ATR-FTIR spectroscopic imaging, the complex petroleum polydimethylsiloxane, PDMS). Data were obtained both by
deposit provides an important tool in chemical compressing the films at a continuous rate (force
characterisation of fouling material which will aid in measurement data) and by performing a stress relaxation
understanding the fundamental of crude oil fouling. Results experiment (any difference between the two methods is a
demonstrate the viability of this approach; future in situ consequence of some viscous flow of the film). The results
studies of heating of crude oil may reveal the onset of are summarized in Table 1. All results obtained have been
precipitation and deposition. on asphaltene films deposited onto surfaces at room
temperature. It is our hope that we shall be able to carry out
Sub-Project B: Interfacial and Rheological Properties similar experiments on asphaltene films deposited at the
The persistence of deposits on heat exchanger temperatures experience by heat exchanges, which will be
surfaces depends not only on the transfer of depositing supplied by Sub-Projects E and F.
material to the interface but also on the adhesion of this
material to the surface. The adhesion of asphaltenic Table 1 A summary of the mechanical properties of thin
material onto surfaces will in turn depend on a number of films of PDMS of 2 different cross link density,
complex factors including surface energies, surface 10:1 and 10:2 and Maya asphaltenes.
temperature, the shear acting on the surface, and the nature Young‟s Modulus (kPa)
of previously deposited layers (smooth, rough, dendritic Force
etc.). Knowledge of the mechanical properties of the Material Stress-Relaxation
Measurement
adsorbed asphaltene film is crucial if one aims to remove the
PS–PDMS 10:1 340 340
film through mechanical or hydrodynamic forces. The aims
of this subproject are: to charcacterise the interactions PS–PDMS 10:2 750 540
between asphaltenes and heat exchanger surfaces and to PS–Maya asphaltenes 1230 825
Sub-Project C: Fundamental transfer processes cases where the flow is turbulent, we use large eddy
The main aim of Sub-Project C is to achieve a detailed simulations (LES). These approaches are described below.
description of i) the fluid mechanics of the flow in the tubes Direct Numerical Simulations. Here, we use a diffuse
of heat exchangers, ii) the heat and mass transfer associated interface method (DIM) formulation developed by Ding and
with this flow and iii) their change as a function of Spelt (2007) and Ding et al. (2007), which has been suitably
temperature and deposition and removal inside the tubes. modified to account for fouling deposition and the „aging‟
The ultimate goal is the development of mathematical and phenomena described above. The DIM formulation allows
numerical tools based on first principles to predict, evaluate one to trace the interface between the two phases (oil and
and minimize fouling in the tube-side of PHT exchangers. deposit) and can accommodate the changes of topology that
The specific objectives of the sub-project are to develop will accompany the displacement and entrainment of the
capabilities to simulate accurately, reliably and efficiently deposit following its interaction with the bulk flow of oil.
the spatial-temporal evolution of the fouling process in the Use of the DIM formulation (as opposed to the LES
heat exchanger tubes as a function of the chemical, physical approach described below) also affords one the opportunity
and thermal characteristics of the system. To this end, we to elucidate the physics of the interaction of the two phases
have developed a mathematical model based on the and the aging phenomena (Coussot, 2007) in the absence of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy, which is the complexities associated with the presence of turbulence.
complemented by a chemical equilibrium model based on The understanding gained as part of this approach provides
the Gibbs free energy (Won, 1986, Svendsen, 1993). The an input into the LES studies. Sample results are shown in
latter is employed to account for the de-stabilization of Fig. 6 starting from an initially thin, fouling layer at the wall
organic components in the oil leading to phase separation. of uniform thickness. Here, it is clearly seen that the
We also account for diffusion of the asphaltene phase to the interaction between the oil and deposit phase leads to the
pipe wall and its subsequent deposition on the wall in order development of interfacial waves. In the absence of aging
to form the fouling deposit. The model also accounts for the and deposition, this interaction results in the removal of the
changes in the physico-chemical, thermal and rheological deposit (Fig. 6a); in the presence of these effects, however,
characteristics of the deposit as a function of time due, for the deposit persists (Fig. 6b).
instance, to „aging‟-type phenomena. Finally, the model Large Eddy Simulations. In order to carry out LES, the
accounts for turbulent flow in the bulk, away from the wall, commercially-available code ANSYS CFX was employed.
and can be extended to cover complex geometries. The This code utilises the Volume of Fluid method and allows
predictions of the model are limited by the input into this the inclusion of turbulence models and complex geometries
model in terms of thermodynamic and physical properties. in the flow simulations; this, then, permits simulation of the
The reliability of the model predictions can therefore be realistic case of a heat exchanger tube-side. In the present
enhanced with more accurate measurements of the latter, work, we account for deposition and aging processes in
obtained in the other sub-projects of the CROF project. cylindrical pipe geometry. The dynamics accompanying the
We consider the dynamics of two immiscible materials turbulent oil flow are now considerably more complex than
undergoing pressure-driven flow in a cylindrical pipe or those associated with the laminar flow shown in Fig. 6.
rectangular channel. These materials correspond to the Simulation results clearly show the waviness of the interface
crude oil and the foulant, located in the bulk and at the separating the two phases, as well as the removal of the
walls, respectively. The equations governing the flow in deposit and its entrainment into the bulk oil phase, promoted
each phase are those of mass, momentum and energy by the turbulent flow.
conservation, which allow us to resolve the velocity, For future work, we aim to use the models developed so
pressure and temperature fields in the oil and the deposit. far to carry out parametric studies of the fouling process in
Depending on the temperature and pressure distribution order to elucidate its dependence on the relevant system
prevailing in the core, the chemical equilibrium model we parameters. Of particular interest would be the
employ allows the prediction of the amount of asphaltene determination of the variation of the pressure drop and the
that phase-separate and can diffuse towards and deposit at total mass of foulant deposited on the walls as a function of
the walls. The governing equations are therefore strongly time, and the implementation of measures that would
coupled by the physics of the deposition process. The oil is mitigate against fouling-induced pipe blockage.
treated as an incompressible, Newtonian fluid, while the
Coussot model (Coussot et al., 2006) is used to describe the
time-dependent rheological characteristics of the deposit,
which is also treated as incompressible. Numerical solutions
of the governing equations are obtained subject to no-slip
and no-penetration, and temperature conditions at the solid
walls; constant flow rate conditions at the inlet, and outflow (a) (b)
conditions at the outlet. Two approaches are used to solve Fig. 6 DIM simulations of fouling in the absence and
the model equations depending on the nature of the flow presence of deposition (a) and aging (b). The initial,
regime in the tube. In the unrealistic but useful case wherein intermediate and late-time dynamics are shown in the
the flow remains laminar throughout, we use direct top, middle and bottom panels, respectively Details
numerical simulations (DNS) of the governing equations; in can be found in (Sileri et al. 2009).
Sub-Project D: Thermodynamics and molecular

modelling.
The objectives of Sub-Project D are (i) to develop a
molecular model of asphaltenes in the context of physically-
based equation of state and (ii) to exploit the link between
the equation of state and the underlying intermolecular
potential to perform molecular simulations on asphaltene-
crude systems. We have taken the task of utilizing
macroscopic information regarding experimental asphaltene
deposition boundaries and developed a thermodynamic
model based on a molecular-based equation of state (EoS).
A recent implementation of the Statistical Associating Fluid
Theory (SAFT) (Gil-Villegas et al., 1997) is used, (for a
review of SAFT and its applications see Müller and
Gubbins, 2001) and by appropriately adjusting the
intermolecular potential parameters to capture the data we
obtain effective coarse-grained parameters that represent in Fig. 7 Pressure-temperature projection of the phase
an average way a potential of model asphaltene-like fluids. diagrams of mixtures of asphaltene
This latter molecular description allows us to perform (MW = 3066 g mol-1) with oils of increasing
molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations to obtain the details molecular weight.
of the aggregation mechanisms on a microscopic scale.
In this particular application, there is much uncertainty scale MD simulations of archipelago-like molecules and
in the exact molecular description of asphaltenes (see for more conventional continental-like models with the
example Aguilera-Mercado et al., 2006, for a discussion on parameters obtained using PAM models and have obtained
the archipelago and continental models for asphaltenes) so the expected qualitative behavior. Having a well defined
we model the system initially as an asymmetric binary molecular model that represents in a broad sense the
mixture consisting of a polymer (polystyrene) in oil molecular detailed behaviour of asphaltenes and crudes will
(hydrocarbon). We have shown, in the context of this allow us in the future to explore other fundamental issues
project, how this Polystyrene Asphaltene Mapping (PAM) such as: aggregation rates and tendencies, the effects of
can be used to describe phase behaviour of asphaltene interfaces on the precipitation of asphaltenes. Furthermore,
deposition. Fig. 7, our calculated pressure-temperature moelcular modelling allows clear visualization of the
projection of the mixture phase diagrams for asphaltene + underlying molecular physics leading to the macroscopic
oils of different molecular weights, exemplifies the method. behaviour.
We model the system of Buenrostro et al., (2004) using a
PAM of molecular weight 3066 g mol-1 to represent the Sub-Project E: Stirred Vessel Fouling Tests
asphaltene together with a C9 oil. The black squares The objectives of Sub-Project E are (i) to design and operate
represent the asphaltene precipitation data from Buenrostro a small high pressure, high temperature stirred cell (≈ 1 litre
et al. (2004); the connected symbols represent our oil volume) based on the Eaton patent (1983) and the
calculations. Areas under the curves represent states where ensuing Eaton and Lux paper (1984), (ii) to obtain fouling
phase separation occurs. It is seen that the PAM model is rate data as a function of both temperature and surface shear
consistent with the experimental data. In addition, we stress for a range of crude oils of interest to the CROF
predict the effect on the phase diagram of altering the partnership, (iii) to interpret the data using established and
molecular weight of the oil (e.g., by adding heavies or new models of fouling behaviour, (iv) to characterize
lights). As expected, the lighter the oil (solvent) the larger deposits, deposit distributions and thicknesses, (v) to supply
the region of immiscibility for the asphaltene. Furthermore, samples of deposits and crude oil to other partners for
the model predicts that at constant pressure, one may, given further specialist characterization at Imperial College, (vi) to
the correct conditions, observe a two phase split of an compare experimental data with that obtained from the
otherwise homogeneous fluid upon an increase in continuous flow loop apparatus at Imperial College, and
temperature. This latter phenomena is seen in experimental (vii) to integrate information, data and models from the
data for asphaltene precipitation, but is rarely captured by batch cell experiments into the overall CROF project.
conventional thermodynamics modelling. The PAM model Fig. 8 shows the general arrangement of the batch
is straightforward to apply, given the knowledge of some stirred cell which has been constructed from a steel block.
experimental data from which to infer the analog fluid. The cell has been designed to operate at a crude oil bulk
Although other EoS can be used to model asphaltene- temperature and pressure up to 300 °C and 30 bar,
deposition behaviour, the parameters in these EoS cannot be respectively. The crude oil is agitated by a rotating
traced back to intermolecular potentials. The SAFT model, concentric cylinder placed around the central electrically
on the other hand, is based on a rigorous statistical- heated test finger which has been designed to operate with a
mechanical theory, so the parameters may be used in surface temperature over 400 °C, if required. The cell is
molecular-modelling studies. We have performed large- designed principally to obtain experimental data for
finger and this is in accordance with induction period

modeling (Yang et al., 2009b). Experiments can be
completed during one day (< 10 hours) if required, and it
230 mm approximately
has been found that they can be continued from day to day if
necessary with an overnight shut-down revealing no loss of
continuity in the fouling curves. Some examples are detailed
t bulk in a paper at this conference (Young et al., 2009).
Achievements to date have included (i) the accumulation
of crude oil fouling data as a function of surface
temperature, bulk temperature and surface shear stress for
three crude oils, (ii) the calculation of Arrhenius data
Fil Level
confirming that apparent activation energies are a function
of surface shear stress (Crittenden et al., 2009), (iii) the
creation of compensation plots (Crittenden et al., 2009) for
the new experimental data alongside previous data on crude
INSULATION
INSULATION
oils, inorganic salts and proteins, (iv) the extrapolation of

© 2008 University of
Bath, England data in order to obtain threshold fouling temperatures for
given surface shear stresses, giving rise to the ability to test
t wb t ws existing threshold fouling models (e.g. Ebert and Panchal,
t wm
1997), and (v) the creation of an induction period model
Fig. 8 Batch stirred vessel based on the Eaton and Lux which has been tested on new and existing crude oil data as
design (Young et al., 2009). well as on inorganic and protein fouling (Yang et al.,
2009b).
operating conditions which are typical of the hottest parts of The batch stirred test cell is relatively fast to use. Not
the crude oil preheat train. The agitator is driven through the only can crude oil samples can be changed relatively quickly
top flange by an electric motor which is fitted with a but also a considerable amount of experimental data relating
magnetic drive unit. The batch cell is fitted with a crude oil to the effects of bulk temperature, surface temperature and
bulk temperature thermocouple and a cooling coil through surface shear stress can be obtained typically within one
which a non-fouling heat transfer oil is passed. Heat is day. The ex situ techniques of surface profiling and CFD
ultimately dissipated to atmosphere. (Yang et al., 2009a) add a considerable amount of
The test finger is heated internally by a cartridge heater, complementary and verification data. Both the starting and
the heat flux from which is controlled electrically. Three final chemistries have been studied in order to ascertain
thermocouples are inserted at various heights inside the wall whether there have been any significant changes that might
of the test finger. Being operated at constant heat flux and have an impact on both the fouling propensity and the
constant bulk crude oil temperature, the rate of fouling induction period. Parameters focused on have been
becomes equal to the rate of change of test finger wall asphaltene precursor concentrations together with material
temperature with time. The test finger/cartridge heater and surface properties (Young et al., 2009). Experimental
assembly can be removed from the base of the batch cell so fouling rate data can be obtained directly from changes in
that the test finger can be removed for inspection and the three test finger thermocouples knowing the local heat
deposit characterization. An example of a deposit on a test flux. Since the fouling rate is constant with time, the change
finger is shown in Fig. 9. The distribution of the deposit of the rate of fouling as a function of surface temperature
thickness along and around the test finger is made by a laser can be found at the end of an experimental run when the
and coherent light scanning procedure (Proscan). SEM and deposit thickness has been measured using the Proscan
close-up photography support the morphological analyses. technique. The rate of increase in fouling deposit thickness
The experimental data are supported by CFD analysis using can be correlated against the CFD predicted surface
COMSOL (Yang et al., 2009a). CFD provides not only the temperature to provide a continuous Arrhenius plot along
flow patterns in the batch stirred cell but also predictions of the length of the heated test finger. This means that, for the
the distributions of surface temperature and surface shear first time for crude oils, a single fouling experiment has
stress. These predicted distributions are validated against
experimental data. CFD has revealed (i) that the surface
shear stress is virtually constant along the axial length of the
test finger, except at it ends, and (ii) that there is a near
parabolic distribution of surface temperature along the
length of the test finger.
Large quantities of experimental data have been
generated with three different crude oils (Young et al.,
2009). In virtually all cases the fouling rate has been found
Fig. 9 Typical deposit on a mild steel test finger (Yang et
to be constant beyond the induction period. An induction
al., 2009a) (finger is vertical in the apparatus).
period is not usually found for an imperfectly cleaned test
been used to obtain the Arrhenius parameters which can 1 Annulus Section
2 Heated region of annulus section
3 Tube section To vent
then be incorporated into the compensation plot analysis V20 V16 4 Heated region of tube section Knockout
Tank
V27
P1
(Yang et al., 2009a). A new generic lumped parameter T7 T4
V23
V25
N2
model of fouling with an induction period has been TAH T8
V21
V24
V26
Purge
Supply
DP2 DP1
developed (Yang et al., 2009b). The new model can be used 4 T6 2 T3 V22 PAH T1
3 1 V LAH
to fit experimental data from the start of the induction period T5 T2 T9
V12
V28 V32
To vent Tank
4
1
F3 Para- P2
through to the fouling growth phase. Two different types of V19 V15
V11 therm
NF N2
L1
V31 LAL
crude oil have been studied. EX
EX
2
V29
1 V1
Future work will focus particularly on developing and F2 F1
T10 V30
V2
testing models for crude oil fouling as a function of process V18 V14
To
Drain
conditions, including induction periods, fouling thresholds V17 V13

V35
V34
V33
S2 V5
V10 M2 S3 V3
and compensation plots. Experimental work will continue on S1 V4
V7 V6
providing data, information and samples to other partners, M1
broadening the ranges of crude oils and operating V9 Sample

Tank
V8
conditions. We plan to determine comparability between Fig. 10 Flowsheet for the fouling flow loop.
fouling data obtained using the batch stirred cell with those
from the continuous flow loop. Finally, it is planned to study of crude oil anti-fouling additives; and cleaning strategies.
the effects of metallurgies, surface finishes and The flow loop has been designed to supply crude oil to the
intensification devices on crude oil fouling rates. heated test section at a maximum temperature of 300 °C,
although initial operations will be limited to 200 – 270 °C.
Sub-Project F: Annulus Flow Tests The maximum loop operating pressure is 30 barg. The
The design, construction and operation of a high annulus test section is 2 m long, permitting fouling
temperature, high pressure, crude oil flow loop equipped measurements over about 1.5 m, after allowance for an entry
with electrically heated test sections on which deposits will section for flow stabilization. The optimal oil delivery
form was undertaken at Imperial College London in configuration (4 injection points) was identified from CFD
collaboration with the University of Cambridge. The loop studies. The inner tube will be subject to direct electrical
will be used primarily to study the effects of fouling on resistance (Joule) heating. Test surface temperatures of 250
heat transfer and pressure drop in an annulus test – 350 °C are planned, i.e. oil plus 120 °C maximum, leading
section, simulating flow in a shell-and-tube heat to an imparted heat flux from the surface to the oil in the
exchanger. The rig will also accommodate analysis within region 20 – 100 kW m-2. Fluid hydrodynamics will be
an actual size exchanger tube and could, in the future, be representative of conditions in refinery shell-and-tube heat
used to study fouling in more complex heat exchanger exchangers, with a linear velocity in the region 1 – 3 m/s,
geometries. The system thus permits comparison between and Reynolds number up to a maximum of 20,000. A
tubular, annular and possibly other geometries. The annulus standard tubular test section will be mounted in parallel to
configuration has been used in previous laboratory the annulus section.
investigations, e.g. the HTRI heated rod system, and allows A schematic diagram of the complete flow loop is given
fouling deposits to be recovered or imaged in situ. in Fig. 10 and a photo is shown in Fig. 11. The test section,
The rig configuration will permit the continuous which is connected to power supplies capable of delivering
monitoring of the heat transfer rate between the electrically up to 20 kW, is equipped with a radiation equilibrium
heated test section surface and the flowing crude oil, hence thermocouple (Bennett et al., 1961) inside the inner tube
inferring the rate of build-up of fouling resistance. This will and a fluid dynamic gauge within the annular gap. The
be achieved by accurate monitoring of the inner surface thermocouple, contained within ceramic shields, traverses
temperature of the heated annulus test section, using a axially down the test section and measures the temperature
radiation equilibrium thermometer. The actual thickness of of the inner wall of the heated tube to a high degree of
the foulant layer will be measured simultaneously using a accuracy. The temperature of the outer wall, on which
novel dynamic gauging technique developed at the deposition is occurring, can be calculated exactly from this
University of Cambridge. The pressure drop though the test measured inner wall temperature, plus the electrical power
section will also be measured continuously, as further supply, by consideration of the radial conduction through
evidence of build-up of the foulant layer. Fouling rate data the cylindrical tube wall (Barbosa, 2001). The outer wall
will be compared with data derived from the stirred vessel temperature will fluctuate, at a given power input and oil
tests being conducted at the University of Bath (SP-E) and flowrate and inlet temperature, in response to build-up of the
from refinery heat exchangers, with the hope of detecting fouling layer on the tube outer surface. Combination of the
systematic linkage between fouling rates. Furthermore, heat transfer and the dynamic gauging measurements will
samples of deposits will be recovered from the rig for permit direct estimation of the thermal conductivity of the
chemical/rheological characterisation, as a function of fouling layer for the first time. The pressure gradient will be
position, time, flow conditions, oil type etc., in Sub-Projects measured using high temperature pressure transducers.
A and B. The rig will also provide the facility, in Since the surface of the deposit will be rough and the outer
combination with group G, for testing of fouling control and tube relatively smooth, the shear stress on the inner surface
mitigation strategies, such as surface modification; the use will be calculated from the pressure gradient using a
in the event of the detection of any mal-operation.

Continuous running periods of 2-5 days are envisaged,
based on estimates of fouling build-up using the well known
Ebert-Panchal correlation.
At the time of writing (April 2009), construction of the
flow loop and its containment has been completed and
manufacture of both the annular test section and the
dynamic gauge is well under way. Commissioning of the
system will commence shortly, using Paratherm in the first
instance. The first fouling tests are planned for Autumn
2009 and will be conducted using a post-desalter crude
blend supplied by Petronas of Malaysia. Small samples of
this blend, plus its constituent crudes, are being studied
elsewhere in the CROF project.
Sub-Project G: Control and mitigation

Activities here concentrated on developing tools and
techniques for scaling up the results and models generated in
Fig. 11 Side view of the fouling flow loop. the detailed investigations for application to refinery
exchangers and units, particularly the networks of
transformation method (Hewitt, 1964). exchangers found in crude distillation unit preheat trains.
Fluid dynamic gauging (FDG), a non-contact technique The work was sub-divided into two parts (Fig. 12). The
developed at Cambridge, allows the thickness of soft solid main focus of Part A was the construction a new modelling
layers to be monitored in situ and in real time. An account platform which could simulate the impact of fouling on the
of the FDG technique is given in Tuladhar et al. (2002). performance of an individual heat exchanger. This required
The device works by measuring the flow rate of liquid the local fouling rate and deposit thickness to be evaluated
through a nozzle located close to, but not touching, the over time and space (i.e. across all points in the exchanger),
surface. This separation distance, or clearance, h, changes as and designed so that it could incorporate the models
a deposit grows or is removed: it is tracked over time to developed by the fundamental investigations. The overall
yield thickness-time profiles. FDG had not been applied to performance of the exchanger could then be evaluated and
curved surfaces before, nor at the operating pressures and expressed in terms readily understood by operators such as
temperatures planned for the test loop. A cold flow system the overall fouling resistance and the pressure drop across
was constructed at Cambridge, replicating the test loop the unit. The importance of parameters in the detailed
geometry, and demonstrated that FDG can be applied to fundamental models could thus be established, and those
annular surfaces across a wide range of flow rates. Results critical for unit performance identified. Such models,
show that the mass flow rate-clearance profiles exhibit the although still detailed, are rather “simpler” than those
sensitivity to h/dt required to locate the deposit surface developed in Sub-Project C, and are essential for network
under the turbulent flow conditions expected in the fouling simulations, as the more complex models can both render
test section experiments. The paper by Gu et al. (2009a) the problem difficult to solve (or require enormous effort).
presented at this conference reports extension of the work to The platform was constructed using the „threshold
lower Reynolds numbers and to heated surfaces, in fouling‟ model of Ebert and Panchal (as reported by Polley
particular a heated rod system similar to the HTRI probe. et al. 2002) for fouling calculations and implemented in the
They demonstrate the successful application of FDG to track gPROMS simulation environment (Process Systems
the growth of a soft simulated milk fouling deposit. They Enterprise, 1997-2009). The single exchanger model was
also report computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations validated against actual plant data in a demanding hot-end
of the gauging system at low annulus Reynolds numbers, exchanger (Coletti and Macchietto 2009a) showing
which allows the stresses being imposed on the surface excellent predictive capabilities. Multiple exchangers in a
under study to be quantified. This information can be used network could then also be readily simulated (Coletti and
to characterise the strength of the fouling layer. These Macchietto, 2009b) to give a detailed quantitative
studies have enabled an FDG system to be designed for
service in the Imperial College test loop. This incorporates a
Models of A B
new mode of FDG operation, intended to minimise fundamentals
Network
disruption of the flow field and fouling layer during HEX simulation
simulation $
Models of
gauging. Thickness measurements are made intermittently, fundamentals
and disruption of the fouling layer checked by comparing Parameter Management
Models of
local measurements of the surface temperature using the fundamentals
variation criteria
travelling radiation thermocouple.
The rig is designed to be operated remotely and the Fig. 12 Schematic of simulation activities, linking scientific
control system incorporates automatic shut-down procedures advances to plant operations
22 industrial partners within CROF is carried out by IHS

20 ESDU of London, represented by its Director of Process
18 Engineering Technology. ESDU has a long tradition of
Production loss
16 brokering industrial innovation. It produces, under the
14
guidance of independent expert, industrially-based
Costs [M$]
12
Pumping costs committees, high-quality engineering data and software for
10
industry and the Universities. ESDU has been working on
8
6
Energy costs fouling since the mid-1980‟s, with particular emphasis in the
4
Emission costs last five years on crude oil fouling.
2 The CROF project evolved from the collaborative
0 efforts of the oil industry companies that form the IHS
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 ESDU Oil Industry Fouling Working Party. This Working
Time [days] Party, representing some 70% of the world‟s refining
Fig. 13 Cumulative costs of fouling over 1 year after capacity, was formed in 1999 in recognition of both the
cleaning (Coletti and Macchietto, 2009b). economic importance of crude oil fouling and acceptance
that oil companies working with each other and with leading
assessment of the costs of fouling (Fig. 13). international researchers in the field was the best chance to
Part B considered the effect of fouling on the thermal find practical methods of fouling abatement.
and hydraulic performance of preheat train networks. It was In 1999 there was a landscape of very low oil prices –
decided to focus on existing networks, and thus on the US$10/bbl – and very low refinery margins. Although the
operation and retrofit of existing systems rather than the economic landscape has changed considerably in recent
design of new units, as this was a greater priority for years and even months, refinery margins remain very tight
operators. Design must include the distillation system, and and the importance of fouling abatement is even more acute.
represents an area for further work. A network simulation For example, the environmental effects of burning excess
tool was constructed in the MATLAB programming fuel is now being recognised in legislation, with refineries
language combining the preheat simulation approaches looking to minimise CO2 emissions and operate as
developed by Wilson et al. (2001) and the exchanger efficiently as possible and minimize use of their carbon
modelling methods reported by Yeap et al. (2004). The emissions credits. Oil refining is an extremely safety-
simulation incorporated crude flow rate variation caused by conscious industry, and safety problems associated with the
high pressure drop, cleaning, and varying fouling rates in disposal of toxic fouling waste products and over-frequent
individual exchangers calculated using threshold fouling maintenance operations have to be minimized as far as is
models. Similarly to Part A, the tool was constructed so that practical. Tools developed by IHS ESDU with this Working
more advanced fouling models could be „plugged in‟ once Party, and especially the heat exchanger analysis program
they became available. EXPRESSplus, are now being applied by the oil company
In modelling the performance of a network subject to members of the Working Party. However, within this group
fouling, and including realistic operating features, the it was recognized that to make a real step-change in
simulation tool allows different mitigation options to be understanding the nature of fouling problems it was
compared (and fouling managed) on the basis of quantitative necessary for strategic funding for the coordinated project
indicators. The paper by Ishiyama et al. (2009a) illustrates that is CROF.
the importance of management parameters (cleaning, fuel As technology transfer partner for the CROF project,
and production costs) on optimal cleaning (and non- IHS ESDU bridges the gap between industry and research
cleaning) decisions. Simpler optimisation methods were and facilitates close cooperation between all parties. It
employed, deliberately, to calculate cleaning schedules in organized bi-annual research and development meetings
order to retain the engineering insight to the problem. Their taking place at various locations in the UK, including an
paper at this conference (Ishiyama et al. 2009b) reports IHS ESDU office, Imperial College, Cambridge University
application of the simulation to an operating refinery, and, most recently (April 2009) the Chevron refinery in
including control of key internal variables such as desalter South Wales. As an example of the commitment of the
temperature. Future work will include development of a refiners to the CROF project, engineers travelled from four
refinery software tool and extension to design aspects. continents to attend the 3 day meeting kindly hosted by
Existing models such as the „threshold fouling‟ Chevron which welcomed over 40 engineers and scientists,
approach do not incorporate deposit ageing, which could be followed by lab visits to Bath and Imperial College.
important in extending experimental results and models to Early in the project, the main concern was exchange of
heat exchanger performance. There has been little information and advice on setting the research directions. As
quantitative work on this aspect of chemical reaction fouling the experimental programme started, access to
and a new modelling framework for ageing was developed representative crude oil samples became a key issue and
as part of this work (see Ishiyama et al., 2009c). adequate quantities of crude were supplied from around the
world. More recently, a number of industrial case studies
Sub-Project H: Technology transfer were set up providing access to valuable plant data and
The promotion and coordination of interactions with personnel. Some of the case studies have already been
completed and are providing invaluable assessment of the testing and validation. There will also be the need, and
techniques under development, feedback from operations opportunity, to more closely integrate the results of the
and a measure of their potential eventual impact. various groups. A specific outcome of the close exchanges
within CROF has been a new awareness of how the results
CONCLUSIONS of a group need to be “packaged” in order for others to use
The project presented represents possibly the largest them, which data are needed and in which form. This bodes
combined academic/industrial effort towards the systematic well for such integration effort. Finally, the need continues
understanding and solution of oil fouling problems in for pilot scale and plant “case studies” to validate all work,
several decades. So has the problem been solved yet? The in collaboration with the industrial partners of the project.
simple answer is not yet, however results so far indicate the Supported by such validation efforts, there will then be the
interdisciplinary, multiscale, combined experimental and opportunity to use the new machinery to address mitigation
theoretical, industrial and academic approach of CROF is strategies via improved operations and new heat exchanger
very powerful and that excellent progress has been achieved design methodology.
in a relatively short time. Feedback on the CROF work and project so far has
A team has been created which brings together most of been excellent, and the initial three years were extended to
the skills required. Exchanges between researchers across the end of 2009. There is a strong industry demand and
the various sub-projects are fostered by regular meetings support for the project to continue and the team to be kept
between the researchers, with regular presentations of together. To this effect, a proposal is under way (April
respective results, questions and answer session, and by 2009) to consolidate the present project into a more
many more informal sessions. Progress reports from each permanent interdisciplinary Centre for research on fouling
subgroup are circulated to all researchers and there is a and cleaning. It is envisaged its scope will be extended to
common repository of data, information, reports, papers, etc cover a number of related application areas: crude oil pre-
through a project website, with private and public sections. heat trains (building on the work in CROF); upstream
It is very clear to all involved that this has led to very (heavy) oil recovery to include fouling within reservoirs due
significant progress in developing an understanding of the to asphaltene and wax deposition during production; water
overall problem and the potential of each other‟s techniques cooling systems (including scale formation, bio-fouling and
to address its various angles. In several cases this new particulate fouling), food production systems; production of
understanding has brought about a re-orientation of the biomass-based fuels; nuclear and conventional power
scientific work in much more tailored directions, which production systems. All these problems share several
reinforce and complement each other‟s work. generic features that include the poorly understood
Excellent experimental facilities have been designed mechanics, thermodynamics and physical chemistry of
and built which are starting to provide data of quality and deposition and removal, and will benefit from a combined
range not previously available. Progress in the experimental, theoretical, mathematical modelling and
characterization of deposits has also been significant. In systems engineering approach.
particular, the ability to generate and collect fouling deposit
samples in controlled conditions and to deploy a number of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
complementary analysis techniques, including some on-line The authors gratefully acknowledge EPSRC (Grants no.
ones, on the same samples opens a new window of rich EP/D503051/1, EP/D506131/1, EP/D50306X/1) for
primary information. Modelling at the molecular-scale level financial support of the project and the industrial partners of
of transport and thermodynamics is hard work, but again the CROF consortium for valuable inputs, data, materials
significant progress is being made with simplified “model” and discussions. Special thanks go to the CROF researchers,
systems which however seem to offer good representative M. Abubakar, E. Al-Muhareb, M. Behrouzi, C. Berrueco, J.
features. At the industrial equipment unit scale, progress Chew, S. Dong, T. Gu, C. Hale, A. Haslam, E. Ishiyama, J.
has been made in devising rather more detailed, distributed Jover, T.J. Morgan, J. K. Pental, K. Rostani, K. C. Sahu, H.
models than used in the past for heat exchangers which can Shumba, D. Sileri, F. H. Tay, S. Venditti and A. Young.
incorporate a variety of deposition, heat transfer and deposit
ageing processes. The “threshold fouling” approach (used in REFERENCES
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Fouling in Crude Oil Preheat Trains: A Systematic Solution to an Old Problem

Article in Heat Transfer Engineering · March 2011

Sandro Macchietto Francesco Coletti

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Barry Crittenden D. R. Dugwell

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FOULING IN CRUDE OIL PREHEAT TRAINS:

molecular to the process unit to the overall heat exchanger

such a fundamental, integrated approach. Some preliminary Furnace

discussed. Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of typical crude distillation unit

Periodically, individual exchangers must then be taken out Fouling mechanism

problem. Recognising it is unlikely that this will emerge E F

fundamental and integrated project was initiated that would D

1675-1620 cm-1 1170-1080 cm-1 Fig. 5 Determination of the interactions between an

determine whether they can be reduced; to determine the

Sub-Project D: Thermodynamics and molecular

finger and this is in accordance with induction period

oils, inorganic salts and proteins, (iv) the extrapolation of

conditions, including induction periods, fouling thresholds V17 V13

broadening the ranges of crude oils and operating V9 Sample

in the event of the detection of any mal-operation.

Sub-Project G: Control and mitigation

22 industrial partners within CROF is carried out by IHS

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